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Home , Al Hajar Mountains, Dhofar Governorate, Dhofar Rebellion, Geography of Oman, Hinawi, History of Oman

Advisory Council to al Said of , 1970

MUNUC 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Letter from the Chair………………………………………………………….. 4

Letter from the Crisis Director…………………………………………………6 Guide to Parliamentary Procedure…………………………………………7

Powers of Committee………………………………………………………….9

Statement on Sensitivity and Respect………………………………….…10

Letter from Qaboos bin Said……………………………………………………...12

Oman as a Sultanate…………………………………………………………13

Oman as a Portuguese Colony…………………………………………….14 Late History and Golden Age of the Omani …………………….15

Split Empire: Oman as a Sultanate II……………………………………….16 The Al Said …………………………………………………………..19

Rulers of the Al-Said Dynasty to 1970……………………………………...20

Geography of Oman…………………………………………………………22

State of Affairs: Socio-Economic…………………………………………...25 State of Affairs: Qaboos bin Said, ………………………..30

State of Affairs: …………………………………………...32

State of Affairs: The , 1970…………………………………….33

State of Affairs: The World, 1970…………………………………………….45 Appendix………………………………………………………………………48

2 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Character Biographies………………………………………………………49

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...63

3 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CHAIR

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Ahlan wa sahlan and welcome to the Sultanate of Oman, one of the few remaining absolute in the entire world!

My name is Jordanna, and it is my absolute pleasure to be your chair. I am a third-year undergraduate studying Political Science and Near Eastern Languages & Civilizations. On campus, I am an Under-Secretary- for ChoMUN, our collegiate Model UN conference, an Editor of the Chicago Journal of Foreign Policy, and a research assistant for one of UChicago’s professors. I spend the remainder of my time drinking Turkish coffee, daydreaming about traveling, and emphatically denying that I am from Long Island.

At MUNUC, I will be chairing as Qaboos bin Said al Said, Crown Prince and eventual of Oman. Qaboos bin Said is one of the most influential leaders in modern Omani history. As you will learn, he orchestrated a bloodless coup against his own father, Sultan Said bin Taimur al Said. He was responsible for a series of broad-sweeping reforms which ultimately brought Oman into the 21st Century. Most notably, he has a genuinely impressive beard. As your chair, I hope to channel some of Sultan Qaboos’ incredible character –– with slightly less beard, of course.

Because this committee is a bit different from others that MUNUC has run, I think it is important to discuss context and structure. In this committee, you will interact with other countries in the region and the world. Oman, as well as its neighbors in the and Persian Gulf, tend to be portrayed unfavorably by popular media, and often deservingly so. With that in mind, we ask that you neither endorse nor poke fun at certain issues, including but not limited to: religious militancy (terrorism), violations of human rights, unequal treatment of women, Zionism and/or anti-Zionism, etc. We chose to run this committee because we want to explore what it means to build a nation in such a geopolitically volatile region. As executives, we will respect delegates who share our vision and who demonstrate maturity in their notes, directives, and speeches.

4 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 As chair, I will look for spirited, high-level, and ultimately respectful debate. Speeches and directives should convey a strong understanding of the topic and should be creative and entertaining, when appropriate. The trajectory of this committee is heavily reliant on delegate action, so Josh and I are looking forward to seeing where you decide to take Omani history!

With that out of the way, I wanted to reiterate how excited I am to be chairing this committee. Parts of this letter were heavy, but I promise that we are going to have an incredible weekend. Josh and I cannot wait to welcome you all to Oman, to MUNUC, and to Chicago!

Sincerely,

Jordanna Yochai

5 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 LETTER FROM THE CRISIS DIRECTOR

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Hi, and welcome to Oman! We’re gonna have a blast this weekend and I’m excited to get started!

I’m Josh, and I’ll be orchestrating the ridiculousness that happens in your notes as Crisis Director for Oman! I am a third-year undergraduate studying Economics and selling out my soul to Corporate America™. When I’m not doing that, I love to run MUNUC Committees and am on the Executive Board of the Chicago Debate Society. When I’m sadly not doing either of those things, I play the viola and obsess over the Star Wars Expanded Universe™.

When MUNUC rolls around, my biggest job is to make whatever plans and ideas you bring to the table come to fruition. I turn your notes and directives into a cohesive, overarching story for the weekend that will either bring Oman to the glorious pinnacle it deserves or send it crashing into the Persian Gulf in sadness and despair. Your job is to bring fun, creative, and well thought out ideas for the growth or chaos your character will incite. Oman will be a fun setting for this. As you will read in the later chapters of this (very long) document, Oman has all sorts of unique twists and turns that will produce exciting crises and demand interesting solutions. Also, Qaboos has an amazing beard. We hope you will dive into the time and place and come away with a greater appreciation for a nation that doesn’t get much attention.

Your notes are expected to be fun and interesting and creative. They will not be racist. They will not be based on stereotypes. They will not be outside the boundaries of reasonable discussion. For a more in-depth discussion on what I mean by this, please refer to the “Statement on Sensitivity & Respect.”

With all that said, I hope reading this document both spurs excitement and ideas. I look forward to meeting you all when conference rolls around.

Joshua Neudorf

Crisis Director

6 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 GUIDE TO PARLIAMENTARY PROCDURE

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This is a continuous crisis committee and will be structured accordingly. If we decide to modify parliamentary procedure, we will let you know in advance and provide time to ask questions.

Here is an outline of the points, motions, and orders that we will be accepting, as well as their precedence. Everything is listed for you below, from most to least disruptive. While it is by no means necessary to memorize this, a good command of parliamentary procedure can help delegates pass motions and even speak more often in the front room.

Motion to Modify Debate:

Open, Adjourn, or Close Debate –– These are largely self-explanatory.

Suspend the Rules –– These are appropriate to introduce before breaks between sessions but, outside of that, occur infrequently.

Points:

Of Order –– These are used when delegates believe there is an error in parliamentary procedure or a lapse in decorum. These should be raised immediately after the infraction and may interrupt speeches.

Of Personal Privilege –– These are allowed to interrupt speeches. They are used for any non- committee-related personal discomforts. Typical requests include speaking volume, air conditioning, etc.

Of Inquiry –– These should not interrupt a speech. They are used to ask questions about the committee rules or information relevant to the topic at hand.

7 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Motion to Enter Voting Procedure: This is used to vote on a directive. Only introduced directive or amendments may be voted on.

With Modifications –– This is used to vote on a directive or amendment with any additional aspect to the motion. Commonly, this includes for and against speakers and the Chair’s summary of each directive. Within such motions, more speakers and/or modifications are more disruptive.

Without Modifications

Motion to Extend the Previous Moderated Caucus: The committee may vote to extend the previous moderated caucus. The extension cannot be longer than the original moderated caucus, and the original speaking time must be kept.

Motion to Introduce Directives: This is used when a delegate wants to introduce all of the directives on the floor with the requisite amount of signatories.

Motion for an Unmoderated Caucus: This is a form of debate in which delegates may move around the room and speak freely about merging, directives, etc. A total time must be requested when the motion is made, but the topic is not formalized.

Longer caucuses are more disruptive.

Motion for a Moderated Caucus: This is a form of debate in which the duration, speaking time, and the topic of discussion must be established. These are generally 5-12 minutes long with a speaking time of 30, 45, or 60 seconds. The duration must be divisible by the speaking time.

Round Robin –– A Round Robin begins with the motioning delegate and proceeds to their left or right. Delegates may “pass” and refuse their speech.

These are more disruptive if they take more time or contain more speeches.

8 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 POWERS OF COMMITTEE

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Please Note: This committee will begin on July 1, 1970 and simulate the Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said.

After returning to Oman in 1966, Qaboos bin Said was placed under house-arrest or, more accurately, palace-arrest, forced to study Ibadi and Omani history. Sultan Said bin Taimur, fearful of his son’s intelligence and worldliness, severely limited Qaboos bin Said’s personal interactions. Today, however, a council has been convened to address the Sultan’s abuses of power, confront the state’s many deficiencies, and chart a new course for the Sultanate of Oman. Though this council is not the official government and Qaboos bin Said is not the Sultan, the body operates with the tacit support of the British government and its foreign intelligence service, the MI6. And, should Qaboos bin Said and his advisors plan and execute a successful coup, they will become the Sultan and government of Oman.

We, the executives, expect committee to take this route and will do our best to present you with dynamic and innovative crises along the way. We recommend that you familiarize yourself with the 1970 coup, though we expect that, if you choose to execute a coup, it will differ somewhat from historical events. We also expect that there will be questions regarding what powers an advisory council holds in an absolute and will do our best to address your concerns in the paragraph below.

This council and its members are fictional, and you will not find them online if/when you research your position. With that said, it would be unreasonable to believe that anyone, including Qaboos bin Said, could independently lead and manage a nation in such dire straits. That is to say –– While Oman was and remains an , we expect this committee to operate in a manner analogous to any government cabinet. Your positions, biographies, and portfolio powers reflect this, and we intend to treat your directives like law.

9 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 STATEMENT ON SENSITIVITY AND RESPECT

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The issues that we address in this committee will be sensitive. We ask that you treat them accordingly. We expect all delegates to exercise maturity in notes, directives, and speeches. As always, committee is a place for creative solutions and collaboration, not bigotry or disrespect. Actions and rhetoric that would be unacceptable in 2020 are unacceptable in the context of this committee.

If you have any questions or are concerned that something you plan to do will cross the enumerated boundaries, send us an email, write us a note, or pull us aside in committee –– We are here to help you have fun and make the most of your weekend.

A. Slave-Driven Economy

As an empire, Oman’s economy was heavily reliant upon the slave trade. The Sultanate, an Omani colony on the , was crucial to Oman’s commercial success. Omani traders would capture and enslave people from all over East before bringing them to Zanzibar to be sold or transported to foreign markets. When slavery was abolished, Oman’s economy declined and the Empire’s success diminished.

We readily acknowledge that, for many years, Omani prestige was associated with the enslavement and sale of African peoples. This was a function of the colonial world. Though we ask that you restore Oman’s wealth and glory, the re-establishment of slavery will not be entertained. Racism and/or racially-based subjugation will not be tolerated in any form.

B. Orientalism

For those of you unfamiliar with Middle Eastern Studies, Orientalism is a term coined by an academic named Edward Said. In his writing, he critiqued the West’s flawed method of studying and analyzing the Middle East, named it Orientalism, and roughly defined it as “a collective notion identifying ‘us’ Europeans as against all ‘those’ non-Europeans … reiterating European superiority over Oriental

10 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 backwardness.”1 Orientalism was and is the Western method of exerting authority over the Middle East, physically and ideologically; it was born of the assumption that, because the Middle East was different from the West, it was both backward and lesser. This pattern, in which scholars and analysts treat the Middle East as if it is inherently less civilized than the West, persists to this day. It has taken many forms but tends to be especially prominent in rhetoric that politicians employ when describing Islam and Arab culture.

It is our goal to engage with the Middle East, but we wish to do so at a high level. We do not wish to see you reduce a diverse and complex region to a series of assumptions and falsehoods. We ask that you enter committee with an open mind and a sincere desire to learn. Whether seriously or “in good fun,” we ask that you do not make light of issues, including but not limited to: religious militancy (terrorism), violations of human rights, unequal treatment of women, Zionism and/or anti-Zionism, etc. Establishing an ideology is useful in continuous crisis committees, and we will never prevent you from adopting an ideology. We only ask that your ideology does not negate anyone’s identity or advocate indiscriminate violence against civilians.

1 Said, Edward. Orientalism, (New York, New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 7.

11 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 , Oman 1 June 1970

For too long, I have been locked away in this remote palace, so far from that which I have grown accustomed to. I yearn to walk among men once more, to discuss matters of politics and governance, to be master of my own destiny. Instead, I spend my days studying Ibadism and Omani history. From my studies, I have learned that the history of our great civilization is remarkable, truly. Our people presided over an empire, unconquered by Western and Eastern powers alike. We enjoyed the greatest luxuries, we were home to the greatest scholars, and we were powerful in our own right.

