Red Cross Report En.Pdf

DISASTER SELF-PROTECTION DISASTER SELF-PROTECTION

1 Introduction ...... 3 1 Introduction ...... 3 1.1 Citizens ...... 4 1.1 Citizens ...... 4 1.2 The Project ...... 6 1.2 The Project ...... 6 1.3 References ...... 7 1.3 References ...... 7 1.4 Definitions ...... 10 1.4 Definitions ...... 10

2 Marks...... 13 2 Marks...... 13 2.1. Experienced by the citizens...... 13 2.1. Experienced by the citizens...... 13 Risk representation by the citizens...... 13 Risk representation by the citizens...... 13 Citizen experience of emergency situations...... 14 Citizen experience of emergency situations...... 14 Citizen education...... 16 Citizen education...... 16 Weak communication...... 17 Weak communication...... 17 Shifts citizens/experts/authorities...... 20 Shifts citizens/experts/authorities...... 20 Uncertain behavioural change...... 21 Uncertain behavioural change...... 21 An actual snapshot...... 22 An actual snapshot...... 22 2.2. Institution contributions...... 23 2.2. Institution contributions...... 23 Governments...... 23 Governments...... 23 The European Commission...... 25 The European Commission...... 25 National Red Cross Societies...... 26 National Red Cross Societies...... 26 2.3. Experts perspectives...... 27 2.3. Experts perspectives...... 27

3 Recommendations - Proposals ...... 29 3 Recommendations - Proposals ...... 29 3.1. To define self-protection...... 29 3.1. To define self-protection...... 29 3.2. To gain a self-protection behaviour...... 32 3.2. To gain a self-protection behaviour...... 32 How: a participative approach...... 33 How: a participative approach...... 33 Method: a progressive approach...... 36 Method: a progressive approach...... 36 Support: information ...... 38 Support: information ...... 38 Support: training...... 48 Support: training...... 48 What: ...... 49 What: ...... 49 Places and calendars ...... 52 Places and calendars ...... 52 3.3. Particularities for specific groups of citizens...... 53 3.3. Particularities for specific groups of citizens...... 53 Children and teenagers ...... 54 Children and teenagers ...... 54 The most vulnerable ...... 55 The most vulnerable ...... 55 Tourists and migrants...... 56 Tourists and migrants...... 56 3.4. About the kits ...... 57 3.4. About the kits ...... 57 For the home First Aid kit ...... 57 For the home First Aid kit ...... 57 For the home disaster kit ...... 58 For the home disaster kit ...... 58 3.5. Evaluation ...... 59 3.5. Evaluation ...... 59 Action ...... 59 Action ...... 59 Approaches and supports ...... 60 Approaches and supports ...... 60

4 Remaining challenges ...... 63 4 Remaining challenges ...... 63 4.1 Local authorities ...... 63 4.1 Local authorities ...... 63 4.2 Citizens ...... 67 4.2 Citizens ...... 67 4.3 Rescue, care and assistance organizations ...... 69 4.3 Rescue, care and assistance organizations ...... 69 4.4 Others partners of the self protection ...... 70 4.4 Others partners of the self protection ...... 70 4.5 Self protection ...... 70 4.5 Self protection ...... 70

1 - Introduction 1 - Introduction

Floods, fires, storms, earthquakes, avalanches, heat waves,industrial accidents, etc. each have Floods, fires, storms, earthquakes, avalanches, heat waves,industrial accidents, etc. each have disastrous consequences on the populations. Fainting, burns, falls, intoxications, drow- disastrous consequences on the populations. Fainting, burns, falls, intoxications, drowning, road crashes, etc. are some of the consequences of dangerous situations that affect ning, road crashes, etc. are some of the consequences of dangerous situations that affect individuals, families and communities on a daily basis. individuals, families and communities on a daily basis.

If natural disasters and technological risks draw citizens’ attention and in- If natural disasters and technological risks draw citizens’ attention and in- terrogations, they are less attentive for the most dangerous situations that terrogations, they are less attentive for the most dangerous situations that happen at their home, school, workplace, shop/mall and road which they use happen at their home, school, workplace, shop/mall and road which they use every day. These situations generate a growing number of victims (dead and injured). every day. These situations generate a growing number of victims (dead and injured). Their consequences on the victims and their relatives (families, friends, neighbours, Their consequences on the victims and their relatives (families, friends, neighbours, colleagues of work, etc.) are often physical and/or psychological; this is also true for the colleagues of work, etc.) are often physical and/or psychological; this is also true for the witnesses of the emergency, the authorities of the territory concerned and the members of witnesses of the emergency, the authorities of the territory concerned and the members of the organizations which give help, care and assistance. The media attention given to these the organizations which give help, care and assistance. The media attention given to these situations generally increases those implicated. situations generally increases those implicated.

Refer to : Statistics presented by insurance companies SwissRe and Muni- Refer to : Statistics presented by insurance companies SwissRe and Muni- chRe, and the World Disasters Report done by the International Federation chRe, and the World Disasters Report done by the International Federation of Red Cross and VRed Crescent Societies. (1) of Red Cross and VRed Crescent Societies. (1)

The following are some factors that contribute to this increase: The following are some factors that contribute to this increase:

- unsuited or dangerous behaviour, - unsuited or dangerous behaviour, - increased exposure to natural or industrial risks, - increased exposure to natural or industrial risks, - the density of the populations in urban zones, - the density of the populations in urban zones, - inadequacy or lack of citizen preparedness to prevent and to face these situations - inadequacy or lack of citizen preparedness to prevent and to face these situations and their consequences. and their consequences.

After the famous earthquake of Lisbon in 1755, Jean-Jacques Rousseau After the famous earthquake of Lisbon in 1755, Jean-Jacques Rousseau answers Voltaire that it is the fault of “the free man, sophisticated (…) answers Voltaire that it is the fault of “the free man, sophisticated (…) It is not the nature which gathered there twenty thousand houses from six It is not the nature which gathered there twenty thousand houses from six to seven floors (…) if the inhabitants were dispersed or accommodated to seven floors (…) if the inhabitants were dispersed or accommodated more slightly, they had been seen the following day twenty miles from more slightly, they had been seen the following day twenty miles from there, quite as happy if there were nothing arrived.” (2) there, quite as happy if there were nothing arrived.” (2)

These trends force governments: These trends force governments:

• to develop new ways for emergency situations management, and new citizen • to develop new ways for emergency situations management, and new citizen education and information strategies; education and information strategies; • to reinforce the preventive measures; • to reinforce the preventive measures; • to increase means of intervention; and • to increase means of intervention; and • to mobilize their public services, private and associative sectors. • to mobilize their public services, private and associative sectors.

This has economic consequences, burdening the budgets for development or those of other This has economic consequences, burdening the budgets for development or those of other sectors of the society. sectors of the society.

These trends are also worrying the European commission who, for several years, has been These trends are also worrying the European commission who, for several years, has been developing projects, aiming focusing on the citizen as the main actor to reinforce civil developing projects, aiming focusing on the citizen as the main actor to reinforce civil protection. protection.

Thus, in 2003 the European Commission carried for project submissions concerning the Thus, in 2003 the European Commission carried for project submissions concerning the reduction of the consequences of disasters. reduction of the consequences of disasters.

Between 1966 and 1992, storms and cyclones caused half of the deaths, Between 1966 and 1992, storms and cyclones caused half of the deaths, followed by seisms (approximately 1/3 of the deaths) and the floods, the followed by seisms (approximately 1/3 of the deaths) and the floods, the others having been much less fatal. On the other hand floods caused others having been much less fatal. On the other hand floods caused nearly 75 per cent of disaster victims, follow-up by storms and cyclones nearly 75 per cent of disaster victims, follow-up by storms and cyclones (more than 10 per cent).(4) (more than 10 per cent).(4)

The French Red Cross submitted a project, called: “Best practises and life-support kits for The French Red Cross submitted a project, called: “Best practises and life-support kits for the self-protection of the European Union citizens in households in the event of a daily or the self-protection of the European Union citizens in households in the event of a daily or disastrous emergency.” (Hereafter called “the Project”). It relied on feedbacks on disastrous emergency.” (Hereafter called “the Project”). It relied on feedbacks on exceptional emergency situations to which the French Red Cross took part in the response: exceptional emergency situations to which the French Red Cross took part in the response: floods, AZF chemical factory explosion, cyclones, big crowd gatherings, etc. floods, AZF chemical factory explosion, cyclones, big crowd gatherings, etc.

Considering confrontations between the society/the risk/the emergency, changing quickly and Considering confrontations between the society/the risk/the emergency, changing quickly and prone to controversies under the influence of scientific research and experience feedbacks, prone to controversies under the influence of scientific research and experience feedbacks,

Considering the evolutions of the governance, the principles of precaution, the measures Considering the evolutions of the governance, the principles of precaution, the measures taken for hazard control, taken for hazard control,

Considering the emotional echoes related to natural or industrial Considering the emotional echoes related to natural or industrial disasters, epidemics and other disasters which have affected our societies, disasters, epidemics and other disasters which have affected our societies,

The results of the Project do not claim to be the expression of an exhaustive The results of the Project do not claim to be the expression of an exhaustive reflection of all the aspects, initiatives and thoughts which exist of preparation reflection of all the aspects, initiatives and thoughts which exist of preparation and response to emergency situations by citizens.They represent the main points and response to emergency situations by citizens.They represent the main points and axes of action necessary for the development and reinforcement of the capa- and axes of action necessary for the development and reinforcement of the capacities of citizens to self protect, as well as for the identification of means for their cities of citizens to self protect, as well as for the identification of means for their sustainability. sustainability.

The results of the Project are: The results of the Project are: - simple to understand; - simple to understand; - simple to memorise; and - simple to memorise; and - simple to implement. - simple to implement.

During all the Project, the steering committee endeavoured to emphasise the direct contact During all the Project, the steering committee endeavoured to emphasise the direct contact with citizens and to involve them. with citizens and to involve them.

1.1 CITIZENS 1.1 CITIZENS

Whatever the emergency situation is, citizens are in the front line! They are: Whatever the emergency situation is, citizens are in the front line! They are:

- the very first responders in the event of an emergency, whether - the very first responders in the event of an emergency, whether it is simple or exceptional (obviously if they are in a physical and psychological it is simple or exceptional (obviously if they are in a physical and psychological condition to act), condition to act), - primary actors of their prevention. - primary actors of their prevention.

According to Oktay Erguner, director of the national crisis management centre of Turkey, According to Oktay Erguner, director of the national crisis management centre of Turkey, at least 50.000 people were found alive under collapsed buildings after the 1999 Mar- at least 50.000 people were found alive under collapsed buildings after the 1999 Mar- mara earthquake. Neighbours and other local inhabitants rescued 98 per cent of these. mara earthquake. Neighbours and other local inhabitants rescued 98 per cent of these. Outside professionals rescued just 350. (4) Outside professionals rescued just 350. (4)

Another illustration of the importance of a level of citizen self-protection is pro- Another illustration of the importance of a level of citizen self-protection is provided by the rate of rescue following the large earthquake of Hanshin-Awa- vided by the rate of rescue following the large earthquake of Hanshin-Awa- ji (Kobe, Japan) on 17 January 1995. Sixty five percent of those rescued were ji (Kobe, Japan) on 17 January 1995. Sixty five percent of those rescued were found within the first 24 hours by the primary responders. Similarly, during the found within the first 24 hours by the primary responders. Similarly, during the Armenia earthquake of 1988, 65% of those rescued were found within the first 18 hours. Armenia earthquake of 1988, 65% of those rescued were found within the first 18 hours.

Hayashi H, Kawata Y. Emergency and societal impacts of Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake disaster of 17 Hayashi H, Kawata Y. Emergency and societal impacts of Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake disaster of 17 January, 1995. In: Proceedings of Third International Conference on Emergency Planning and Disaster January, 1995. In: Proceedings of Third International Conference on Emergency Planning and Disaster Management, Lancaster, UK, 1995. Preston, England, Lancaster City Council, 1995. Management, Lancaster, UK, 1995. Preston, England, Lancaster City Council, 1995.

These rates are assessed on a daily basis, when first witnesses of a road These rates are assessed on a daily basis, when first witnesses of a road crash care about injured. The most sophisticated and dense rescue, care and crash care about injured. The most sophisticated and dense rescue, care and assistance system could only assess a death if nobody applied a pressure on assistance system could only assess a death if nobody applied a pressure on the haemorrhage site, or could find a worse case if nobody cleared the haemorrhage site, or could find a worse case if nobody cleared airway of an unconscious casualty. airway of an unconscious casualty.

Citizens have always sought a safe and healthy environment. They wish to be the real actors Citizens have always sought a safe and healthy environment. They wish to be the real actors if only to a varying degree. For various and varied reasons this phenomenon remains if only to a varying degree. For various and varied reasons this phenomenon remains however stronger in its aspirations than in the practises. It is therefore imperative to however stronger in its aspirations than in the practises. It is therefore imperative to create a context enabling citizens to rely on their capacities to take preventive measures, create a context enabling citizens to rely on their capacities to take preventive measures, to be self-sufficient in an emergency situation. to be self-sufficient in an emergency situation.

The investigation report on the 1979 nuclear accident of Three Mile The investigation report on the 1979 nuclear accident of Three Mile Island (United States) establishes that 80 per cent of the industrial accidents Island (United States) establishes that 80 per cent of the industrial accidents factors are of a non technical nature. This proportion was confirmed by the factors are of a non technical nature. This proportion was confirmed by the investigation commission of the French Parliament, which was carried out investigation commission of the French Parliament, which was carried out following the AZF factory explosion. (5) following the AZF factory explosion. (5)

It is a context based on: It is a context based on:

• an increased participation of the citizens in the rescue, care and assistance • an increased participation of the citizens in the rescue, care and assistance system, system, • a personalised support for developing self-protection knowledge, practices and • a personalised support for developing self-protection knowledge, practices and equipment. equipment.

To be have in such a way of preserving own life and To be have in such a way of preserving own life and own health is an essential contribution to minimize own health is an essential contribution to minimize the consequences of emergency situations, and even the consequences of emergency situations, and even avoid them. An immediate and adapted reaction can avoid them. An immediate and adapted reaction can save lives and relieve suffering. save lives and relieve suffering.

1.2 THE PROJECT 1.2 THE PROJECT

The Project objective was to contribute to the Commission and European Union Member The Project objective was to contribute to the Commission and European Union Member States efforts to reduce the disasters consequences. It was mainly about: States efforts to reduce the disasters consequences. It was mainly about:

- to inform the public on the adequate behaviour to adopt, before, during and after a - to inform the public on the adequate behaviour to adopt, before, during and after a disaster, and disaster, and - to define emergency kits at the disposal of citizens. - to define emergency kits at the disposal of citizens.

The agreement of the Commission grant was received in December 2003, and the Project The agreement of the Commission grant was received in December 2003, and the Project was launched in April 2004. was launched in April 2004.

The steering committee was composed of the following resource persons: The steering committee was composed of the following resource persons:

- Susanne Schunder-Tatzber, Austrian Red Cross, - Susanne Schunder-Tatzber, Austrian Red Cross, - Rudy DeWin, Red Cross of Belgium, - Rudy DeWin, Red Cross of Belgium, - Carlos Urkia, Spanish Red Cross, - Carlos Urkia, Spanish Red Cross, - Jukka-Pekka Kaasinen, Finnish Red Cross, - Jukka-Pekka Kaasinen, Finnish Red Cross, - Moya Wood-Heath, British Red Cross - Moya Wood-Heath, British Red Cross and representative of the Red Cross/EU Office, and representative of the Red Cross/EU Office, - Margot ‘t Hart et Fiorella Perotto, observers for - Margot ‘t Hart et Fiorella Perotto, observers for the European Commission, the European Commission, - Pascal Cassan, manager of the European Reference Centre for First Aid Education, - Pascal Cassan, manager of the European Reference Centre for First Aid Education, - Diane Issard, coordinator of the European Reference Centre for First Aid Education, - Diane Issard, coordinator of the European Reference Centre for First Aid Education, - Olivier Thomas-Castelanu replaced by Hripsimé Torossian, Project Coordinator, - Olivier Thomas-Castelanu replaced by Hripsimé Torossian, Project Coordinator, - Patrice Dallem, Project manager. - Patrice Dallem, Project manager.

The Project was made up of three successive stages: The Project was made up of three successive stages:

1. a preparatory phase of bibliographic research and investigations related to the 1. a preparatory phase of bibliographic research and investigations related to the practises and thoughts in correlation with the Project, in particular with regard to all practises and thoughts in correlation with the Project, in particular with regard to all National Red Cross Societies, the services of civil protection of all the Member States National Red Cross Societies, the services of civil protection of all the Member States of the European Union and the citizens; of the European Union and the citizens;

2. a workshop of experts who identified key points and put forward recommendations 2. a workshop of experts who identified key points and put forward recommendations concerning the preparation and equipment of the European citizens to face disasters concerning the preparation and equipment of the European citizens to face disasters (kits); (kits);

3. tests on the ground to allow citizens assessing the value of kit contents and to 3. tests on the ground to allow citizens assessing the value of kit contents and to evaluate their potential implication level in their sef-protection. evaluate their potential implication level in their sef-protection.

As a result of the practises and challenges identified, the surveys and tests carried out As a result of the practises and challenges identified, the surveys and tests carried out in the field, solutions are proposed to decrease the obstacles and motivate citizens to in the field, solutions are proposed to decrease the obstacles and motivate citizens to self-protect. self-protect.

Proposals concern mainly the public authorities, subsequently the rescue, care and Proposals concern mainly the public authorities, subsequently the rescue, care and assistance organizations, as well as the European Commission and the citizens. assistance organizations, as well as the European Commission and the citizens.

The final report, written into French and English, is distributed to: The final report, written into French and English, is distributed to:

- each Member State of the European Union and each country of the European - each Member State of the European Union and each country of the European Economic Zone, through the permanent network of the national correspondents, Economic Zone, through the permanent network of the national correspondents, - delegates and other interested people and organisations - delegates and other interested people and organisations

It is also published on the Web sites of the European Commission, the French Red Cross It is also published on the Web sites of the European Commission, the French Red Cross and the Project. and the Project.

The results of the effort to self-protect citizens will The results of the effort to self-protect citizens will have an expression in the number of lives saved, have an expression in the number of lives saved, handicaps and suffering avoided in both day-to-day handicaps and suffering avoided in both day-to-day and disaster situations. and disaster situations.

1.3 REFERENCES 1.3 REFERENCES

Three successive stages allowed developing references on which the Project was imple- Three successive stages allowed developing references on which the Project was implemented. mented.

1st stage: searches and investigations 1st stage: searches and investigations a/ Library investigations a/ Library investigations They explored existing documents likely to influence the Project They explored existing documents likely to influence the Project (reports, scientific searches programs and perspectives). (reports, scientific searches programs and perspectives).

For several years, the Commission has supported a certain number of projects aiming at For several years, the Commission has supported a certain number of projects aiming at studying the information of the population at large, of which some concerned children studying the information of the population at large, of which some concerned children more particularly. These work recommendations have been taken into consideration for the more particularly. These work recommendations have been taken into consideration for the Project. Project.

Refer to: “Information to the Public”, projects supported by the Refer to: “Information to the Public”, projects supported by the Commission between 2000 and 2005. Commission between 2000 and 2005.

Feedbacks on development programmes or relief operations carried out by the Red Cross Feedbacks on development programmes or relief operations carried out by the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in Europe and in the rest of the world made it possible to ana- and Red Crescent Societies in Europe and in the rest of the world made it possible to ana- lyse initiatives where the citizens and/or the communities are mobilised, or mobilised to lyse initiatives where the citizens and/or the communities are mobilised, or mobilised to face emergencies. face emergencies.

Refer to: www.ifrc.org; ww.icrc.org; www.alertnet.org; Refer to: www.ifrc.org; ww.icrc.org; www.alertnet.org; www.proventionconsortium.org; www.reliefweb.int. www.proventionconsortium.org; www.reliefweb.int.

The results of these library investigations were used: The results of these library investigations were used:

- to specify objectives of the Project, - to specify objectives of the Project, - to work out the program of the scientific workshop, - to work out the program of the scientific workshop, - to contribute to the results of the Projec. - to contribute to the results of the Projec. b/ A triple investigation in each Member State of the European Union, to the b/ A triple investigation in each Member State of the European Union, to the governments, National Red Cross Societies and citizens. governments, National Red Cross Societies and citizens. Three questionnaires were sent: Three questionnaires were sent:

- one, to the civil protection services of the Member States of the - one, to the civil protection services of the Member States of the European Union and the European Economical Zone, through the permanent European Union and the European Economical Zone, through the permanent network of national correspondents, network of national correspondents, - another to the National Red Cross Societies of these countries, - another to the National Red Cross Societies of these countries, - another to citizens. - another to citizens.

Refer to: Appendix ‘B’ - Questionnaires Refer to: Appendix ‘B’ - Questionnaires

Questionnaires were filled by fourteen (14) governments, 100% National Societies and 800 Questionnaires were filled by fourteen (14) governments, 100% National Societies and 800 citizens. The answers helped: citizens. The answers helped:

- identifying the contributions of the institutions to the citizen self-protection, - identifying the contributions of the institutions to the citizen self-protection, - screening the complementarity which existed between them, - screening the complementarity which existed between them, - sessing the knowledge, behaviour and desire of the citizens. - sessing the knowledge, behaviour and desire of the citizens.

2nd stage: A scientific workshop 2nd stage: A scientific workshop

It was organized on 25 and 26 October 2005 in Paris (France) and brought together a It was organized on 25 and 26 October 2005 in Paris (France) and brought together a panel of sixty experts in the field of civil protection, from the European Union and the panel of sixty experts in the field of civil protection, from the European Union and the candidate countries, representatives of Government, the Red Cross, the private sector and candidate countries, representatives of Government, the Red Cross, the private sector and the university. the university.

Refer to: Appendix ‘H - Presentation of the workshop’ Refer to: Appendix ‘H - Presentation of the workshop’

Some of them found themselves working together for the first time in an action oriented Some of them found themselves working together for the first time in an action oriented forum. Participants met in plenary sessions and working groups to identify a range of forum. Participants met in plenary sessions and working groups to identify a range of best possibilities to inform, train and equip citizens for their self-protection. (including the best possibilities to inform, train and equip citizens for their self-protection. (including the development of rescue kits). development of rescue kits).

3rd stage: Meetings with citizens during tests on the ground 3rd stage: Meetings with citizens during tests on the ground

The tests were organised in the five States represented in the Project steering committee: The tests were organised in the five States represented in the Project steering committee: Austria, Finland, France, Spain and United Kingdom. It was a question of bringing together Austria, Finland, France, Spain and United Kingdom. It was a question of bringing together citizens and of showing them the kits proposed by the experts at the end of the scientific citizens and of showing them the kits proposed by the experts at the end of the scientific workshop. After a time of observation and handling, the citizens opinion and critics were workshop. After a time of observation and handling, the citizens opinion and critics were collected regarding: collected regarding:

- the kits and their capacity to use them, - the kits and their capacity to use them, - their perception on their own preparation stage, - their perception on their own preparation stage, - their training level, - their training level, - their knowledge of the European emergency number 112. - their knowledge of the European emergency number 112.

The theoretical recommendations resulting from the bibliographic search, investigations The theoretical recommendations resulting from the bibliographic search, investigations and the scientific workshop were tested on the ground. In many cases, reported by the and the scientific workshop were tested on the ground. In many cases, reported by the appraisers, the test served as a catch for some citizens for becoming interested in their appraisers, the test served as a catch for some citizens for becoming interested in their self-protection. self-protection.

The answers to the questions were collected and treated by an application software, which The answers to the questions were collected and treated by an application software, which was specifically adapted for the Project. was specifically adapted for the Project.

These references helped: These references helped:

- constituting marks [chapter 2], - constituting marks [chapter 2], - making possible to develop recommendations and proposals [chapter 3], - making possible to develop recommendations and proposals [chapter 3], - identifying some challenges [chapter 4]. - identifying some challenges [chapter 4].

1.4 DEFINITIONS 1.4 DEFINITIONS

The definitions of certain terms are specified considering that this document can be read in The definitions of certain terms are specified considering that this document can be read in various administrative contexts and references. various administrative contexts and references.

The term “citizen” – related to the self-protection- is the person who has a whole of The term “citizen” – related to the self-protection- is the person who has a whole of rights and duties within a territory shared with other people. These rights and duties relate rights and duties within a territory shared with other people. These rights and duties relate to his own protection and others’ one regarding risks and emergency situations affecting to his own protection and others’ one regarding risks and emergency situations affecting him or the territory. Having contributed to the development of these rights and duties, he him or the territory. Having contributed to the development of these rights and duties, he takes part in their respect and evolution, receiving information, training, equipment, rescue, takes part in their respect and evolution, receiving information, training, equipment, rescue, care and assistance. care and assistance.

The term “community” corresponds to a collective of citizens sharing common interests The term “community” corresponds to a collective of citizens sharing common interests and/or territory. These men, women and children can have different characteristics be they and/or territory. These men, women and children can have different characteristics be they social, cultural, religious, political, racial, professional, etc. The community level is the one social, cultural, religious, political, racial, professional, etc. The community level is the one in which citizens interact visibly. It is probably the most “concrete” level, where citizens in which citizens interact visibly. It is probably the most “concrete” level, where citizens recognise themselves. It is also at this level that citizens can best and rapidly visualise their recognise themselves. It is also at this level that citizens can best and rapidly visualise their own practises and outcome, as well as those of their partners: authorities, rescue, care and own practises and outcome, as well as those of their partners: authorities, rescue, care and assistance organizations, etc. assistance organizations, etc.

In the continuation of this report, the term “citizens questioned” stands for the persons In the continuation of this report, the term “citizens questioned” stands for the persons who took part in the tests on the ground carried out during the Project. who took part in the tests on the ground carried out during the Project.

The term of “emergency situations” gathers in this report the concept of an emergency The term of “emergency situations” gathers in this report the concept of an emergency at home or in the case of a disaster. at home or in the case of a disaster.

The term “authorities” indicates the public authorities in charge of the management of The term “authorities” indicates the public authorities in charge of the management of the territory on which the citizens are. They can be at a local, national or European level. the territory on which the citizens are. They can be at a local, national or European level.

The term “rescue, care and assistance organizations” regroups the services, organiza- The term “rescue, care and assistance organizations” regroups the services, organizations, agencies and associations, being mandated and/or competent in supporting citizens tions, agencies and associations, being mandated and/or competent in supporting citizens manage emergency situations: prevention, preparation, response, sheltering, rehabilitation manage emergency situations: prevention, preparation, response, sheltering, rehabilitation or repair. These structures can be public or private, governmental or non governmental. or repair. These structures can be public or private, governmental or non governmental. Their field of support can relate to: Their field of support can relate to:

- information, - information, - training, - training, - medical and logistic intervention, - medical and logistic intervention, - psychological and social assistance. - psychological and social assistance.

This is particularly true in the case of public services of civil protection, and of National Red This is particularly true in the case of public services of civil protection, and of National Red Cross Societies. Cross Societies.

10 10 1/ Statistics on disasters in the world : 1/ Statistics on disasters in the world : a - Insurance companies: SwissRe (www.swissre.com) and MunichRe (www.munichre.com), a - Insurance companies: SwissRe (www.swissre.com) and MunichRe (www.munichre.com), b - World Disasters Report of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, especially the following b - World Disasters Report of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, especially the following editions2002 (Focus on reducing risks - http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2002/index.asp), 2004 (Focus on community resilience- editions2002 (Focus on reducing risks - http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2002/index.asp), 2004 (Focus on community resilience- http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2004/index.asp) et 2005 (Focus on information in disasters - http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2004/index.asp) et 2005 (Focus on information in disasters - http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2005/index.asp). http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2005/index.asp).