Not today. Today, the suffer. Our empire is no longer and, worse still, we no longer exercise control over the Sultanate itself –– the government is fighting fiercely against secessionists in Dhofar, the largest region of Oman. In this entrenched conflict, our victory is anything but guaranteed. Today, education is a luxury many cannot afford, and good health is a luxury most cannot afford. People are dying –– and often. Infrastructure is nonexistent. Our oil resources are being mismanaged, and we are reliant on the British. Misfortune is everywhere.

As I sit here idly, trapped within the walls of Salalah’s Al Hosn Palace, I cannot help but dream of a different reality. In this alternate reality, no one suffers –– not me, not the people of Oman. For this to happen, our country must defeat the insurgents, modernize, trade internationally, provide welfare to its people… Alas, this will not happen with my father in power. He is fearful, power hungry, and reactionary. While it pains me to speak ill of him, he cares more about himself than our people and our country.

Soon, I hope, it will be my turn to rule and to ensure that my dream is realized. I want to be the leader who elevates Oman and returns it to its former glory. We live in an age of immense global competition, epitomized by rivalries. Our country is endowed with myriad resources and untapped potential, and it is situated at a geostrategically crucial juncture. It is the perfect time for us to live up to our destiny and fully realize our potential.

Thus, I would like to extend an invitation to you, my closest confidants, to come to our palace in Salalah as my guests. I am eager to hear your thoughts on how best to proceed, and I look forward to seeing you soon.

سﻮﺑﺎﻗ ﻦﺑ ﺪﻌﺳ ﻦﺑ سﻮﺑﺎﻗ Qaboos bin Said

12 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Oman as a Sultanate

Conversion to Islam

Oman has had a rich history at the foot of the . Earliest records have spoken of an Oman subject to the Persian Empire before the time of . A relative backwater, Oman and its history are shrouded in mystery until the time of the Prophet . Oman was exposed to Islam in the initial wave of conversions that occurred during the life of the Prophet.2

Early records refer to 632 as the year in which Abu Bakr, one of the earliest companions of Muhammad and the first Caliph, dispatched an army to consolidate the lands of Oman in the . This consolidation was short lived, however, as the strand of Islam known as Ibadism was founded within Oman in the year 650 and had spread across the nation by 900.3 This began a relative cultural and religious isolation of the Omani region from the rest of the Islamic world, with Ibadi scholasticism reaching far fewer outside audiences than Sunni and Shiite schools.4

Oman existed within the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid founded in the early years of Islam, but it eventually fell, first under the rule of various Iranian that seized parts of in the 10th century and later the Seljuk Turks through the 12th century. In 1154, the Omani Nabhani dynasty expelled the Seljuks and centralized the rule of Oman. Seizing power from the traditionally significant , the Nabhanis declared themselves “malik”, or , a significant change in a nation that had been dominated by religious rule for centuries. This rule was not effective, however. The era is poorly documented and marred by Persian invasions, brief losses of

2 “Oman Profile - Timeline,” BBC News (BBC, April 25, 2018), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492 3 “A ,” A History of Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online- exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history-of-frienship-between-the-royal-air-force-and-the-royal-air-force-of-oman/a- history-of-oman.aspx 4 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273

13 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 vital coastal territories, and internal strife. The authority of Oman’s first Sultanate was questionable at best as the nation continued to be a relatively unknown both to the rest of Arabia and the Islamic world as a whole.

The first Sultanate did not go out with a bang, but with a whimper. The Portuguese took in 1515 and the power of the Nabhani was gradually retaken by the Imams. The Sultans were forced into the interior of the nation where they clung to what power they could. The vital coastline was incorporated into the of and Omani self-rule was stifled for most of the 16th and 17th centuries.5

Oman as a Portuguese Colony

Oman was a relatively insignificant piece of the massive . Throughout the 1500s, Portugal had a multitude of colonial trade posts dotted throughout islands and coastlines in the Indian and Atlantic oceans.6 Muscat was little more than a staging area for the Iberian nation’s ambitions to further capture Indian trade. To the Omani, however, the occupation of Muscat and large parts of the Omani coast was a serious matter. Muscat had traditionally been the cultural, economic, and political center of the region. The Portuguese occupation shifted the center of Omani autonomy to the interior of the nation.7 Along the more populated coasts, the Portuguese occupiers treated the region as little more than a trade post. Transportation and communication in the 16th century made it difficult for direct administration of such a distant land, so the Portuguese sought profit, not conquest. There were few attempts to expand into the rest of the region beyond just coastal lands, and Portugal took little initiative to develop its outposts in Oman. What the Portuguese did do, however, was integrate Muscat into their nascent Indian trade infrastructure. Oman saw great wealth pass through their ports, but reaped little for themselves.8

5 “Oman Profile - Timeline,” BBC News (BBC, April 25, 2018), https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492 6 “A History of Oman,” A History of Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online- exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history-of-frienship-between-the-royal-air-force-and-the-royal-air-force-of-oman/a- history-of-oman.aspx 7 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273 8 Ibid.

14 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 The impacts of this injustice were significant, especially upon those who imagined a greater future for the Omani people. The traditional struggle between and ruler subsided in the midst of such humiliation. Tribal leaders watched as Muscat fell victim to Portugal's wars against the Ottomans and chafed under the loss of such commercial prosperity. As the golden age of Portugal waned in the early 17th century, the Yaruba Imam Nasir bin Murshid began the arduous task of uniting the squabbling tribes of the nation.9

Late History and Golden Age of the

In the latter half of the 17th century, fortunes turned for the Omani people. After expelling the Portuguese from their Muscat Colony, the tribal powers that for so long fractured the region put aside their differences to face this new enemy. Under the leadership of the Yoruba Sultan Saif Bin Sultan, Omani forces took the fight to the Portuguese outside of their homeland. In 1696, a great fleet left the Arabian Peninsula destined for . The coastal city of was the key target, serving as a gateway to East African trade and a stopoff point for trade ships rounding the . The Omani fleet laid siege to , the lynchpin of Portuguese regional control for almost three years, eventually expelling the colonists and conquering the surrounding land.10

The next several decades of Omani history were dedicated to unceasing conquest. Under the watch of the Yaruba Sultans, Omani armies and navies worked their way down the East African coast, conquering land and establishing important trade posts in the region. By the turn of the next century, the Omani Empire was vast and far reaching. 11

9 Ibid. 10 “The , , , Colonies,” Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/oman/sultanate.htm 11 “A History of Oman,” A History of Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history-of-frienship-between-the- royal-air-force-and-the-royal-air-force-of-oman/a-history-of-oman.aspx

15 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Having secured Eastern Africa, Oman spent the early 1700s monopolizing Middle Eastern trade. The Sultans’ forces warred with the for and other coastal territories, ultimately seizing control of the Persian Gulf. Much of the modern UAE came under Omani occupation as the advanced navies and superior organization of the Sultanate overcame the decentralized tribes that occupied the territory. Expeditions took land in modern from the Portuguese, broadening the range of its navies and deepening the purses of its merchants.12

Beyond just conquest, Omani forces exerted influence. Omani fleets attacked and harassed Portuguese colonies and settlements to a great extent. Omani merchants exerted their will on the economies of the region and even colonized the island of Zanzibar, opening up a strategically located and defensively solid hub for an ever growing stream of commerce.13 Oman truly stood at its greatest peak.

And then the British came.

Split Empire: Oman as a Sultanate II

The 1790s were a harrowing time for Oman. Numerous revolts threatened to topple Oman’s tentative hold on its various colonies. In a twist of irony, the same tribal unification that pulled Oman from the claws of the Portuguese colonial machine threatened to push its own colonies away. Revolts in Mombasa and Arabia, mixed with insidious intentions from Persia, prompted Oman to look for a friend. Other, larger factors made that search necessary. The fires of revolution swept through in the 1790s, and as a notable consequence, the French found themselves with a bit of a complex. Rumored invasion plans stirred fears of an invasion of by the nascent

12 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273 13 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273

16 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32

Emperor, and where better to build one’s forces than the strategically placed city of Muscat?14The British came. First as friends, lending their sizable naval strength to the overextended Omani apparatus. With colonies across the and many, many enemies, the foundation of conquest that the Omani Trade Empire rested upon a bedrock of sea power. Without ships to administer, defend, and repress the vast coastlines that they oversaw, the Omanis couldn’t hold their empire together. Britain seemed the natural choice for both stereotypical and practical reasons . The two parties signed a treaty in 1798, sealing Oman’s fate and eventual doom. 15

At first, the partnership appeared benevolent. British backing protected Oman from the ever- present threat of French colonial ambitions in exchange for Omani recognition of British India. Integration of trade between the two nations soon occurred, with a British headquarters opening in Muscat itself.16 Favorable trade conditions abounded for Oman in the early

14 “The Omani Empire and the Colonial Period,” La en Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://om.ambafrance.org/The-Omani-Empire-and-the-Colonial 15 Acmonk, “A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman since 1750,” Digital Library, December 11, 2014, https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-oman-1750 16 Ibid.

17 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 19th century, as the further collapse of Portuguese empire pushed trade routes through Zanzibar. The small island grew in importance within the empire through the influence of Sultan Said bin Sultan. Lavish development projects and agricultural expansions took place on the island throughout the early 19th century, with it even becoming the de facto capital in 1837. Oman flourished on the back of rapidly globalizing trade networks and Zanzibar became the physical embodiment of that half century of progress. This growth in trade was unfortunately matched by a loss of land. British colonial machinations lost Oman its Persian Gulf holdings and most of its Indian influence. Confined to its Arabian and East African roots, the island of Zanzibar took on more and more importance to Omani interests. Sadly, the distance of the island and the maritime nature of the empire itself were instrumental to its downfall.

In 1856, Sultan Said bin Sultan, leader of Oman through its 19th century growth, perished en route to his island home without a strong successor. This soon led to a full scale succession crisis between the sons he left behind. The situation was resolved through “benevolent” mediation by the British Empire. The Canning Award split the old Omani Empire in two, with the newly minted retaining the East African holdings of the empire and the Sultanate of taking the rest.17 Beyond the name alone, the new bipolar nature of the Omani state became apparent. The historic divisions between the interior of the nation and the wealthy elites of Muscat surged back to prominence. The struggles between the Imamate and the Sultanate took center stage and, with Oman’s leadership divided and weak, there was ample room for the ruinous power of tea and crumpets. By the turn of the century, British “protection” had turned the once-great Omani empire into a mere puppet. Internal strife prompted waves of rebellions easily quashed by the British-backed Sultan.18 The integrity of the Omani state faded as local autonomous tribes in the interior of the nation seized control once more.

The empire was dead.

17 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273 18 “The British Empire, Imperialism, Colonialism, Colonies,” Oman, accessed November 12, 2019, https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/oman/sultanate.htm

18 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 The Al Said Dynasty

Instrumental to the nascent British presence in southern Arabia, the Al-Said dynasty is both the longest continuous line of Omani rulers and the family in power in 1970. Born from tribal rulers, not the elites of the more prosperous coasts of Muscat, the Al-Saids were able to efficiently and effectively seize and maintain control over what remained of the empire. By the mid 18th century, the power behind the previous Yaruba throne was rapidly fading. Indulgent lifestyles and general incompetence marked the rule of the last several Yaruba Imams, and these circumstances were soon made worse.

A. The Dynasty’s Rise

The beginning of the end of the Yaruba began when Persian involvement in the last succession threatened to split the realm. An enterprising governor named Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi saw promise in the coming instability. Starting from the wealthy coastline, he slowly seized territory from the Yarubas with tacit Persian support. This support was not paid back in good faith.19

Al-Busaidi lured vast quantities of underpaid and underfed Persian troops to a banquet in 1747. There, he killed them en masse. Al-Busaidi drove foreigners from Omani soil, gathering the support of the people and forcing the last Yaruba Imam to face him in combat. In this final confrontation, the decadence of the Yaruba monarchs proved their undoing. In 1749, the last of the Yaruba was slain, beginning the era of the Al-Said Dynasty.20

19 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “Āl Bū Saʿīd Dynasty,” Encyclopædia Britannica (Encyclopædia Britannica, inc., December 21, 2017), https://www.britannica.com/topic/Al-Bu-Said-dynasty 20 Ibid.

19 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 B. The Dynasty’s Impact

The Al-Saids modernized much of Oman and facilitated its later colonial period. They established the first standing army and navy, focused on agricultural modernization, and expanded Omani influence within the Persian Gulf itself. The Al-Saids also chose to secularize their own office. No longer would they take the title of Imam, an implicitly religious concept. They would be Sultans or , delegating the spirituality of the Ibadi faith to religious scholars alone. This was an essential step to a separation of state and religion that echoed through Omani history. By giving the power over the hearts and minds of the Omani people away willingly, the Al-Said’s were able to centralize their own as the definitive secular authorities. This did, however, rekindle the age old tension between the Imams and Sultans for the 20th century.21

Even so, the Al Said’s ruled with less challenge to their power in comparison with the tumultuous power struggles of the early empire. Maritime matters also saw a relative renaissance within the period, spurred by seafaring Sultans and growing concerns for Omani foreign policy. The boosts to the Omani navy that the Al-Said’s spurred forth grew the merchant power of the empire more and more, further contributing to its dominance of East African and Arabian trade. The dynasty enjoyed much popular support in its early days, ensuring protection from foreign influences and prosperity within ever growing trade horizons.

Rulers of the Al-Said Dynasty to 1970

Leading up to the beginning of committee, there were several influential and significant Sultans related to Qaboos bin Said and the situation at hand.

A. Faisal bin Turki

Sultan Faisal bin Turki ascended to the throne of Oman in 1888 at the young age of 24. During his reign, the first vestiges of Omani autonomy and authority were forcibly stripped away by British influence. British power in the (modern UAE) and India began to further marginalize

21 J. C. Wilkinson, “The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia,” The Geographical Journal 137, no. 3 (1971): p. 361, https://doi.org/10.2307/1797273

20 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Omani naval projection as European trade reached a fever pitch.22 Faisal did little to stop the encroachment of European authority, instead choosing to consort with British advisors. He was seen as out of touch by much of the nation’s interior regions, adding to tensions wrought by the growing changes of nearby colonialism. This came to a head with rebellion. His British allies turned on him, forcing him to submit to calculated humiliation that his authority never recovered from. The British treated him as a puppet for the remainder of his rule, appointing regional governors and doing nothing to stop the interior of the nation from revolting against him. By his death in 1913, the divisions between Muscat and the interior of Oman were near absolute.23

B. Taimur bin Faisal

Son of Faisal, Taimur took power in 1913 at the age of 27.24 He inherited the national divisions left by his father and was forced to fall even further into British patronage to escape. From financial and material support against rebels, to arbitration of the treaty that would eventually suspend the conflict, Taimur watched the once proud empire fall even further into obscurity. His reign was marked by a continuation of financial crises. The Sultanate of Muscat and Oman fell further and further into debt he was unable to handle. These debts eventually forced his early abdication in 1932. He lived out his life in exile in British India, leaving his son to rule in his stead.25

22 oman8, accessed November 12, 2019, http://www.royalark.net/Oman/oman8.htm 23 “University of Central Arkansas: UCA,” Political Science, accessed November 12, 2019, https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/middle-eastnorth-africapersian-gulf-region/oman-1912-present/ 24 Ibid. 25 Firdous, Neelofar. "OMAN FROM INDEPENDENT COMMERCIAL POWER TO BRITISH SEMI-COLONY, 1832-1914." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress 68 (2007): 1225-228. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44145637

21 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 C. Said III bin Taimur

Said III watched the incompetence of his father from the shadows. Favored by the British, he took over in 1932 at the age of 21, inheriting two generations of financial crisis, a decentralized state ripe with political opposition to his rule, and a de facto colonial overlord in the British26. He had his work cut out for him. Centralizing power was not easy for the young ruler. The relative peace and prosperity of the early Al-Saids faded as Said III became solely reliant on British military strength to keep Muscat and Oman together. The young Sultan took Dhofar as a personal fiefdom, living in an opulent estate while organizing and commissioning more and more desperate measures to pull the nation out of its massive debts27. After almost three decades of searching, Omani prospectors found oil in 1964. The trials of the past did not end upon this discovery, however. Decades of financial mismanagement left Said III reluctant to spend money on development projects, creating an image of a disinterested ruler. This concern soon grew to paranoia as the sultan levied more and more ludicrous rules upon his people. By early 1970, the wealth of Oman’s oil resources has not reached the people in the slightest. Public dissatisfaction is at an all-time high, and the British are unhappy. What can the Sultan do?

Geography of Oman

A. Overview, Strategic Advantages

The Sultanate of Oman is strategically located at the edge of the Arabian Peninsula, with access to waterways in the north, east, and south (the Persian Gulf, the , and the respectively).28 Indeed, out of a total Arabian coastline of over 4,000 miles, approximately one- quarter belongs to Oman.29

26 Serim, “The Financial Troubles of Said Bin Taimur,” Qatar Digital Library, October 16, 2014, https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur 27 “'Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf Shaikhdoms and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman, 1928-1953,” Qatar Digital Library, May 30, 2014, https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c5 28 Phillips, Wendell. Oman: A History. (: Reynal & Company, 1967), xi. 29 Ibid, xi.

22 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Spanning over 100,000 square miles, Oman is shaped like a boomerang with its capital, Muscat, at its crook.30 The country itself is composed of various topographical features. Valleys and account for 82% of its landmass. and coastal plains account for another 15% and 3%, respectively.

Oman’s unique geography played a significant role in its historical isolation, as it prevented other nations from conquering Oman. It is flanked by the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, and the Rub’ al Khali, or empty quarter, of .31 The Rub’ al Khali, difficult to cross even in the present-day, served as a formidable barrier between the Sultanate and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.32 The , in eastern Oman, formed a barrier with the Trucial States (present-day ).33 Historically, the majority of Oman’s foreign contacts were forged by sea.34 This method of forming international diplomatic relations provided Oman with access to foreign lands and connected Oman’s many coastal towns and cities with the outside world.35

B. Natural Resources

In 1937, when American geologists were searching for oil in neighboring Saudi Arabia, Sultan Said bin Taimur granted a 75-year concession to the Iraqi Company, or IPC.36 With the concession granted, the IPC immediately created a subsidiary company, Petroleum Development

30 Ibid xi. 31 Allen, Calvin H., Jr. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate. (: Westview Press, 1987), 1. 32 Ibid, 2. 33 Ibid, 2. 34 Ibid, 2. 35 Ibid, 2. 36 Clark, Terrence. From Underground to Overseas: The Story of Petroleum Development Oman. (United States: Stacey International, 2007).

23 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 (Oman), and began searching for oil in the Sultanate.37 The PD(O) encountered violent protest from tribal leaders and, for many years, found only dry wells.38 During this time, their project seemed doomed. Fortunately for them, oil was discovered at Natih and Fahud in 1963, pipes were laid shortly thereafter, and the first export of Omani oil took place on July 27, 1967. In 1970, oil is poised to become a major source of income.39

Oman is also rich in copper and asbestos. It has limited amounts of marble, limestone, chromium, gypsum, and natural gas. Only .1% of Oman’s land is arable. In addition to oil, Oman exports dates, fruit, and fish.

C. International Trade

Oman extends farther east than any other Arab or Gulf country.40 As a result, it has always been somewhat of a maritime state, reliant on international trade to survive. Its economy is geared toward the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Its location on the , adjacent to the , is strategically beneficial.41

37 Clark, Terrence. From Underground to Overseas: The Story of Petroleum Development Oman. (United States: Stacey International, 2007). 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Phillips, Wendell. Oman: A History. (Great Britain: Reynal & Company, 1967), xi. 41 Ibid, xi.

24 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 State of Affairs: Socio-Economic

A. Social Demographics

For such a small state, Oman is remarkably diverse. dominate numerically and culturally; however, minority groups are large in number and include the Shihuh in Ru’us al Jibal, Indians and Baluchis in Muscat, and Jibalis in Dhofar. To make matters more complicated, the Arab population is not homogeneous.

Tribal Organization

In Oman, tribes serve as the basis of social organization.42 A tribe is a social group organized around a common ancestor, though the precise ancestor may not be known or recognized. At minimum, tribe members agree that they constitute a tribe and have obligations to one another. Oman’s Arab population is divided into hundreds of tribes of varying size and structure.43

Historically, Omani tribes have enjoyed significant local autonomy.44 Most have a formal hierarchy led by a , whose responsibilities include mediating disputes and leading the tribe if/when conflict arises with other groups.45 The office of sheikh is not strictly hereditary, though sheikhs are often selected from an elite clan or family within the larger tribe. Legitimacy is conferred upon a sheikh through continued satisfaction with the sheikh’s actions.46

Larger and more important tribes usually have a paramount sheikh, the tamimah.47 A tamimah is chosen in much the same manner as a sheikh and shares similar duties, with some caveats.48 For example, the tamimah tends to be more involved in ‘national affairs.’49 Five such tribes/tamimahs

42 Allen, Calvin H. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate. (United States: Westview Press, 1987), 7. 43 Ibid, 7. 44 Ibid, 9. 45 Ibid, 9. 46 Ibid, 9. 47 Ibid, 9. 48 Ibid, 9. 49 Ibid, 9.

25 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 have dominated Omani politics for 200 years: Hirth, Bani Riyam, Bani Ruwaha, , Al Bu Said.50 As a matter of fact, Oman’s is from the Al Bu Said tribe. They have ruled since 1749.

The Imamate

In addition to tribal structure, many Arabs are contributors to, and participants in, Oman’s religious structure, . For context, Ibadi Islam broke with Shiism and Sunnism over the question of leadership during the first Fitna (600s C.E.). Ibadis are a Kharijite sect that believes that eligibility to be an Imam, or religious leader, ought to be based on merit alone.

Thus, the Omani Imamate is based on a theory, established after the Prophet Muhammad’s death, that the religous community must select the individual best able to lead.51 Any religiously knowledgeable adult male may be considered; it is education, not birth, that provides advantages to potential Imams.52 Authority is based upon the acceptance and continued satisfaction of the community; if authority is lost, an Imam can be deposed.53

Today, Oman has a Grand Mufti, or leading jurist.54 In addition to typical religious duties and powers, Muftis can issue fatwas, non-binding opinions, on matters of Islamic religious law.

Minorities in Oman

Though Arab Ibadi Muslims constitute the majority of Oman’s citizenry, other ethnic and religious groups have flourished alongside them. The Ru’us al Jibal region, for one, is inhabited entirely by the Shihuh people.55 Certain Shihuh tribes claim to be descended from the original Arab settlers of

50 Ibid, 9. 51 Ibid, 10. 52 Allen, Calvin H. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate. (United States: Westview Press, 1987), 10. 53 Ibid, 10. 54 Ibid, 10. 55 Ibid, 12.

26 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Oman and speak a dialect of , whereas others are Baluchi in origin and speak a dialect of Persian.56 All are Sunni Muslims.

Many Baluchis migrated from the Makran Coast of Pakistan and now reside in Muscat, Oman’s capital.57 The majority of Oman’s Baluchis were brought to the Sultanate as mercenaries; historically, they played an integral role in military affairs.58 Those unaffiliated with the military have found work as day-laborers in port towns.59 They are Sunni Muslims and, unfortunately, have had little success integrating into Omani society.60

Indian communities settled in Oman in the sixteenth century.61 They settled in Muscat and Matrah, where they served as importers and exporters, agents for local merchants, government contractors, and bankers.62 Omani commerce is dominated by Hindu Banians, most of whom were originally from Kutch in present-day Gujarat.63 Socially, they enjoy religious freedom and have retained their

56 Ibid, 12. 57 Ibid, 12. 58 Ibid, 12. 59 Ibid, 12. 60 Ibid, 12. 61 Allen, Calvin H. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate. (United States: Westview Press, 1987), 12. 62 Ibid, 12. 63 Ibid, 12.