2/ Rousseau J.J., Letter number 300, August 18th, 1756, General Correspondence, vol. II, publisher Dufour-Colin, 1924. 2/ Rousseau J.J., Letter number 300, August 18th, 1756, General Correspondence, vol. II, publisher Dufour-Colin, 1924.

3/ Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED, http://www.cred.be/), Louvain (Belgium). 3/ Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED, http://www.cred.be/), Louvain (Belgium).

4/ Comfort Louise K. et Sungu Yesim, Organizational learning from seismic risk: the 1999 Marmara and Duzce, Turkey earthquakes, 4/ Comfort Louise K. et Sungu Yesim, Organizational learning from seismic risk: the 1999 Marmara and Duzce, Turkey earthquakes, Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh (Working Paper 2001-5). Graduate School of Public and International Affairs, University of Pittsburgh (Working Paper 2001-5).

5/ French Parliament - Parliamentary investigation commission about the industrial facilities and research centres safety and on the 5/ French Parliament - Parliamentary investigation commission about the industrial facilities and research centres safety and on the people and environment protection in the event of a major industrial accident (Report number 3559, January 2002). people and environment protection in the event of a major industrial accident (Report number 3559, January 2002).

11 11 12 12 2 - Marks 2 - Marks

2.1. EXPERIENCED BY THE CITIZENS 2.1. EXPERIENCED BY THE CITIZENS

Risk representation by the citizens Risk representation by the citizens Globally citizens do not categorize risks in the same way as experts or professionals. They Globally citizens do not categorize risks in the same way as experts or professionals. They can over-estimate or underestimate them according to: can over-estimate or underestimate them according to:

- their perception or understanding of the impact of this risk on their life and that of - their perception or understanding of the impact of this risk on their life and that of the others, in particular of their relatives, the others, in particular of their relatives, - the time of this analysis. For example, the inhabitant of an easily flooded zone - the time of this analysis. For example, the inhabitant of an easily flooded zone “did not measure” the risk to which he is exposed. Risk “will exist”, for him, at the “did not measure” the risk to which he is exposed. Risk “will exist”, for him, at the moment when his feet will be in water. moment when his feet will be in water. - the connotation given by the authorities and the organizations: “Be quiet, remain - the connotation given by the authorities and the organizations: “Be quiet, remain confident, all necessaryprecautions have been taken and that all will be under control confident, all necessaryprecautions have been taken and that all will be under control in the event of an emergency, we care for you”. in the event of an emergency, we care for you”. - the changing profile of the hazard, according to control measurements which: - the changing profile of the hazard, according to control measurements which:

• make it visible (e.g. the limits of a danger zone), or • make it visible (e.g. the limits of a danger zone), or • move it (e.g. population displacement), or • move it (e.g. population displacement), or • avoid it (e.g. consolidation of a dam along a downtown river and the • avoid it (e.g. consolidation of a dam along a downtown river and the management of the occupation of the grounds upstream) or, management of the occupation of the grounds upstream) or,

Remove it (e.g. the closing-down of a factory accompanied by the depollution of Remove it (e.g. the closing-down of a factory accompanied by the depollution of the grounds). the grounds).

When a risk is present in his spirit, the citizen can consider an action - and When a risk is present in his spirit, the citizen can consider an action - and possibly his participation in this action-,either to remove or to control this risk, to withdraw possibly his participation in this action-,either to remove or to control this risk, to withdraw himself from it or to adapt to it. himself from it or to adapt to it. We should not forget the weekend of All Saints Day 2001 made much We should not forget the weekend of All Saints Day 2001 made much more deaths and casualties on the roads of France, and this, in the quasi- more deaths and casualties on the roads of France, and this, in the quasi- general indifference, than the industrial accident of AZF in Toulouse, which general indifference, than the industrial accident of AZF in Toulouse, which happened few days before, and this, in a general emotion. These two happened few days before, and this, in a general emotion. These two emergency situations and their consequences did not have, and still do not emergency situations and their consequences did not have, and still do not have, the same representation in the mind of the population.(1) have, the same representation in the mind of the population.(1)

The representation of the risks is “a guide for the citizens to act”. The representation of the risks is “a guide for the citizens to act”.

Other surveys show that the citizens have often a broad definition of risks. The panel of Other surveys show that the citizens have often a broad definition of risks. The panel of the risks for the citizens covers the fields of social, the environment and the economy. They the risks for the citizens covers the fields of social, the environment and the economy. They feel threatened by: unemployment, the difficulties to accommodate themselves, ageing, feel threatened by: unemployment, the difficulties to accommodate themselves, ageing, pollution, the high cost of the life, etc. The natural and industrial risks are not ignored or pollution, the high cost of the life, etc. The natural and industrial risks are not ignored or devalued but are not simply categorised with “the others”. devalued but are not simply categorised with “the others”.

The difference in evaluation of the vulnerability, between the one done by the authorities, The difference in evaluation of the vulnerability, between the one done by the authorities, the professionals and the experts, and the one done by the citizens is obvious. This is an im- the professionals and the experts, and the one done by the citizens is obvious. This is an important point stressing that the awareness and preparedness programmes to the emergency portant point stressing that the awareness and preparedness programmes to the emergency situations are not well/fully adapted to the priorities felt by the beneficiaries/recipients of situations are not well/fully adapted to the priorities felt by the beneficiaries/recipients of these programs. these programs.

13 13 The risk of disaster is an unquestionable but vague potential: the disaster is perfectly The risk of disaster is an unquestionable but vague potential: the disaster is perfectly foreseeable in the current availability of high tech knowledge (for example, with foreseeable in the current availability of high tech knowledge (for example, with seismology, hydrology, vulnerability studies) but it is not predictable. We know that it seismology, hydrology, vulnerability studies) but it is not predictable. We know that it will take place (e.g. the case of an earthquake in Istanbul, Turkey), but when will it occur? will take place (e.g. the case of an earthquake in Istanbul, Turkey), but when will it occur?

This uncertainty poses a problem to the human soul, because it is difficult: This uncertainty poses a problem to the human soul, because it is difficult:

- to accept that there is a potential danger which: - to accept that there is a potential danger which: • does not appear from the direction from which it appeared • does not appear from the direction from which it appeared in bygone times, or in bygone times, or • where it could appear “one day”. • where it could appear “one day”. - to reason and take decisions in: - to reason and take decisions in: • the long term, • the long term, • different temporalities: • different temporalities: > long time of the process of hazard control, > long time of the process of hazard control, > short time of the management of the urgency, > short time of the management of the urgency, > long time of the return to the normal. > long time of the return to the normal.

Citizen experience of emergency situations Citizen experience of emergency situations Accidents at home and disasters are considered on an equal footing as emergency Accidents at home and disasters are considered on an equal footing as emergency situations for a citizen. Indeed with regard to these emergency situations, the basic reflexes situations for a citizen. Indeed with regard to these emergency situations, the basic reflexes of analysis and action which the citizen can have are the same: of analysis and action which the citizen can have are the same:

a. Before (prevention, preparation): a. Before (prevention, preparation): • identify the risks, • identify the risks, • take the preventive measures, and if necessary the corrective ones, • take the preventive measures, and if necessary the corrective ones, • respect the instructions given by the community or the authorities or the rescue, • respect the instructions given by the community or the authorities or the rescue, care and assistance organizations. care and assistance organizations.

b. During and immediately after (acute or basic emergency situation): b. During and immediately after (acute or basic emergency situation): • protect themselves from the immediate consequences and avoid another • protect themselves from the immediate consequences and avoid another accident, accident, • carry out life-saving and life-protecting measures when necessary, • carry out life-saving and life-protecting measures when necessary, • comfort the victims, • comfort the victims, • follow instructions of the authorities (e.g. evacuation). • follow instructions of the authorities (e.g. evacuation).

c. Afterwards (after the emergency situation): c. Afterwards (after the emergency situation): • obtain adequate support (care, water, food, shelter, etc.), • obtain adequate support (care, water, food, shelter, etc.), • to be restored psychologically and materially, • to be restored psychologically and materially, • draw on lessons of the event, • draw on lessons of the event, • (re)prepare for a safer and healthier future. • (re)prepare for a safer and healthier future.

The concept of an emergency at home or in the case of a disaster The concept of an emergency at home or in the case of a disaster are gathered under the single term of “emergency situations” in the are gathered under the single term of “emergency situations” in the continuation of this report. continuation of this report.

14 14 Exceptional emergency situations Exceptional emergency situations (natural disaster, epidemics…) (natural disaster, epidemics…)

Daily emergency situations Daily emergency situations (home, school, workplace, road, leisure time) (home, school, workplace, road, leisure time)

Healthy and safe Healthy and safe behaviour behaviour

AT HEART AT THE BASIS AT HEART AT THE BASIS

Emergency situations are, primarily and above all, the result of the way in which citizens: Emergency situations are, primarily and above all, the result of the way in which citizens:

- take risks or are unaware of them, - take risks or are unaware of them, - cannot control them or protect themselves against them, - cannot control them or protect themselves against them, - and/or cannot answer to their consequences, - and/or cannot answer to their consequences,

The aberrant behaviour of citizens is the main cause of emergency situations. The aberrant behaviour of citizens is the main cause of emergency situations.

These situations also result from the way in which: These situations also result from the way in which: - communities are structured, both economically and socially, - communities are structured, both economically and socially, - communities interact with each other, - communities interact with each other, - relationships between decision makers and recipients/beneficiaries are maintained. - relationships between decision makers and recipients/beneficiaries are maintained.

The vulnerability of an individual, a family, a community can be measured. The causes and The vulnerability of an individual, a family, a community can be measured. The causes and consequences of emergency situations are deeply rooted in “normal life”, which rhythms consequences of emergency situations are deeply rooted in “normal life”, which rhythms daily life. daily life.

The roots of the emergency situations are regularly The roots of the emergency situations are regularly found in citizen behaviours, which often are aber- found in citizen behaviours, which often are aberrant/abnormal. rant/abnormal.

15 15 The perception of an emergency and the related safety requirement are different from one The perception of an emergency and the related safety requirement are different from one citizen to another, from one community to another. This definition varies according to: citizen to another, from one community to another. This definition varies according to:

- age: an elderly person will be more demanding as he perceives that his autonomy is - age: an elderly person will be more demanding as he perceives that his autonomy is threatened by an emergency situation: “I am very careful, because if I am injured, threatened by an emergency situation: “I am very careful, because if I am injured, I am likely to become dependent. ”, I am likely to become dependent. ”, - experience: “I already know cyclones so well, I am used to facing them and know - experience: “I already know cyclones so well, I am used to facing them and know what I have to do. ”, what I have to do. ”, - the asset: “I know to practice life-saving measures. Now, I know what I have to - the asset: “I know to practice life-saving measures. Now, I know what I have to do for a casualty. ”, do for a casualty. ”, - health: a diabetic will ask for more immediate and more detailed care for a simple - health: a diabetic will ask for more immediate and more detailed care for a simple skin wound. Because this wound can have serious consequences if it is not skin wound. Because this wound can have serious consequences if it is not treated quickly: “My little sore needs to be care for rapidly. ” treated quickly: “My little sore needs to be care for rapidly. ” - the handicap: “I need to be self sufficient, as often nothing is planned for me in an - the handicap: “I need to be self sufficient, as often nothing is planned for me in an emergency situation.” emergency situation.” - the sensitivity of the citizen, who perceives/qualifies the context in which he is, - the sensitivity of the citizen, who perceives/qualifies the context in which he is, as “dangerous” or “secure”, sometimes influenced by the media influence, such as “dangerous” or “secure”, sometimes influenced by the media influence, such as the inhabitants of an isolated mountain hamlet who felt threatened by the rise as the inhabitants of an isolated mountain hamlet who felt threatened by the rise of the water level when all the television channels and the radio kept mentioning of the water level when all the television channels and the radio kept mentioning “important rise in water levels throughout the country and elsewhere in Europe”. “important rise in water levels throughout the country and elsewhere in Europe”. - the socio-economic condition of the citizen, - the socio-economic condition of the citizen, - the capacity to accept what happens to him. What is intolerable for one is - the capacity to accept what happens to him. What is intolerable for one is acceptable, even accepted, by another. acceptable, even accepted, by another. - the cultural and religious references have similar influences. - the cultural and religious references have similar influences.

The citizen’s feeling of urgency is thus not always The citizen’s feeling of urgency is thus not always that felt by the expert or the authority or the rescue, that felt by the expert or the authority or the rescue, care and assistance professional. care and assistance professional.

Citizen education Citizen education As a general rule citizen education rests on the following: As a general rule citizen education rests on the following:

- information regarding the risks distributed or made available (booklets, DVD, web - information regarding the risks distributed or made available (booklets, DVD, web pages, etc.), by the decision maker/emergency professional/expert who is “the active pages, etc.), by the decision maker/emergency professional/expert who is “the active agent”. The citizens seem to be the passive recipient of standard messages that agent”. The citizens seem to be the passive recipient of standard messages that point out what they need to do to protect themselves in an emergency situation, point out what they need to do to protect themselves in an emergency situation,

77% of the State organisations which answered to the investigation distri- 77% of the State organisations which answered to the investigation distribute booklets. Only 24% assessed this information mean as pertinent. bute booklets. Only 24% assessed this information mean as pertinent.

- Training in life-saving techniques. In some cases First Aid is compulsory/mandatory - Training in life-saving techniques. In some cases First Aid is compulsory/mandatory as an integral part of certain certificates/diplomas (e.g. the delivery of a driving as an integral part of certain certificates/diplomas (e.g. the delivery of a driving licence in certain countries of the European Union, like Austria, Estonia and Germany). licence in certain countries of the European Union, like Austria, Estonia and Germany).

Refer to: Directive 2000/56 of the Council of European Ministers Refer to: Directive 2000/56 of the Council of European Ministers

16 16 These information and trainings have: These information and trainings have:

- often a single direction, and presuppose that citizens are a homogeneous group of - often a single direction, and presuppose that citizens are a homogeneous group of individuals with the same needs and values. individuals with the same needs and values. - sometimes it is adapted (e.g. information for children, a First Aid training for - sometimes it is adapted (e.g. information for children, a First Aid training for the blind). the blind).

The effectiveness of this approach and citizen assets are usually measured in figures The effectiveness of this approach and citizen assets are usually measured in figures (the number of booklets distributed, the number of web pages read, etc.) and through (the number of booklets distributed, the number of web pages read, etc.) and through surveys. Thus the indicators used to determine the success of: surveys. Thus the indicators used to determine the success of:

- a public awareness campaign concentrate on testimonies expressing the receipt and - a public awareness campaign concentrate on testimonies expressing the receipt and the understanding of presented messages, the understanding of presented messages, - a training is measured by the number of people trained in a year, and possibly - a training is measured by the number of people trained in a year, and possibly a comparison will be made with the total population in order to establish a ratio. a comparison will be made with the total population in order to establish a ratio.

It is always implicitly expected that a correlation is made between awareness and It is always implicitly expected that a correlation is made between awareness and behavioural change! behavioural change!

Obviously nowadays training and information sharing do not systematically bring the Obviously nowadays training and information sharing do not systematically bring the change in behaviour and action. Various reasons for this are expressed: change in behaviour and action. Various reasons for this are expressed:

- a lack of awareness, disinterest, refusal or escapism regarding these aspects of active - a lack of awareness, disinterest, refusal or escapism regarding these aspects of active citizenship related to the emergency situations. Generally there is a stimulant, citizenship related to the emergency situations. Generally there is a stimulant, a catalyst missing which is likely to mobilize consciences and bring about action; a catalyst missing which is likely to mobilize consciences and bring about action; - then information is standardized, not taking into account individual particularities of - then information is standardized, not taking into account individual particularities of the citizens or characteristics of territories where they live, study, work, make the citizens or characteristics of territories where they live, study, work, make shopping or enjoy leisure. This standardization is prevalent in the content and shopping or enjoy leisure. This standardization is prevalent in the content and dissemination of the information and training. dissemination of the information and training.

These concerns also exist in the definition of marketing strategies when selling products or These concerns also exist in the definition of marketing strategies when selling products or services. services.

Weak communication Weak communication Citizens generally complain about the lack of information (on the consequences of emer- Citizens generally complain about the lack of information (on the consequences of emergency situations, the means of assistance, the life conditions of the community in case on gency situations, the means of assistance, the life conditions of the community in case on an emergency situation, etc.), whereas paradoxically this aspect is often seen as a priority an emergency situation, etc.), whereas paradoxically this aspect is often seen as a priority by the authorities and the rescue, care and assistance organizations. by the authorities and the rescue, care and assistance organizations.

For example, when the local authorities address an annual letter to its citizens, of whom For example, when the local authorities address an annual letter to its citizens, of whom a part live on an easily flooded zone, in order to inform them of what will be done in the a part live on an easily flooded zone, in order to inform them of what will be done in the event of floods, two perspectives are possible: event of floods, two perspectives are possible:

• If the citizens have read the letter: can the mayor and his services consider that • If the citizens have read the letter: can the mayor and his services consider that they are aware of the situation? What did they understand about the hazard and they are aware of the situation? What did they understand about the hazard and what could happen? What do they know what is expected of them? what could happen? What do they know what is expected of them? • If the citizens have not read the letter: they will complain that they were not • If the citizens have not read the letter: they will complain that they were not informed if they are questioned in the street, or they will criticize the lack of informed if they are questioned in the street, or they will criticize the lack of communication when the disaster hits. communication when the disaster hits.

17 17 These are completely acceptable questions and reactions, even if one can think that on the These are completely acceptable questions and reactions, even if one can think that on the one hand -the mayor and his services- and on the other -the citizens- did not make an effort one hand -the mayor and his services- and on the other -the citizens- did not make an effort to be become aware of the risks that threatened them. to be become aware of the risks that threatened them.

Information intended to make change in behaviour Information intended to make change in behaviour is valid only if this change is checked towards those is valid only if this change is checked towards those for which it was intended. for which it was intended.

Absent or wrong information can lead to: Absent or wrong information can lead to:

- during an emergency situation: a panic and an increase in consequences - during an emergency situation: a panic and an increase in consequences (e.g. a disorganised crowd movement in a shop mall when a siren rings); (e.g. a disorganised crowd movement in a shop mall when a siren rings); - after an emergency situation: claims and distrust with regard to the authorities - after an emergency situation: claims and distrust with regard to the authorities and rescue, care and assistance organizations. and rescue, care and assistance organizations.

For example, at the time of catastrophes like that of AZF (Toulouse, France, 21 September For example, at the time of catastrophes like that of AZF (Toulouse, France, 21 September 2001) one notes: 2001) one notes:

- an inadequate communication: one asked the inhabitants to block up their dwellings - an inadequate communication: one asked the inhabitants to block up their dwellings well whereas doors and windows had been torn off, because the major risk was a priori, well whereas doors and windows had been torn off, because the major risk was a priori, according to the studies and plans, a toxic cloud of ammonia and not the explosion of according to the studies and plans, a toxic cloud of ammonia and not the explosion of a product considered as stable; a product considered as stable; - a lack of simulation exercises: inhabitants precipitated at the school to seek their - a lack of simulation exercises: inhabitants precipitated at the school to seek their children, whereas National Education normally has plans of fold with the teachers. That children, whereas National Education normally has plans of fold with the teachers. That simple collective action of “panic” leads to: simple collective action of “panic” leads to: • traffic congestions, • traffic congestions, • risk taken when crossing danger zones, • risk taken when crossing danger zones, • busy telephone lines of schools and emergency services, • busy telephone lines of schools and emergency services,

- Impossibility for the principals to take a census of the children placed under their guard - Impossibility for the principals to take a census of the children placed under their guard and to inform authorities about their situation. and to inform authorities about their situation.

Report of the inquiry commission of the French Parliament Report of the inquiry commission of the French Parliament following to the explosion of the AZF factory. (2) following to the explosion of the AZF factory. (2)

The area of Twente (Netherlands) underwent the catastrophe of Enschede in May 2000, The area of Twente (Netherlands) underwent the catastrophe of Enschede in May 2000, following the explosion and fire of a fireworks factory, which killed 23 and injured 800 following the explosion and fire of a fireworks factory, which killed 23 and injured 800 among the population. The alarm and the information of the populations were the among the population. The alarm and the information of the populations were the weak point: weak point:

- no general alarm, - no general alarm, - no information during the crisis. - no information during the crisis.

People were prevented by the noise and blast of the explosion, or by the plume of smoke, People were prevented by the noise and blast of the explosion, or by the plume of smoke, far visible from kilometres.(3) far visible from kilometres.(3)

18 18 In the presentation and analysis of facts after an emergency situation, there can be an In the presentation and analysis of facts after an emergency situation, there can be an opposition/contradiction between: opposition/contradiction between:

- the provision of an undeniable and reassuring information, and - the provision of an undeniable and reassuring information, and - the critics on the way in which authorities and organisations in charge of the crisis - the critics on the way in which authorities and organisations in charge of the crisis management acted (communication included). management acted (communication included). “A communication trying to pass a credible and reassuring message “A communication trying to pass a credible and reassuring message cannot in the same time criticises the source of this information.” cannot in the same time criticises the source of this information.” Hans Peter Peters. (4) Hans Peter Peters. (4)

Sometimes the distrust of the citizens is expressed with regard to the authorities -admi- Sometimes the distrust of the citizens is expressed with regard to the authorities -administrative, medical, etc.-, preferring to trust local organizations or institutions supported nistrative, medical, etc.-, preferring to trust local organizations or institutions supported by international organizations. It is one of the conclusions of the studies on the commu- by international organizations. It is one of the conclusions of the studies on the communications of crisis after the great industrial catastrophes. Certain sources are sometimes nications of crisis after the great industrial catastrophes. Certain sources are sometimes regarded as suspect, because connected to special interest groups (political, industrial, regarded as suspect, because connected to special interest groups (political, industrial, etc.). For example, the communication on the risks of the nuclear power emanating of the etc.). For example, the communication on the risks of the nuclear power emanating of the industrialists related to this industry (supplier of the raw material, manufacturer of power industrialists related to this industry (supplier of the raw material, manufacturer of power station, producer of electricity, reprocessing fuel) is put into question. station, producer of electricity, reprocessing fuel) is put into question.

Refer to: Reports of P.Girard and G.Heriard-Dubreuil for the Commission Refer to: Reports of P.Girard and G.Heriard-Dubreuil for the Commission of the European Communities (JSP2) on the consequences of the accident of the European Communities (JSP2) on the consequences of the accident of Tchernobyl (Ukraine, 1987). (5) of Tchernobyl (Ukraine, 1987). (5)

This distrust is expressed in other fields, such as food safety. A recent European study shows This distrust is expressed in other fields, such as food safety. A recent European study shows that for the food risks, the citizens make mainly confidence with associations of consumers, that for the food risks, the citizens make mainly confidence with associations of consumers, then with the authorities. The media have only one low degree of confidence, while the then with the authorities. The media have only one low degree of confidence, while the economic operators (industrial, farmers and tradesmen) are quoted like those in which economic operators (industrial, farmers and tradesmen) are quoted like those in which there is less confidence. there is less confidence. to see: Eurobarometer - Risks Issues – 2005. (6) to see: Eurobarometer - Risks Issues – 2005. (6)

With regard to self-protection, it should be noted that information available is: With regard to self-protection, it should be noted that information available is:

- in competition with other subjects concerning individuals and requiring their - in competition with other subjects concerning individuals and requiring their mobilization, on prioritization (road safety versus preparation for floods) and methods mobilization, on prioritization (road safety versus preparation for floods) and methods (the use of publicity/marketing means and channels versus booklets distributed (the use of publicity/marketing means and channels versus booklets distributed at exhibition stands). at exhibition stands). - made of instructions “it is necessary to do” without indication of “why?” it is - made of instructions “it is necessary to do” without indication of “why?” it is necessary to do these things, necessary to do these things, - stripped of bond between the “day-to-day” and the “exceptional’, thus neglecting - stripped of bond between the “day-to-day” and the “exceptional’, thus neglecting to create saving reflexes. to create saving reflexes.

This information does not take into account the most vulnerable citizens, in particular: This information does not take into account the most vulnerable citizens, in particular:

- senior citizens and old people; - senior citizens and old people; - the handicapped; - the handicapped; - sick people following of the heavy treatments; - sick people following of the heavy treatments; - low income families and communities; - low income families and communities; - school dropouts; - school dropouts; - the fringes of society; - the fringes of society; - migrants; - migrants; - the illiterate. - the illiterate.

19 19 The European citizens evolve/move in a communication society: The European citizens evolve/move in a communication society:

- they receive and seek information. - they receive and seek information. - even Internet access “is democratized” (the reduction of connexion costs, the increase - even Internet access “is democratized” (the reduction of connexion costs, the increase in the number of public points of access), vulnerable people are still left at the edge in the number of public points of access), vulnerable people are still left at the edge of the road, such as: of the road, such as: • senior citizens, for whom the ergonomics of the sites is not –always- thought; • senior citizens, for whom the ergonomics of the sites is not –always- thought; • the illiterate, for whom Internet is yet another communication tool which is not • the illiterate, for whom Internet is yet another communication tool which is not devised for them to use it. devised for them to use it.

At least the questions of the reliability of the information placed at the disposal and the At least the questions of the reliability of the information placed at the disposal and the access to Internet network in situation of crisis remain posed. access to Internet network in situation of crisis remain posed.

Consequently, it does not seem only necessary to Consequently, it does not seem only necessary to increase information available. It is more important increase information available. It is more important to diversify and decentralise the production and to diversify and decentralise the production and dissemination of information with vehicles that are dissemination of information with vehicles that are suitable for all. suitable for all.

Shifts citizens/experts/authorities Shifts citizens/experts/authorities Citizens, once sensitised, will not necessarily act: Citizens, once sensitised, will not necessarily act:

- in their own best interest as it is identified by experts, - in their own best interest as it is identified by experts, - as it is expected by authorities. - as it is expected by authorities.

There is a huge shift between expertises and field realities: There is a huge shift between expertises and field realities:

- expert vocabulary and citizen understanding are not on a par, - expert vocabulary and citizen understanding are not on a par, - theories -sometimes contradictory- of the first delay or make confused the need for - theories -sometimes contradictory- of the first delay or make confused the need for acting of the second, acting of the second, - research and studies made by one party are not transposable or interpretable at - research and studies made by one party are not transposable or interpretable at the place and time of the other. the place and time of the other.

The deficit between interpretation and decoding of expert opinions and citizen The deficit between interpretation and decoding of expert opinions and citizen expectations is obvious. expectations is obvious.

The shift between citizens and the authorities is evident too: The shift between citizens and the authorities is evident too:

- the authorities must make choices according to criteria and with constraints which - the authorities must make choices according to criteria and with constraints which are unknown or not controlled by the citizens, are unknown or not controlled by the citizens, - space and time scales are perceived differently: - space and time scales are perceived differently: • citizens are in their own environment (proximity) with a short term logic, • citizens are in their own environment (proximity) with a short term logic, • the authorities consider the medium and the long term on a larger scale. • the authorities consider the medium and the long term on a larger scale.

The authorities must explain to their citizens the reasons of this shift to make it The authorities must explain to their citizens the reasons of this shift to make it comprehensible and acceptable. comprehensible and acceptable.

20 20 Uncertain behavioural change Uncertain behavioural change If they want to take the step from wishful thinking to concrete action, citizens generally If they want to take the step from wishful thinking to concrete action, citizens generally raise the fact that: raise the fact that:

- they do not have time, - they do not have time, - they do not know whom to link up with, - they do not know whom to link up with, - they had never thought of it, - they had never thought of it, - They admit neglecting this topic, - They admit neglecting this topic, - they are only concerned by certain risks or certain situations. - they are only concerned by certain risks or certain situations.

Citizen indifference –which is relative- has a logic of its own: “Why should I be interested Citizen indifference –which is relative- has a logic of its own: “Why should I be interested in the risks and the emergency situations which, even if they are serious, are rare and in the risks and the emergency situations which, even if they are serious, are rare and generally of low intensity, when the authorities and rescue organizations are there to take generally of low intensity, when the authorities and rescue organizations are there to take care of them?”. care of them?”.

This question is more often asked by those whose living conditions are comfor- This question is more often asked by those whose living conditions are comfor- table and/or where rescue care and assistance systems exist, be they public or table and/or where rescue care and assistance systems exist, be they public or private. The debate on “the deresponsibilization of the assisted citizen” is all the more private. The debate on “the deresponsibilization of the assisted citizen” is all the more lively. lively.

Near 80 per cent of citizens surveyed during the ground tests Near 80 per cent of citizens surveyed during the ground tests do not have a family emergency plan. do not have a family emergency plan.

It naturally appears impossible -for the moment- to predict with exactitude, and especially It naturally appears impossible -for the moment- to predict with exactitude, and especially individually, what behaviour citizens will adopt when confronted with risks and emergency individually, what behaviour citizens will adopt when confronted with risks and emergency situations. However some heavy tendencies were determined by scientific observations situations. However some heavy tendencies were determined by scientific observations (sociological, ethnological, anthropological, psychological). (sociological, ethnological, anthropological, psychological).

For example, the way in which the reader of this report would react to a fire which would For example, the way in which the reader of this report would react to a fire which would have been declared on the floor of his office (presupposing that he knows the signals of have been declared on the floor of his office (presupposing that he knows the signals of alarm and the measures to be taken), or at his home, would strongly depend on several alarm and the measures to be taken), or at his home, would strongly depend on several parameters, such as: parameters, such as:

- his feeling of danger, - his feeling of danger, - his experiment/experience, - his experiment/experience, - information and the training he has benefited from, - information and the training he has benefited from, - exercises of simulation he will have taken part, - exercises of simulation he will have taken part, - the noises and behaviour of those around him, - the noises and behaviour of those around him, - the orders given, etc. - the orders given, etc.

As a result, any reaction is possible, from a quiet analysis of the nearest safe exit to hype- As a result, any reaction is possible, from a quiet analysis of the nearest safe exit to hype- ractivity or a total failure to get up off his chair. ractivity or a total failure to get up off his chair.

It was generally estimated that 75% of the people concerned in an emergency situation be- It was generally estimated that 75% of the people concerned in an emergency situation behave in what is known as a “normal” or of “common sense” manner, consisting in leaving have in what is known as a “normal” or of “common sense” manner, consisting in leaving the danger zone for a safe zone. Implicated, but non injured, they can mobilise themselves the danger zone for a safe zone. Implicated, but non injured, they can mobilise themselves or be mobilised, to give assistance. or be mobilised, to give assistance.

“75% of the non injured people in a disaster can be used as First Aiders “75% of the non injured people in a disaster can be used as First Aiders in the 30 following minutes” Lechat, M.F. 1990. (7) in the 30 following minutes” Lechat, M.F. 1990. (7)

21 21 Note: Note: This estimate is not valid at the time of an earthquake, due to the fact that there is not such This estimate is not valid at the time of an earthquake, due to the fact that there is not such thing as a “safe” place where one can take refuge, the event being so much of a major thing as a “safe” place where one can take refuge, the event being so much of a major scale and destabilising. scale and destabilising.

An actual snapshot An actual snapshot Investigations organized during the Project, mainly in France, helped collecting perception Investigations organized during the Project, mainly in France, helped collecting perception of the citizen about the civil protection: of the citizen about the civil protection:

- their reactions in emergency situations? - their reactions in emergency situations? - their perception of the organisation of relief operations and disaster management - their perception of the organisation of relief operations and disaster management by the authorities? by the authorities? - their knowledge level of the “112”? - their knowledge level of the “112”? - their self-protection capacity? - their self-protection capacity?

Detailed questions and answers are presented in annex D. Detailed questions and answers are presented in annex D.

It should be noted that: It should be noted that:

- according to the type of emergency (floods, fire, etc), those questioned generally - according to the type of emergency (floods, fire, etc), those questioned generally show common sense; show common sense; - with regard to the organisation of relief operations and disaster management by the - with regard to the organisation of relief operations and disaster management by the authorities, citizens admit their ignorance; authorities, citizens admit their ignorance; - a majority has already been confronted to an emergency situation, - a majority has already been confronted to an emergency situation, - local aid structures are very badly known, except notable for the Red Cross; - local aid structures are very badly known, except notable for the Red Cross; - while recognising that First Aid training should be obligatory, in schools, at work or - while recognising that First Aid training should be obligatory, in schools, at work or for the driving licence, those questioned recognize their own incompetence in the for the driving licence, those questioned recognize their own incompetence in the field. The reasons given were: lack of time, prohibitive costs, negligence, lack of field. The reasons given were: lack of time, prohibitive costs, negligence, lack of interest, fear, their age or not having thought of it! interest, fear, their age or not having thought of it! - the equipment in the First Aid kit is rather heteroclite/odd assortment. - the equipment in the First Aid kit is rather heteroclite/odd assortment.

Within the European Union, cultural and educational differences relate to citizen enga- Within the European Union, cultural and educational differences relate to citizen engagement and the relation with the authority, and thus likely to influence the awareness in gement and the relation with the authority, and thus likely to influence the awareness in favour of the self-protection. These differences between north and the south, the west and favour of the self-protection. These differences between north and the south, the west and east of the Union are not assessed by indisputable scientific studies. (7) east of the Union are not assessed by indisputable scientific studies. (7)

“We are accustomed to work with few resources. We thus learnt how to be sparing and “We are accustomed to work with few resources. We thus learnt how to be sparing and effective.” Ott Kaukver, director of the development of Skype, downloadable software of effective.” Ott Kaukver, director of the development of Skype, downloadable software of free telephony via Internet (Tallinn, Estonia) free telephony via Internet (Tallinn, Estonia)

However these differences, true or supposed, tend to grow blurred under the influence of: However these differences, true or supposed, tend to grow blurred under the influence of:

- a certain standardisation of the ways of life and social references, provided by the - a certain standardisation of the ways of life and social references, provided by the media, Internet and films, media, Internet and films, - a growing social mix between the regions and the cultures. - a growing social mix between the regions and the cultures.

22 22 2.2. Institution contributions 2.2. Institution contributions

These contributions are extracted from the analysis of the results of questionnaires sent, These contributions are extracted from the analysis of the results of questionnaires sent, to the civil protection services of the Member States and the Economic Zone, and to the to the civil protection services of the Member States and the Economic Zone, and to the National Red Cross Societies, within the framework of the Project. National Red Cross Societies, within the framework of the Project.

Refer to: Appendix ‘B’ and ‘C’– Questionnaires and responses Refer to: Appendix ‘B’ and ‘C’– Questionnaires and responses

The objectives of these questionnaires were to identify: The objectives of these questionnaires were to identify:

- the bodies which are in charge of the populations prevention and preparation to - the bodies which are in charge of the populations prevention and preparation to the disaster, the disaster, - the information provided to the citizens, - the information provided to the citizens, - the material placed at the disposal of the citizens, - the material placed at the disposal of the citizens, - possible trainings given to the citizens, - possible trainings given to the citizens, - means assessed as the most efficient for preparing citizen to disaster, - means assessed as the most efficient for preparing citizen to disaster, - good practise that each questioned organisation set up in its country, - good practise that each questioned organisation set up in its country, - delegates likely to take part in the workshop. - delegates likely to take part in the workshop.

Governments Governments The protection of the civil populations concerns competence of each Member State of the The protection of the civil populations concerns competence of each Member State of the European Union, which has the duty to prevent the natural, industrial, medical accidents, or European Union, which has the duty to prevent the natural, industrial, medical accidents, or the events of terrorist nature, and to manage their consequences when they happened. the events of terrorist nature, and to manage their consequences when they happened.

Civil protection is organised in various ways in the Member States. The governmental Civil protection is organised in various ways in the Member States. The governmental structures are different. In certain countries, civil protection is under the responsibility of a structures are different. In certain countries, civil protection is under the responsibility of a minister, in others it is a government agency which is in charge, and sometimes it is a share minister, in others it is a government agency which is in charge, and sometimes it is a share between various ministries, agencies and authorities. between various ministries, agencies and authorities.

Civil protection is linked in the majority of the European countries to the ministry of Interior, Civil protection is linked in the majority of the European countries to the ministry of Interior, but also to the ministry of Defence (sometimes both as in Spain) or directly to the Prime but also to the ministry of Defence (sometimes both as in Spain) or directly to the Prime Minister. For example, in Ireland, the secretariat of the civil protection operations is ensured Minister. For example, in Ireland, the secretariat of the civil protection operations is ensured by the ministry of Defence but in the event of a major risk, the decision goes up with the by the ministry of Defence but in the event of a major risk, the decision goes up with the Prime Minister who then designates a leading ministry (ministry for Agriculture for the Prime Minister who then designates a leading ministry (ministry for Agriculture for the avian flu, Department of the Environment for the risk of nuclear disaster, etc). avian flu, Department of the Environment for the risk of nuclear disaster, etc).

Ministry to which civil protection is covered by Ministry to which civil protection is covered by Interior Defence Prime Minister Interior Defence Prime Minister Austria Denmark Italy Austria Denmark Italy Belgium Ireland United Kingdom Belgium Ireland United Kingdom Czech Republic Lithuania Czech Republic Lithuania Finland Spain Finland Spain France Sweden France Sweden Greece Greece Netherlands Netherlands Slovakia Slovakia Spain Spain

23 23 It should be noticed that the State civil protection services in the European Union are the It should be noticed that the State civil protection services in the European Union are the subject of regular reorganisations, which do not go however all in the same direction: so- subject of regular reorganisations, which do not go however all in the same direction: sometimes it is a question of reinforcing the civil side of the system, sometimes the military metimes it is a question of reinforcing the civil side of the system, sometimes the military side. For example in the Czech Republic, the services in charge of civil protection, so far side. For example in the Czech Republic, the services in charge of civil protection, so far dependent on the ministry of Defence, were amalgamated with the services of fire control dependent on the ministry of Defence, were amalgamated with the services of fire control and were linked to the ministry of Interior in 2001. On the opposite, in Spain, the Council of and were linked to the ministry of Interior in 2001. On the opposite, in Spain, the Council of Ministers decided in October 2005 the creation of a military unit of civil protection directly Ministers decided in October 2005 the creation of a military unit of civil protection directly subordinate to the Minister of Defence and managed by a General. This unit should count subordinate to the Minister of Defence and managed by a General. This unit should count more than 4,000 personnel in 2008, and to be operational 24 hours a day. This decision more than 4,000 personnel in 2008, and to be operational 24 hours a day. This decision was made following the deficiencies noted in the fire control of forests. was made following the deficiencies noted in the fire control of forests.

Measures of adaptation to risks are also taken, like the “development plan of the NRBC Measures of adaptation to risks are also taken, like the “development plan of the NRBC defence system” of the Spanish ministry of Interior. This plan envisages the creation of three defence system” of the Spanish ministry of Interior. This plan envisages the creation of three units of first intervention within the civil Guard. units of first intervention within the civil Guard.

Generally, even if the ministry of Interior remains, in the large majority of the cases, the Generally, even if the ministry of Interior remains, in the large majority of the cases, the ministry of reference, the complexity of the civil protection field leads to: ministry of reference, the complexity of the civil protection field leads to:

- increasing frequent dialogues between ministries (interior, defence, health, etc), - increasing frequent dialogues between ministries (interior, defence, health, etc), - a reinforced device of interministry coordination, sometimes under the direct - a reinforced device of interministry coordination, sometimes under the direct responsibility of the Prime Minister (Great Britain, Ireland) or of the President of the responsibility of the Prime Minister (Great Britain, Ireland) or of the President of the Council (Italy). Council (Italy).

The regulatory texts concerning the information and the alarm of the populations are deve- The regulatory texts concerning the information and the alarm of the populations are developed especially at the national level, with some exceptions of decentralised countries. The loped especially at the national level, with some exceptions of decentralised countries. The less a country is centralised, the more regional initiatives bring a true relation of proximity less a country is centralised, the more regional initiatives bring a true relation of proximity with the population. As a matter of comparison, the practises of the area of Catalonia with the population. As a matter of comparison, the practises of the area of Catalonia helped the other areas of Spain to follow its example. On the other hand, the remarkable helped the other areas of Spain to follow its example. On the other hand, the remarkable examples in France (CYPRES project of the Provence-Alps-Riviera) did not give place to examples in France (CYPRES project of the Provence-Alps-Riviera) did not give place to dissemination on a national scale. Thus it appears that in the large majority of the cases, dissemination on a national scale. Thus it appears that in the large majority of the cases, the local population is not associated in the development of information on the risk, nor the local population is not associated in the development of information on the risk, nor with the alarm which corresponds to these risks. It is it should be noted that there are ex- with the alarm which corresponds to these risks. It is it should be noted that there are ex- periments undertaken by local authorities where the priority is given to the proximity with periments undertaken by local authorities where the priority is given to the proximity with the population, such as the ARPAV project in Porto Marghera (Italy). the population, such as the ARPAV project in Porto Marghera (Italy).

In addition to the work of the Commission and the European Union, political impetuses In addition to the work of the Commission and the European Union, political impetuses come from the Council of Europe. Such this call of the Chamber of the Local Authorities come from the Council of Europe. Such this call of the Chamber of the Local Authorities to the governments of the Member States of the Council, to develop the awareness of the to the governments of the Member States of the Council, to develop the awareness of the public on the importance of the prevention and on a contribution of a “risk culture”.(8) public on the importance of the prevention and on a contribution of a “risk culture”.(8)

As the level of preparation of the population and the effectiveness of the response of the As the level of preparation of the population and the effectiveness of the response of the rescue organizations are closely bound, it is appropriate to mention the need for a close rescue organizations are closely bound, it is appropriate to mention the need for a close and real co-operation and coordination of all services, be they public and private, as well and real co-operation and coordination of all services, be they public and private, as well as the rescue, care and assistance organizations operating in these emergency situations. as the rescue, care and assistance organizations operating in these emergency situations. At the operational level, this co-operation is conceptualized from the planning to the eva- At the operational level, this co-operation is conceptualized from the planning to the evaluation phase of relief operations, including coordination of resources. This approach is luation phase of relief operations, including coordination of resources. This approach is very seldom found when it is a question of supporting the citizens in the development of very seldom found when it is a question of supporting the citizens in the development of self-protection capacities. self-protection capacities.

24 24 If the European Union citizens benefit from solid structures of response to emergency If the European Union citizens benefit from solid structures of response to emergency situations, both at the respective national levels and at the level of the European Union, situations, both at the respective national levels and at the level of the European Union, they are powerless when those occur with a certain dimension. That confirms the need they are powerless when those occur with a certain dimension. That confirms the need that the citizens have a role, preparing themselves to face and being equipped with a that the citizens have a role, preparing themselves to face and being equipped with a survival/rescue material. survival/rescue material.

The European Commission The European Commission There are many institutional references related to the need for the self-protection of the There are many institutional references related to the need for the self-protection of the citizen. Thus it is mentioned that “the self-protection is an essential element of civil protec- citizen. Thus it is mentioned that “the self-protection is an essential element of civil protection” in the Resolution 94/C 313/01 of the Council and the government representatives of tion” in the Resolution 94/C 313/01 of the Council and the government representatives of the Member States on October 31, 1994 relating to the reinforcement of the Community the Member States on October 31, 1994 relating to the reinforcement of the Community co-operation for civil protection.(9) co-operation for civil protection.(9)

Implemented in 1985, the Community co-operation in the field of civil protection was Implemented in 1985, the Community co-operation in the field of civil protection was reinforced by Council Decisions of 1997 and 1999, instituting a Community action plan in reinforced by Council Decisions of 1997 and 1999, instituting a Community action plan in favour of civil protection. It aims at reinforcing the protection of the people, the environ- favour of civil protection. It aims at reinforcing the protection of the people, the environment and the goods in the event of natural or technological disaster on the territory of the ment and the goods in the event of natural or technological disaster on the territory of the Community. It comprises a series of projects, exchanges of experts, seminars and other actions Community. It comprises a series of projects, exchanges of experts, seminars and other actions supporting the co-operation and the mutual assistance between the civil protection services supporting the co-operation and the mutual assistance between the civil protection services of the Member States. This action plan has the aim of supporting and supplementing the of the Member States. This action plan has the aim of supporting and supplementing the efforts made by the Member States at the national, regional and local level. Several types of efforts made by the Member States at the national, regional and local level. Several types of actions are thus cofinanced by the Community budget: actions are thus cofinanced by the Community budget:

- prevention of the risks and damage to the people, goods and the environment, in the - prevention of the risks and damage to the people, goods and the environment, in the event of natural or technological disasters, event of natural or technological disasters, - increase in the degree of preparation of the actors of civil protection in the Member - increase in the degree of preparation of the actors of civil protection in the Member States in order to improve their capacity of intervention in the event of an States in order to improve their capacity of intervention in the event of an emergency situation, emergency situation, - detection and study of the causes of the disasters, improvement of the means and - detection and study of the causes of the disasters, improvement of the means and methods of forecast, the techniques and methods of intervention and the methods of forecast, the techniques and methods of intervention and the consecutive immediate assistance to the emergency situations, consecutive immediate assistance to the emergency situations, - information, education and awareness of the public. - information, education and awareness of the public.

Even if civil protection is a support action implemented mainly by the Community action Even if civil protection is a support action implemented mainly by the Community action plan, a Council Decision of October 23, 2001 instituted a Community mechanism aiming plan, a Council Decision of October 23, 2001 instituted a Community mechanism aiming at going a little further to support a reinforced co-operation within the framework of the at going a little further to support a reinforced co-operation within the framework of the interventions depending on civil protection. It is a matter of dealing with major emergency interventions depending on civil protection. It is a matter of dealing with major emergency cases (natural, technological, radiological or environmental disaster) occurring inside or cases (natural, technological, radiological or environmental disaster) occurring inside or outside the Community. A thought began recently to reinforce and supplement these me- outside the Community. A thought began recently to reinforce and supplement these mechanisms and devices of coordination and intervention. chanisms and devices of coordination and intervention.

Refer to: “For a European force of civil protection: Europe aid” Report Refer to: “For a European force of civil protection: Europe aid” Report of Michel Barnier, May 2006, at the joint request of Jose Manuel Bar- of Michel Barnier, May 2006, at the joint request of Jose Manuel Bar- roso, President of the European Commission and Wolfgang Schüssel, roso, President of the European Commission and Wolfgang Schüssel, President of the European Council. (10) President of the European Council. (10)

The Directorate-General Environnement supported many projects aiming at improving the The Directorate-General Environnement supported many projects aiming at improving the national and Community capacities of protection and rescue of the populations victims of national and Community capacities of protection and rescue of the populations victims of disasters. disasters.

25 25 This political awareness is found on other continents. The inquiry commission of the This political awareness is found on other continents. The inquiry commission of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (United States) wanted to stress on “the necessary terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (United States) wanted to stress on “the necessary rupture”: the citizen is in first line! Authorities have to come supporting him, give him all rupture”: the citizen is in first line! Authorities have to come supporting him, give him all the information he needs to control himself his action. the information he needs to control himself his action.

National Red Cross Societies National Red Cross Societies They are mainly considered as privileged partners. That is the consequence of their auxiliary They are mainly considered as privileged partners. That is the consequence of their auxiliary role of the authorities, as defined by their statutes. Their grass root presence on the whole role of the authorities, as defined by their statutes. Their grass root presence on the whole of the national territories represents an exceptional local network of listening and aware- of the national territories represents an exceptional local network of listening and awareness. Their presence in the whole of the European Union, and beyond, brings an important ness. Their presence in the whole of the European Union, and beyond, brings an important value added in the perception of the various communities and their internal differences. value added in the perception of the various communities and their internal differences.

Day-to-day, National Societies ensure for the citizens [*]: Day-to-day, National Societies ensure for the citizens [*]:

- participations in public awareness campaigns on daily risks (e.g. road safety) - participations in public awareness campaigns on daily risks (e.g. road safety) and major risks, and major risks, - training courses on life-saving measures (First Aid), for general public, workers - training courses on life-saving measures (First Aid), for general public, workers and employees in the factories and offices, for specific groups and employees in the factories and offices, for specific groups (old people, handicapped, etc), the school pupils, the soldiers, etc (old people, handicapped, etc), the school pupils, the soldiers, etc - First Aid handbooks and kits for home, car, etc, - First Aid handbooks and kits for home, car, etc, - teams of volunteers within territories/communities mobilised at the time of public - teams of volunteers within territories/communities mobilised at the time of public events (concerts, street demonstrations, etc) or specialised (mountain, aquatic events (concerts, street demonstrations, etc) or specialised (mountain, aquatic rescue, etc) rescue, etc)

In exceptional situation, National Societies ensure for the citizens [*]: In exceptional situation, National Societies ensure for the citizens [*]:

- psychological support, - psychological support, - family links, - family links, - emergency shelter and rehabilitation programs, - emergency shelter and rehabilitation programs, - distribution of water, food and materials (hygiene kit, cover, kitchen utensils, etc), - distribution of water, food and materials (hygiene kit, cover, kitchen utensils, etc), - support for the families: re-establishment of the family links, welcome, - support for the families: re-establishment of the family links, welcome, - financial assistance. - financial assistance.

[*] These actions are completed by activities on the ground more specific beside -or some- [*] These actions are completed by activities on the ground more specific beside -or sometimes in replacement- of the public services. That can be: times in replacement- of the public services. That can be:

- plan of mobilisation of its operating teams in the fields of rescue, medical care, - plan of mobilisation of its operating teams in the fields of rescue, medical care, social support, etc social support, etc - search and rescue of people, - search and rescue of people, - nurse and medical personnel, - nurse and medical personnel, - ambulance transports, - ambulance transports, - production of drinking water and sanitation service (dishes collection, etc), - production of drinking water and sanitation service (dishes collection, etc), - collecting dead bodies and management of mortuaries. - collecting dead bodies and management of mortuaries.

In armed conflict situations, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and In armed conflict situations, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the concerned National Societies contribute to the respect of the rights of the victims the concerned National Societies contribute to the respect of the rights of the victims (prisoners, casualties, populations) by the application of Conventions of Geneva and its (prisoners, casualties, populations) by the application of Conventions of Geneva and its Additional Protocols. Additional Protocols.

26 26 National Societies pinpoint the following priorities: National Societies pinpoint the following priorities:

• development of knowledge and practises of prevention and response to the • development of knowledge and practises of prevention and response to the emergency situations at home and unexpected circumstances, emergency situations at home and unexpected circumstances, • a better use of media (TV, radio and Internet) and development of the • a better use of media (TV, radio and Internet) and development of the interoperability, interoperability, • evacuation plans in the event of a disaster, • evacuation plans in the event of a disaster, • encouragement to ownership of personal and/or family equipment: • encouragement to ownership of personal and/or family equipment: an extinguisher, an emergency kit; generally at home, and sometimes in the car. an extinguisher, an emergency kit; generally at home, and sometimes in the car.

Certain National Societies think of new directions in giving support to citizens in the Certain National Societies think of new directions in giving support to citizens in the development and reinforcement of their self-protection capacities in emergency development and reinforcement of their self-protection capacities in emergency situations. situations.

2.3. Experts perspectives 2.3. Experts perspectives

In addition to scientific texts, declarations and congress syntheses, the expert perspectives In addition to scientific texts, declarations and congress syntheses, the expert perspectives were collected during a workshop organised within the framework for the Project on Octo- were collected during a workshop organised within the framework for the Project on Octo- ber 25 and 26, 2005 in Paris (France). ber 25 and 26, 2005 in Paris (France).

Refer to: Appendix ‘E’ and ‘F’ - the list of participants Refer to: Appendix ‘E’ and ‘F’ - the list of participants and the program of the conference and the program of the conference

The main objectives of the workshop were: The main objectives of the workshop were:

- to identify the barriers to the commitment of citizens to undertake activities - to identify the barriers to the commitment of citizens to undertake activities related to the management of the emergency situations, related to the management of the emergency situations, - to identify effective practises in certain territories likely to inspire other territories, - to identify effective practises in certain territories likely to inspire other territories, - to define the concept of citizen preparation. - to define the concept of citizen preparation.

The workshop had two major axes, further broken down into: The workshop had two major axes, further broken down into:

- thoughts, proposals and questions about: - thoughts, proposals and questions about: • the ‘risk culture’, as it exists and could be developed or reinforced at • the ‘risk culture’, as it exists and could be developed or reinforced at citizen level, citizen level, • the reduction of vulnerability and the reinforcement of resilience, • the reduction of vulnerability and the reinforcement of resilience, • moving from theory to practise in the implementation of a communication • moving from theory to practise in the implementation of a communication strategy and disaster preparedness strategy, to support citizens in their strategy and disaster preparedness strategy, to support citizens in their awareness and commitment. awareness and commitment. - the design of the contents of the kits, for the general public, in the event of a - the design of the contents of the kits, for the general public, in the event of a daily emergency (accident at home) and an exceptional one (disaster). daily emergency (accident at home) and an exceptional one (disaster).

Each topic was presented in plenary room by Member State representatives, experts and Each topic was presented in plenary room by Member State representatives, experts and people involved in field operations. They presented the related knowledge and known pers- people involved in field operations. They presented the related knowledge and known perspectives. Each presentation was followed by work in sub-groups, where recommendations pectives. Each presentation was followed by work in sub-groups, where recommendations and proposals were developed, as well as remaining challenges were addressed. A plenary and proposals were developed, as well as remaining challenges were addressed. A plenary session made the synthesis of the work. session made the synthesis of the work.

27 27 The workshop ended on a collective enthusiastic note on the exchanged points of view and The workshop ended on a collective enthusiastic note on the exchanged points of view and the built progress. the built progress.

There were stands presenting achievements in the field of civil protection. There were stands presenting achievements in the field of civil protection. Various communication tools were displayed (booklet, poster, CD-Rom, video, etc), as well Various communication tools were displayed (booklet, poster, CD-Rom, video, etc), as well as kits, proposed by Member States and Red Cross Societies of the European Union and as kits, proposed by Member States and Red Cross Societies of the European Union and abroad. abroad.

The proposals made and the questions asked as the result of the workshop are included in The proposals made and the questions asked as the result of the workshop are included in chapter 3 of the report. chapter 3 of the report.

Refer to: Appendix ‘I’ - the working groups results Refer to: Appendix ‘I’ - the working groups results and plenary synthesis. and plenary synthesis.

1/ September 21, 2001, the AZF chemical factory in Toulouse (France) exploded. This disaster killed 30 people, invalidated tens of citizens 1/ September 21, 2001, the AZF chemical factory in Toulouse (France) exploded. This disaster killed 30 people, invalidated tens of citizens and injured thousands. More than 10,000 houses, tens of small and medium companies were destroyed and several industrial sites and injured thousands. More than 10,000 houses, tens of small and medium companies were destroyed and several industrial sites were destroyed or damaged. were destroyed or damaged. 2/ French Parliament - Parliamentary inquiry commission on the safety of the industrial facilities and research centres and on the 2/ French Parliament - Parliamentary inquiry commission on the safety of the industrial facilities and research centres and on the protection of the people and the environment in the event of an industrial accident major (Report number 3559, January 2002). protection of the people and the environment in the event of an industrial accident major (Report number 3559, January 2002).

3/ Lulofs Kris, Bressers Hans et Boeren Annemieke, “Enschede Fireworks Disaster” (Uitgeverij Lemma, 2005). 3/ Lulofs Kris, Bressers Hans et Boeren Annemieke, “Enschede Fireworks Disaster” (Uitgeverij Lemma, 2005).

4/ Peters H.P., “Mass media as an Information Chanel and Public Arena”, Jülich Research Centre and university of Münster. 4/ Peters H.P., “Mass media as an Information Chanel and Public Arena”, Jülich Research Centre and university of Münster.