27 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 dress and customs.64 A second group of Indians in Oman, al Lawatia, has origins in Sindh.65 They converted to Twelver Shiism in the 1860s.66 The community, though active in commerce, is extremely exclusive and resides in a walled ghetto in Matrah.67

Finally, most of Dhofar’s population is Arab Muslim, though Sunni and not Ibadi. There are many ethnic and/or social groups in Dhofar, the most significant of which is the Jibalis.68 They are considered Arab and speak a dialect of Arabic unintelligible to most Omani citizens.

B. Current Situation Government services have long been restricted due to lack of funding. Since the division of the Sultanate from Zanzibar, Oman has been more or less bankrupt. While in power, Sultan Said bin Taimur has worked to overcome Oman’s economic woes but has been unable to free the Sultanate from illiteracy, disease, and poverty. This is the result of his reliance on the British, his unwillingness to use his wealth to improve the lives of his people, and his inability to make decisions. As a consequence, illiteracy, disease, and poverty are a way of life for most Omanis.

Education & Literacy

In 1970, education is abysmal. Throughout the entirety of Oman, 900 boys attend three schools.69 Two are located in the capital, Muscat, and the third is located in Salalah.70 Each school employs 30 teachers or fewer, and the quality of instruction is erratic, as Oman is grossly lacking in qualified instructors.71 The quality of instruction is so poor and resources are so scarce that classes are often held in the open air.72 Though Oman’s wealthiest citizens are able to afford tutors and/or to send

64 Ibid, 12. 65 Ibid, 13. 66 Ibid, 13. 67 Ibid, 13. 68 Ibid, 13. 69 Ibid, 101. 70 Ibid, 101. 71 Ibid, 101. 72 Ibid, 101.

28 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 their children abroad to be educated, the fact remains –– As of 1970, an estimated 5% or less of Oman’s population is literate.73

Health & Welfare

Oman’s healthcare system, much like its education system, is flawed and underdeveloped. The country is home to one hospital with only twelve beds, operated by U.S. missionaries.74 In addition to the one hospital, the government operates nine health centers, all poorly equipped to aid Oman’s 730,000 citizens.75

Major health problems are also remarkably prevalent. Infant mortality remains around 75%.76 In addition, diseases like trachoma, venereal disease, malaria, cholera, and malnutrition are widespread.77 Some experts estimate that trachoma, an infection that causes a roughening of the inner surface of the eyelids, afflicts as much as 95% of Oman’s population.

Infrastructure

In 1970, there are less than 6 miles of paved road in the entirety of Oman. To make matters worse, there is no middle class and, thus, limited capacity for industrialization.

Social Trends

Family, both nuclear and tribal, remains the focus of social life in Oman. Most social networks are influenced, if not entirely defined by, ethnic backgrounds and the Islamic faith.78

73 Ibid, 101. 74 Ibid, 102. 75 Allen, Calvin H. Oman: The Modernization of the Sultanate. (United States: Westview Press, 1987), 102. 76 Ibid, 102. 77 Ibid, 102. 78 Ibid, 102.

29 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Traditional gender roles are the norm in Oman.79 Most marriages are arranged, usually between first cousins. Dowries have become less prevalent since the 1960s but are still awarded to the groom’s family in many marriages.80 Laws permitting polygamy and easy divorce for men are also still in place.81

Most Omani women are confined to the home, where they raise children, cook, and visit other women. With that said, the social situation is rapidly changing. Women are increasingly present in public spaces, sometimes without veils or hijabs.82 There are far more opportunities for than other Gulf states; women mix with men in the workplace, though they are still segregated in schools and medical facilities.83

Employment patterns in Oman are defined by tradition. Certain fields are associated with certain social groups, though no formal hierarchy exists. The Arab majority tends to work in business, government, the military, and the police.84 The only manual labor that Arabs tend to perform is taxi driving.85 Almost all other manual labor is performed by Baluchis, South Asians, or other minorities; indeed, Arab reluctance to perform manual labor has resulted in labor shortages.86

State of Affairs: Qaboos bin Said, Heir Apparent

Qaboos bin Said al Said was born November 18, 1940 to Sultan Said bin Taimur and Sheikha Mazoon al-Mashani.87 He received his primary and secondary , before being sent to Britain in 1958 to receive a private education.88

79 Ibid, 103. 80 Ibid, 103. 81 Ibid, 103. 82 Ibid, 103. 83 Ibid, 103. 84 Ibid, 103. 85 Ibid, 103. 86 Ibid, 103. 87 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Qaboos Bin Said.” Encyclopædia Britannica. July 10, 2019. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Qaboos-bin-Said. 88 “His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said.” National Council of US-Arab Relations. October 15, 1998. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://ncusar.org/publications/Publications/1998-10-15-Peace-Award-Bio.pdf.

30 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 For two years, Qaboos bin Said studied in Suffolk, .89 In 1960, he chose to continue his studies at the Royal Military Academy in Berkshire.90 Upon graduation, he joined the as an officer cadet and was posted to the 1st Battalion.91 The Battalion was posted in ; Qaboos spent six months with them as a trainee in ‘leadership skills.’92

After his military service, Qaboos bin Said returned to Britain to study government and administration.93 He eventually completed his education with a world tour chaperoned by Leslie Chauncy. Upon his return, in 1965, he was placed under de facto house arrest by his father, Sultan Said bin Taimur.94 Qaboos bin Said was isolated from government affairs and forced to study Islam and Omani history.95 His personal relationships were limited to palace officials and foreign friends.96

Sultan Said refused to allow Qaboos bin Said to play a role, even nominally, in the development planning process. Qaboos bin Said began to make his desire for change known… a desire that was quietly, though ardently, supported by friends and visitors.

89 The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. “Qaboos Bin Said.” Encyclopædia Britannica. July 10, 2019. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Qaboos-bin-Said. 90 Ibid. 91 “His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said.” National Council of US-Arab Relations. October 15, 1998. Accessed July 18, 2019. https://ncusar.org/publications/Publications/1998-10-15-Peace-Award-Bio.pdf. 92 Ibid. 93 Ibid. 94 Ibid. 95 Ibid. 96 Ibid.

31 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 State of Affairs: Dhofar Rebellion

Sultan Said bin Taimur was a more-or-less incompetent leader and, accordingly, was deeply unpopular. His incompetence was matched by an impressive laziness –– When the going got tough, Sultan Said literally got going. In the early 1960s, he abandoned Muscat for his palace in Salalah, presumably to hide from the citizenry that had grown to despise him.97

The strategic benefits of this relocation were minimal. Indeed, dissatisfaction grew and rebel groups abounded. One particular movement combined economic and political grievances and grew with astonishing speed… In 1962, a dissatisfied tribal leader, Musallam bin Nufl, established the Dhofar Liberation Front (DLF) with the object of freeing the entire from Sultan Said’s rule.98 Bin Nufl’s DLF was supported by Saudi Arabia, which provided the movement with arms and vehicles, as well as Imam Ghalib bin Ali, an exiled religious leader and notorious anti-government rebel.99 Rank-and-file members of the DLF included former soldiers from the Sultan of Oman’s Armed Forces (SAF), as well as ordinary residents of Dhofar.100 Civil war formally broke out in 1963.

From the early days of the rebellion, socialist movements in neighboring states, including the newly- established People’s Democratic Republic of , were involved.101 Indeed, the DLF’s stated goal was to liberate “all of the Gulf from British imperialism.”102 As the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen became increasingly radical, the insurgency in Dhofar became more violent. Indeed, the

97 Paul, Christopher, Colin P. Clarke, Beth Grill, and Molly Dunigan. “Oman (Dhofar Rebellion).” Paths to Victory: Detailed Insurgency Case Studies. RAND Corporation, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.34. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 100 Ibid. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid.

32 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 establishment of the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen ensured that the DLF rebels had a consistent source of arms, supplies, and fresh recruits.103

To counter the DLF and maintain order, Sultan Said relied upon the ‘Dhofar Force,’ a locally recruited unit of only 60 men.104 Not only was this unit far too small for its immense task, it eventually turned on Sultan Said and attempted to assassinate him.105 When the Sultan responded by retreating further into his palace, the DLF insurgents began to spread rumors that Great Britain was running Oman through a “phantom” Sultan.106

Fearing for his life, the Sultan launched a full-scale military offense against the DLF, contrary to the advice of his British advisors.107 Even then, the military units assigned to the Dhofar conflict were poorly prepared and outnumbered by the opposition –– In 1968, they were only 1,000 strong.108 They were also badly equipped, and were not properly trained to face hardy guerillas. In , the conflict seems intractable and the Sultanate’s forces are losing…

State of Affairs: The Persian Gulf, 1970

A. Yemen Arab Republic, a.k.a. Yemen Sana’a

In 1918, following the collapse of the , the northern half of present-day Yemen became an independent state –– the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.109 It was founded by Imam

103 Ibid. 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid. 106 Paul, Christopher, Colin P. Clarke, Beth Grill, and Molly Dunigan. “Oman (Dhofar Rebellion).” Paths to Victory: Detailed Insurgency Case Studies. RAND Corporation, 2013. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7249/j.ctt5hhsjk.34. 107 Ibid. 108 Ibid. 109 Burrowes, Robert, and Manfred W. Wenner. “Yemen: Two Yemeni States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., October 3, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of-imperialism#ref45274

33 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Yahya Muhammad, and it was an absolute monarchy.110 The Kingdom was a founding member of the League of Arab States and was admitted to the in 1947.111

In 1962, monarchy began to seem less desirable to many of the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen’s subjects.112 A faction, which included current and former army officials, was particularly fascinated with –– an ideology modeled after the statements and actions of Egyptian President . Nasserism combined elements of socialism, pan-Arabism, anti-imperialism, and international non-alignment.

On September 27, 1962, Nasserist rebels deposed newly-crowned Muhammad al Badr, captured Sana’a, and declared the establishment of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR).113 This coup marked the beginning of the . YAR troops, with support from the (), fought al Badr’s forces, who were assisted by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Hashemite Kingdom of .114 The conflict continued until 1968, and ended after a push by al Badr’s forces to regain Sana’a.115 The operation failed, the opposing sides reached an agreement, and the Yemen Arab Republic became the internationally-recognized government.

In the years since, the Yemen Arab Republic has slowly begun to remedy the divide between its citizens, many of whom fought on opposing sides in the civil war.

110 Ibid. 111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Ibid. 114 Ibid. 115 Ibid.

34 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 B. The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, a.k.a. Yemen

In 1838, the Sultan of Lahej (Southern Arabia) ceded the city of Aden, in southern Yemen, to the British.116 The British East India company arrived on Aden’s shores in 1839.117 The city quickly became a crucial trading hub, connecting British India with the . In 1937, Aden was upgraded from a 75 square mile outpost to a full-fledged colony, the Colony of Aden.118 Together with the Aden hinterlands and region, this constituted the Aden .

In 1962, Yemeni revolutionaries, inspired by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser, deposed the king and established a new state in northern Yemen –– the Yemen Arab Republic –– with a capital in Sana’a.119 Though Britain intended to leave the Arabian Peninsula in the near future, it also feared that the Yemen Arab Republic’s government would seek to expand its territory into southern Yemen, endangering maritime trade routes. To safeguard the , Britain established the Federation of and the Protectorate of South Arabia, essentially dividing Aden into two distinct, easier to protect regions.120 Britain promised each of the territories total independence by 1968.121

For some, the promise of eventual autonomy was not enough… On October 14, 1963, two armed factions, the Front for the Liberation of Occupied (FLOSY) and the National Liberation Front (NLF), began an armed conflict aimed at ending British rule.122 The conflict was dubbed the . In 1967, Britain acceded to the rebels’ demands. On November 30, the British officially relinquished control; the NLF had succeeded.123 It quickly established a new state called the People’s Republic of Southern Yemen.124

116 Burrowes, Robert, and Manfred W. Wenner. “Yemen: Two Yemeni States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., October 3, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of-imperialism#ref45274 117 Ibid. 118 Ibid. 119 Ibid. 120 Ibid. 121 Ibid. 122 Ibid. 123 Ibid. 124 Ibid.