5/ Reports of P.Girard and G.Heriard-Dubreuil for the Commission of the European Communities (JSP2) - Mutadis Consultants, 5/ Reports of P.Girard and G.Heriard-Dubreuil for the Commission of the European Communities (JSP2) - Mutadis Consultants, July 1994 and June 1995: “Social and psychic consequences of the accident of Tchernobyl. The situation in July 1994 and June 1995: “Social and psychic consequences of the accident of Tchernobyl. The situation in Ukraine, seven years after the accident.” and “Living conditions in the territories contaminated eight years after Ukraine, seven years after the accident.” and “Living conditions in the territories contaminated eight years after the accident of Tchernobyl. ”, “Radiological Risk management in Bielorussia: evaluation of the situation in the district of Tchetchersk.”. the accident of Tchernobyl. ”, “Radiological Risk management in Bielorussia: evaluation of the situation in the district of Tchetchersk.”.

6/ Eurobarometer – Risks Issues - 2005, Special Eurobarometer 238/Wave 64.1 - TNS Opinion & Social. 6/ Eurobarometer – Risks Issues - 2005, Special Eurobarometer 238/Wave 64.1 - TNS Opinion & Social.

7/ “The International Decade fro Natural Disaster Reduction: Background and Objective”. Disaster, Vol.14 (1): 1-6. Reference presented 7/ “The International Decade fro Natural Disaster Reduction: Background and Objective”. Disaster, Vol.14 (1): 1-6. Reference presented by H.Schmidt, in the report of the workshop “Psychological Aspects of the Information of the Public” in 2000 during the European project by H.Schmidt, in the report of the workshop “Psychological Aspects of the Information of the Public” in 2000 during the European project Information to the Public”. Information to the Public”.

8/ Arts Wil, Hagenaars Jacques and Halman Loek, “The Cultural Diversity of European Unity” European Values Studies. 8/ Arts Wil, Hagenaars Jacques and Halman Loek, “The Cultural Diversity of European Unity” European Values Studies. (www.europeanvalues.nl). (www.europeanvalues.nl).

9 Chamber of the Local Authorities - Council of Europe, Recommendation 168 (2005) on the natural and industrial disasters: 9 Chamber of the Local Authorities - Council of Europe, Recommendation 168 (2005) on the natural and industrial disasters: local authorities confronted with emergency situations, 12th plenary session (Strasbourg, from May 31 to June 2, 2005). local authorities confronted with emergency situations, 12th plenary session (Strasbourg, from May 31 to June 2, 2005).

10/ Official Journal No C 313, 10/11/1994 P. 0001 - 0003. 10/ Official Journal No C 313, 10/11/1994 P. 0001 - 0003.

28 28 3 - Recommendations - Proposals 3 - Recommendations - Proposals

The recommendations and proposals are the result of: The recommendations and proposals are the result of:

- library searches, - library searches, - investigations carried out with institutions, - investigations carried out with institutions, - the opinion of mobilized experts, - the opinion of mobilized experts, - expressions of citizens canvassed. - expressions of citizens canvassed.

These recommendations are addressed to: These recommendations are addressed to:

- citizens in a form of information and advices for being prepared to an emergency - citizens in a form of information and advices for being prepared to an emergency situation(refer to the Action Sheets), situation(refer to the Action Sheets), - public and private institutions for the promoting and implementing self-protection - public and private institutions for the promoting and implementing self-protection - the European Commission within its civil protection programmes. - the European Commission within its civil protection programmes.

3.1 To define self-protection 3.1 To define self-protection

It is important that messages, both national and European, be based on a consensus It is important that messages, both national and European, be based on a consensus concerning: concerning:

• “why?” (it is important for citizens to take part in the emergency situations • “why?” (it is important for citizens to take part in the emergency situations management), management), • the definition of “citizen self-protection”, • the definition of “citizen self-protection”, • “what is required or expected of the citizen?”, before, during and after an • “what is required or expected of the citizen?”, before, during and after an emergency situation. emergency situation.

Once this consensus is established, European citizens will be able to answer the following, Once this consensus is established, European citizens will be able to answer the following, and to act accordingly: and to act accordingly:

- “I understand why I must be prepared for an emergency situation”, - “I understand why I must be prepared for an emergency situation”, - “it is important for me to be prepared for an emergency situation because…”, - “it is important for me to be prepared for an emergency situation because…”, - “to be prepared, I must know…; I must do…”, - “to be prepared, I must know…; I must do…”, - “I must always have available…”, - “I must always have available…”, - “I know that I am ready when…”. - “I know that I am ready when…”.

Why self-protection? Realities to remember and obvious points to raise… Why self-protection? Realities to remember and obvious points to raise…

There are realities to have in mind: There are realities to have in mind:

• Whatever the organization, speed or professionalism of the emergency system, • Whatever the organization, speed or professionalism of the emergency system, if it is not alerted or the haemorrhage is not stopped immediately, the system will if it is not alerted or the haemorrhage is not stopped immediately, the system will be considered inefficient. be considered inefficient. • It is even truer when an emergency is linked to a disaster situation. Emergency • It is even truer when an emergency is linked to a disaster situation. Emergency services can no longer cope alone with: services can no longer cope alone with:

29 29 > large numbers of victims, > large numbers of victims, > intervention priorities, > intervention priorities, > difficult road access, > difficult road access, > damaged medical infrastructures, etc. > damaged medical infrastructures, etc.

• Public services and other rescue, care and assistance organizations are • Public services and other rescue, care and assistance organizations are overwhelmed, even during a lapse of a few hours or few days. overwhelmed, even during a lapse of a few hours or few days.

Citizens should not expect members of emergency Citizens should not expect members of emergency situation infrastructures, whatever they are, to situation infrastructures, whatever they are, to always/permanently fulfil all their needs. always/permanently fulfil all their needs.

• On a day-to-day basis, citizen behaviours are accident prone: excess speeds, • On a day-to-day basis, citizen behaviours are accident prone: excess speeds, unprotected do-it-yourself, faulty chimneys, inadequate children care, etc. unprotected do-it-yourself, faulty chimneys, inadequate children care, etc. Emergency services are solicited for cases qualified as “relative or benign emergencies” Emergency services are solicited for cases qualified as “relative or benign emergencies” (manageable at home or by the local doctor or nurse) or “felt-emergencies” (manageable at home or by the local doctor or nurse) or “felt-emergencies” (non- emergency cases). It is sometimes the result of outrageous consumerism, (non- emergency cases). It is sometimes the result of outrageous consumerism, but more often an ignorance of simple First Aid techniques which could resolve but more often an ignorance of simple First Aid techniques which could resolve the situation on the spot. Whatever the quality of the emergency system, the situation on the spot. Whatever the quality of the emergency system, if emergency situations multiply because of aberrant citizen behaviours, or if if emergency situations multiply because of aberrant citizen behaviours, or if requests are excessive or unjustified, the system will be overwhelmed. requests are excessive or unjustified, the system will be overwhelmed.

There are obvious points to raise: There are obvious points to raise:

• each of us fears to be the victim of a road crash, an accident at work, at home, • each of us fears to be the victim of a road crash, an accident at work, at home, during leisure time, etc. (it greatly depends on the behaviour adopted: many lives during leisure time, etc. (it greatly depends on the behaviour adopted: many lives are saved at every moment through respect of the highway code, adoption of a are saved at every moment through respect of the highway code, adoption of a healthy life style, proper knowledge of should and should not be done in the healthy life style, proper knowledge of should and should not be done in the event of a storm, etc.), event of a storm, etc.), • after an accident or disaster, the primary responders are victims themselves and • after an accident or disaster, the primary responders are victims themselves and witnesses (family members, neighbours, bystanders, etc.). Those first minutes - witnesses (family members, neighbours, bystanders, etc.). Those first minutes - to save a life-, those first hours - to attend to the most pressing events first and to save a life-, those first hours - to attend to the most pressing events first and to protect oneself - or those first days -waiting for organized relief in an to protect oneself - or those first days -waiting for organized relief in an overloaded situation- are crucial. The survival rate, the social and economic overloaded situation- are crucial. The survival rate, the social and economic consequences, and the level of suffering of affected populations, as well as consequences, and the level of suffering of affected populations, as well as their return to an acceptable “psychological” situation (resilience) depend on the their return to an acceptable “psychological” situation (resilience) depend on the knowledge and competence of these primary responders. knowledge and competence of these primary responders.

30 30 Citizens must take part in their protection and rescue. Citizens must take part in their protection and rescue.

Then: Then:

- if these realities are noted – or if not they can be predicted without risk of error, - if these realities are noted – or if not they can be predicted without risk of error, - if these evidences are obvious - or they are easily demonstrable, - if these evidences are obvious - or they are easily demonstrable, what should be done? what should be done?

It is necessary to place and maintain the citizen in the centre of the prevention It is necessary to place and maintain the citizen in the centre of the prevention and response system of emergency situations, and make him active therein. and response system of emergency situations, and make him active therein. This must be shared by citizens and authorities and rescue, care and assistance This must be shared by citizens and authorities and rescue, care and assistance organizations. organizations.

The French civil protection modernisation law of August 13th, 2004 places already the The French civil protection modernisation law of August 13th, 2004 places already the citizen at the heart of the reform, and subsequently adapts the defence and civil protection citizen at the heart of the reform, and subsequently adapts the defence and civil protection schemes. schemes.

It is important that the goal of the process be clear, even clarified, for the authorities and It is important that the goal of the process be clear, even clarified, for the authorities and organizations, and citizens: organizations, and citizens:

• It is a question of supporting citizen mobilization in order to be active, • It is a question of supporting citizen mobilization in order to be active, above all for themselves, in better preventing, preparing and responding above all for themselves, in better preventing, preparing and responding to emergency situations. to emergency situations. • It is not a question of using this process to influence citizens in their perception • It is not a question of using this process to influence citizens in their perception of the policy or to recruit them, whatever could be the motivations, even the most of the policy or to recruit them, whatever could be the motivations, even the most creditable. creditable. and and

• It is a question of ensuring that citizens contribute to a better use of • It is a question of ensuring that citizens contribute to a better use of rescue, care and of assistance organizations resources. rescue, care and of assistance organizations resources. • It is not a question of replacing professionals with volunteers. • It is not a question of replacing professionals with volunteers. Similarly the implementation process must be clear: Similarly the implementation process must be clear: • It is a question of making progress and sustaining the level of citizen knowledge • It is a question of making progress and sustaining the level of citizen knowledge and practises. and practises. • It is not a question of just distributing X booklets or giving a diploma to Y • It is not a question of just distributing X booklets or giving a diploma to Y individuals without any support. individuals without any support.

An attempt to define: An attempt to define:

“Self-protection”: It is the behaviour that each citizen, family or community “Self-protection”: It is the behaviour that each citizen, family or community chooses to adopt to prevent, be prepared for, respond to and recover effecti- chooses to adopt to prevent, be prepared for, respond to and recover effecti- vely from emergency situations he can be victim of. vely from emergency situations he can be victim of.

31 31 The citizen has a right to be rescued and assisted. He has the duty to: The citizen has a right to be rescued and assisted. He has the duty to:

- behave in a safe and healthy manner, without endangering his own life and health, - behave in a safe and healthy manner, without endangering his own life and health, nor that of those around him, nor that of those around him, - advisedly alert the emergency system to optimize its effectiveness by an adapted - advisedly alert the emergency system to optimize its effectiveness by an adapted mobilization of its resources, mobilization of its resources, - contribute supplementing limits of the emergency system which cannot do - contribute supplementing limits of the emergency system which cannot do everything, everywhere, immediately and for everyone. everything, everywhere, immediately and for everyone.

In order to prevent and respond to emergency In order to prevent and respond to emergency situations which affect them, citizens must know that, situations which affect them, citizens must know that, initially and above all, they must be self-reliant. initially and above all, they must be self-reliant.

3.2. To gain a self-protection behaviour 3.2. To gain a self-protection behaviour

It is quite obvious that in order to have a suitable behaviour regarding a risk or an It is quite obvious that in order to have a suitable behaviour regarding a risk or an emergency situation, one must: emergency situation, one must:

- be aware of the risk or emergency situation; - be aware of the risk or emergency situation; - perceive it as such; and - perceive it as such; and - accept the idea that one can deal with it. - accept the idea that one can deal with it. It is a question of changing the system of values and the beliefs on which, It is a question of changing the system of values and the beliefs on which, the citizens based their expectations and their behaviour with the regard, the citizens based their expectations and their behaviour with the regard, respectively of the authorities and the risk.(1) respectively of the authorities and the risk.(1)

Awareness is the necessary starting point, but it is not in itself sufficient to begin the Awareness is the necessary starting point, but it is not in itself sufficient to begin the move process of adopting suitable behaviour. It is a means of questioning and acting. move process of adopting suitable behaviour. It is a means of questioning and acting. The individual and/or collective motivation can be: The individual and/or collective motivation can be:

- ethical: to save human lives, to be interdependent, becoming if necessary - ethical: to save human lives, to be interdependent, becoming if necessary community based, community based, - legal: to respect the law, to help public services, - legal: to respect the law, to help public services, - economic: to preserve personal possessions and/or those of the community. - economic: to preserve personal possessions and/or those of the community.

The behavioural change of the citizen evolves generally in the way he: The behavioural change of the citizen evolves generally in the way he:

1. does not think of the risks, nor the influence of his behaviour on his life and health, 1. does not think of the risks, nor the influence of his behaviour on his life and health, 2. thinks about what is recommended to him and shown to make a difference, 2. thinks about what is recommended to him and shown to make a difference, 3. discovers the positive advantages/impacts of them, with no expenditure or additional 3. discovers the positive advantages/impacts of them, with no expenditure or additional time compared to “before”, time compared to “before”, 4. starts to put into practice, familiarize himself with these new ways of behaving, 4. starts to put into practice, familiarize himself with these new ways of behaving, 5. looks at others, seeks reassurance, confirms the positive advantages/impacts, 5. looks at others, seeks reassurance, confirms the positive advantages/impacts, 6. integrates the changes into his daily life, 6. integrates the changes into his daily life, 7. takes part in the actions, seeks to influence those who are not behaving suitably. 7. takes part in the actions, seeks to influence those who are not behaving suitably.

One of the references is provided by Prochaskau and Di Clemente. (2) One of the references is provided by Prochaskau and Di Clemente. (2)

32 32 In order to behave suitably the citizen is able to self-protect: In order to behave suitably the citizen is able to self-protect: a. Before an emergency situation by: a. Before an emergency situation by: - getting information and identifying the risks which concern him, - getting information and identifying the risks which concern him, - adopting suitable behaviour, - adopting suitable behaviour, - taking preventive measures, and if necessary corrective ones, - taking preventive measures, and if necessary corrective ones, - being trained (e.g. in life-saving techniques), - being trained (e.g. in life-saving techniques), - understanding and respecting security/safety instructions, - understanding and respecting security/safety instructions, - taking part in the management programmes of emergency situations - taking part in the management programmes of emergency situations (such as risk analysis, simulation exercises, etc.). (such as risk analysis, simulation exercises, etc.).

b. During an emergency by: b. During an emergency by: - protecting himself from immediate consequences and any further risk - protecting himself from immediate consequences and any further risk or accident, or accident, - carrying out appropriate First Aid techniques, - carrying out appropriate First Aid techniques, - following instructions (e.g. evacuation), - following instructions (e.g. evacuation), - restoring family links, even with friends and neighbours (with members of - restoring family links, even with friends and neighbours (with members of his community), his community), - volunteering and collaborating with the rescue, care and assistance - volunteering and collaborating with the rescue, care and assistance services and organizations. services and organizations.

c. After an emergency by: c. After an emergency by: - obtaining adequate assistance (care, water, food, shelter, etc.), - obtaining adequate assistance (care, water, food, shelter, etc.), - being psychologically restored and materially compensated, - being psychologically restored and materially compensated, - taking part in mutual help operations for his community - taking part in mutual help operations for his community (e.g. spontaneously volunteering), (e.g. spontaneously volunteering), - adapting his behaviour and the equipment to the experience gained - adapting his behaviour and the equipment to the experience gained lessons learned. lessons learned.

Prevention alone cannot guarantee absolute safety. It is therefore essential to be prepared Prevention alone cannot guarantee absolute safety. It is therefore essential to be prepared for emergency situations arising from more or less important risks. By its methods and for emergency situations arising from more or less important risks. By its methods and needs, this preparation can in itself constitute an element of prevention. needs, this preparation can in itself constitute an element of prevention.

How: a participative approach How: a participative approach Citizens must be associated with: Citizens must be associated with:

- the identification of existing or potentials risks which threaten them, - the identification of existing or potentials risks which threaten them, - the planning and implementation of related preventive and corrective measures. - the planning and implementation of related preventive and corrective measures.

“One needs a more proactive approach to inform, motivate and involve citizens “One needs a more proactive approach to inform, motivate and involve citizens in all the aspects of disaster reduction in their own communities.” (3) in all the aspects of disaster reduction in their own communities.” (3)

The approach to exceptional risks should preferably start with that of the “risks” with The approach to exceptional risks should preferably start with that of the “risks” with which citizens are confronted on a day-to-day or regular basis (mass summer holiday de- which citizens are confronted on a day-to-day or regular basis (mass summer holiday de- parture, crowd movements for large demonstrations or concerts, etc.). These risks are often parture, crowd movements for large demonstrations or concerts, etc.). These risks are often expressed by the citizens, prior to the exceptional ones. expressed by the citizens, prior to the exceptional ones.

In both types of risks, day-to-day and exceptional, citizens will use the same prevention, In both types of risks, day-to-day and exceptional, citizens will use the same prevention, preparation and response mechanisms. Beyond the risks, the citizens must be able to ex- preparation and response mechanisms. Beyond the risks, the citizens must be able to express the mechanisms and the practicesimplemented to control these risks, and to answer press the mechanisms and the practicesimplemented to control these risks, and to answer the consequences of the emergency situations. the consequences of the emergency situations.

33 33 Citizens take part in their self-protection by starting to express and identify Citizens take part in their self-protection by starting to express and identify the risks which threaten them and the capacities which they have to control the risks which threaten them and the capacities which they have to control these risks and to manage the emergency situations. these risks and to manage the emergency situations.

The citizens can be brought together according to: The citizens can be brought together according to:

- the territory which they share: a district, a village, a factory, etc - the territory which they share: a district, a village, a factory, etc - common characteristics or interests: young people, seniors, etc - common characteristics or interests: young people, seniors, etc

It is quite possible that a meeting of districts bringing together its inhabitants will give rise It is quite possible that a meeting of districts bringing together its inhabitants will give rise to sub-groups which will express the points of view of the “young people of the district”, to sub-groups which will express the points of view of the “young people of the district”, of the “seniors of the district”, etc of the “seniors of the district”, etc

Community participation must be organized to allow: Community participation must be organized to allow: - to identify various characteristics of the constitutional members - to identify various characteristics of the constitutional members the community, including their needs, requests/expectations and the community, including their needs, requests/expectations and capacities, capacities, - to help each community member to find motivation(s), - to help each community member to find motivation(s), - to list citizen questions and concerns, and providing the related - to list citizen questions and concerns, and providing the related answers, answers, - to promote sensitization and education of the majority of its - to promote sensitization and education of the majority of its members to reduce vulnerability of each one and develop members to reduce vulnerability of each one and develop preparedness for emergency situations, preparedness for emergency situations, - to contribute developing the knowledge and expertise at the local - to contribute developing the knowledge and expertise at the local level: level: • in the risk management, • in the risk management, • planning process, • planning process, • in studying intervention and rehabilitation programmes, • in studying intervention and rehabilitation programmes, - to provide opportunities to participate in orientation and decision - to provide opportunities to participate in orientation and decision making processes, making processes, - to ensure policies, practises and equipment to be adapted to local - to ensure policies, practises and equipment to be adapted to local realities, realities, - to establish co-operation between professionals, volunteers and - to establish co-operation between professionals, volunteers and members of the community, members of the community, - to test the management of emergency situations by simultaneously - to test the management of emergency situations by simultaneously mobilizing the citizens, authorities and organizations, mobilizing the citizens, authorities and organizations, - to define procedures and stopover routes for the distribution of foo - to define procedures and stopover routes for the distribution of foo and non food relief items, and non food relief items, - to draw on feedback received from the community or elsewhere - to draw on feedback received from the community or elsewhere about situations faced. about situations faced.

This stage also allows the assessment of risks felt by citizens (which can often differ from This stage also allows the assessment of risks felt by citizens (which can often differ from those defined by the authorities, professionals and experts). those defined by the authorities, professionals and experts).

The participation of the experts allows: The participation of the experts allows: - to help the citizens to complete their knowledge or to adopt a less emotive - to help the citizens to complete their knowledge or to adopt a less emotive approach, approach, - to consider the risks expressed by the citizens in the priorities and the support - to consider the risks expressed by the citizens in the priorities and the support required.. required..

34 34 Citizen participation enables different options and favours population understanding. Citizen participation enables different options and favours population understanding. With this participative approach, authorities, emergency professionals and other public and With this participative approach, authorities, emergency professionals and other public and private partners can establish a new social contract with citizens. private partners can establish a new social contract with citizens. Experience feedbacks can be managed within the group. Those who faced emergency Experience feedbacks can be managed within the group. Those who faced emergency situations can testify facts and feelings. Some experiences can remind people maintaining situations can testify facts and feelings. Some experiences can remind people maintaining ancestral practices, which are today considered as obsolete, even forgotten, such as: ancestral practices, which are today considered as obsolete, even forgotten, such as: - to make water drinkable by sedimentation and boiling, - to make water drinkable by sedimentation and boiling, - remedies of grandmother in the absence of drugs, - remedies of grandmother in the absence of drugs, - the lighting of a fire to heat or cook, etc. - the lighting of a fire to heat or cook, etc.

The relative fragility of the vital networks (water, electricity, roads, telephone) points out The relative fragility of the vital networks (water, electricity, roads, telephone) points out this need. this need. “The population of certain departments was deprived of electricity in al- “The population of certain departments was deprived of electricity in almost totality (Orne, Creuse, Corrèze, Cantal, Lot-et-Garonne) even entirely most totality (Orne, Creuse, Corrèze, Cantal, Lot-et-Garonne) even entirely (Vosges, Charente-Maritime)” This report was found in other areas of the (Vosges, Charente-Maritime)” This report was found in other areas of the Union where these storms prevailed, and after floods. (4) Union where these storms prevailed, and after floods. (4) This concern and capacity sharing makes suitable behaviour gradually becoming an This concern and capacity sharing makes suitable behaviour gradually becoming an acceptable social standards to which everyone can/must conform, spontaneously, or by acceptable social standards to which everyone can/must conform, spontaneously, or by force or as ordered or by a collective pressure. This social pressure constitutes an important force or as ordered or by a collective pressure. This social pressure constitutes an important factor of mobilization and cohesion of members of the community(ies) where it is exer- factor of mobilization and cohesion of members of the community(ies) where it is exer- ted. New members are more rapidly sensitized. Those who are reticent or oppose it are ted. New members are more rapidly sensitized. Those who are reticent or oppose it are encouraged to evolve towards accepting the collective standards. encouraged to evolve towards accepting the collective standards.

Citizen participation enables the development of Citizen participation enables the development of collective anticipatory capacities, mobilization and collective anticipatory capacities, mobilization and creative collaboration. creative collaboration.

Citizen participation can be established by conducting a survey. Its purpose would be to Citizen participation can be established by conducting a survey. Its purpose would be to provide key reference points to the European Commission and State authorities of the provide key reference points to the European Commission and State authorities of the Union, on citizen knowledge and expectations in emergency situations. These reference Union, on citizen knowledge and expectations in emergency situations. These reference points will be used as a basis for exchanges during citizen meetings. A software for sur- points will be used as a basis for exchanges during citizen meetings. A software for surveys has been bought and adapted for the Project. It has been used to exploit data col- veys has been bought and adapted for the Project. It has been used to exploit data collected during investigations and tests on the ground with citizens. The multi-language lected during investigations and tests on the ground with citizens. The multi-language questionnaire is available. questionnaire is available. The operating software of the answers to the questionnaires “citizen” and The operating software of the answers to the questionnaires “citizen” and “tests on the ground” helped to draw up an inventory of fixtures. “tests on the ground” helped to draw up an inventory of fixtures. The questionnaire “citizen” is available in several languages. It will be accessi- The questionnaire “citizen” is available in several languages. It will be accessi- ble to any citizen from the European Union, via the operating software which ble to any citizen from the European Union, via the operating software which will be integrated into the Web site especially developed for the Project will be integrated into the Web site especially developed for the Project

Refer to : www. autoprotectionducitoyen.eu Refer to : www. autoprotectionducitoyen.eu Note: Note: A street survey can serve as a catch for some citizens for looking for information, being A street survey can serve as a catch for some citizens for looking for information, being trained, and/or being equipped. That was reported by the appraisers in France. trained, and/or being equipped. That was reported by the appraisers in France. Refer to: Appendix ‘D’ Refer to: Appendix ‘D’

35 35 Method: a progressive approach Method: a progressive approach The following should be undertaken in order to make behaviour evolve/move forward: The following should be undertaken in order to make behaviour evolve/move forward:

Initiation Initiation 1. Awareness, and conviction, that: 1. Awareness, and conviction, that: - a large number of the consequences of emergency situations are related to - a large number of the consequences of emergency situations are related to unsuitable behaviour (risks created, risks not identified/recognized, etc. and unsuitable behaviour (risks created, risks not identified/recognized, etc. and protection and/or immediate reaction absent or incomplete), “To have or not an protection and/or immediate reaction absent or incomplete), “To have or not an accident depends on the way in which people drive”, accident depends on the way in which people drive”, - the emergency services can be delayed due to difficult access, other priorities, etc, - the emergency services can be delayed due to difficult access, other priorities, etc, “If it happens to me, I must initially rely on myself, my neighbours or witnesses. ”, “If it happens to me, I must initially rely on myself, my neighbours or witnesses. ”, - each citizen has the intrinsic capacity to act, “I can do it. I have the gift to save lives... ”, - each citizen has the intrinsic capacity to act, “I can do it. I have the gift to save lives... ”, - as a result, each one has a role to play in protecting and saving his life and that of - as a result, each one has a role to play in protecting and saving his life and that of those around him, “It is my responsibility.”. those around him, “It is my responsibility.”. 2. There are consequences of unsuitable behaviour, mainly with regard to physical 2. There are consequences of unsuitable behaviour, mainly with regard to physical integrity, “I can cut my fingers if I touch the blade of the mower without taking the integrity, “I can cut my fingers if I touch the blade of the mower without taking the necessary precautions.”, “My children and I can panic if we do not know how to meet necessary precautions.”, “My children and I can panic if we do not know how to meet in case of an emergency situation.” in case of an emergency situation.” 3. The use of common sense to express preventive and corrective measures to avoid 3. The use of common sense to express preventive and corrective measures to avoid continued or repeated unsuitable behaviour, “It is true: it is common sense!” continued or repeated unsuitable behaviour, “It is true: it is common sense!” 4. Immediate changes are demonstrable or achievable “It is possible, I can do it 4. Immediate changes are demonstrable or achievable “It is possible, I can do it myself…”. myself…”.

Support Support 5. Developing, strengthening and updating analysis and intervention capacities by making 5. Developing, strengthening and updating analysis and intervention capacities by making means available (a data base, public events, initial and continuous training, alarm and means available (a data base, public events, initial and continuous training, alarm and rescue drills, etc.). rescue drills, etc.).

Self-keeping of assets Self-keeping of assets 6. The daily implementation of self-protection reflexes: “When we, family and/or friends, 6. The daily implementation of self-protection reflexes: “When we, family and/or friends, we are in a crowd (big shopping centre/mall, concert, entertainment park, etc.), in an we are in a crowd (big shopping centre/mall, concert, entertainment park, etc.), in an unknown city or country, we decide where we will meet in case one of us becoming lost unknown city or country, we decide where we will meet in case one of us becoming lost or in case of an emergency situation, «I locate the «Alarm» «Fire exit» and «First Aid or in case of an emergency situation, «I locate the «Alarm» «Fire exit» and «First Aid Post» in the subway, at the station, in the stores, etc.. if I would need it.», «I informed Post» in the subway, at the station, in the stores, etc.. if I would need it.», «I informed the municipality about my handicap.» «the relay citizen of the district informed the fire the municipality about my handicap.» «the relay citizen of the district informed the fire brigade that there are old people in our building».” brigade that there are old people in our building».” 7. The information about “Where will we be sheltered in case of an evacuation?”. 7. The information about “Where will we be sheltered in case of an evacuation?”. 8. A specific preparation for emergency situations: “I have an emergency kit for the daily 8. A specific preparation for emergency situations: “I have an emergency kit for the daily injuries and one in case of a disaster.” injuries and one in case of a disaster.” 9. The detection of “weak signals”, i.e. of dysfunctions, “near-missed accidents” or small 9. The detection of “weak signals”, i.e. of dysfunctions, “near-missed accidents” or small size incidents but whose existence or repetition can hide the potential for a more serious size incidents but whose existence or repetition can hide the potential for a more serious accident. In other words, the “benign” accidents/injuries are precursors of more serious accident. In other words, the “benign” accidents/injuries are precursors of more serious accidents/injuries: “I almost had an accident: Why that did happen? How can I prevent accidents/injuries: “I almost had an accident: Why that did happen? How can I prevent this situation from happening again?” this situation from happening again?” 10. Experience feedbacks of situations faced: “And if that happens to me?”, “If that occurs 10. Experience feedbacks of situations faced: “And if that happens to me?”, “If that occurs here?”, “What lessons did I derive from it? What did I learn from what has just happened? here?”, “What lessons did I derive from it? What did I learn from what has just happened? or from the TV report on this disaster?” or from the TV report on this disaster?”

36 36 11. Access to information (e.g. dedicated Internet sites) and participation in events (road 11. Access to information (e.g. dedicated Internet sites) and participation in events (road safety demonstrations, alarm and rescue drills, Green Week, World First Aid Day, etc.). safety demonstrations, alarm and rescue drills, Green Week, World First Aid Day, etc.).

“The disaster is not to consider as the meteorite which falls from the sky on “The disaster is not to consider as the meteorite which falls from the sky on an innocent world; the disaster, generally and very often, prevents.” Patrick an innocent world; the disaster, generally and very often, prevents.” Patrick Lagadec, co-founder of the European Crisis Management Academy (5) Lagadec, co-founder of the European Crisis Management Academy (5)

It is not a question for the citizen becoming paranoid but, more simply, being It is not a question for the citizen becoming paranoid but, more simply, being attentive to his life and health, as well as, if possible, to those who surround attentive to his life and health, as well as, if possible, to those who surround him. him.

To initiate a change within the community, efforts must be made to: To initiate a change within the community, efforts must be made to:

• focus on a small group of citizens at the outset; those who appear spontaneously • focus on a small group of citizens at the outset; those who appear spontaneously and voluntarily to understand, learn or help make the changes. They will be called and voluntarily to understand, learn or help make the changes. They will be called “relay citizens” in the rest of this report, “relay citizens” in the rest of this report, • begin with small projects, centred on the community (the district, the village), • begin with small projects, centred on the community (the district, the village), in which participants will find positive interests/benefits/impacts, individuals/ in which participants will find positive interests/benefits/impacts, individuals/ family, and rapid/short term visibility (e.g. safety week in the district), family, and rapid/short term visibility (e.g. safety week in the district), • be carried out in agreement with other members of the community, the • be carried out in agreement with other members of the community, the authorities and the rescue, care and assistance organizations of the territory authorities and the rescue, care and assistance organizations of the territory concerned. concerned.

Some local examples can be considered as case studies regarding the support given to Some local examples can be considered as case studies regarding the support given to vulnerable people during an alert: vulnerable people during an alert: - Porto Marghera (Italy) with its network of district reference volunteers, - Porto Marghera (Italy) with its network of district reference volunteers, - Feyzin (France) with a local presence through small spots. - Feyzin (France) with a local presence through small spots.

Volunteers are strongly present in districts in order to inform the population in a preventive Volunteers are strongly present in districts in order to inform the population in a preventive way, and to ensure all threatened people care themselves during crisis. Thus vulnerable way, and to ensure all threatened people care themselves during crisis. Thus vulnerable persons are taken into consideration and the social link between the population and the persons are taken into consideration and the social link between the population and the crisis management system is maintained. crisis management system is maintained.

There are many success stories. The European Union financed the creation of communal There are many success stories. The European Union financed the creation of communal brigades mandated to help the populations in the seismic zone of southern Peru. This brigades mandated to help the populations in the seismic zone of southern Peru. This deployment is done from the pilot experiment undertaken by the Peruvian Red Cross in deployment is done from the pilot experiment undertaken by the Peruvian Red Cross in Arequipa, second city of the country. Another example comes from Cuba where there was Arequipa, second city of the country. Another example comes from Cuba where there was to deplore only some victims among the 700,000 people affected by the cyclone Michele to deplore only some victims among the 700,000 people affected by the cyclone Michele (November 2001), even thought it was the more violent one since 1944. This was possible (November 2001), even thought it was the more violent one since 1944. This was possible thanks to the level of disaster preparedness of the citizens. (6) thanks to the level of disaster preparedness of the citizens. (6)

“Relay citizens” presence helps a customised management of the crisis, while “Relay citizens” presence helps a customised management of the crisis, while maintaining a social cohesion within the community.” maintaining a social cohesion within the community.”

The methods to support this progression are varied: The methods to support this progression are varied:

• bear in mind personal, family or community experiences. They can come from • bear in mind personal, family or community experiences. They can come from elsewhere, provided that are comparable: characteristics of the context and elsewhere, provided that are comparable: characteristics of the context and victims or witnesses (discussing the risks and consequences of a tsunami which victims or witnesses (discussing the risks and consequences of a tsunami which citizens living in a coastal areas but not to those in mountains), citizens living in a coastal areas but not to those in mountains), • to be identified with credible and legitimate “champions”, who will back this • to be identified with credible and legitimate “champions”, who will back this approach; in particular recognized and respected leaders of the community, approach; in particular recognized and respected leaders of the community,

37 37 • to be swept along the community “innovators” or “early adopters”, pointing out • to be swept along the community “innovators” or “early adopters”, pointing out the potential and actual benefit/advantages, and costs/investments necessary, the potential and actual benefit/advantages, and costs/investments necessary, “I did it, it is easy, it is useful…” “I did it, it is easy, it is useful…” • going in the field to identify risks, adequate behaviours and solutions achieved or • going in the field to identify risks, adequate behaviours and solutions achieved or achievable: visit district looking for risk situations… achievable: visit district looking for risk situations… • noting that “good practises/behaviours” are recognized, eventually rewarded, by • noting that “good practises/behaviours” are recognized, eventually rewarded, by leaders and/or local authorities and/or rescue, care and assistance leaders and/or local authorities and/or rescue, care and assistance organizations, organizations, • to learn that the “bad practises/bad behaviours” are pinpointed, and that • to learn that the “bad practises/bad behaviours” are pinpointed, and that accompanying measures offered to make the necessary change for them to accompanying measures offered to make the necessary change for them to become “good practises/good behaviours”. become “good practises/good behaviours”. • to integrate a local association or a rescue, care and assistance organization such • to integrate a local association or a rescue, care and assistance organization such as the civil protection or the Red Cross. as the civil protection or the Red Cross.

These methods can of course be combined. They are elements of citizen coaching which These methods can of course be combined. They are elements of citizen coaching which the authorities could use, or better still, local organizations with assistance of “relay citi- the authorities could use, or better still, local organizations with assistance of “relay citizens”. zens”.

The citizen needs to take practical actions in the most realistic context which The citizen needs to take practical actions in the most realistic context which most closely resembles that in which he lives, works or plays. He should concre- most closely resembles that in which he lives, works or plays. He should concre- tely adopt behaviour and practices for his self-protection. He will assess an tely adopt behaviour and practices for his self-protection. He will assess an easy/simple implementation and positive advantages/impacts. easy/simple implementation and positive advantages/impacts.

Support: information Support: information

Why? Why? The essence of behavioural change relies on messages and a communication intended: The essence of behavioural change relies on messages and a communication intended:

- to change the perception citizens have of risks and, - to change the perception citizens have of risks and, - to encourage them to act adequately and efficiently. - to encourage them to act adequately and efficiently.

To develop information without a strategy, distribute leaflets or write Web pages are not To develop information without a strategy, distribute leaflets or write Web pages are not a purpose. a purpose.

The “why” of their undertaking must be explained and argued to citizens in order to: The “why” of their undertaking must be explained and argued to citizens in order to:

- protect and save lives, initially theirs and those of their relatives; - protect and save lives, initially theirs and those of their relatives; - limit the other consequences of the event. - limit the other consequences of the event.

In Europe, eight out of ten heart failures occur in a home context and more In Europe, eight out of ten heart failures occur in a home context and more than 60% of drownings occur in privative settings. than 60% of drownings occur in privative settings.

How? How? Information must result from an interactive process of the exchange Information must result from an interactive process of the exchange of assets and opinions using a citizen/community centred approach. of assets and opinions using a citizen/community centred approach. Authorities, community opinion leaders, ‘relay-citizens’, journalists, Authorities, community opinion leaders, ‘relay-citizens’, journalists, experts, representatives of rescue, care and assistance organisations, experts, representatives of rescue, care and assistance organisations, managers of industrial sites, schools and other resource person managers of industrial sites, schools and other resource person implicated in risk and emergency management should participate. implicated in risk and emergency management should participate.

38 38 Exchanges concern: Exchanges concern:

- the nature of risks and their consequences, - the nature of risks and their consequences, - appropriate responses to limit/control them, if possible, even remove them. - appropriate responses to limit/control them, if possible, even remove them.

In the selection of suitable communication strategies to educate citizens, it is necessary to: In the selection of suitable communication strategies to educate citizens, it is necessary to:

• Understand how people adopt a new behaviour, especially regarding • Understand how people adopt a new behaviour, especially regarding self-protection. This behaviour is initially related to a personal/individual self-protection. This behaviour is initially related to a personal/individual perception of the risk. Thus health education campaigns, based on epidemiologic perception of the risk. Thus health education campaigns, based on epidemiologic evidences, clearly identified behavioural changes that target audiences should evidences, clearly identified behavioural changes that target audiences should adopt. For example, regular physical exercise and a balanced diet reduced adopt. For example, regular physical exercise and a balanced diet reduced cardiovascular risks in adults aged between 30 to 50. In emergency situations, cardiovascular risks in adults aged between 30 to 50. In emergency situations, statistics prove that the largest number of lives are saved thanks to: statistics prove that the largest number of lives are saved thanks to: > healthy and safe behaviour, > healthy and safe behaviour, > immediate actions of the first witnesses or non wounded people implicated. > immediate actions of the first witnesses or non wounded people implicated.

• Allowing the citizen part of the initiative taking or making a choice, but at the • Allowing the citizen part of the initiative taking or making a choice, but at the same time setting down the principles and actions. For example: same time setting down the principles and actions. For example: - Evacuation - - Evacuation - Principle Actions Principle Actions - Follow instructions given by the - Follow instructions given by the authorities. authorities. - Follow evacuation arrows. - Follow evacuation arrows. Reach safely a safe/secure place - Use emergency exits. Reach safely a safe/secure place - Use emergency exits. in order to avoid becoming a victim in order to avoid becoming a victim of an emergency situation. - Go to meeting point. of an emergency situation. - Go to meeting point. - Do not run. - Do not run. - Do not use your car. - Do not use your car. - Etc. - Etc.

• Moreover, the increase importance of non conventional problems related to the • Moreover, the increase importance of non conventional problems related to the fragile overlap of vital networks (water, electricity, telephone, roads, etc.), fragile overlap of vital networks (water, electricity, telephone, roads, etc.), upon which emergency situations management system and citizens were very upon which emergency situations management system and citizens were very dependent requires collective capacities to question, and not simply to draw on a dependent requires collective capacities to question, and not simply to draw on a stock of codified answers. stock of codified answers.

Each time there is a choice, there is, at least Each time there is a choice, there is, at least psychologically, a personal construction of the psychologically, a personal construction of the answer, therefore an investment/a personal appro- answer, therefore an investment/a personal appropriation of the event, as well as a development of priation of the event, as well as a development of knowledge. knowledge.

If documents are produced, it is necessary for those in charge of disseminating information If documents are produced, it is necessary for those in charge of disseminating information to have a real communication strategy. to have a real communication strategy.

39 39 If informative supports are produced, it is recommended for those in charge If informative supports are produced, it is recommended for those in charge of disseminating information to work as follows: of disseminating information to work as follows:

1. ensure participation of concerned citizens, 1. ensure participation of concerned citizens, 2. present the documents, 2. present the documents, 3. explain/comment on provided information, 3. explain/comment on provided information, 4. demonstrate the practises shown (required or advised), 4. demonstrate the practises shown (required or advised), 5. test these practises with each citizen in the context in which he will 5. test these practises with each citizen in the context in which he will implement them (therefore it does not only happen in a conference room!), implement them (therefore it does not only happen in a conference room!), 6. validate the assets by a questionnaire (e.g. surveys) and a practical 6. validate the assets by a questionnaire (e.g. surveys) and a practical application, during: application, during: - simulations exercises in more or less real conditions of an emergency - simulations exercises in more or less real conditions of an emergency situation, situation, - visits in the community and homes. - visits in the community and homes. 7. follow up the evolution of learning during common meetings, such as: 7. follow up the evolution of learning during common meetings, such as: - public events (the Safety Week in the district, the World First Aid Day, etc.), - public events (the Safety Week in the district, the World First Aid Day, etc.), - evacuation and alarm drills, - evacuation and alarm drills, 8. ensure necessary continuous trainings and further information according 8. ensure necessary continuous trainings and further information according to needs and demands. to needs and demands.

What? What? It is no longer possible to be satisfied in simply delivering standardized informative contents It is no longer possible to be satisfied in simply delivering standardized informative contents (e.g. distributing tens of thousands leaflet), even if they refer to common standards (e.g. the (e.g. distributing tens of thousands leaflet), even if they refer to common standards (e.g. the ways of protecting oneself during an earthquake are universal taking into account the types ways of protecting oneself during an earthquake are universal taking into account the types of construction which exist within the European Union). of construction which exist within the European Union).

Each community has its specific characteristics: practices, beliefs, priorities, etc. Each mem- Each community has its specific characteristics: practices, beliefs, priorities, etc. Each member has personal/individual reasons for acting. ber has personal/individual reasons for acting.

It is necessary to provide communities and therefore each individual, with It is necessary to provide communities and therefore each individual, with information which will allow them to take “good” decisions for themselves information which will allow them to take “good” decisions for themselves regarding the risks. regarding the risks.

Citizens must know that: Citizens must know that:

- risks exist, without minimizing or exaggerating them, - risks exist, without minimizing or exaggerating them, - emergency situations do arise, - emergency situations do arise, - there are safety measures and which are the ones under citizen responsibility - there are safety measures and which are the ones under citizen responsibility (what to do and what not to do), (what to do and what not to do), - there are physical, psychological and material consequences of emergency - there are physical, psychological and material consequences of emergency situations, situations, - when and how alarm have to be given and is managed, - when and how alarm have to be given and is managed, - what are the missions and functioning of the emergency situations management - what are the missions and functioning of the emergency situations management system and knowing what citizen contribution to its better effectiveness, by system and knowing what citizen contribution to its better effectiveness, by advisedly requesting it and allowing an optimal use/mobilization of the collective advisedly requesting it and allowing an optimal use/mobilization of the collective rescue, care and of assistance resources. rescue, care and of assistance resources.

40 40 What about the end result of the information? What about the end result of the information?

• Why it is necessary for this community to be informed? • Why it is necessary for this community to be informed? > Has the community ask for it? > Has the community ask for it? > Are there vulnerable groups? > Are there vulnerable groups? > Is there a proven risk? > Is there a proven risk? > Did a change occur (new legislation, modification of regulation, > Did a change occur (new legislation, modification of regulation, new building, etc)? etc. and, new building, etc)? etc. and, • To do what? • To do what? > To identify the risks at home? > To identify the risks at home? > To have an emergency plan for the family? > To have an emergency plan for the family? > To be prepared for disasters? etc. > To be prepared for disasters? etc.

Self-protection related information must be concrete, simple, and linking the Self-protection related information must be concrete, simple, and linking the everyday life situations with exceptional situations. everyday life situations with exceptional situations.

Refer to: Appendix ‘S’, which is likely to inspire local efforts Refer to: Appendix ‘S’, which is likely to inspire local efforts

Information represents an essential concern in the risk and emergency situation manage- Information represents an essential concern in the risk and emergency situation management, it is necessary to approach it carefully, but clearly, by taking into account a certain ment, it is necessary to approach it carefully, but clearly, by taking into account a certain number of factors related to: number of factors related to:

- the regular upheavals in the scientific field and its uncertainties, - the regular upheavals in the scientific field and its uncertainties, - the result of feedback from field experiences, which sometimes present surprises - the result of feedback from field experiences, which sometimes present surprises undermining hypotheses and plans. undermining hypotheses and plans.

The messages must have certain key characteristics to: The messages must have certain key characteristics to:

The authorities “Me, mayor of this city; I am in charge of pro- The authorities “Me, mayor of this city; I am in charge of pro- should show a tecting the civilians; I comply with all the safety should show a tecting the civilians; I comply with all the safety suitable level of requirements; I have my action plan in the event of suitable level of requirements; I have my action plan in the event of implication: an emergency; implication: an emergency;

I am First Aid trained; I decide on alarm and I am First Aid trained; I decide on alarm and rescue drills and I take part in them completely rescue drills and I take part in them completely and openly, etc.”. and openly, etc.”.

41 41 Messages should be “That can happen here”, “Everyone is vulnerable Messages should be “That can happen here”, “Everyone is vulnerable explicit and but everyone can contribute saving a life”. explicit and but everyone can contribute saving a life”. encouraging: encouraging: They should be “Look at what you have already achieved”, They should be “Look at what you have already achieved”, positive*: positive*: “75% of those implicated adopt “normal” “75% of those implicated adopt “normal” behaviour in protection, and can help each behaviour in protection, and can help each other”. other”.

Being positive is also expressing an “action Being positive is also expressing an “action culture” and not a “danger/risk culture” an exces- culture” and not a “danger/risk culture” an excessive negative implication; sive negative implication; one should act to prevent, prepare and one should act to prevent, prepare and respond. respond.

They should be “To prevent and take part in emergency situations They should be “To prevent and take part in emergency situations realistic: is a long term engagement. It takes time. We can realistic: is a long term engagement. It takes time. We can have surprises to which we should respond.” have surprises to which we should respond.”

They should be “Here what is awaited of you…”, They should be “Here what is awaited of you…”, concrete: “Here is what is at your disposal for…”. concrete: “Here is what is at your disposal for…”.

They should be “There, immediately, what we could do to…”. They should be “There, immediately, what we could do to…”. pragmatic: pragmatic: “You might be not rescued rapidly.” “You might be not rescued rapidly.”

“We cannot do everything, everywhere, immedia- “We cannot do everything, everywhere, immediately, in all circumstances and for all.” tely, in all circumstances and for all.”

Priorities should be “There, immediately, with our means, what we Priorities should be “There, immediately, with our means, what we defined: could do to…”. defined: could do to…”.

[*] Being positive is also expressing an “action culture” and not a “danger/risk culture” with excessive negative [*] Being positive is also expressing an “action culture” and not a “danger/risk culture” with excessive negative implications; one should act to prevent, prepare and respond. implications; one should act to prevent, prepare and respond.

Information can be presented in a concrete way. There is a domestic risks house which Information can be presented in a concrete way. There is a domestic risks house which sensitizes adults the risks children face. This “giant house” represents children’s space and sensitizes adults the risks children face. This “giant house” represents children’s space and objects in adult dimensions.(7) objects in adult dimensions.(7)

Other interactive educational approaches exist for children in Portugal (European project Other interactive educational approaches exist for children in Portugal (European project Tìnonì) and Great Britain (LASER project). There also exists equipment and simulations Tìnonì) and Great Britain (LASER project). There also exists equipment and simulations recreating the physical and sensory changes which tseniors and old people undergo recreating the physical and sensory changes which tseniors and old people undergo (vision, dexterity, mobility, etc). (vision, dexterity, mobility, etc). Note: Note: The added value of the approach of “putting people in situation” is recalled in the part of The added value of the approach of “putting people in situation” is recalled in the part of this report related to the most vulnerable citizens. this report related to the most vulnerable citizens. Although the ultimate goal is to obtain the adoption or reinforcement of suitable beha- Although the ultimate goal is to obtain the adoption or reinforcement of suitable behaviour, it should be born in mind that communication – reiterated, even harped on- creates, viour, it should be born in mind that communication – reiterated, even harped on- creates,

42 42 changes or reinforces opinions and beliefs. These opinions and beliefs in their turn influence changes or reinforces opinions and beliefs. These opinions and beliefs in their turn influence self-protection attitudes and perception. self-protection attitudes and perception.

How? How? Human have always communicated about risks, a matter of survival! Parents can testify Human have always communicated about risks, a matter of survival! Parents can testify that risk awareness is a large part of children’s education, which, in certain cases is a family that risk awareness is a large part of children’s education, which, in certain cases is a family heritage. Times have changed, and in the majority of cases, knowledge is no longer passed heritage. Times have changed, and in the majority of cases, knowledge is no longer passed on by traditional sources, nor is it passed down verbally. Today information on a majority of on by traditional sources, nor is it passed down verbally. Today information on a majority of subjects is transmitted through the media, of which Internet holds a dominating position, subjects is transmitted through the media, of which Internet holds a dominating position, especially towards certain categories of citizen: youth and young managers. especially towards certain categories of citizen: youth and young managers. One should not forget the importance of the journalistic reports and cinematographic films One should not forget the importance of the journalistic reports and cinematographic films as vehicles of sensitisation. It is sometimes expressed that the history and the life are learnt as vehicles of sensitisation. It is sometimes expressed that the history and the life are learnt more by watching the television or at the cinema, rather than at school or in family. more by watching the television or at the cinema, rather than at school or in family. However the privileged disseminate information channels, to date, remain those of proximi- However the privileged disseminate information channels, to date, remain those of proximity; those used by community leaders, local organizations, local politicians and rescue, care ty; those used by community leaders, local organizations, local politicians and rescue, care and assistance organizations, despite media exposure, which is sometimes very emotional and assistance organizations, despite media exposure, which is sometimes very emotional - such as that given to the 2005 tsunami in Asia. - such as that given to the 2005 tsunami in Asia.

“People trust their practises, the tradition, the opinion of their neighbours “People trust their practises, the tradition, the opinion of their neighbours and good sense rules.” Fischhof (8) and good sense rules.” Fischhof (8)

However if the answers provided by these local relays/mediators are unsatisfac- However if the answers provided by these local relays/mediators are unsatisfactory, confused, incomprehensible, erroneous, or sometimes delayed, then “external” tory, confused, incomprehensible, erroneous, or sometimes delayed, then “external” contributors take over. contributors take over.

Thus the study of the populations of the Alsatian area around the fire of the Sandoz-Basle Thus the study of the populations of the Alsatian area around the fire of the Sandoz-Basle factory on 1 November 1986, shows that the position he holds in society (age, political factory on 1 November 1986, shows that the position he holds in society (age, political leaning (these two factors being related to his position and his personal trajectory) leaning (these two factors being related to his position and his personal trajectory) determine the perception which he will have of a disaster. (9) determine the perception which he will have of a disaster. (9)

However if the answers provided by these local relays/mediators are unsatisfactory, being However if the answers provided by these local relays/mediators are unsatisfactory, being perceived as incomprehensible, erroneous, or sometimes delayed, “external” contributors perceived as incomprehensible, erroneous, or sometimes delayed, “external” contributors then take over. then take over.

Another means of communicating is to represent in a durable way the breadth of the Another means of communicating is to represent in a durable way the breadth of the emergency situation, or of its consequences. For example, painting on a wall the date and emergency situation, or of its consequences. For example, painting on a wall the date and height the flood water reached after various floods can serve as a collective memory lesson. height the flood water reached after various floods can serve as a collective memory lesson.

These proximity information channels guarantees that: These proximity information channels guarantees that: - there is a face to face communication (simple discussions), - there is a face to face communication (simple discussions), - specificities are taken into account (children, the elderly, the - specificities are taken into account (children, the elderly, the handicapped people, migrant, etc.) and the local culture respected, handicapped people, migrant, etc.) and the local culture respected, be it varied/plural (e.g. presence of immigrants in the district, the village), be it varied/plural (e.g. presence of immigrants in the district, the village), - there is a certain sustainability, with regard the fragility of - there is a certain sustainability, with regard the fragility of telecommunication systems (power dumps, rupture of underground telecommunication systems (power dumps, rupture of underground cables, saturated circuits, etc.). cables, saturated circuits, etc.).

43 43 They must be multiple/numerous in: They must be multiple/numerous in: - their kind: training in classroom, publics events, etc - their kind: training in classroom, publics events, etc - their type: role playing, Internet, e-learning, posters, booklets, cards, etc. - their type: role playing, Internet, e-learning, posters, booklets, cards, etc. - their length: - their length: • one week a year as one moment of convergence of the institutional, • one week a year as one moment of convergence of the institutional, associative and media initiatives, associative and media initiatives, • every time the community is face with or affected by an emergency • every time the community is face with or affected by an emergency situation. [see below]. situation. [see below].

This diversity guarantees access to and the relevance of information to the largest number This diversity guarantees access to and the relevance of information to the largest number of people. of people.

The media have a significant leverage power, primarily during and immediately after The media have a significant leverage power, primarily during and immediately after emergencies. They can mobilize citizens for compassion and donations. It is, however, often emergencies. They can mobilize citizens for compassion and donations. It is, however, often short lived, as it is created by brutal exposure to raw or unanalyzed facts. The media should short lived, as it is created by brutal exposure to raw or unanalyzed facts. The media should be vehicles for educational messages that: be vehicles for educational messages that:

• stress the importance of local citizens in rescue and protection in the first • stress the importance of local citizens in rescue and protection in the first instances (testimonies, human interest stories, statistics, etc.), instances (testimonies, human interest stories, statistics, etc.), • present roles and places of the local rescue, care and assistance system • present roles and places of the local rescue, care and assistance system (interviews, etc.), (interviews, etc.), • remind or motivate citizens who listen to, look at or read them, to better consider • remind or motivate citizens who listen to, look at or read them, to better consider self-protection in their territory (And if that happened in your city? What would self-protection in their territory (And if that happened in your city? What would you do? What would it be necessary to do here…, To think about…, etc.). you do? What would it be necessary to do here…, To think about…, etc.).

While expressing their opinions, giving the results of their investigations, the media should While expressing their opinions, giving the results of their investigations, the media should respect/preserve/present the institutional communication by the local authorities. respect/preserve/present the institutional communication by the local authorities.

The difference between the institutional message and the journalistic message The difference between the institutional message and the journalistic message must be made absolutely clear to the citizens. must be made absolutely clear to the citizens.

Note: Note: The “War of the Worlds” revealed the suggestive capacity of the media. On October 30, The “War of the Worlds” revealed the suggestive capacity of the media. On October 30, 1938, Orson Welles announced on the radio the arrival of Martians in the state of New 1938, Orson Welles announced on the radio the arrival of Martians in the state of New Jersey – an adaptation of “The War of the Worlds” of H.G. Wells. Many listeners connecting Jersey – an adaptation of “The War of the Worlds” of H.G. Wells. Many listeners connecting their transmitter during the emission and thus being unaware of information warning that their transmitter during the emission and thus being unaware of information warning that it was about science fiction, believed in the reality of the event. There were real effects in it was about science fiction, believed in the reality of the event. There were real effects in particular of the movements of panic (...). It is estimated that more than one million people particular of the movements of panic (...). It is estimated that more than one million people had behaviour of panic following this emission. had behaviour of panic following this emission.