35 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Following British withdrawal, the NLF sought to consolidate its power. It made inroads and even successfully drafted a constitution, based upon that of East Germany.125 At the same time, the ruling NLF was plagued by internal strife. In 1969, the balance of power shifted; political power was passed from the nationalists, who had led the struggle for independence, to the NLF’s left wing, who adhered to a strict ideology of Marxism-Leninism.126

Under the leftists, the country was renamed the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). All political parties were outlawed by the NLF, which was subsequently renamed the Yemeni Socialist Party. Under the Yemeni Socialist Party, the country reoriented itself toward states like the U.S.S.R., the People’s Republic of , and Cuba.127 It also embarked on a program of nationalization; it introduced central planning, placed limits on land ownership, and implemented land reform.128 Both the educational and legal systems were secularized.

The People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen supports the Dhofar Liberation Front, providing the rebels with arms, money, and training facilities on the Yemen-Oman border, adjacent to Dhofar.129 This alliance is natural; the Dhofari rebels are staunch Marxist-Leninists. As a result, relations between Oman and the PDRY are strained.

C. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

In 1932, Abdulaziz Ibn Saud –– Ibn Saud, for short –– unified the kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd and renamed the new territory “the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.”130 Ibn Saud remained the absolute monarch and, to further cement his power, named his son, Saud Ibn Abdulaziz, as his heir.131

125 Ibid. 126 Ibid. 127 Ibid. 128 Burrowes, Robert, and Manfred W. Wenner. “Yemen: Two Yemeni States.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., October 3, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Yemen/The-age-of-imperialism#ref45274 129 Ibid. 130 Bridger Philby, Harry St. John, et al. “Saudi Arabia: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 16, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia 131 Ibid.

36 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Shortly thereafter, oil was discovered, though it was not exported until 1941.132 This catalyzed the economy. State revenue was no longer derived primarily from religious pilgrimages; the Arab American Oil Company (Aramco) and foreign workers flooded the newly wealthy state.133 Cultural and religious life flourished in the Hejaz, home to the holy cities of and Medina.

In 1952, Saudi Arabia, whose border with Oman had not yet been demarcated, occupied a region of present-day Oman called the Oasis of al Buraimi.134 Oman, then reliant on the British for matters of defense, did nothing to resist. In 1954, British and Saudi officials agreed to meet in Geneva and resolve the dispute.135 Before the meeting could occur, however, diplomatic negotiations broke down. Britain, concerned about the effect that Saudi aggression would have on Oman, drove the Saudi forces out of al Buraimi and occupied it themselves.136 Today, it is under the control of the government and security forces of Oman.

In 1970, Saudi Arabia is ruled by Faisal bin Abdulaziz al Saud, the second son of Ibn Saud.137 Saudi- Omani relations are stable and generally positive, though not terrific by any means.

D. Republic of

In 1932, Iraq was granted independence from Britain and Faisal bin Hussein bin Ali al Hashemi, or Faisal I, became the absolute monarch of the young nation.138 He died shortly thereafter, ushering in a series of “revolving door” monarchs, one regency, and numerous attempted coups.

Much to Britain’s dismay, Iraq’s monarchy never became popular and, in 1958, tensions reached a fever pitch. Anti-government rebels organized and successfully took the capital, , on July 14, 1958.139 Eagerly, they declared an end to monarchy, executed the royal family, and established the

132 Ibid. 133 Ibid. 134 Ibid. 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 Khadduri, Majid, et al. “Iraq: The Republic of Iraq.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., October 7, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Iraq 139 Ibid.

37 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Republic of Iraq.140 The movement’s leader, Abd al Karim Qasim, was selected to lead the nascent government.141

In the years following the republic’s establishment, Qasim came under scrutiny for his opposition to pan-Arabism and to Kuwaiti sovereignty. By 1963, a military-backed rebellion led to the collapse of the regime and Qasim’s untimely death.142 The military entrusted the Ba’ath Party, whose slogan was “Arab unity, freedom, and socialism,” with control of the government.143 Their reign was unstable and, ultimately, short lived. Non-Ba’athist leaders, the Arif brothers –– Colonel Abdel Salam Arif and Abdel Rahman Arif –– overthrew the government in February 1963.144 By 1968, the Arif regime was weak, and its survival was threatened.

In July 1968, the presidential palace was stormed by military officers and Ba’ath Party leaders. President Adel Rahman Arif was exiled to , and a new regime was installed.145 Ahmed Hassan al Bakr, a Ba’athist, became president, though a young party member named Saddam Hussein was increasingly active “behind the scenes.”

E. State of

In June 1961, Britain withdrew from one of its , then-named the . Immediately after, Sheikh Abdullah al Salim adopted the role of Emir, renamed his country the State of Kuwait, and got to work.146 Kuwait was the first Gulf state to establish both a constitution and a parliament. Kuwait held its first parliamentary elections in 1963.147

140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 Ibid. 143 Ibid. 144 Ibid. 145 Ibid. 146 Ochsenwald, William L., et al. “Kuwait: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 14, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuwait 147 Ibid.

38 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 It was also the first Middle Eastern country to diversify its revenue, having established the Kuwait Investment Authority –– the world’s first sovereign wealth fund –– in 1953.148 Kuwaiti University was founded in 1966, and is one of the best regarded universities in the region.149

Due to its oil-driven prosperity and relatively liberal political atmosphere, Kuwaitis enjoy a high standard of living and attracts foreign workers from Israel-Palestine, Egypt, and India.150 Today, Kuwait is the most developed country in the Gulf; it consistently scores higher on the Human Development Index (HDI) than most, if not all, Arab states.151

Media and the arts also flourish in Kuwait. It is home to a renowned theatre industry. Kuwait was also a pioneer in the Arab literary renaissance and, due to its strong freedom of expression laws, has become a haven for writers and journalists, renowned including Iraqi poet Ahmed Matar.152

F. British Protectorates

In 1970, Britain’s presence is still heavily felt in the Gulf. Though Britain has nominally relinquished control of Oman, it retains control of three distinct Gulf Arab sheikhdoms, all of which are governed under the Trucial System of Administration. These kingdoms –– Qatar, the Trucial States (present- day U.A.E.), and Bahrain –– are British protectorates. All are adequately prepared for independence and are expected to achieve it in the coming months and years.

Bahrain

In 1868, after the Qatari-Bahraini War, the British signed a series of treaties with Bahrain’s ruling family, the House of al Khalifa.153 These treaties specified that Bahrain could not establish foreign relations without Britain’s consent; in return, Britain promised to protect Bahrain, and it propped up

148 Ibid. 149 Ibid. 150 Ochsenwald, William L., et al. “Kuwait: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 14, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kuwait 151 Ibid. 152 Ibid. 153 Crystal, Jill Ann, and Charles Gordon Smith. “Bahrain: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 18, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bahrain

39 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 the al Khalifa monarchy, whose rule had been rather unstable up to that point.154 Additional treaties, signed in 1880 and 1892, formally made Bahrain a .155

Unrest began shortly thereafter. Frustrated by British rule, Bahraini subjects revolted in March 1895 against Sheikh Issa bin Ali, Bahrain’s monarch.156 The protests eventually subsided, though some protestors were killed in the process. However, it was only a matter of time before these concerns resurfaced. In 1911, Bahraini merchants demanded restrictions on British rule.157 Though the belligerent merchants were exiled, the British did introduce limited reforms in 1923. These reforms were implemented between 1923 and 1937.158 They replaced Sheikh Issa, expelled dissidents, established schools, and abolished slavery.159

In 1927, Reza Shah penned a letter to the League of Nations asserting that Bahrain was rightful Iranian territory.160 This letter was symbolic, and the League of Nations did not act. However, it sparked another round of uprisings in Bahrain. Shiite Muslims, a disenfranchised minority in Bahrain, demanded that Bahrain become part of .161 To limit Iranian influence, the British pitted Sunni and Shiite Muslims against one another.162 They also sought to develop Bahrain. By developing Bahrain, they believed that they could bring stability and conjure sufficient pro-British sentiment to sustain their rule.

To develop Bahrain, the Brits began drilling for oil. In 1931, the Bahrain Petroleum Company (Bapco) discovered oil in Bahraini fields.163 Production began the following year, and the country modernized

154 Ibid. 155 Ibid. 156 Ibid. 157 Ibid. 158 Ibid. 159 Ibid. 160 Crystal, Jill Ann, and Charles Gordon Smith. “Bahrain: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 18, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bahrain 161 Ibid. 162 Ibid. 163 Ibid.

40 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 quickly.164 Fortunately for Britain, Anglo-Bahraini relations improved significantly. Bahrain even fought alongside the Allies in WWII.165

After WWII, anti-British sentiment resurfaced. Riots, more violent than before, became a part of life in Bahrain. In the 1950s, reformers founded the National Union Committee (NUC), and demanded an elected assembly and the removal of British officials.166 They continued to protest and strike until 1968, when Britain announced that it would withdraw from Bahrain in three years time.167 Bahrain and nearby Qatar joined talks with the seven Trucial States, hoping to become a sovereign federation. Regional disputes eventually led to Bahraini withdrawal.

In 1970, Bahrain is still a British protectorate. It is ruled by Sheikh Issa bin Salman al Khalifa.168

The Trucial States

Trucial States was a term used to describe a number of different entities in the Gulf region. In the context of this committee, Trucial States will be used to refer to the seven sheikhdoms that became the present-day United Arab Emirates: , , , Ajman, Umm al Quwain, , .

In 1820, the Trucial States first allied themselves with Britain –– and each other. Britain and the seven sheikhdoms signed a general treaty of peace in 1820, as well as a treaty establishing a perpetual maritime truce in 1853.169 It was this 1853 truce that became their namesake.

In 1892, the first of the Trucial States –– Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras al Khaimah, and Umm al Quwain –– signed an exclusivity agreement with the British Empire, restricting their foreign relations and rendering them protectorates.170 Though all British protectorates, each sheikhdom

164 Ibid. 165 Ibid. 166 Ibid. 167 Ibid. 168 Ibid. 169 Crystal, Jill Ann, and J.E. Peterson. “United Arab Emirates: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Arab-Emirates 170 Crystal, Jill Ann, and J.E. Peterson. “United Arab Emirates: History.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 17, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Arab-Emirates

41 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 conducted its own relations with Britain and was governed by an emir, or hereditary monarch. The last Trucial State, Fujairah, became a British protectorate in 1952.171

The Trucial States began offering oil concessions to British companies in 1935.172 Though early attempts to drill for oil were fruitless, oil was discovered by 1950.173 The oil industry quickly became remarkably profitable, and the revenue generated by the sale of oil was used to improve the standard of living in the Trucial States. When more oil was discovered offshore, the Trucial States’ oil revenue increased dramatically.

In 1952, the Trucial States Council was established.174 Though it had no formal power, the Council was an important forum for the exchange of opinions, coordination of policy, and mediation of disputes.175 By 1958, committees on health, agriculture, and education policy were established. 176

In 1968, the British announced that they intended to withdraw from the Trucial States in three years.177 In 1970, the Trucial States are still a British protectorate, though they are negotiating the details of a federation, as they intend to become one state upon independence.178 Qatar and Bahrain were once party to these negotiations but withdrew, citing regional disputes.

The Sheikhdom of Qatar

In 1913, the Anglo-Turkish Convention was ratified, and the Ottoman Empire agreed to renounce its claim to Qatar.179 Due to the outbreak of the First World War, however, the agreement was not immediately implemented, and Ottoman troops remained in Qatar’s capital, .180 In 1915, British

171 Ibid. 172 Ibid. 173 Ibid. 174 Ibid. 175 Ibid. 176 Ibid. 177 Ibid. 178 Ibid. 179 Anthony, John Duke, and Jill Ann Crystal. “Qatar: Early History and British Protectorate.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 16, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Qatar 180 Ibid.