Today Internet plays this part of diffuser and amplifier. Creating a break with the references Today Internet plays this part of diffuser and amplifier. Creating a break with the references of the past, Internet offers a general and permanent access to its “memory”, as well as to of the past, Internet offers a general and permanent access to its “memory”, as well as to all rumours which are not transitory any more. all rumours which are not transitory any more.

When surveyed, the citizens almost systematically refer to the fact that “they listen to the When surveyed, the citizens almost systematically refer to the fact that “they listen to the radio” in the event of a disaster. This is true almost everywhere in the world. radio” in the event of a disaster. This is true almost everywhere in the world.

The pictograms “containment”, “listening of the radio” exist for each country. The pictograms “containment”, “listening of the radio” exist for each country.

44 44 This information channel relies on a rustic broadcasting technology. However, the use of This information channel relies on a rustic broadcasting technology. However, the use of telecommunication systems (radio, television, telephone - land and mobile, Internet) must telecommunication systems (radio, television, telephone - land and mobile, Internet) must be looked at carefully. In fact: be looked at carefully. In fact:

(a) redundant means must be kept in order to allow a wider access, (a) redundant means must be kept in order to allow a wider access, (b) the quality of information must be guaranteed whatever the means used, (b) the quality of information must be guaranteed whatever the means used, (c) reliability of the power source of the receiver (electricity or battery or hand (c) reliability of the power source of the receiver (electricity or battery or hand generator?), and generator?), and (d) sustainability of the transmitters (e.g. in the event of power cuts), of the (d) sustainability of the transmitters (e.g. in the event of power cuts), of the transmission network (e.g. resistance in all circumstances?). transmission network (e.g. resistance in all circumstances?).

Answering these questions helps to determine the value of the information diffusion channel. Answering these questions helps to determine the value of the information diffusion channel.

It may be practical and reassuring to have an unique reference for the radio It may be practical and reassuring to have an unique reference for the radio (a frequency and a station), television (a TV channel), telephone (an opera- (a frequency and a station), television (a TV channel), telephone (an opera- tor) and Internet (a dedicated site), without restricting the number of other tor) and Internet (a dedicated site), without restricting the number of other stations or channels or sites. These references must have their means and stations or channels or sites. These references must have their means and broadcast networks protected from the effects of emergency situations. broadcast networks protected from the effects of emergency situations.

Very quickly after the explosion of the AZF factory, a local radio station Very quickly after the explosion of the AZF factory, a local radio station opens a frequency dedicated to the event, opens a frequency dedicated to the event, which broadcasted several months after which broadcasted several months after

Note: Note: A constant gap is the saturation of telephone lines, due to a lack of specialized or dedicated A constant gap is the saturation of telephone lines, due to a lack of specialized or dedicated lines. One can also raise the issue put forward for many years of creating an emergency lines. One can also raise the issue put forward for many years of creating an emergency information centre, a radio station emitting on a particular frequency of the type TA (Advi- information centre, a radio station emitting on a particular frequency of the type TA (Advi- sor Traffic) which one can find on certain car radios RDS, and giving practical and reliable sor Traffic) which one can find on certain car radios RDS, and giving practical and reliable information which is the case on motorways. information which is the case on motorways.

Particular information diffusion channels must be considered: sirens and pictograms. Particular information diffusion channels must be considered: sirens and pictograms.

Recommendations of the IRIS project should be institutionalised within the Recommendations of the IRIS project should be institutionalised within the Member States of the European Union. Member States of the European Union.

Refer to: The project IRIS (International Risk System Information) initiated Refer to: The project IRIS (International Risk System Information) initiated in 2003 and supported by the Commission, proposed a harmonization of in 2003 and supported by the Commission, proposed a harmonization of the pictograms and alarm of the populations in the event of natural and the pictograms and alarm of the populations in the event of natural and industrial disaster. (10) industrial disaster. (10)

Finally it should be noted that certain citizens must be sources of information: Finally it should be noted that certain citizens must be sources of information:

- families, friends and/or neighbours of handicapped, sick or old people must make - families, friends and/or neighbours of handicapped, sick or old people must make sure that they are informed and prepared, sure that they are informed and prepared, - home service people must indicate to their patients/customers the methods to alert - home service people must indicate to their patients/customers the methods to alert them in the event of an emergency situation. them in the event of an emergency situation.

When the dependence of the handicapped, sick or old person is important, the citizens When the dependence of the handicapped, sick or old person is important, the citizens and the above-mentioned professionals must make sure that the social services and/or the and the above-mentioned professionals must make sure that the social services and/or the rescue, care and assistance organisations are informed. rescue, care and assistance organisations are informed.

45 45 When? [see below “Places and calendar”] When? [see below “Places and calendar”] Each emergency situation must be considered as an excellent opportunity: Each emergency situation must be considered as an excellent opportunity:

- to reinforce/repeat messages, - to reinforce/repeat messages, - to review practises and materials. - to review practises and materials.

Many studies underline the opportunity creates by an emergency situation to convince and Many studies underline the opportunity creates by an emergency situation to convince and mobilise the citizens for their self-protection - in particular those which were victims. (11) mobilise the citizens for their self-protection - in particular those which were victims. (11)

Communities can be affected by emergency situations such as: Communities can be affected by emergency situations such as:

- a fire in a commune, in an urban district, must motivate the local authorities to - a fire in a commune, in an urban district, must motivate the local authorities to repeat messages and propose refresher courses, with technical support of: repeat messages and propose refresher courses, with technical support of: • firemen (prevention and fire control), • firemen (prevention and fire control), • municipal services and organizations (shelter, social support), • municipal services and organizations (shelter, social support), • insurances (prevention, compensation). • insurances (prevention, compensation). - Extreme climatic conditions (important storm, severe cold, heat wave, etc.) or an - Extreme climatic conditions (important storm, severe cold, heat wave, etc.) or an emergency situation (e.g. flood) affecting a country should challenge national emergency situation (e.g. flood) affecting a country should challenge national authorities of the other countries likely to be confronted in order to check the state of: authorities of the other countries likely to be confronted in order to check the state of: • prevention, preparation and response of their services and other rescue, care and • prevention, preparation and response of their services and other rescue, care and of assistance organizations, of assistance organizations, • sensitization and mobilization of the populations concerned. • sensitization and mobilization of the populations concerned. Using cyclonic alarm systems in the Caribbean as an example, a European gravity Using cyclonic alarm systems in the Caribbean as an example, a European gravity scale could be established to define alarm and preparation levels [see below]. scale could be established to define alarm and preparation levels [see below]. - a proven multinational disaster (e.g. epidemics) must encourage regional authorities - a proven multinational disaster (e.g. epidemics) must encourage regional authorities to test, update and if necessary, enable the advancement of regional alarm and to test, update and if necessary, enable the advancement of regional alarm and coordination systems. coordination systems.

It is quite obvious that the following sequences can be interrelated: It is quite obvious that the following sequences can be interrelated:

- a fire in a hotel which makes the front page of the national media can be an - a fire in a hotel which makes the front page of the national media can be an incentive for other communes, cities, even the country and others, not only to revise incentive for other communes, cities, even the country and others, not only to revise their safety requirements, but citizen knowledge and prevention practises and their safety requirements, but citizen knowledge and prevention practises and methods of fighting such incidents, methods of fighting such incidents, - the consequences of the 2005 Asian tsunami can represent a preparatory “model”, - the consequences of the 2005 Asian tsunami can represent a preparatory “model”, at citizen level, for a similar disaster situation in the Mediterranean basin. at citizen level, for a similar disaster situation in the Mediterranean basin.

These reminders must begin in the affected communities, then gradually widen/be pro- These reminders must begin in the affected communities, then gradually widen/be proposed to other communities and territories, either because they: posed to other communities and territories, either because they:

- are near the disaster site, - are near the disaster site, - have similar characteristics, - have similar characteristics, - are requested by the citizens. - are requested by the citizens.

The commemoration of emergency situations which particularly affected a po- The commemoration of emergency situations which particularly affected a population and/or a group can represent opportunities to (re)sensitise citizens of pulation and/or a group can represent opportunities to (re)sensitise citizens of the community or other communities. the community or other communities.

46 46 It is, however, advisable to take into consideration cultural and religious landmarks, as well It is, however, advisable to take into consideration cultural and religious landmarks, as well as the emotional state of the audience with regard to the event and its commemoration. as the emotional state of the audience with regard to the event and its commemoration. The objective is to underline the positive points of maintaining preventive and response The objective is to underline the positive points of maintaining preventive and response capacities in exceptional situations, without however commemorating events to excess. capacities in exceptional situations, without however commemorating events to excess.

This experience can be spontaneously transmitted in a family, from one generation to the This experience can be spontaneously transmitted in a family, from one generation to the next, or on a territory, from one community to another. next, or on a territory, from one community to another.

Note: Note: However, the experience can sometimes prove to be counter-productive. The citizen or the However, the experience can sometimes prove to be counter-productive. The citizen or the community can have lived an emergency situation of low intensity, and thus believe that community can have lived an emergency situation of low intensity, and thus believe that he/it is able to face a situation of greater intensity without assessing new potential risks. he/it is able to face a situation of greater intensity without assessing new potential risks. Here again post crisis debriefing is justified as it helps put lessons learnt into perspective Here again post crisis debriefing is justified as it helps put lessons learnt into perspective during an emergency situation. during an emergency situation.

Alarm and rescue drills are highly educational for citizens. Alarm and rescue drills are highly educational for citizens.

They enable them to: They enable them to: - discover the rescue, care and assistance organizations in operation, - discover the rescue, care and assistance organizations in operation, and thus better understand them and be reassured as to the support and thus better understand them and be reassured as to the support expected from them, expected from them, - validate their knowledge and practices, by implementing thinking - validate their knowledge and practices, by implementing thinking and action capacities, and action capacities, - propose information, training and equipment according to the needs and - propose information, training and equipment according to the needs and gaps identified. gaps identified.

Consequently, drills bringing together citizens must be: Consequently, drills bringing together citizens must be: - on a territorial scale to which individuals, families and communities - on a territorial scale to which individuals, families and communities can easily identify, can easily identify, - undertaken “on their premises”: in their district, factory, village, - undertaken “on their premises”: in their district, factory, village, school, social centre, etc. school, social centre, etc. - be realistic regarding the emergency situations that the citizens - be realistic regarding the emergency situations that the citizens can/will encounter, can/will encounter, - integrate the spontaneous reactions of the citizens, and not those - integrate the spontaneous reactions of the citizens, and not those envisaged by plans. envisaged by plans.

During an emergency situation, the objective is to provide answers to the following During an emergency situation, the objective is to provide answers to the following questions: questions:

- What is happening? - What is happening? - What must/should be done? - What must/should be done? - How will the situation evolve? - How will the situation evolve? - What needs to be done? - What needs to be done?

Answers must be given to the citizens who need them and to those who ask for them. Answers must be given to the citizens who need them and to those who ask for them. They must be provided in a correct and timely manner, from sources and through reliable They must be provided in a correct and timely manner, from sources and through reliable channels recognized and accepted by the population. channels recognized and accepted by the population.

47 47 The authorities, experts and rescue, care and assistance organizations must The authorities, experts and rescue, care and assistance organizations must be ready to answer clearly requests for information from citizens. They should be ready to answer clearly requests for information from citizens. They should also stimulate these demands. also stimulate these demands.

Note: Note: The economic consequences can in certain cases influence local authorities in the diffusion The economic consequences can in certain cases influence local authorities in the diffusion and/or access to information if this can make hesitate tourists before coming on holiday or and/or access to information if this can make hesitate tourists before coming on holiday or attending an international event. It should be noted that obligatory vaccinations and strict attending an international event. It should be noted that obligatory vaccinations and strict food and hygiene regulations which are prevalent in certain countries or areas have not food and hygiene regulations which are prevalent in certain countries or areas have not prevented an increase in the number of visitors. They are prerequisites in deciding on such prevented an increase in the number of visitors. They are prerequisites in deciding on such or such a destination that tourists both understand and accept. It is done for their health! or such a destination that tourists both understand and accept. It is done for their health!

Support: training Support: training

Why? Why? Common sense is not sufficient to understand the risks, adopt the behaviour to control Common sense is not sufficient to understand the risks, adopt the behaviour to control them and react in emergency situation. Complementary knowledge and practises are es- them and react in emergency situation. Complementary knowledge and practises are essential. sential.

Being trained, the citizen must be able: Being trained, the citizen must be able:

- to recognise the risks which relate to him, - to recognise the risks which relate to him, - to adopt the suitable behaviour to control them, - to adopt the suitable behaviour to control them, - to act in an emergency situation. - to act in an emergency situation.

How? How? For the citizen, the training stages enable them to: For the citizen, the training stages enable them to:

1. apprehend the existence of risks, identify them and appraise the possibilities 1. apprehend the existence of risks, identify them and appraise the possibilities controlling them; controlling them; 2. know consequences of putting himself and others in danger; 2. know consequences of putting himself and others in danger; 3. know of ad hoc/suitable behaviour for a safe and healthy life; 3. know of ad hoc/suitable behaviour for a safe and healthy life; 4. know how to act in an emergency situation, and understand why; 4. know how to act in an emergency situation, and understand why; 5. adapt to different risks and situations; 5. adapt to different risks and situations; 6. maintain knowledge by behaving safely and healthy everyday, and through the 6. maintain knowledge by behaving safely and healthy everyday, and through the participation in refresher courses, alarm and rescue drills, the World First Aid Day, participation in refresher courses, alarm and rescue drills, the World First Aid Day, etc etc

Note: Note: First Aid training represents a privileged opportunity to develop/reinforce a self-protection First Aid training represents a privileged opportunity to develop/reinforce a self-protection behaviour. For example, knowing that a state of unconsciousness not quickly managed behaviour. For example, knowing that a state of unconsciousness not quickly managed leads to a vital threat (airway obstruction by not swallowed secretions and a dull tongue), leads to a vital threat (airway obstruction by not swallowed secretions and a dull tongue), brings naturally a message of prevention related to: brings naturally a message of prevention related to: • the protective value of the safety belt or the wearing of the helmet, to limit the • the protective value of the safety belt or the wearing of the helmet, to limit the consequences of a head trauma against the windscreen or the ground, which causes consequences of a head trauma against the windscreen or the ground, which causes unconsciousness, unconsciousness, • the need to respect the motorway code, in order to avoid a road crash during • the need to respect the motorway code, in order to avoid a road crash during which the head can run up. which the head can run up.

48 48 In other words, knowing the consequences of an accident and those of a non immediate In other words, knowing the consequences of an accident and those of a non immediate response, the citizen trained in First aid is motivated (a) to adopt a behaviour respecting the response, the citizen trained in First aid is motivated (a) to adopt a behaviour respecting the rules and protection, and (b) to know how to act immediately after an accident. rules and protection, and (b) to know how to act immediately after an accident. This analysis applies to the other risks and emergency situations at home, work, school, This analysis applies to the other risks and emergency situations at home, work, school, store or during leisure time. store or during leisure time.

When learning new attitudes or practises, participants must be: When learning new attitudes or practises, participants must be:

- solicited to used his acquired knowledge, assets and common sense, “What do you - solicited to used his acquired knowledge, assets and common sense, “What do you usually do in the event of…”, “How did you do when…” usually do in the event of…”, “How did you do when…” - made aware of the finality, conditions of achievement and criteria of success of these - made aware of the finality, conditions of achievement and criteria of success of these attitudes and practises, rather than to their standardised presentation. (e.g. to render attitudes and practises, rather than to their standardised presentation. (e.g. to render comprehensible the “why” and principles of stop of a haemorrhage and to leave the comprehensible the “why” and principles of stop of a haemorrhage and to leave the initiative of the technique, rather than to learn a strict compressive bandaging), initiative of the technique, rather than to learn a strict compressive bandaging), - put in situations closest to the reality which he faces day-to-day or which he would - put in situations closest to the reality which he faces day-to-day or which he would face in the event of disaster. face in the event of disaster.

This educational approach will give them the This educational approach will give them the confidence necessary to behave appropriately, and confidence necessary to behave appropriately, and to put these attitudes into practice in every day to put these attitudes into practice in every day circumstances which are not those of the training. circumstances which are not those of the training.

To prepare the programme, the training team must be made up of following elements –or To prepare the programme, the training team must be made up of following elements –or their representatives: their representatives: - local authorities, - local authorities, - leader(s) of opinion of the community, - leader(s) of opinion of the community, - the “relay citizens”, - the “relay citizens”, - the “innovators” and “early adopters”, - the “innovators” and “early adopters”, - rescue, care and assistance organizations. - rescue, care and assistance organizations.

This group should be completed with other resources persons according to the need, This group should be completed with other resources persons according to the need, such as: such as:

- school teachers/professors, for what concerns the children, - school teachers/professors, for what concerns the children, - journalists, to position the media, - journalists, to position the media, - managers of industrial sites established on the territory, - managers of industrial sites established on the territory, - etc. - etc. People who are on the spot and operational should be given priority. People who are on the spot and operational should be given priority. Whatever the training method: in a classroom, by CD-Rom, Internet, e-learning, Whatever the training method: in a classroom, by CD-Rom, Internet, e-learning, etc. they have to be held on the field in order for participants to face real etc. they have to be held on the field in order for participants to face real situations. situations.

What? What? The training programme must be: The training programme must be: • practical, action oriented, based on role playing, with realistic simulations, • practical, action oriented, based on role playing, with realistic simulations, • related to behaviour and actions which participants are really likely to • related to behaviour and actions which participants are really likely to implement, implement,

49 49 • undertaken, respecting local realities and characteristics of the participants • undertaken, respecting local realities and characteristics of the participants (culture, religion, ages, etc), (culture, religion, ages, etc), • modulated according to the demands and needs of the citizens or local • modulated according to the demands and needs of the citizens or local circumstances. circumstances.

Training modules must enable the acquisition of, or at the very least Training modules must enable the acquisition of, or at the very least the ability to: the ability to: - observe one’s life envi3ronment (home, work, road, leisure) to identify - observe one’s life envi3ronment (home, work, road, leisure) to identify the risks, the risks, - control identified risks (remove them, reduce them, earmark them), - control identified risks (remove them, reduce them, earmark them), - be aware of good practices/good behaviour and know how to recognize - be aware of good practices/good behaviour and know how to recognize bad practises/bad behaviour, bad practises/bad behaviour, - set up an emergency plan for the family. - set up an emergency plan for the family. - prevent day-to-day emergency situations, such as [*]: fires in a frying - prevent day-to-day emergency situations, such as [*]: fires in a frying pan, a chimney flue, a barbecue, a road crash, a fall, drowning, etc. pan, a chimney flue, a barbecue, a road crash, a fall, drowning, etc. - fight the material consequences of emergency situations preventing - fight the material consequences of emergency situations preventing them from spreading or causing other emergencies by [*]: fighting them from spreading or causing other emergencies by [*]: fighting fires at home (frying pan, chimney flue, barbecue), protection of a road fires at home (frying pan, chimney flue, barbecue), protection of a road crash spot, etc. crash spot, etc. - take life-saving measures (assessment, techniques and psychological - take life-saving measures (assessment, techniques and psychological support) for: an unconscious person, a person with a haemorrhage, a support) for: an unconscious person, a person with a haemorrhage, a visible skin wound or burn, a person presenting signs of faintness. visible skin wound or burn, a person presenting signs of faintness. - organize his autonomy: water treatment, sanitation, etc. - organize his autonomy: water treatment, sanitation, etc. - take part if possible in rescue and assistance operations in the event - take part if possible in rescue and assistance operations in the event of a disaster [**]: search, stretchering, logistics, etc of a disaster [**]: search, stretchering, logistics, etc

[*] the list is to be specified with the citizens/communities according to faced or potential risks and emergency [*] the list is to be specified with the citizens/communities according to faced or potential risks and emergency situations. situations. [**] the activities are defined according to the needs of the local organisations and the requests of the citizens. [**] the activities are defined according to the needs of the local organisations and the requests of the citizens.

Taking into account the educational tendencies of the programs intended for general Taking into account the educational tendencies of the programs intended for general public, each module of formation should be of a short duration: for example, each module public, each module of formation should be of a short duration: for example, each module would be scheduled for a session from 1 to 3 hours. It allows citizens to participate without would be scheduled for a session from 1 to 3 hours. It allows citizens to participate without monopolising their available time too much (first obstacle identified in the survey). monopolising their available time too much (first obstacle identified in the survey).

When? When?

The programming of the training should permit the participation of the largest number of The programming of the training should permit the participation of the largest number of people. people.

Programming of training sessions must be varied: Programming of training sessions must be varied:

- an annual programme offering modules at a pre-established rhythm - an annual programme offering modules at a pre-established rhythm (e.g. one module every two months) and allowing the participation of the (e.g. one module every two months) and allowing the participation of the largest number of interested or concerned citizens (e.g. to program the largest number of interested or concerned citizens (e.g. to program the same module at least twice a year, six-monthly… and on days and at same module at least twice a year, six-monthly… and on days and at times corresponding to participant availability), times corresponding to participant availability),

50 50 - at the request of citizens, who want to understand and take part in - at the request of citizens, who want to understand and take part in emergency situation they identified as possible in their community, emergency situation they identified as possible in their community, - as a result of a disaster at the community borders, or occurring elsewhere - as a result of a disaster at the community borders, or occurring elsewhere in a community with similar characteristics, in order to review and in a community with similar characteristics, in order to review and update the local action plan, update the local action plan, - a refresher course at the time of public events and rescue and alarm drills. - a refresher course at the time of public events and rescue and alarm drills.

Training must be organised as near as possible to places described in the Training must be organised as near as possible to places described in the modules: a district, village, factory, leisure centre, school, office, place of modules: a district, village, factory, leisure centre, school, office, place of social gathering, etc. and possibly at home. social gathering, etc. and possibly at home.

Others supports: Others supports: A cross-European identity A cross-European identity

It is desirable, even important, to give an identity image to the self-protection approach. It is desirable, even important, to give an identity image to the self-protection approach. Promoted by the Commission and used in the countries, this image would make the Promoted by the Commission and used in the countries, this image would make the European Union and its administrative authorities more familiar and bring them close. European Union and its administrative authorities more familiar and bring them close. - to civil protection in the European Union; - to civil protection in the European Union; - to the European Union and its administrative structures, making it familiar, bringing - to the European Union and its administrative structures, making it familiar, bringing it close; it close; - usable/transposable on all the Union and adaptable locally. - usable/transposable on all the Union and adaptable locally.

There is a symbol identity would be of: There is a symbol identity would be of: - precaution, - precaution, - a social and interdependent organization, - a social and interdependent organization, - sensible resource management, - sensible resource management, - resistance, - resistance, - sympathy. - sympathy. Refer to: Appendix ‘T’ Refer to: Appendix ‘T’

An ant could be used as a concrete symbol. Ants are also known for the sophistication of An ant could be used as a concrete symbol. Ants are also known for the sophistication of their communication networks, allowing a strong community cohesion. their communication networks, allowing a strong community cohesion.

Recent entertainment/cinema-tographic productions (Fourmiz, 1001 legs Recent entertainment/cinema-tographic productions (Fourmiz, 1001 legs and Lucas, an ant in spite of himself) could also give it positive connota- and Lucas, an ant in spite of himself) could also give it positive connotation, and were successful within all European Union. tion, and were successful within all European Union.

Gadgets Gadgets It is important to make self-protection visible to citizens who behave appropriately. It is a It is important to make self-protection visible to citizens who behave appropriately. It is a means of promoting widespread social recognition. means of promoting widespread social recognition.

51 51 It can be a: It can be a:

• little pocket mirror with the inscription “This person is in charge of your health” • little pocket mirror with the inscription “This person is in charge of your health” or “This person can save your life”. The slogan can be presented in the form of a or “This person can save your life”. The slogan can be presented in the form of a transparent sticker for large mirrors at home, office, in the lift, etc. transparent sticker for large mirrors at home, office, in the lift, etc. • little flashlight, if possible self-powered (with a small crank/hand generator). • little flashlight, if possible self-powered (with a small crank/hand generator). • little personal/family pocket card “in the event of an emergency”. • little personal/family pocket card “in the event of an emergency”. • poster for the house [see example above]. • poster for the house [see example above]. • sticker with the slogan “I can rescue/care - 2006” which can be put on a car • sticker with the slogan “I can rescue/care - 2006” which can be put on a car windscreen, a portfolio, a bicycle, etc. windscreen, a portfolio, a bicycle, etc. • survival rug. • survival rug. • little magnet - e.g. on refrigerator doors indicating the emergency number 112. • little magnet - e.g. on refrigerator doors indicating the emergency number 112. • very little radio, if possible self-powered. • very little radio, if possible self-powered.

Places and calendars Places and calendars Efforts must concentrate on a territorial scale with citizen dimensions. It is the one in which Efforts must concentrate on a territorial scale with citizen dimensions. It is the one in which citizens best and rapidly visualise their interactions, practises and outcome. They can also citizens best and rapidly visualise their interactions, practises and outcome. They can also assess what their partners achieve: authorities, rescue, care and assistance organizations, assess what their partners achieve: authorities, rescue, care and assistance organizations, etc. This territory can be a district (possibly the town), a village, a factory, a school, etc. etc. This territory can be a district (possibly the town), a village, a factory, a school, etc.

The citizens of certain territories can self-evaluate themselves, or be evaluated, as a priority, The citizens of certain territories can self-evaluate themselves, or be evaluated, as a priority, because: because: - the intervention time of the rescue, care and assistance organizations is considered - the intervention time of the rescue, care and assistance organizations is considered to be important or significantly different (e.g. the countryside versus the city, the to be important or significantly different (e.g. the countryside versus the city, the suburbs versus the town centre), or suburbs versus the town centre), or - there is a significant number of vulnerable citizens (e.g. a high proportion of seniors - there is a significant number of vulnerable citizens (e.g. a high proportion of seniors and old people). and old people).

This priority of efforts and resources to create and maintain a self-protection process is This priority of efforts and resources to create and maintain a self-protection process is legitimate. However it is necessary be careful: legitimate. However it is necessary be careful: - to avoid stigmatize citizens of these territories, by giving them all the attention to - to avoid stigmatize citizens of these territories, by giving them all the attention to the detriment of others, the detriment of others, - not to make people believe that the self-protection process is valid for some, but - not to make people believe that the self-protection process is valid for some, but not for others who would thus be made more dependent on the emergency response not for others who would thus be made more dependent on the emergency response system, and therefore become more vulnerable. system, and therefore become more vulnerable.

Self-protection concerns all citizens whatever their Self-protection concerns all citizens whatever their characteristics and their place or residence. characteristics and their place or residence.

Following the example of the multiplicity of information and mobilization handouts and Following the example of the multiplicity of information and mobilization handouts and channels, time must be invested on several occasions and in a coordinated/coherent way channels, time must be invested on several occasions and in a coordinated/coherent way between all these resources. Too much information handed out simultaneously in/for the between all these resources. Too much information handed out simultaneously in/for the same community can be harmful, as the accumulation of all noises produces silence! same community can be harmful, as the accumulation of all noises produces silence!

52 52 “When stimuli, information, impulses are too numerous, the individual is “When stimuli, information, impulses are too numerous, the individual is obliged not to see an impressive number of things, not to register them obliged not to see an impressive number of things, not to register them and even to develop a neglectingattitude.” G. Simmel.(12) and even to develop a neglectingattitude.” G. Simmel.(12)

Times of an emergency situation Times of an emergency situation

Before Alert ** During After Before Alert ** During After To participate in the To obey evacuation To alert To find out To participate in the To obey evacuation To alert To find out risk analysis as well and/or confinement about the risk analysis as well and/or confinement about the as prevention and order. To know: rehabilitation: as prevention and order. To know: rehabilitation: control measures. Whom to contact? family and control measures. Whom to contact? family and To know: Why? When? How? vicinity links, To know: Why? When? How? vicinity links, To set up a family Whom to contact? insurances To set up a family Whom to contact? insurances emergency plan and Why? When? How? To review rescue files, etc. emergency plan and Why? When? How? To review rescue files, etc. an emergency kit, and protection an emergency kit, and protection to face day-to-day To remember rescue measures. To review to face day-to-day To remember rescue measures. To review AND exceptional and protection rescue and AND exceptional and protection rescue and emergency situa- measures. To benefit from protection emergency situa- measures. To benefit from protection tions. and participate in measures. tions. and participate in measures. To receive support interventions of lo- To receive support interventions of lo- To learn First Aid. from local autho- cal authorities, and To update To learn First Aid. from local autho- cal authorities, and To update rities, relevant relevant services, knowledge as a rities, relevant relevant services, knowledge as a To be in relation services and organi- organizations and result of To be in relation services and organi- organizations and result of with local autho- zations. associations experience with local autho- zations. associations experience rities, relevant (analysis of rities, relevant (analysis of services and organi- consequences services and organi- consequences zations (credibility, and management zations (credibility, and management legitimization). of the emergency legitimization). of the emergency situation). situation). To participate in To participate in public events (e.g. To participate public events (e.g. To participate Green Week, World in the debriefing Green Week, World in the debriefing First Aid Day). in order to First Aid Day). in order to reduce possible reduce possible To self-test, to take psychological To self-test, to take psychological refresher courses, to consequences of refresher courses, to consequences of participate in alarm the emergency participate in alarm the emergency and rescue drills. * situation. and rescue drills. * situation.

* Alarm and rescue drills are highly educational for citizens. * Alarm and rescue drills are highly educational for citizens. ** at the alert phase, citizen perception is more acute and therefore more favourable to absorbing these messages and ** at the alert phase, citizen perception is more acute and therefore more favourable to absorbing these messages and implementing theses actions. implementing theses actions.

3.3 Particularities for specific groups of citizens 3.3 Particularities for specific groups of citizens

Common references must exist for developing an approach, information and training adap- Common references must exist for developing an approach, information and training adapted to characteristics of various groups of citizens making up the community. ted to characteristics of various groups of citizens making up the community.

53 53 For example, parents, their children and neighbours will be able to discuss the self- For example, parents, their children and neighbours will be able to discuss the self- protection with respect to the seismic risk which threatens them, because all will have protection with respect to the seismic risk which threatens them, because all will have acquired the messages in a way adapted to their characteristics: acquired the messages in a way adapted to their characteristics:

- parents: at the workplaces, in a district meeting, etc. - parents: at the workplaces, in a district meeting, etc. - children: at school, in leisure centre, etc. - children: at school, in leisure centre, etc. - teenagers: at the sports club, on a blog, etc. - teenagers: at the sports club, on a blog, etc. - old neighbours: at the centre of animation, in meeting of joint ownership, during a - old neighbours: at the centre of animation, in meeting of joint ownership, during a consultation with their health professional, etc consultation with their health professional, etc or because they have seen a TV report or a movie on this topic. or because they have seen a TV report or a movie on this topic.

Self-protection can come under a family, community, Self-protection can come under a family, community, communal or even society project. communal or even society project.

Children and teenagers Children and teenagers

The school educational system must ensure basic training of pupils on The school educational system must ensure basic training of pupils on individual and collective prevention and response actions in emergency individual and collective prevention and response actions in emergency situations. situations. Refer to : - United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Refer to : - United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2015). - French law of Civil protection Development (2005–2015). - French law of Civil protection modernization – Art 5 (13) modernization – Art 5 (13) They represent a privileged group, supposing that the assets obtained at the first ages, They represent a privileged group, supposing that the assets obtained at the first ages, and during the school course take part in the behavioural changes and their sustainability, and during the school course take part in the behavioural changes and their sustainability, thanks to their best memorising. Many educational supports and approaches exist to wake thanks to their best memorising. Many educational supports and approaches exist to wake up the interest and stimulate the children education for the prevention and response to the up the interest and stimulate the children education for the prevention and response to the emergency situations to which they can be confronted. They were listed and analysed by emergency situations to which they can be confronted. They were listed and analysed by preceding projects supported by the Commission between 1999 and 2005. preceding projects supported by the Commission between 1999 and 2005.

Refer to : “Information to the Public”, projects supported by the Refer to : “Information to the Public”, projects supported by the Commission from 2000 to 2005 Commission from 2000 to 2005 (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/index.htm) (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/civil/index.htm) Note: Note: Studies undertaken in Greece in 2003 show that civil protection education at school was Studies undertaken in Greece in 2003 show that civil protection education at school was essential. Indeed it was proven that the children’s behaviour during earthquakes was better essential. Indeed it was proven that the children’s behaviour during earthquakes was better than that of adults. (14) than that of adults. (14)

However it is appropriate to: However it is appropriate to: - respect their place in the family, the society, not trying to reverse roles: is it for - respect their place in the family, the society, not trying to reverse roles: is it for families to educate their children? or vice versa? families to educate their children? or vice versa? - focus on the reality of the risks which confront/can confront children/adolescents, - focus on the reality of the risks which confront/can confront children/adolescents, and what he is likely to achieve. Risks and situations are not similar to those confront and what he is likely to achieve. Risks and situations are not similar to those confront adults. Capacities to understand and act are different as well. adults. Capacities to understand and act are different as well.

The initiatives often refer to children, evoking their potential role of agents in the The initiatives often refer to children, evoking their potential role of agents in the dissemination of knowledge and practices for their parents. This assumption is not completely dissemination of knowledge and practices for their parents. This assumption is not completely

54 54 backed up factually. It is also questioned by certain experts, in particular psychiatrists, raising backed up factually. It is also questioned by certain experts, in particular psychiatrists, raising the stake of the responsibilities experienced by the child vis-à-vis the adult, which would the stake of the responsibilities experienced by the child vis-à-vis the adult, which would reverse the natural scale of values. Values in which the adult should be the one transmitting reverse the natural scale of values. Values in which the adult should be the one transmitting and who, even more so, has a responsibility, if it is a parent – child relationship. and who, even more so, has a responsibility, if it is a parent – child relationship.

Community sites, blogs, etc. all forms of “tribal” communications must be used. Community sites, blogs, etc. all forms of “tribal” communications must be used. For example, web sites related to consumerism or which are elected by an overwhelming For example, web sites related to consumerism or which are elected by an overwhelming majority of a group, such as the young people, the women, etc. could have a self-protection majority of a group, such as the young people, the women, etc. could have a self-protection chapter added. chapter added.

The most vulnerable The most vulnerable

Who: Groups of citizens in the community who need a special approach and content due Who: Groups of citizens in the community who need a special approach and content due to their social status and/or their intellectual and/or physical limits, they are: to their social status and/or their intellectual and/or physical limits, they are: - the elderly, - the elderly, - the handicapped people, - the handicapped people, - the sick people under heavy treatment, - the sick people under heavy treatment, - low-income families and communities, - low-income families and communities, - young dropouts, - young dropouts, - the marginalized, - the marginalized, - migrant workers, - migrant workers, - the illiterate. - the illiterate.

Why: prevention and response in emergency situations are of concern at all times for these Why: prevention and response in emergency situations are of concern at all times for these groups. In fact: groups. In fact: - these situations can weaken them more, worsen their precarious situation. Bear in - these situations can weaken them more, worsen their precarious situation. Bear in mind that in emergency situations, the most vulnerable become even more so. mind that in emergency situations, the most vulnerable become even more so. - they often have to face the situation alone, as they live on the fringe of the society, - they often have to face the situation alone, as they live on the fringe of the society, they are not covered by “traditional” assistance and care systems. they are not covered by “traditional” assistance and care systems.

Within these groups there is therefore a very special interest and expectations as to who Within these groups there is therefore a very special interest and expectations as to who will help them cope in these situations. will help them cope in these situations.

Refer to: The American federal report on the Katrina hurricane which struck Refer to: The American federal report on the Katrina hurricane which struck New-Orleans in 2005 stresses that the obligatory evacuation decided on New-Orleans in 2005 stresses that the obligatory evacuation decided on August 28 did not include measures for the homeless people, the poor August 28 did not include measures for the homeless people, the poor families and the people without car. However the 22nd census of families and the people without car. However the 22nd census of the population of the United States issued in April 2000 noted that the population of the United States issued in April 2000 noted that the population of New-Orleans counted 38% of poor people and 27% of the population of New-Orleans counted 38% of poor people and 27% of non motorised people. non motorised people.

The self-protection approach can be used as an opportunity to re-establish or The self-protection approach can be used as an opportunity to re-establish or re-energize social links within the communities in which they live. re-energize social links within the communities in which they live.

How: There are several ways of reaching out them to lend them a hand or an ear: How: There are several ways of reaching out them to lend them a hand or an ear: - to mobilise their representatives or leaders, - to mobilise their representatives or leaders, - to go in their life and expression places, - to go in their life and expression places,

55 55 - to be in touch with social networks, be they public or private, in which they - to be in touch with social networks, be they public or private, in which they participate or from which they receive support. participate or from which they receive support. - to motivate each of these groups to have a “relay citizen” as a mediator and - to motivate each of these groups to have a “relay citizen” as a mediator and interpreter of the information and training related to self-protection. interpreter of the information and training related to self-protection. - to reinforce the presence of those who take care of them medically or socially, - to reinforce the presence of those who take care of them medically or socially, such as: such as: 1. physiotherapist, 1. physiotherapist, 2. educators, 2. educators, 3. social assistants, 3. social assistants, 4. home service professionals, 4. home service professionals, 5. etc. 5. etc.

There is an approach based on “role playing” which concerns for example: There is an approach based on “role playing” which concerns for example: - seniors and old people: with the use of props to reduce vision, grip, articular mobility, etc. - seniors and old people: with the use of props to reduce vision, grip, articular mobility, etc. - people with sensory (e.g. walking with a blindfold like a blind person) or physically - people with sensory (e.g. walking with a blindfold like a blind person) or physically (e.g. to ride in a wheel chair) handicap. (e.g. to ride in a wheel chair) handicap. The role playing initiatives of situations lived by the most vulnerable The role playing initiatives of situations lived by the most vulnerable citizens should be promoted, so that they will be better considered in the citizens should be promoted, so that they will be better considered in the self-protection process by the other citizens, authorities and rescue, care and self-protection process by the other citizens, authorities and rescue, care and assistance organizations. assistance organizations.

Tourists and migrants Tourists and migrants

Every year, approximately 100 million Europeans cross the Union’s internal borders. They Every year, approximately 100 million Europeans cross the Union’s internal borders. They are tourists, migrants, seasonal workers, students, etc. in 1999 a Eurobarometer safety sur- are tourists, migrants, seasonal workers, students, etc. in 1999 a Eurobarometer safety survey stressed that 65% of Europeans felt unsafe when travelling in another EU country. vey stressed that 65% of Europeans felt unsafe when travelling in another EU country.

In 2000, the survey indicated that only one in five European knew of the existence of the In 2000, the survey indicated that only one in five European knew of the existence of the European emergency number: 112. European emergency number: 112. These temporary or long-term migrants are confronted to other dangers and risks, of a dif- These temporary or long-term migrants are confronted to other dangers and risks, of a different nature and/or presentation than those of their country/territory/community of origin. ferent nature and/or presentation than those of their country/territory/community of origin. They are also confronted with other safety requirements, information systems, alarm and They are also confronted with other safety requirements, information systems, alarm and care, and medical and social structures. care, and medical and social structures. The importance of tourism in Europe and the need for an increased The importance of tourism in Europe and the need for an increased safety for the tourists and travellers are expressed in a communication safety for the tourists and travellers are expressed in a communication of the Commission “Work together for the future of European tourism” of the Commission “Work together for the future of European tourism” COM 2001 - 0665 of November 13, 2001 COM 2001 - 0665 of November 13, 2001 > It is necessary to reinforce and continue the harmonization of emergency > It is necessary to reinforce and continue the harmonization of emergency situation management within the European Union: the role and use of 112, situation management within the European Union: the role and use of 112, etc. [see above “sirens”] and [see above “a mascot”] etc. [see above “sirens”] and [see above “a mascot”] > To standardize the pictograms relating to emergency situations. > To standardize the pictograms relating to emergency situations.

It is essential to integrate thorough safety training in the curriculum of It is essential to integrate thorough safety training in the curriculum of political authorities, economic decision makers, journalists and engineers, and political authorities, economic decision makers, journalists and engineers, and obviously, those doing risky jobs. obviously, those doing risky jobs. Refer to: The IRIS project (International Risk System Information), initiated Refer to: The IRIS project (International Risk System Information), initiated in 2003 and supported by the Commission, proposed a harmonization of in 2003 and supported by the Commission, proposed a harmonization of the pictograms and alarm of the populations in the event of natural and the pictograms and alarm of the populations in the event of natural and industrial disasters. (15) industrial disasters. (15)

56 56 3.5 About the kits 3.5 About the kits

The contents of the kits were developed in several stages: The contents of the kits were developed in several stages: 1. a compilation of the materials existing in the European Union and abroad, 1. a compilation of the materials existing in the European Union and abroad, 2. replies to the investigation carried out with the services of civil protection of the 2. replies to the investigation carried out with the services of civil protection of the Member States and the National Red Cross Societies, Member States and the National Red Cross Societies, 3. design of the kits contents by experts brought together during the scientific 3. design of the kits contents by experts brought together during the scientific workshop in October 2005 in Paris, workshop in October 2005 in Paris, 4. results of the tests on the ground carried out with the citizens. 4. results of the tests on the ground carried out with the citizens.

That leads to kits which: That leads to kits which: - have familiar content, because simple and regularly useable in the everyday life, - have familiar content, because simple and regularly useable in the everyday life, - are easy and safe to employ and replenish in different local contexts. - are easy and safe to employ and replenish in different local contexts.

The recommended quantity for each item of the two following kits should respond to basic needs The recommended quantity for each item of the two following kits should respond to basic needs which can be faced by a community of four persons and for a maximum of 48 hours long. which can be faced by a community of four persons and for a maximum of 48 hours long.

For the home First Aid kit For the home First Aid kit The contents of the home First Aid kit proposed hereafter are according to questioned The contents of the home First Aid kit proposed hereafter are according to questioned citizens: citizens: - useful to very useful (more than 72%), - useful to very useful (more than 72%), - complete (70%), - complete (70%), - easy to use (80%). - easy to use (80%).

Some proposed to add: Some proposed to add: • drugs (painkiller, anti-inflammatory), • drugs (painkiller, anti-inflammatory), • instructions to use the kit. • instructions to use the kit.

Contents Contents Refer to: annex ‘Q’ (photos of the kit and its component) Refer to: annex ‘Q’ (photos of the kit and its component) Container Container Backpack Backpack

Cleaning & Disinfection - Hygiene Cleaning & Disinfection - Hygiene Latex gloves Latex gloves Breathing mask Breathing mask Antiseptic (wipes) Antiseptic (wipes) Sterile eyewash Sterile eyewash

Bleeding control Bleeding control Blood stopper (different sizes) Blood stopper (different sizes)

Dressing Dressing Sterile adhesive bandages Sterile adhesive bandages Triangular bandages Triangular bandages Roller bandage Roller bandage Compress 10x10 Compress 10x10

57 57 Burn control Burn control Cooling bag Cooling bag Burning relief gel Burning relief gel Thermal blanket Thermal blanket

Instruments Instruments Safety pins Safety pins Scissors Scissors

For the home disaster kit For the home disaster kit The contents of the home disaster kit proposed hereafter are according to questioned The contents of the home disaster kit proposed hereafter are according to questioned citizens: citizens:

- useful to very useful (nearly 78%); - useful to very useful (nearly 78%); - complete (75%); - complete (75%); - easy to use (82%). - easy to use (82%).

Some proposed to add: Some proposed to add:

• a life jacket; • a life jacket; • sewing kit; • sewing kit; • pain killer drugs; • pain killer drugs; • instructions to use the kit. • instructions to use the kit.

They also mentioned personal belongs, in particular for children (e.g. toys) and women They also mentioned personal belongs, in particular for children (e.g. toys) and women (e.g. sanitary towels). This kit should be completed by citizens who require special devices (e.g. sanitary towels). This kit should be completed by citizens who require special devices or drugs because of their handicap or health. or drugs because of their handicap or health.

Stores of water and food must be permanently available and sheltered from bad weather. Stores of water and food must be permanently available and sheltered from bad weather. Nature and quantity of the stocks depend on citizen needs and local supplying possibilities. Nature and quantity of the stocks depend on citizen needs and local supplying possibilities. Dry and reheatable canned food requiring a little or no water for their preparation should Dry and reheatable canned food requiring a little or no water for their preparation should be preferred. It should familiar products regularly eaten. be preferred. It should familiar products regularly eaten.

Contents Contents Refer to: Appendix’Q’ (photos of the kit and its component) Refer to: Appendix’Q’ (photos of the kit and its component) Container Container Backpack Backpack Cleaning & Disinfection - Hygiene Cleaning & Disinfection - Hygiene Hygiene kit Hygiene kit Cleaning and absorbent tissue Cleaning and absorbent tissue Protection Protection Specific gloves Specific gloves Rubbish bags Rubbish bags Thermal blanket Thermal blanket Food & Drinking Food & Drinking

58 58 Self-heating food Self-heating food Eating set Eating set Tablets for water purification Tablets for water purification Big water container and water pack Big water container and water pack Identification & Contact Identification & Contact Whistle Whistle Light sticks Light sticks Poster “SOS” written Poster “SOS” written [Radio/signal + Sonar/flash light/mobile phone charger] in one hand- [Radio/signal + Sonar/flash light/mobile phone charger] in one hand- cranked device cranked device Candles Candles Matches and/or lighter Matches and/or lighter Instruments Instruments Cutter and Swiss knife Cutter and Swiss knife Writing & Documentation Writing & Documentation Note pad and pencil Note pad and pencil A “what to do in case of…” manual including Reflex Sheets A “what to do in case of…” manual including Reflex Sheets Impermeable plastic pocket Impermeable plastic pocket Refer to: Appendix’Q’ (user manual) Refer to: Appendix’Q’ (user manual)

3.5 Evaluation 3.5 Evaluation

Action Action To apprehend and evaluate the state of self-protection of citizens and their communities, To apprehend and evaluate the state of self-protection of citizens and their communities, indicators should be defined, such as: indicators should be defined, such as:

To evaluate daily and regularly before an emergency situation: To evaluate daily and regularly before an emergency situation: - by citizens and in communities the understanding and knowledge level of: - by citizens and in communities the understanding and knowledge level of: • risks, their consequences as well as the preventive and care actions to be taken, • risks, their consequences as well as the preventive and care actions to be taken, • the emergency system (roles, alert, interventions), • the emergency system (roles, alert, interventions), • the local authorities and their partners, in particular as a source of information and assistance. • the local authorities and their partners, in particular as a source of information and assistance. - by local authorities and organizations: - by local authorities and organizations: • the degree of confidence in the preparation and citizen and community • the degree of confidence in the preparation and citizen and community mobilization of their territories, mobilization of their territories, • the level of understanding (what information is required, by whom, what care • the level of understanding (what information is required, by whom, what care and rescue services, etc.). and rescue services, etc.).

To evaluate during an emergency situation: To evaluate during an emergency situation:

- the reality and relevance of alarm messages (what, when and their effectiveness on - the reality and relevance of alarm messages (what, when and their effectiveness on the field - e.g. complete and timely evacuation without injury), the field - e.g. complete and timely evacuation without injury), - reactive capacity of citizens and their participation in rescue and care services, - reactive capacity of citizens and their participation in rescue and care services, - participation of the media (type and channels), and their solicitation by the - participation of the media (type and channels), and their solicitation by the population. population.

59 59 To evaluate after an emergency situation: To evaluate after an emergency situation:

- the human and material effects of the emergency situation, - the human and material effects of the emergency situation, - the degree of solicitation of the rescue and care services by the active and passive - the degree of solicitation of the rescue and care services by the active and passive parts of the population, parts of the population, - reasons in which some citizens and communities suffered less than others - or did - reasons in which some citizens and communities suffered less than others - or did not suffer at all. not suffer at all. - the time and conditions of a return to a normal operational level of vital public - the time and conditions of a return to a normal operational level of vital public services and social and economic activities of the territory. services and social and economic activities of the territory.

To evaluate the approaches and supports provided to citizens and communities To evaluate the approaches and supports provided to citizens and communities

Quantitatively Quantitatively Figures must be presented in the form of percentages compared to the population, and its Figures must be presented in the form of percentages compared to the population, and its constitutive groups, of the concerned territory by the evaluation of the number of: constitutive groups, of the concerned territory by the evaluation of the number of: - field visits done by the citizens, the authorities, the experts and the rescue, care - field visits done by the citizens, the authorities, the experts and the rescue, care and assistance organizations, and assistance organizations, - people present at events for the general public as well as simulation exercises, - people present at events for the general public as well as simulation exercises, - booklets distributed or downloaded, - booklets distributed or downloaded, - kits sold, and their renewal rate, - kits sold, and their renewal rate, - people trained and those taking refresher training courses in preparation and - people trained and those taking refresher training courses in preparation and response to emergency situations, response to emergency situations, - solicitations by citizens of the rescue, care and assistance organizations for - solicitations by citizens of the rescue, care and assistance organizations for emergency situations which could be managed by citizens themselves, emergency situations which could be managed by citizens themselves, - the interventions –incl. their length- in the media (newspapers, radios, televisions, - the interventions –incl. their length- in the media (newspapers, radios, televisions, Internet) concerning citizen self-protection. Internet) concerning citizen self-protection.

It is also important to know the ratio of “relay citizens”, “innovators” and “early adopters” It is also important to know the ratio of “relay citizens”, “innovators” and “early adopters” in the total population of a territory/community. in the total population of a territory/community.

Qualitatively Qualitatively - participation in the process of risk identification as well as related preventive and - participation in the process of risk identification as well as related preventive and corrective measures (e.g. which questions, and/or proposals are formulated during corrective measures (e.g. which questions, and/or proposals are formulated during meetings on the subject), meetings on the subject), - citizen understanding of their role and actions in emergency situations - citizen understanding of their role and actions in emergency situations (investigations/surveys), (investigations/surveys), - the level of information requested/required by the citizens (What information - the level of information requested/required by the citizens (What information required? Why?), required? Why?), - the implication of “relay citizens” in the mobilisation of the other citizens of their - the implication of “relay citizens” in the mobilisation of the other citizens of their territory/community, territory/community, - the adhesion of local authorities, rescue services and organizations implication of - the adhesion of local authorities, rescue services and organizations implication of citizens (investigations/surveys, degree of implication), citizens (investigations/surveys, degree of implication), - evolution of the nature of measures taken and their effects on similar events - evolution of the nature of measures taken and their effects on similar events (e.g. assessment of heat wave one year to the next), (e.g. assessment of heat wave one year to the next), - the nature of the solicitations received by the rescue, care and assistance - the nature of the solicitations received by the rescue, care and assistance organizations from citizens regarding emergency situations, organizations from citizens regarding emergency situations, - the participation level of citizens in alarm and rescue drills, - the participation level of citizens in alarm and rescue drills, - the positive and constructive nature of the reports broadcasted. - the positive and constructive nature of the reports broadcasted.

60 60 1) International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, World Disasters Report (2002). 1) International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, World Disasters Report (2002). 2) Prochaskau, J.O., C.O. and Norcross, J.C. (1992). In Search of how people change: application to addictive behaviours, American 2) Prochaskau, J.O., C.O. and Norcross, J.C. (1992). In Search of how people change: application to addictive behaviours, American Psychologist, 47: 1102-1114. Psychologist, 47: 1102-1114. 3) Review of the strategy and the action plan for a safer world (Yokohama, 1994 – A/CONF.206/L.1). 3) Review of the strategy and the action plan for a safer world (Yokohama, 1994 – A/CONF.206/L.1). 4) Interministery evaluation report of the rescue and intervention systems implemented at the time of the storms of the 26 and 28 4) Interministery evaluation report of the rescue and intervention systems implemented at the time of the storms of the 26 and 28 December 1999, chaired by G.Sanson and presented to the French Prime Minister in July 2000. December 1999, chaired by G.Sanson and presented to the French Prime Minister in July 2000. 5) Lagadec P. “The Major Technological Risk, Policy, Risk and Development Process” (Pergamon Press – Futuribles Collection) 5) Lagadec P. “The Major Technological Risk, Policy, Risk and Development Process” (Pergamon Press – Futuribles Collection) 6) UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Preliminary Report: UN Interagency Mission in response to Hurricane 6) UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), Preliminary Report: UN Interagency Mission in response to Hurricane Michelle passing through Cuba (2001, Geneva). Michelle passing through Cuba (2001, Geneva). 7) Institute Accidents Prevention At Home - http://www.ipad.asso.fr/index.htm 7) Institute Accidents Prevention At Home - http://www.ipad.asso.fr/index.htm 8) Firschhof, “To manage the perception of the risks”. 8) Firschhof, “To manage the perception of the risks”. 9) Grentzinger D. and Froehlicher R., “In the heart of Europe of risks: media and social perception of an ecological disaster”, 9) Grentzinger D. and Froehlicher R., “In the heart of Europe of risks: media and social perception of an ecological disaster”, Review of social sciences of East France, number 17, (1999). Review of social sciences of East France, number 17, (1999). 10) The project IRIS (International Risk System Information): http://www.ecomaires.com. 10) The project IRIS (International Risk System Information): http://www.ecomaires.com. 11) Birkland T.A. “Natural disasters have focusing vents: policies communities and political response”, International Newspaper off 11) Birkland T.A. “Natural disasters have focusing vents: policies communities and political response”, International Newspaper off Farmhouse Emergencies and Disasters, 14 (2), (1996). Birkland T.A. “After Disasters: Diary Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Vents” Farmhouse Emergencies and Disasters, 14 (2), (1996). Birkland T.A. “After Disasters: Diary Setting, Public Policy, and Focusing Vents” (Washington cd., Georgetown University Near, 1997). Prater, C. & Lindell, M.K. (2000) Politics of hazard mitigations, Natural Hazard (Washington cd., Georgetown University Near, 1997). Prater, C. & Lindell, M.K. (2000) Politics of hazard mitigations, Natural Hazard Review (May 2000). Paper Background one Disaster Cancel Cities”, Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (March 2004). Review (May 2000). Paper Background one Disaster Cancel Cities”, Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (March 2004). 12) Simmel G. « Die Grossstädte und das Geistleben (The metropolis and mental life) » in Kurt Wolff “The Sociology of Georg Simmel”, 12) Simmel G. « Die Grossstädte und das Geistleben (The metropolis and mental life) » in Kurt Wolff “The Sociology of Georg Simmel”, The Free Press, 1950, pp 409 – 424. The Free Press, 1950, pp 409 – 424. 13) United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2015): www.unesco.org. 13) United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2015): www.unesco.org. 14) Study from the EPPO, the European Centre for Prevention and Forecast of Earthquakes and the Research Institut for Mental Psychic 14) Study from the EPPO, the European Centre for Prevention and Forecast of Earthquakes and the Research Institut for Mental Psychic Health, in Technical report 2003. Health, in Technical report 2003. 15) The IRIS project: http://www.ecomaires.com. 15) The IRIS project: http://www.ecomaires.com.