42 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 gunboats entered the waters off Qatar; the Qataris, finally feeling some pressure, abandoned their garrisons before the Brits arrived onshore.181

On November 3, 1916, Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim al Thani signed a treaty with the British, and Qatar became a British protectorate in the Empire’s Trucial System of Administration.182 Under the agreement, Sheikh Abdullah could not negotiate agreements with other states without Britain’s consent. In return, Britain agreed to protect Qatar by land and sea, from both external and internal threats.

Oil reserves were discovered in 1939, though commercial drilling and exportation were delayed due to the outbreak of the Second World War.183 After WWII ended, Britain shifted its attention to Qatar; the Empire was shrinking, and oil had recently been discovered in Qatari fields. 1949 was a critical year –– the first British political officer, John Wilton, was sent to Doha, and oil exportation began shortly thereafter.184 Before long, oil became the sheikhdom’s primary source of revenue. Qatar’s oil wealth was used to expand and modernize Qatar’s infrastructure.

Things continued in this manner until 1968, when Britain announced that it would withdraw from the Trucial System of Administration in three years time.185 Qatar and Bahrain joined talks with the seven Trucial States, hoping to become a sovereign federation. Regional disputes eventually led to Qatari withdrawal from these talks.

In 1970, Qatar is still a British protectorate. It is ruled by Sheikh Abdullah’s grandson, Sheikh Ahmad bin Ali al Thani.186

181 Ibid. 182 Ibid. 183 Anthony, John Duke, and Jill Ann Crystal. “Qatar: Early History and British Protectorate.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 16, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Qatar 184 Ibid. 185 Ibid. 186 Ibid.

43 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 G. Iran

In 1953, Iran’s democratically-elected Prime Minister, Mohammad Mossadegh, was overthrown in a joint CIA and MI6 operation.187 His offense? Seeking greater control over Iran’s oil reserves which, at the time, was under the control of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In 1951, the Iranian Parliament, under his leadership, had voted to nationalize the oil industry.188 In doing so, Iran –– and, most importantly, Mossadegh –– threatened Western oil interests. The reinstallment of the monarchy was intended to safeguard Western oil interests.

In 1970, Iran is still ruled by Shah .189 To the Western eye, Iran is a model for other Middle Eastern states; it is modern, secular, and staunchly anti-Communist. Iran’s economy is both driven and sustained by its oil wealth.190 Most importantly, Iran appears to be stable; it is not threatened by internal or external forces.

Underneath the surface, unrest and dissatisfaction are widespread. The Shah’s secret police, Savak, are increasingly repressive; they frequently intimidate, jail, and even kill dissidents.191 Savak’s actions are spurred on by the Shah’s paranoia. Opposition parties, including Mossadegh’s National Front and the Communist Tudeh party, have been banned.192 To make matters worse, wealth is concentrated in the hands of the Shah and his allies. Though the Iranian people once accepted the Shah’s leadership, they are disillusioned today.

Desperate to establish legitimacy, the Shah embarked on a series of broad sweeping reforms. These reforms were called the White Revolution for their non-violent nature. Under the umbrella of the White Revolution, the Shah pursued economic policies like profit-sharing, initiated government- financed development projects, and nationalized forests.193 He implemented land reform, which

187 Avery, Peter William, Mostofi, Khosrow, and Janet Afary. “Iran: The , 1925-1979.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 14, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid. 190 Ibid. 191 Ibid. 192 Ibid. 193 Avery, Peter William, Mostofi, Khosrow, and Janet Afary. “Iran: The Pahlavi Dynasty, 1925-1979.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., November 14, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Iran

44 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 allowed 90% of Iranian sharecroppers to become landowners.194 Socially, the Shah granted women more rights and increased government funding for education.195 Still, critics remarked that the White Revolution came too late. In 1970, the reforms are ongoing.

One particularly outspoken critic of both the Shah and the Shah’s so-called Revolution was Ayatollah , a prominent Shiite cleric. Indeed, for his opposition to the Shah, Khomeini was detained, jailed, and eventually placed under house arrest in 1963.196 He left Iran in 1964 and, exiled, has lived in the Shiite holy city of Najaf, Iraq since 1965.197 By the time he arrived in Iraq, he was one of the most revered Shiite clerics in the world.

In a 1970 speech, Khomeini outlined the theory for which he is most famous –– the Wilayat al Fahiq, or Rule of the Islamic Jurist.198 In essence, he advocated for limited rule by Shiite clerics, “Islamic jurists,” which would be characterized by adherence to Islamic religious law, Sharia.199 Khomeini’s system was purportedly developed to prevent injustice, corruption, and oppression. The Wilayat al Fahiq has gained some traction in the global Shiite community, especially among Iranian youth who oppose the Shah. Some say it is only a matter of time before the Shah is overthrown and Khomeini’s system is implemented in Iran.

State of Affairs: The World, 1970

The nation of Oman had a multitude of interesting and unique relationships with global powers outside of the Persian Gulf. The year 1970 offers an interesting context for geopolitics, and Oman fits right in the center of it.

194 Ibid. 195 Ibid. 196 Ibid. 197 Ibid. 198 Ibid. 199 Ibid.

45 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 A. Great Britain

One-time colonial overlord, political partner, and influential puppet-master of the region, the UK still has significant pull in Omani affairs. While Britain was the once-undisputed ruler of the waves, the decades following the Second World War have not been kind to the once-hegemonic empire.200

Decolonization took the British Empire by storm. Starting in the early 1920s and ramping up in the decades following, the UK gradually loosened controls on its and colonies. Canada, , and the other dominions gained more and more legislative autonomy into the 1930s, but it took the tumult of a changing global order to spur the freedom of direct colonies. India was the first, gaining full independence in 1947. Oman received its independence in 1951, followed by in 1956 and the rest of Africa to follow. The UK released its last holding on the African mainland in 1966, formally ending British rule in Africa. South Yemen was established in 1967 under much violence and chaos.201

In Arabia, British rule still lives on in the Trucial States. Still a British Protectorate in 1970, negotiations between local leaders and British negotiators are expected to yield results soon. Influence, however, still lies with the British. The UK sided with Oman in the Dhofar rebellion, still has tangible economic interests, and even has some SAS troops present as military advisors. Evidence of British influence exists within Omani politics as well, as Qaboos bin Said was himself educated in the UK. While the era of British invasion is likely over, London still exists as a kingmaker in the region, a likely ally for anyone wishing to seize power for themselves. 202

B. Unites States of America

The new superpower for the west following the decline of the UK, America came out of the Second World War roaring. Massive economic growth, technological advancement, and a newfound place at

200 britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom 201 IBID 202 IBID

46 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 the head of international negotiations make the US one side of the bipolar world of 1970. Omani interaction with the superpower, however, began long before its superpower status.

In the early days of the US, Oman was one of the first nations to interact with the nascent superpower. US merchant ships began entering Omani ports in the 1790s and trade continued for centuries after. The Persian Gulf in general has begun to rise to prominence in US foreign affairs. As continues and European influence erodes, the US looks to secure supplies of valuable oil to power its ever-growing economy. Also of interest is the underlying tension of the Cold War.203

As of 1970, the US lies locked in an existential struggle with the . While direct conflict between the two superpowers has not yet ignited, the US is currently fighting a war in Southeast against Cambodia and Viet Cong insurgents. The US is currently trying to extricate themselves from this conflict and appears to be in a stance of détente with the Soviet Union, meaning that tensions are gradually cooling.

C. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

On the other side of the Cold War lies the USSR. Exploding onto the global stage following the Second World War, the former soon spread the ideology of communism to Eastern Europe and across the developing world. Soviet arms and resources flow into communist regimes springing up in South Yemen and across Africa.

In general, the Soviet Union doesn’t particularly care about Oman, instead focusing on its southern neighbor. This could change at any time, however, and there is always a running fear of a Cold War turned hot.

D. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC for short) was established in Baghdad in 1960. Oman was not a founding member, but the coordination policies of the 10 current members at

203 “History of the U.S.-Oman Relationship,” U.S. Embassy in Oman, accessed November 19, 2019, https://om.usembassy.gov/our-relationship/us-oman-relationship/)

47 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 committee start matters both economically and geopolitically. Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, , Libya, the Trucial States and Algeria all coordinate their oil production to adjust prices accordingly. These ten countries cooperate as allies in international trade, taking on both the west and the east using the massive leverage that comes from oil demand. Omani interests sometimes align with that of OPEC, but adherence to the cartel bears with it political risks and angry allies. How Oman chooses to engage is in question.204

Appendix

The chart below depicts the Omani royal family, or the Al Said Dynasty. They have been in power in Oman (sometimes referred to as Oman & Muscat) 1749-Present. Each red star corresponds with an Omani monarch.

204 “Brief History,” OPEC, accessed November 19, 2019, https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm)

48 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Character Biographies

Names and Positions

Name Position Mahmoud abu Layla Minister of Defense Muhammad al Tanawy Minister of Royal Office Ali al Koulily Minister of Foreign Affairs Ahmed bin Saud Minister of Interior Abdullah al-Faruq Minister of Finance Hussain bin Khalid al Sheikh Governor of Muscat Ibraheem bin Khokhar Minister of Civil Service Said bin Adnan al Fuad Minister of Health Ishaq al Kamibir bin Saleh Minister of Justice Abdulhakim al Sabra Minister for Oil and Gas Fahad al Abbasi Minister of Religious Affairs Yusuf al Salalah Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries Othman al Amin Minister of Commerce and Industry Jaabir al Daoud Minister of Education Ikram al Ghaffari Minister of Information Hisham al Salloum Minister of Labor Osama abu Samira Minister of Environment and Affairs

Lakhdar al Khidr Minister of Municipalities and Water Resources Yejlis al Kursi Minister of Tourism Mustafa Kaya al Turki Minister of Sports Affairs Ziad bin Said al Rahman Minister of Social Development Saddiq Darwish bin Tawfiq Governor of Dhofar Omar Ali abu Nasser Minister of Housing Sultan Hamid al Khaliji Minister of Transport and Communication Khalid al Omani Minister of Emergency Preparation

49 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Mahmoud Abu Layla, Minister of Defense

Mahmoud Abu Layla is not the type of man you’d expect to become a soldier, let alone the Minister of Defense of Oman. Indeed, as a child, he was consistently ridiculed for his extreme conflict aversion. He cried whenever his parents fought and, when the other boys even threatened to get physical with him, Mahmoud ran away in fear. However, he had few options––cowardly men were not often successful in Oman. To improve his life chances, he enlisted in the British . As a cadet, Mahmoud dedicated himself wholly to the service and quickly rose in the ranks. Indeed, he was the first Omani-born general in the British Army. When civil war broke out in Oman, Mahmoud left his post in Britain to enlist in the Omani Armed Forces. Impressed by his bravery, loyalty, and military strategic prowess, the Sultan promoted Mahmoud to Minister of Defense. As such, he is responsible for modernizing the army and organizing the government’s response to the rebels in Dhofar –– Mahmoud is the highest ranking officer in the Omani Armed Forces. He has close relationships with generals in Oman, as well as those that he served with in Britain. Mahmoud will do anything in his power to make the Omani Armed Forces the premier fighting force in the Arabian Gulf and, fortunately, has the resources to accomplish that.

Muhammad al Tantawy, Minister of Da’wa & Royal Office

Muhammad al Tantawy always knew he would be an Imam. He came from a family of , or people who could trace their direct lineage back to the Prophet… but there was no pressure on him, really. At any rate, young Muhammad was enrolled in an Ibadi madrassa, or religious school, in Libya. He was a gifted student of Ibadi Islam. By the time he turned 9, he was able to recite the by heart. Muhammad’s recitations were so beautiful and moving that men and women would come from all corners of Libya to listen to him. When, at the age of 18, he returned to Oman to preach, Muhammad quickly became one of the most influential Ibadi Imams. By the time he turned 20, he amassed a tremendous following and even led Friday prayers at the Grand Mosque in Muscat. Due to his prominence in the Ibadi world, Sultan Said bin Taimur asked Muhammad to serve as the Minister of Da’wa, missionary work, in the royal government. As Minister of Diwan, Muhammad travels extensively, lecturing to Ibadi communities all over the Arabian Gulf and North Africa. He has also published 3 books about Islam, all well-regarded and popular, and he is in the process of

50 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 establishing a television show that will broadcast his sermons globally. Muhammad’s wit, charm, and piety have served him well and made him a rising star in the Islamic World.

Ali al Koulily, Minister of Foreign Affairs

Ali al Koulily was the third son of a fisherman and a seamstress, and spent his childhood begrudgingly fishing in the waters of the Arabian Gulf. In his limited free time, he read as many books as he could find, becoming fascinated by international politics and European affairs. One day, Ali caught a glimpse of Fatima bint Rashid al Said, the beautiful daughter of an Omani royal, at his village’s market. Her beauty stirred something within him, and he fell in love with her, ultimately following her all the way back to Muscat. When Ali was eventually discovered, outside of the royal palace, guards threatened to kill him. Fatima pitied him and asked that he be formally educated and made a civil servant, saving Ali from certain death. Though Ali and Fatima’s respective social statuses forbid them from ever being together, they spend almost every day in each other’s company and she has worked to ensure that he is well-funded, wealthy even. Indeed, it was at Fatima’s recommendation that he was promoted through the ranks of the civil serve. Today, as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ali advises the Sultan on ambassadorial appointments, travels frequently to meet with foreign dignitaries, entertains foreign officials in Istanbul, and aides the Sultan in crafting foreign policy.

Ahmed bin Saud, Minister of Interior

The name Ahmed bin Saud strikes fear in the heart of most Omanis… and Ahmed embraces this reputation. After all, he earned it. Born to the former Muscat Police Chief Saud bin Halkum al Muscati, he grew up in proximity to power. And, if the iron fist could be a genetic trait, it absolutely would be. When his father died, Ahmed inherited his position and Muscat’s already low crime rate decreased even farther. His tactics were less than professional, but they gained the attention of the Sultan. As Minister of the Interior, Ahmed has created a security apparatus that even the paranoid Sultan is comfortable with. It spans cities and villages, permeating all aspects of Omani life. The Omani citizenry is mostly terrified. Ahmed currently oversees the national police and controls any state initiative that restricts individual freedoms.

51 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Abdullah al Faruq, Minister of Finance

Born to a poor family in the Dhofar Governorate, Abdullah was always a fighter. He fought his way out of the village he was raised in, defeating both disease and poverty, against all odds. Abdullah’s quest for fortune led him all the way to , where he studied at the American University in Beirut and waited tables at a local falafel joint to pay for tuition. Like anyone looking to get rich without having to work too hard, Abdullah studied Finance. He learned about debt restructuring, industrialization, even petroleum-based economies––all things that could be used to improve Oman’s economy. But Abdullah did not immediately return to Oman. Instead, he moved to New York to work for Goldman Sachs’ Investment Banking Division. There, he became wealthy and well- connected; his closest friends were all lesser members of the Saudi Royal Family. At a gathering hosted by his Saudi friends, Abdullah met Qaboos bin Said, who asked him to return to Oman and serve in his father’s cabinet. Abdullah accepted the offer. As Minister of Finance, he is in charge of economic policy––for example, Abdullah decides who to trade with, whether to devalue the Omani Riyal, etc. He has leveraged his personal wealth and connections to draw Oman closer to states like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.

Said bin Adnan al Fuad, Minister of Health

Said bin Adnan al Fuad was doomed from the start. Born in Musandam, a coastal governorate and the veritable ‘Florida of Oman,’ Said was poor and was afforded very few opportunities. Uneducated, he found himself fascinated by the rhetoric employed by royals and elites. Said became a champion debater, and talked his way into an international medical clinic jointly administered by the Red Cross and Red Crescent. There, he made a name for himself and met the love of his life, a woman named Meshael al Rahal. With Meshael by his side, Said gained a newfound confidence. Given his natural curiosity, perseverance, and oratorical skills, he advanced very quickly within the ranks of the medical clinic and, by 1960, was the chief administrator of the entire clinic system. While in charge, Said professionalized and expanded the clinic system, helping thousands of Omanis each year. Before long, he gained the attention of Sultan Said bin Taimur and was asked to be the Minister of Health. As Minister of Health, Said is in charge of setting the Omani government’s public health policy. He commands a staff of roughly 50 doctors and nurses, as well as 25 administrative workers. Because the public health situation in Oman is so dire, Said’s ministry has a considerably larger

52 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 budget than others and he wields impressive power with both the public and the royal family. Since becoming the Minister of Health, Said has maintained contact with every hospital and clinic in Oman.

Ishaq al Kamibir bin Saleh, Minister of Justice

Ishaq al Kamibir bin Saleh was a small man, though, judging solely by his talents and the volume at which he spoke, you would never know. He was born in Muscat to a middle class family, who had made a moderate fortune in Indian Ocean trade. Growing up, Ishaq frequently accompanied his father on trips to India, Central Asia, even North Africa; as a result, he developed a love for geography and travel, quickly gaining friends and admirers in far off places. At one point, Ishaq even fell in love with a beautiful Berber girl from Fez, Chahrazad al Hasan. Though distance ultimately prevented their love from being realized, the star-crossed letters frequently exchange letters. When Ishaq came of age, his father sent him to Britain to receive a law degree. He attended Oxford and excelled; on one notable occasion, Ishaq was dining in a London restaurant and heard an Omani accent––it was Crown Prince Qaboos bin Said! The two became fast friends and, when Ishaq returned to Oman, Qaboos ensured that his friend found success. Ishaq repeatedly represented the royal family in legal proceedings, impressing Sultan Said bin Taimur to the point that he was asked to serve as Minister of Justice. In this position, he is responsible for all civil courts in Oman. With his newfound wealth and status, he bought a newspaper and has worked to found an Omani National Football (Soccer) Team.

Fahad al Abbasi, Minister of Religious Affairs

Fahad was the eldest son born to a poor family living in . His mother died soon after the birth of his younger brother, and the two siblings were raised by their father, an architect trying to make a name for himself. By the time he was 13-years-old, Fahad was one of the most skilled painters in Musandam, and was soon accepted as an apprentice of one of the most prominent painters in Oman. Fahad traveled all over the Gulf during his apprenticeship, cataloguing the tales of his many adventures. After five years of touring and painting, Fahad found himself in Muscat, where he became so enthralled by the artistry of Islam that he decided to devote his life to spirituality. He begged a mosque near the center of the city to take him in and teach him the ways of

53 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Islam, and they happily obliged. With his artistic skill and new familiarity with scripture, Fahad quickly became the top pupil of the mosque. His unique background and fervent appreciation of Islam inspired his Imam to recommend him to the Sultan for the position of Minister of Religious Affairs. Though initially skeptical, Fahad graciously accepted the position when it was offered to him. As the Minister, Fahad inspires all those around him with his love and appreciation for Islam. Extremely charismatic and well-liked within the court and palace communities, Fahad has built up close relationships with the Imams of Muscat, and has forged several relationships with Imams in other towns. An artist at heart, Fahad has also maintained a reputation as a patron and servant of the arts, working with the local mosques to set up apprenticeships like the one he was lucky enough to enjoy in his youth. Fahad has also piqued the interest of several European artists and investors in recent years.

Yusuf al Salalah, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries

Yusuf always had the greenest thumb in town. As a child, he grew up cultivating half-dead shrubs in a tiny village in al Wusta. Every time he tried to grow them, the shrubs died. He was growing them in a . Nevertheless, he kept at it, watering the sand and delicately pruning the lifegiving leaves off the gnarled branches of the sad little . Yusuf didn’t know anything about agriculture. Eventually, his village took pity on him and sent him to Secondary School in the nearby town of Duqm. There he learned he was actually killing by trimming all the leaves off and eventually He channeled this . ﺮﺠﺷ ة had an utter and complete mental breakdown over the fate of his old friend trauma into a fulfilling career, becoming the most effective creator of fertilizer in all of Southern Oman. This intimate knowledge of fertilizer served him well when he was pulled from University in Muscat to take on the role of Minister of Agriculture. Yusuf now has the freedom to set regulations for all agricultural production (including shrubs) in Oman, giving him the ability to make sure no more sad little children clip all the leaves off their plants again. He was also given the job of dealing with Omani fish production, which he discovered with a new way to grow shrubs underwater. He has made many friends in the fishing industry thanks to this, and is currently in a long-term chess game with the head of the largest fish farm in Saudi Arabia.

54 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Othman al Amin, Minister of Commerce and Industry

Othman al Amin was born to an impoverished family in western Oman. His parents Daoud and Nur had high hopes for him, as he was well-spoken and clever for his age. In his free time, Othman and his younger brother, Daoud, traded small, homemade trinkets for food in the city. At the age of 14, he began to make counterfeit currency which he used to buy a home for his family. Othman escaped discovery, and became increasingly daring––that is, until he grew curious how his actions would impact the economy and decided to study the concept. Once he was of age, he begged the closest, cheapest university to accept him. When it became clear that the random Omani boy begging to study would not soon leave them alone, the Deans accepted Othman to study economics. The professors worked him very hard, but he obtained his degree and made his father proud. When he returned to his village, Othman worked tirelessly to industrialize its small economy and was moderately successful––He managed to attract foreign investment and start drilling for oil! When the government approached him and offered him a job, Othman accepted. As Minister of Commerce and Industry, Othman works with other ministers to negotiate favorable trade deals with other states and industrialize the Omani economy. He also, through his work in his home village, has control of about 20% of Oman’s oil reserves and has many wealthy European contacts.

Abdulhakim al Sabra, Minister for Oil and Gas

Abdulhakim was a normal kid. He always dreamed of being a farmer like his father and grandfather before him. All of that changed when in 1956, he found something better than carrots in his small plot. Abdulhakim found an oil well in his backyard. Within six months, he became the richest man in Southern Oman. Working with the Petroleum Development (Oman) in Dhofar, he quickly rose to a position of prominence within the organization. They sent him to a school in Geneva, where he developed a love of fine chocolate and swiss watches. He also discovered a penchant for skiing that he greatly enjoyed. In conjunction with his employment with PD(O), Abdulhakim was a champion skier and earned a bronze metal in the 1964 Innsbruck Olympics. Eventually, his hard work paid off. Abdulhakim was selected from PD(O) staff to serve as the next Minister for Oil and Gas. He happily took this role, but still continues to operate a small oil well in the backyard of his now- renovated home. He has friends across the British oil sector, all collaborating monthly to share new

55 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 watch trends and brag about the success of their respective oil pumps. Every once in a while, he also flies back to Switzerland to ski at his favorite chalet in the alps.

Jaabir al Daoud, Minister of Education

For a Minister of Education, Jaabir al Daoud is remarkably uneducated. He was a champion cricket player throughout the 1950s, but the slow decolonization of the British Empire and eventual Omani independence rapidly ended his nascent cricket career. Faced with no tangible skills, Jaabir became a cricket coach for an elite secondary school in Muscat. There he trained the children of the wealthiest people in Oman in the noble art of cricket, all day dreaming of reviving the sport across the land. Luckily for Jaabir, one of the students he taught cricket was Qaboos bin Said al Said. Watching him languish in a school gymnasium was too much for Qaboos, and he eventually petitioned his father to elevate the man to a higher position. Thus, Jaabir al Daoud was made the Minister of Education in 1965. There was only one problem, Jaabir was wholly uneducated. The first schools he oversaw, he also took part in. He excelled, and just graduated from Cambridge University with a PhD in Educational Philosophy. Armed with a powerful education, a keen vision for strategy, and many friends across the teaching world, Jaabir is ready to run Oman’s schooling apparatus like he ran his cricket team. Only wins.