61 61 62 62 4. Remaining challenges 4. Remaining challenges

Self-protect must become a spontaneous, reflex action and an integral part Self-protect must become a spontaneous, reflex action and an integral part of normal behaviour. The most important challenge is to maintain a proactive of normal behaviour. The most important challenge is to maintain a proactive attitude and actions. attitude and actions. Authorities and organizations must have knowledge and practices enabling them to work Authorities and organizations must have knowledge and practices enabling them to work with communities. with communities.

4.1 Local authorities 4.1 Local authorities

The authorities must: The authorities must:

- be exemplary to encourage and mobilise the citizens in a self-protection approach, - be exemplary to encourage and mobilise the citizens in a self-protection approach, - create the legislative, legal, technical and material conditions to allow citizens taking - create the legislative, legal, technical and material conditions to allow citizens taking initiatives in daily and exceptional emergency situations. (there should be a family/ initiatives in daily and exceptional emergency situations. (there should be a family/ community safety plan, to participate in civil protection activities, etc.). community safety plan, to participate in civil protection activities, etc.).

The last world conference on disasters reduction pointed out the need to adopt an The last world conference on disasters reduction pointed out the need to adopt an integrated approach with other policies, plans and programmes aimed at sustainable integrated approach with other policies, plans and programmes aimed at sustainable development.[1] development.[1]

Authorities must be convinced Authorities must be convinced

The eruption of an emergency situation in reality upsets the daily reference The eruption of an emergency situation in reality upsets the daily reference marks and legitimately imposes the need for the authority. marks and legitimately imposes the need for the authority.

Thus at the time of an emergency situation, the authorities must manage the crisis in a Thus at the time of an emergency situation, the authorities must manage the crisis in a rigorous way, showing their determination and their will to control the consequences of the rigorous way, showing their determination and their will to control the consequences of the event by associating prepared and qualified organisations and citizens. As that was often event by associating prepared and qualified organisations and citizens. As that was often the case these last years, there is a great risk to see the authorities implementing a strategy the case these last years, there is a great risk to see the authorities implementing a strategy of compassion, installing protection mechanisms which take out awareness of citizens of of compassion, installing protection mechanisms which take out awareness of citizens of their responsibilities, thus infantilising them. “Poor victims!”. This crisis management which their responsibilities, thus infantilising them. “Poor victims!”. This crisis management which proved to be counter-productive tends to blur due to the following: proved to be counter-productive tends to blur due to the following:

- a voluntarist policy to mobilise the citizens, - a voluntarist policy to mobilise the citizens, - budgetary restrictions obliging to seek solutions of proximity, - budgetary restrictions obliging to seek solutions of proximity, - an awakening of the citizens vis-à-vis the deficiency or the degradation of the - an awakening of the citizens vis-à-vis the deficiency or the degradation of the public services. public services. “Leaders no longer dare to take the lead; the infantilized citizens expect “Leaders no longer dare to take the lead; the infantilized citizens expect everything (from the authorities).” M.Schneider. everything (from the authorities).” M.Schneider. This legitimization provides that the authority is ready to face emergency situations, and This legitimization provides that the authority is ready to face emergency situations, and that it has prepared the citizens and the communities of its territory of responsibility. that it has prepared the citizens and the communities of its territory of responsibility. Local authorities and their services must believe in: Local authorities and their services must believe in: • the citizen capacities to take care of themselves, • the citizen capacities to take care of themselves, • the advantages of involving citizens in advance in the management of risk and • the advantages of involving citizens in advance in the management of risk and emergency situations, emergency situations, • their facilitator and support role encourage citizen initiatives, rather than a need • their facilitator and support role encourage citizen initiatives, rather than a need to manage or give orders. to manage or give orders.

63 63 It is necessary to make the management plans of the emergency situations It is necessary to make the management plans of the emergency situations with the citizens, and not to adapt the citizens to the plans. with the citizens, and not to adapt the citizens to the plans. Note: Note: There is still in place an old approach that some authorities express and/or some citizens There is still in place an old approach that some authorities express and/or some citizens perceive: “Don’t worry, all is under the control of the authorities. Trust us!”. It is no longer perceive: “Don’t worry, all is under the control of the authorities. Trust us!”. It is no longer acceptable. Indeed when the emergency situation hits, there is a breakdown of trust. acceptable. Indeed when the emergency situation hits, there is a breakdown of trust.

Authorities must be implicated and engaged Authorities must be implicated and engaged

The implication and engagement of the authorities are fundamental elements The implication and engagement of the authorities are fundamental elements of success of the self-protection of the citizens. of success of the self-protection of the citizens.

The authorities must: The authorities must:

> show the example by adopting what is expected of the inhabitants (e.g. to > show the example by adopting what is expected of the inhabitants (e.g. to have a communal safety plan as there should be a family/community have a communal safety plan as there should be a family/community safety plan). safety plan).

If Rudolf Giuliani, the mayor of New York, could maintain a cohesion and a coherency in If Rudolf Giuliani, the mayor of New York, could maintain a cohesion and a coherency in the management of the crisis of September 11, 2001, it is because he had been involved the management of the crisis of September 11, 2001, it is because he had been involved personally for a long time in demanding drills (the last being unrolled in July 2001). The personally for a long time in demanding drills (the last being unrolled in July 2001). The sociology of the crises showed that they reinforce social cohesion, at least in the Western sociology of the crises showed that they reinforce social cohesion, at least in the Western countries. countries. “The only way of putting people together, it is still to send to “The only way of putting people together, it is still to send to them the plague” Albert Camus (2) them the plague” Albert Camus (2) Local authorities must also: Local authorities must also:

> create and make known a legislative and regulatory environment favourable > create and make known a legislative and regulatory environment favourable to the expression of citizen behavioural change, to the expression of citizen behavioural change,

> encourage/incite the citizen to be part of an organization, support the > encourage/incite the citizen to be part of an organization, support the creation of specific local groups - proximity networks of urban district, creation of specific local groups - proximity networks of urban district, rural village or company dimension, such as “Community Emergency rural village or company dimension, such as “Community Emergency Response Team” (CERT) [3] and “Safe Communities” in place in North America Response Team” (CERT) [3] and “Safe Communities” in place in North America or the communal reserves of civil protection newly established in France. [4] or the communal reserves of civil protection newly established in France. [4]

Authorities must build confidence Authorities must build confidence

Emergency situation management cannot take place without there being a Emergency situation management cannot take place without there being a solid bond of confidence between the local authorities and the population. solid bond of confidence between the local authorities and the population.

> Trust and confidence takes time to build up and must be maintained, thanks to: > Trust and confidence takes time to build up and must be maintained, thanks to: • total transparency at the outset of the risks and the level of prevention • total transparency at the outset of the risks and the level of prevention or preparedness of the territory covered, or preparedness of the territory covered, • openly and sincerely listening to expectation and needs, • openly and sincerely listening to expectation and needs, • the rigorous study of possible capacities and options, • the rigorous study of possible capacities and options, • explaining the need for investments and action priorities. • explaining the need for investments and action priorities.

“Confidence is a sense of security justified by the reliability of a person or “Confidence is a sense of security justified by the reliability of a person or a system within a given framework.” A.Giddens (5) a system within a given framework.” A.Giddens (5)

64 64 Authorities must communicate Authorities must communicate

At the time of exceptional crises such as the 2000 year bug, the mad cow disease, the At the time of exceptional crises such as the 2000 year bug, the mad cow disease, the avian flu, the citizens rather expressed mistrust towards information/explanations given by avian flu, the citizens rather expressed mistrust towards information/explanations given by the authorities who claimed to control the situation based on technical data, the progress, the authorities who claimed to control the situation based on technical data, the progress, food safety, etc. food safety, etc.

The authorities must inform the citizens and The authorities must inform the citizens and redistribute capacity to them so that they can choose redistribute capacity to them so that they can choose and be actors of their own safety, control the and be actors of their own safety, control the inherent risks, and make their choices of life within inherent risks, and make their choices of life within the community. the community.

An emergency is, among other things, a crisis of information, and it must be treated like An emergency is, among other things, a crisis of information, and it must be treated like such. The authorities must communicate immediately, clearly and honestly. They should not such. The authorities must communicate immediately, clearly and honestly. They should not leave to others the questioning or doubt fields and what is left unsaid. leave to others the questioning or doubt fields and what is left unsaid.

The authorities must have the courage and the honesty of saying what they The authorities must have the courage and the honesty of saying what they know and what they do not know, what is occurring, what is done and what know and what they do not know, what is occurring, what is done and what will be made to control risks and the emergency situations. will be made to control risks and the emergency situations.

Authorities must know and respect differences Authorities must know and respect differences

There is a tendency to see citizens either as a “whole”, or to segmenting them to excess. There is a tendency to see citizens either as a “whole”, or to segmenting them to excess. It is preferable to: It is preferable to:

> to include as part of the planning, inventory practices, experience of former > to include as part of the planning, inventory practices, experience of former events, language, culture, existing vulnerabilities in the preparation and events, language, culture, existing vulnerabilities in the preparation and response plan to emergency situations. response plan to emergency situations. > To implement drills taking into account these differences, positioning cultural > To implement drills taking into account these differences, positioning cultural “relays” or “interpreters”, to create a real bond/connection between those “relays” or “interpreters”, to create a real bond/connection between those implicated and the rescue, care and assistance system. implicated and the rescue, care and assistance system.

Authorities must anticipate Authorities must anticipate

An emergency situation is not similar to another. Each situation has its own characteristics An emergency situation is not similar to another. Each situation has its own characteristics and surprises. and surprises.

The authorities must be in a permanent monitoring of risks and emergency situations, lis- The authorities must be in a permanent monitoring of risks and emergency situations, listening to perceptions of their citizens, taking into account the experience feedbacks of the tening to perceptions of their citizens, taking into account the experience feedbacks of the rescue, care and assistance organisations and the opinions of the experts. rescue, care and assistance organisations and the opinions of the experts.

The authorities must set up today the procedures and the tools which will be The authorities must set up today the procedures and the tools which will be used for the management of future emergency situations. used for the management of future emergency situations.

For example, in the case of a pandemia (e.g. avian flu), the States would impose many For example, in the case of a pandemia (e.g. avian flu), the States would impose many constraints (containment, restriction of displacements, measures of hygiene…). constraints (containment, restriction of displacements, measures of hygiene…).

• The schools being closed, it will be necessary that the school comes to the • The schools being closed, it will be necessary that the school comes to the children via television and radio programs. children via television and radio programs. • The child minding at home will bring the generalisation of the distance • The child minding at home will bring the generalisation of the distance working. working.

65 65 These practises must be tested from now, even to implement in schools or for professional These practises must be tested from now, even to implement in schools or for professional activities, in order to create habits, reflexes that will be saving at the time of the emergency activities, in order to create habits, reflexes that will be saving at the time of the emergency situation. situation.

The composition of a territory evolves regularly with migrations of population. The composition of a territory evolves regularly with migrations of population.

To consider the differences created by migrants intra and extra community. They can blur To consider the differences created by migrants intra and extra community. They can blur or be exacerbated according to the received reception and of the links established with or be exacerbated according to the received reception and of the links established with the country/community of origin. Thus an earthquake in Istanbul would have an important the country/community of origin. Thus an earthquake in Istanbul would have an important impact in the Union countries where a Turkish community is established. impact in the Union countries where a Turkish community is established.

Authorities must coordinate Authorities must coordinate

The management of the emergency situations entails: The management of the emergency situations entails:

> bringing together all the services and organizations taking part in the > bringing together all the services and organizations taking part in the management of day-to-day and exceptional emergency situations. management of day-to-day and exceptional emergency situations. Centralized coordination would reinforce the collaboration between the Centralized coordination would reinforce the collaboration between the various sectors of the rescue and the care services, be they physical or various sectors of the rescue and the care services, be they physical or psychological and logistics, psychological and logistics, > relying on a “listening, counselling and orientation centre”, and not on a > relying on a “listening, counselling and orientation centre”, and not on a “alert reception and management centre” or on a “emergency calls “alert reception and management centre” or on a “emergency calls processing centre”. This denomination would provide citizens with a clear processing centre”. This denomination would provide citizens with a clear and realistic indication of what rescue and care system really are. and realistic indication of what rescue and care system really are.

There should be a broaden approach of the civil protection, integrating all its There should be a broaden approach of the civil protection, integrating all its possible components, in particular decision makers, managers, providers and possible components, in particular decision makers, managers, providers and beneficiaries. beneficiaries.

Authorities must select Authorities must select

Local authorities and citizens, have a right to expect risk and emergency situations Local authorities and citizens, have a right to expect risk and emergency situations management organizations, to be structured, function and be manned according to their management organizations, to be structured, function and be manned according to their mission. As a result it would be appropriate for the authorities to establish referencing and/ mission. As a result it would be appropriate for the authorities to establish referencing and/ or certification of these organizations, which specify the prevention and intervention tasks or certification of these organizations, which specify the prevention and intervention tasks to which they must comply, and the methods of coordination and collaboration with the to which they must comply, and the methods of coordination and collaboration with the official public services. A regular revision of this certification will enable these organizations official public services. A regular revision of this certification will enable these organizations to remain at operational levels to which they aspire. to remain at operational levels to which they aspire.

In France since 3rd September 2006, all civil protection related associa- In France since 3rd September 2006, all civil protection related associations are subject to an agreement which is renewed every three years. tions are subject to an agreement which is renewed every three years.

Authorities must incite, request and order Authorities must incite, request and order

Local authorities should incite (even order) citizens to take part in the protection of the Local authorities should incite (even order) citizens to take part in the protection of the people and goods, and their own ones in particular. For example, to avoid forest fires or people and goods, and their own ones in particular. For example, to avoid forest fires or limit their consequences the authorities should define a plan of land use and encourage limit their consequences the authorities should define a plan of land use and encourage their citizens to have housing in conformity with safety requirements such as: their citizens to have housing in conformity with safety requirements such as:

66 66 - obligatory clearing of undergrowth around houses (like in France), - obligatory clearing of undergrowth around houses (like in France), - plantation of adequate plants, - plantation of adequate plants, - equipping private swimming pools with motor-pumps and fire hoses. - equipping private swimming pools with motor-pumps and fire hoses. - construction respecting the environment, - construction respecting the environment, - spaces of containment in the event of fire, etc - spaces of containment in the event of fire, etc

This incentive could be accompanied by financial measures for the required efforts. These This incentive could be accompanied by financial measures for the required efforts. These investments could appear very profitable compared to cost of insurances related to the investments could appear very profitable compared to cost of insurances related to the consequences of the emergency situations which prevail on the territory. consequences of the emergency situations which prevail on the territory.

The authorities can force the citizens by law. The culture of the territory will or not determine The authorities can force the citizens by law. The culture of the territory will or not determine the need for going to this stage, and which will be the legislative and lawful formulations. the need for going to this stage, and which will be the legislative and lawful formulations.

Note Note The establishment of increasingly constraining standards is one expectation citizens have The establishment of increasingly constraining standards is one expectation citizens have from their authorities, hoping for “a zero accident rate”. This approach has known limits: from their authorities, hoping for “a zero accident rate”. This approach has known limits: too constraining regulations become unenforceable or provoke a feeling of false confidence too constraining regulations become unenforceable or provoke a feeling of false confidence which leads to an accident one day. Thus the debate is partly about a questioning of the which leads to an accident one day. Thus the debate is partly about a questioning of the standards, but rather a global approach to risks on a daily basis, and based on citizen standards, but rather a global approach to risks on a daily basis, and based on citizen behaviour. behaviour.

4.2 Citizens 4.2 Citizens

Citizens must change mentality Citizens must change mentality

Citizens can perceive these new approaches as a resignation or distancing on the part of Citizens can perceive these new approaches as a resignation or distancing on the part of the authorities. the authorities.

> It should in fact be clearly stated and shown that it is on the contrary an > It should in fact be clearly stated and shown that it is on the contrary an expression of a desire to reinforce the protection and rescue capacities for expression of a desire to reinforce the protection and rescue capacities for the citizen. the citizen.

The “right to” mentality without the “duty of” counterpart exists in certain contexts where The “right to” mentality without the “duty of” counterpart exists in certain contexts where the local authorities set up a wide range of public rescue, care and assistance systems. So- the local authorities set up a wide range of public rescue, care and assistance systems. So- metimes the presence of private or associative organizations reinforces this assisted men- metimes the presence of private or associative organizations reinforces this assisted mentality as opposed to that of actor. Thus any problem (delay, inefficiency, going beyond of the tality as opposed to that of actor. Thus any problem (delay, inefficiency, going beyond of the means, etc.) is systematically interpreted by the citizens, even by above-mentioned autho- means, etc.) is systematically interpreted by the citizens, even by above-mentioned authorities and organizations, as a failure of the systems, and not as a possible consequence of rities and organizations, as a failure of the systems, and not as a possible consequence of citizen abuse, or bad use. In the long run it is the sustainability of these systems which is citizen abuse, or bad use. In the long run it is the sustainability of these systems which is weakened. weakened. For example, the hospital emergency services are regularly said to be insufficient both For example, the hospital emergency services are regularly said to be insufficient both structurally and operationally when in fact the problems is its inappropriate and excessive structurally and operationally when in fact the problems is its inappropriate and excessive use by citizens who could do so themselves or be dealt with locally. use by citizens who could do so themselves or be dealt with locally.

> This change of mentality must first of all and progressively be integrated into > This change of mentality must first of all and progressively be integrated into the speeches and practises of local authorities and assistance and care profes- the speeches and practises of local authorities and assistance and care professionals. This, in order to make citizens, customers and/or clients take better and sionals. This, in order to make citizens, customers and/or clients take better and more responsibility by specifying their places and roles for the establishment of more responsibility by specifying their places and roles for the establishment of an effective and sustainable system. an effective and sustainable system. Like antibiotics, which, too given, decrease natural defences, and thus Like antibiotics, which, too given, decrease natural defences, and thus make the individual dependent and weaken his health. make the individual dependent and weaken his health.

67 67 “Relay citizen” must emerge “Relay citizen” must emerge

This relay, this interpreter between the citizens and the system of risk control and This relay, this interpreter between the citizens and the system of risk control and management of the emergency situations must find its place by taking into account: management of the emergency situations must find its place by taking into account:

- differences within the European Union, at the national and local levels in: - differences within the European Union, at the national and local levels in: • the organisation of the civil protection, • the organisation of the civil protection, • the social structuring, • the social structuring, - degree of acceptance by the other citizens of the community, - degree of acceptance by the other citizens of the community, - his positioning regarding the rescue, care and of assistance organisations, be - his positioning regarding the rescue, care and of assistance organisations, be they local, public, private or associative. they local, public, private or associative.

- The “relay citizen” must have: - The “relay citizen” must have: • a legitimacy, given by the “law” (e.g. a reference of this intermediary in the texts • a legitimacy, given by the “law” (e.g. a reference of this intermediary in the texts codifying civil protection), codifying civil protection), • a credibility, provided by the experience (e.g. a former First Aider or a voluntary • a credibility, provided by the experience (e.g. a former First Aider or a voluntary fireman), fireman), • a representativeness, decided by the concerned community(ies) (e.g. a nomination • a representativeness, decided by the concerned community(ies) (e.g. a nomination by a district council), by a district council), • an activity, supported by the authorities and the rescue, care and assistance • an activity, supported by the authorities and the rescue, care and assistance organisations of the concerned local level (e.g. being member of the working organisations of the concerned local level (e.g. being member of the working group defining the communal safeguard/rescue plan), group defining the communal safeguard/rescue plan), • a recognition and functioning resources (compensation by a particular access to • a recognition and functioning resources (compensation by a particular access to information, specific trainings, an equipment, frequent refresher courses, etc). information, specific trainings, an equipment, frequent refresher courses, etc).

Communication technologies and tools Communication technologies and tools

They evolve unceasingly. Their places in society and their usage have changed human They evolve unceasingly. Their places in society and their usage have changed human relations and create a different social life be it between individuals, groups, experts, local relations and create a different social life be it between individuals, groups, experts, local authorities and rescue, care and assistance organizations. authorities and rescue, care and assistance organizations.

For example mobile phones become tools of expression (photos, videos, etc.) and for For example mobile phones become tools of expression (photos, videos, etc.) and for the dissemination of information, without it being checked or explained. Blogs recreate the dissemination of information, without it being checked or explained. Blogs recreate the principle of the agoras, public places where anyone expressed himself, talked and/or the principle of the agoras, public places where anyone expressed himself, talked and/or exchanged opinions. Net surfers can read what they like, without it being contested or exchanged opinions. Net surfers can read what they like, without it being contested or without an accepted moderator. without an accepted moderator.

There is and there will be therefore a strong urge to self-protect. There is and there will be therefore a strong urge to self-protect.

One should closely follow citizen and community appropriation and usage of communica- One should closely follow citizen and community appropriation and usage of communication technologies and tools in order to ensure that their contents and theirs uses remain tion technologies and tools in order to ensure that their contents and theirs uses remain relevant to the self-protection approach. relevant to the self-protection approach.

68 68 4.3 Rescue, care and assistance organizations 4.3 Rescue, care and assistance organizations

Both public and private rescue, care and assistance organisations must take Both public and private rescue, care and assistance organisations must take part in the efforts made by local authorities. They must cooperate and be part in the efforts made by local authorities. They must cooperate and be organised in order to facilitate citizen mobilization by creating, in a concer- organised in order to facilitate citizen mobilization by creating, in a concer- ted way, events, offering information handouts and modular/flexible training, ted way, events, offering information handouts and modular/flexible training, related to local/community realities, cultures and traditions. related to local/community realities, cultures and traditions.

They must (re)position like facilitators, avoiding so-called experts and services “which does They must (re)position like facilitators, avoiding so-called experts and services “which does everything, everywhere, for everyone, under all circumstances”. A return to greater prag- everything, everywhere, for everyone, under all circumstances”. A return to greater prag- matism and humility is necessary. matism and humility is necessary.

> Citizens and their communities must be at the heart of these organizations, > Citizens and their communities must be at the heart of these organizations, and thus be regarded as active partners, and not seen as passive potential and thus be regarded as active partners, and not seen as passive potential members/adherent or passive recipients/beneficiaries. members/adherent or passive recipients/beneficiaries. > Organizations must be seen as a relay between two parties: citizens on the > Organizations must be seen as a relay between two parties: citizens on the one hand and local authorities and their services on the other hand. This relay one hand and local authorities and their services on the other hand. This relay must function both ways “bottom to top” and “top to bottom”, helping both must function both ways “bottom to top” and “top to bottom”, helping both parties to decode their hopes and expectations. parties to decode their hopes and expectations. > The organizations should learn how to specifically coach citizens in order to > The organizations should learn how to specifically coach citizens in order to help and accompany them in particular in their efforts to: help and accompany them in particular in their efforts to:

• remember, to understand personal, family or community experiences of • remember, to understand personal, family or community experiences of emergency situations, emergency situations, • look for “relay citizens”, “innovators” or “early adopters”, • look for “relay citizens”, “innovators” or “early adopters”, • identify risks and the relevant prevention or control solutions, • identify risks and the relevant prevention or control solutions, • take note of “good practises/good behaviours” and “bad practises/bad • take note of “good practises/good behaviours” and “bad practises/bad behaviours”, behaviours”, • get information and be trained, • get information and be trained, • participate in discussions about management of emergency situations and alarm • participate in discussions about management of emergency situations and alarm and rescue drills, and rescue drills, • be “spontaneous volunteers” going to the site of the emergency situation • be “spontaneous volunteers” going to the site of the emergency situation to give a hand. to give a hand.

The authority, the expert or the journalist no longer has the monopoly of The authority, the expert or the journalist no longer has the monopoly of information. Citizen becomes an actor in this sphere. information. Citizen becomes an actor in this sphere.

Thus the listening of the citizens could bring their questions or concerns regarding the Thus the listening of the citizens could bring their questions or concerns regarding the psychosocial assistance after an emergency situation (road crash, fire of building, etc) of the psychosocial assistance after an emergency situation (road crash, fire of building, etc) of the non-injured people, (emergency sheltering, supply of goods, contact with the insurances, etc). non-injured people, (emergency sheltering, supply of goods, contact with the insurances, etc). Some citizens could also raise the problems related to the care of the pets in these emer- Some citizens could also raise the problems related to the care of the pets in these emergency situations. gency situations.

In an emergency situation with an important number of victims, injured and non-injured, In an emergency situation with an important number of victims, injured and non-injured, real or potential (e.g. a pandemia), the rescue, care and assistance organisations must real or potential (e.g. a pandemia), the rescue, care and assistance organisations must carry out a sorting of the needs and requests. This sorting/triage is carried out according to carry out a sorting of the needs and requests. This sorting/triage is carried out according to priorities according to principles of effectiveness and performance for the greatest number priorities according to principles of effectiveness and performance for the greatest number and not for everyone, for the collective and not for the individuals. and not for everyone, for the collective and not for the individuals.

The concept of sorting/triage in emergency must be socially understood, The concept of sorting/triage in emergency must be socially understood, accepted and respected, at least by the greatest number of citizens. accepted and respected, at least by the greatest number of citizens.

69 69 4.4 The other partners of the self-protection 4.4 The other partners of the self-protection

The managers of industrial sites should regularly organize open day events for the The managers of industrial sites should regularly organize open day events for the citizens. These “open days” would offer present the site and demonstrate the organization citizens. These “open days” would offer present the site and demonstrate the organization and the management of emergency situations, in coordination with external services. and the management of emergency situations, in coordination with external services. These days would be part of regular refresher courses on the roles and activities which These days would be part of regular refresher courses on the roles and activities which citizens must endorse for self-protection; with regard to industrial risks and possible citizens must endorse for self-protection; with regard to industrial risks and possible emergency situations. emergency situations.

4.5 Self-protection 4.5 Self-protection

Self-protection should not be any more a “project” with a beginning and an Self-protection should not be any more a “project” with a beginning and an end, but a permanent “approach”. end, but a permanent “approach”.

The concept of “good practise” should be based on simple but rigorous criteria so that The concept of “good practise” should be based on simple but rigorous criteria so that its dissemination is relevant. They could be as follows: its dissemination is relevant. They could be as follows:

- the practice has been implemented or used in the field, - the practice has been implemented or used in the field, - target audiences contribute to its development and take an active part in its - target audiences contribute to its development and take an active part in its implementation, implementation, - the authorities concerned were implicated and committed to the practice, - the authorities concerned were implicated and committed to the practice, - relevant partners are or were mobilized, - relevant partners are or were mobilized, - the practice was evaluated showing the objectives attained, the lessons learnt and - the practice was evaluated showing the objectives attained, the lessons learnt and the remaining challenges, the remaining challenges, - the practice was formalized in a reference document (which leverages and resources - the practice was formalized in a reference document (which leverages and resources were necessary, what was the development and implementation schedule, what were necessary, what was the development and implementation schedule, what difficulties were encountered, etc.), difficulties were encountered, etc.), - the practice was institutionalized (in a school syllabus, for a driving licence, in a - the practice was institutionalized (in a school syllabus, for a driving licence, in a communal plan, etc.) communal plan, etc.) - (option) the practice was exported/used in another territory(s). - (option) the practice was exported/used in another territory(s).

1) The framework for the action 2005-2015: To build resilience to disasters of the nations and the communities 1) The framework for the action 2005-2015: To build resilience to disasters of the nations and the communities The world conference on the disasters reduction (from 18th to January 22th, 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan). The world conference on the disasters reduction (from 18th to January 22th, 2005 in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan).

2) Camus A., the plague, Paris, Gallimard, 1947. 2) Camus A., the plague, Paris, Gallimard, 1947.

3) Community Emergency Response Team : https://www.citizencorps.gov/cert/ 3) Community Emergency Response Team : https://www.citizencorps.gov/cert/

4) Safe communities : http://www.safecommunities.ca/ 4) Safe communities : http://www.safecommunities.ca/

5) Gidden A. “The Consequences of Modernity” (Polity Near, 1991). 5) Gidden A. “The Consequences of Modernity” (Polity Near, 1991).

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