Ikram al Ghaffari, Minister of Information

Ikram always liked to read. He enjoyed reading whatever he could get his hands on in a small town in northern Schamal al Batina. This included books, comics, magazines, advertisements, and even labels on imported goods. Ikram was a natural polyglot, learning three dialects of Arabic, English, and French by the age of 16. By 20, he had added Spanish, Hindi, German and Russian to the mix. At age 23, he was noticed by an official visiting his town and quickly fast tracked through a communications program in Muscat. He rose through the ranks and was immediately hired by the Ministry of Information. There he wrote compelling tales of the heroics of the Omani people. All of it was entirely 100% factual, with no exaggeration whatsoever. Ikram also began a business on the side, ghostwriting fiction novels in Arabic aimed at teenagers throughout the region. These became a smash hit, with every 15 year old in Arabia waiting to see what Marki la Iraffahg would produce next. With his refined writing prowess, Ikram was soon promoted to the big job. He serves as the

56 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Minister of Information, outputting totally 100% true stories of the Omani Government and directing the media to put forth the same level of “truth” in their reporting.

Hussain bin Khaled al Sheikh, Governor of Muscat

Muscat is not an easy place to govern. The bustling city has all manner of economic and social activity that makes it truly one of the most diverse and interesting places in Oman. Hussain bin Khaled al Sheikh has taken this to mean it should not be governed. The portly gentleman has been content to sit on the job his father passed down to him and live on a cushy salary for the rest of his life. That doesn’t mean he doesn’t have power, however. The captain of the city police, head of the local port authority, and chief of the firefighters brigade all technically report to Hussain. Whether he is there to report to or not notwithstanding. Hussain may behave like a spoiled rich child, but if he ever chose to move his generous mass out of a comfortable seat, he can mobilize the power of a family lineage with deep ties to the city of Muscat. His passion for food has made him friends with every chef in the region and his love of the finer things in life have made him the topic of much gossip amongst Muscats upper classes.

Ibraheem ibn Khokhar, Minister of Civil Service

Ibraheem was an avid student in the wealthy Italian boarding school he attended. He didn’t speak a word of Arabic, but was a fine thinker in the realm of Public Policy. He went on to study in the United States as one of the first international students at the University of Chicago. There, he was an avid follower of the Public Policy division, eventually graduating and writing a PhD thesis titled: “Agricultural Information for Public Policy Decision-Making.” He won a number of academic awards on the subject, and went on to become a renowned expert on Civil Service decisions. When the call of his country came, however, he answered. Ibraheem took a direct flight from O’Hare and stepped foot on Omani soil for the first time in 35 years. An aloof academic, Ibraheem makes up for his lack of familiarity with connections across academic circles. As the Minister of Civil Service, Ibraheem has been brutally effective at curbing excess, cutting costs, and increasing synergy. This has earned him a fervent group of followers within the bureaucracy of the Omani state. How he chooses to further extend his impact, though, is up to him. His oversight and management of the bureaucracy will tell in time.

57 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Hisham al Salloum, Minister of Labor

Hisham always wanted to be an industrial posthole-digger. From the time he saw a photo of one in a magazine, he knew… Hisham was 7 years old then. He quickly decided that he wanted––no, needed– –to grow a spinning corkscrew drill bit and bore holes into the heart of the earth. Upon telling his father about his ambitions, Hisham was given a shovel and told to dig until he got it out of his system. He never got it out of his system. In just ten years, Hisham became the best hole digger in all of Oman. He dug up his family’s farm, the neighbors’ farms, an oilfield, and even part of the first 300 feet of paved road in Oman, for which he was ultimately arrested and sent to prison. In prison, Hisham dug more holes but, better still, was able to spread the gospel of hole-digging to all the other prisoners. He turned hardened criminals and political prisoners into hole-digging machines. This drive was noticed and rewarded. Hisham was released from prison early and immediately promoted to Minister of Labor in the hopes that he could motivate all of Oman with the same work ethic he instilled in its prisoners. So far, he has only dug up the garden behind the ministry itself. Hisham has power over Omani labor rights and regulations and can maybe someday have everyone enjoy hole digging as much as he does.

Osama abu Samira, Minister of Environment and Climate Affairs

Osama abu Samira doesn’t really like the environment. Yeah, sure it's his job, but Osama only really took the job because it came with a fancy government car. He loves the little flags on the sides. The colors please him. He was a bored biologist working for a seedling company for a decade, but eventually got fed up. He was so sick and tired of staring at rows of date plants all day, he decided to do what he could to shut it all down. This led to years of working from the inside, collecting data, and coming to the conclusion that growing plants downstream from a waste disposal plant might be why all the dates shrivel up and die within six months. Armed with this information, Osama saw this as his way out of the date industry. He was promoted to oversee the industry that killed all his dates. Now, Osama has to make site visits to all the waste disposal plants. He has to oversee all the pollution in Oman. Osama is not a happy man, but at least he has the flags on his car.

58 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Lakhdar al Khidr, Minister of Municipalities and Water Resources

Water is an important and scarce resource within Oman. That’s why local swimming pool magnate Lakhdar al Khidr was the perfect choice to allocate all the freshwater in the nation. Lakhdar founded his first swimming pool in 1956, charging exorbitant fees for Omani elites to take a dip under the hot sun. The experiment was a massive success, with Lakhdar opening 35 more pools in the next decade. His influence with Omani elite eventually led to his promotion to Minister of Municipalities. Now seeing the dire state of Omani freshwater access, Lakhdar had a crisis of conscience. Clean water is an essential necessity to live in Oman, and Lakhdar feels as though it is his duty to make up for the waste of the past. With friends across Omani elite circles and lots of now empty pool basins, Lakhdar has the tools he needs to revolutionize Omani water distribution. His upbringing in Nazwa also gives him access to key local connections outside of just the capital city of Muscat, and the work he has already done delivering water to the poor of Oman has made him a popular figure among the common folk. He has the ability to expand those deliveries even further at the Ministry.

Yejlis al Kursi, Minister of Tourism

Yejlis was a Muscati street urchin for most of his upbringing. During the Second World War, his parents were killed on a business trip to Yemen. The building they were in was leveled by Italian bombs, and the 8 year old Yejlis was left penniless and alone. To sustain himself, he began giving tours of Muscat. By 18, Yejlis knew every corner of the city and was well regarded as the best tour guide in the region. He eventually founded the first tour guide agency in the nation, gaining contacts with American and British travel agencies and building a powerful business from scratch. Yejlis’ newfound attention from foreign travellers piqued the interest of the Royal family. The Ministry of Tourism was created for Yejlis to bring in even more foreign tourism dollars into the nation. Yejlis gained airline contacts, founded offices in Muscat and Dhofar, and even ran some of the first international advertising the nation had ever seen. From urchin to minister, however, Yejlis kept his constant hatred of the Italian government firmly at heart. Someday he would have his revenge.

59 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Mustafa Kaya al Turki, Minister of Sports Affairs

Mustafa was a renowned cricket player, coming in the generation after Jaabir al Daoud to revolutionize and revitalize the sport in Oman. Originally from Zanzibar, Mustafa is unique in that he was the only Omani not born in Oman proper. Coming from a dynasty of wealthy traders, the relative poverty that Mustafa grew up with was in stark contrast to the tales he had heard of Old Zanzibar. Mustafa was, however, very good at cricket. Relative closeness to British East Africa made him a travelling star within the British Empire, but he didn’t stop at decolonization. Mustafa built a cricket league in Oman from scratch, serving as the first commissioner and coach of the best team in Oman. Mustafa was loved by the people, and eventually even formed the Omani national team. Competing in Pakistan and India, the Omani National Cricket team went on to win both championships and friends in the new nations. Mustafa spent time in Islamabad and , becoming close colleagues of both the sports sector and the elites occupying it. Mustafa was made the Minister of Sports Affairs due to these linkages, and continues to stay in close contact with various teams and players across Eurasia. His job as the Minister of Sports Affairs gives him the power to direct and schedule sports games across Oman.

Ziad bin Said al Rahman, Minister of Social Development

Ziad bin Said al Rahman was an interesting child. Growing up in a small city in Northern Oman, Ziad did everything he could to help the people around him. Genuinely regarded as one of the nicest and most wholesome people in his neighborhood, Ziad was soon elected to the town council. His presence and wise oversight brought the neighborhood the distinctive reward of “Nicest Place in Oman”. This award made Ziad a household name within his region, and he was soon tapped by the Omani government to work in Muscat. His policies of niceness, immutable charm, and ability to connect with anyone brought him success and promotion. Now, Ziad focuses his time on developing all of Omani society, creating school curriculum and community outreach strategies that slowly but surely decrease crime and strife and increase happiness and collaboration. Where he chooses to turn his positive energy towards next, though, is up to him.

60 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Saddiq Darwish bin Tawfiq, Governor of Dhofar

Saddiq never thought he’d be the Governor of Dhofar. Growing up in a small desert community, Saddiq expected to herd livestock like his ancestors before him. Events in Dhofar changed that forever. Growing tensions in the region forced him out of his home in the early 1950s, and he soon found himself impoverished and alone in Salalah. He found his calling as a loyal supporter of the Government in the 1962 Dhofar uprising. Saddiq fed information and intelligence to the forces of the government, giving key and crucial support in a time when the Sultanate needed it the most. As a reward, Saddiq was appointed Governor of Dhofar. He now runs the day to day activities of the Dhofari regional government, using his connections with peasant herders and his contacts with military intelligence to keep the peace as best he can. Saddiq also has a herd of his own, raising cattle, camels and goats for sale and transit. Saddiq loves Dhofar and yearns for a day when the region can truly prosper.

Omar Ali abu Nasser, Minister of Housing

Born in Sur, Omar is a benevolent soul. His father was the resident handyman for his neighborhood and little Omar always used to tag along beside him. Omar took over from his father at age 18, learning all manner of construction and design techniques on the job. Eventually, Omar began to design his own houses. Using inexpensive materials, he built sturdy homes for the poor first in his community, then in Sur as a whole. Word of his designs spread, and he was eventually contracted by a European NGO to expand his impact. Omar helped train, teach and design habitation for thousands of people throughout East Africa and Arabia. Eventually, however, things took a turn. Omar fell from a ladder while constructing a single family home, damaging his back and making travel painful. The plight of Omar was well known. The Omani government rewarded his diligence with the ability to keep pursuing his goal of equitable housing as Minister. His connections with NGOs, mind for design, and strong reputation amongst poor communities all over east Africa speak to his qualifications. His job at the ministry of housing gives him broad authority to direct housing projects and regulations across the nation.

61 Advisory Council to Qaboos bin Said al Said of Oman, 1970| MUNUC 32 Sultan Hamid al Khaliji, Minister of Transport and Communication

Sultan Hamid al Khaliji has an unfortunate first name. He is unfortunately not the Sultan of anything other than hopeful parents. Hamid grew up in the suburbs of Muscat to a well to do family. His father was a doctor for Muscati traders and he had a relatively wealthy childhood, travelling to Europe where his name brought much mirth to those around him. Regardless, he made a name for himself using this supposed misfortune. Incorporating one of the first Omani owned railways in the region under his own name allowed for Hamid to legally own “Sultan Lines”. Even though the number of daily passengers was low and the number of stops was limited, Sultan Lines had the unique perception of being associated with royalty, even if not technically truth. This boost kept Sultan Hamid on top of the growing railway market, and his wealth and expertise brought him to the head of the Ministry. Now, Sultan Hamid works to expand railway transit across the nation, build roads, and grow the nascent telephone and telegraph network. His friends in the industry,

Khalid al Omani, Minister of Emergency Preparation

Emergencies are Khalid’s specialty. The son of a firefighter and the nephew of a soldier, Khalid was always told to be prepared. When he was sent to secondary school in Muscat, he set up the fire plan for the entire institution. When he entered the workforce as a low-level bureaucrat in the Omani Ministry of Health, he personally saved the lives of three accountants trapped in a burning building. Khalid left his job soon after and began a crusade to make Muscat safer. He lobbied city and local government to implement fire codes. He revolutionized first aid and medical training for government employees. He was the most successful and well liked independent consultant in the history of Oman. This kind of fame brought him benefits. He was appointed to the newly created Ministry of Emergency Preparation. There he has wide powers to regulate government handling of disasters and tragedies. Khalid can now make all of Oman as safe as he always wanted.

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