Roman Battle Sarcophagi: An Analysis of Composition as a Reflection of Changing Imperial Styles and Production A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Classics of the College of Arts and Sciences by Sarah Beal B.A. The Ohio State University May 2014 Committee Chair: B. Burrell, Ph.D. Abstract Roman sarcophagi that show battle scenes were produced in Italy during the Antonine period. These scenes are completely devoid of mythological figures and likely represent real battles from Rome’s history, in which Roman soldiers fought wild barbarians. Past scholars, such as Per Gustaf Hamberg and Bernard Andreae, have studied the iconography and compositions of these battle sarcophagi; however, they have yet to be reexamined in light of recent developments in the study of sarcophagus production. This thesis seeks to examine the compositions of Roman battle sarcophagi in order to answer questions about their production. It considers the precedents for such battle scenes, from Classical grave stelai to grand imperial monuments. This study demonstrates how the battle sarcophagi expand upon trends already seen in imperial art of the Antonine period, while incorporating stylistic elements from Hellenistic sculptures. Next, the compositions of the battle scenes are examined, in which the prevalence of specific figural types and groups that are repeated on the full corpus of battle sarcophagi are noted. Many of these figural types are identical to Roman copies of the Attalid victory statues, leading to the argument that the compositions of the Roman battle sarcophagi were inspired not by a single painted prototype, as suggested by Andreae, but instead are the gathered collection of various statuary forms that were applied to a relief. This thesis then discusses various models of production in order to show that the Roman battle sarcophagi support the heterogeneous model developed by Ben Russell. While some workshops were large enough to maintain a stock of completed works to be sold off the shelf, others were much smaller, only creating commissioned works. ii Finally, the figural types on the battle sarcophagi are examined alongside the figural types on sarcophagi that show Amazonomachies. This examination brings to light the similarities between these two sarcophagus types. This thesis argues that these similarities in composition are evidence that a workshop could rough out a generic battle narrative on a sarcophagus, to which finer details could later be applied according to the wishes of the customer in order to transform the scene into either an Amazonomachy or a battle between Romans and barbarians. The figures of Roman soldiers and Amazons in these scenes would have been interchangeable, which suggests complexities in how the Romans viewed these female warriors. iii iv Acknowledgments The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of various individuals. First and foremost, I would like to express my great appreciation to Barbara Burrell for her tireless encouragement. From my first semester at UC, she has inspired me to change the way I approach my research and to ask questions of the material which I never would have imagined on my own. Through our many impromptu brainstorming sessions and her constant enthusiasm for my work and our field, she has provided me with extraordinary guidance for completing this thesis with a smile on my face. I also wish to express my gratitude to Kathleen Lynch, who has always been willing to find time to meet with me and to discuss the more tedious aspects of this thesis. She is a constant model for how to balance scholarship, outreach, and free time, for which I am indebted. Gratitude is also due to my many colleagues who were a constant source of encouragement throughout this process. In particular, I wish to thank Alice Crowe, who was always readily available to bounce around ideas, Simone Agrimonti, who was a constant help with his optimism and Italian language skills, and Carina Moss, who was continually available to listen. A very special thank you goes to Aaron Caffrey and Sylvia Czander, who both found time in their busy schedules to help me with editing. Finally, I wish to thank my family for always supporting my love of Classics. From my sisters who taught me how to dig in the dirt, to my mother who encouraged me to major in Classics in undergrad and my father who inspired my love of travel, they have never questioned my desire to enter this field, for which I am eternally grateful. Thanks also to Chris Kanner, who has endured many months of me talking about sarcophagi and has always at least pretended to be interested. v Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………… pp. 1-5 Chapter 2: Past Scholarship ……………………………………………………….… pp. 6-15 Sarcophagi in Context Production Roman Battle Sarcophagi Other Battle Scenes Conclusion Chapter 3: Earlier Precedents ………………………………………………....…… pp. 16-28 Athenian Grave Stele Alexander Sarcophagus Altar of Zeus at Pergamon Dedications by Attlid Kings Paintings and Painted Panels Conclusion Chapter 4: Imperial Reliefs …………………………………………………..……… pp. 29-43 Column of Trajan Great Trajanic Frieze Column of Marcus Aurelius Arch of Septimius Severus Conclusion Chapter 5: Compositions and Iconography ……………………………..….……… pp. 44-73 Figural Types and Groups Other Trends in Composition Iconography Conclusion vi Chapter 6: Workshops and Production ………………………………….………… pp. 74-82 Models of Production Production of Battle Sarcophagi Conclusion Chapter 7: Amazonomachies on Sarcophagi ……………………………………… pp. 83-94 Amazonomachies Sculpting Workshops Conclusion Chapter 8: Conclusion …………………...……………………………….………… pp. 95-98 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………… pp. 99-114 Catalogue of Roman Battle Sarcophagi …………………………………………… pp. 115-148 Images ……………………………………………………………………………….. pp. 149-180 vii Chapter 1: Introduction The mid-2nd century CE, known as the Antonine period, saw the longstanding Roman burial practice of cremation give way to the rapidly popularized method of inhumation in a sarcophagus. Sarcophagus production and distribution exploded during this period, as evidenced by the sudden prevalence of sarcophagus burials, though there is little consensus as to the reason for this change in practice.1 These marble caskets held a prominent position within Roman burial practices, being displayed during funerals and ultimately placed within the familial tomb. Here the sarcophagus would be regularly visited by the family, at future funerals and during the yearly Parentalia, a nine-day festival held to honor the ancestors. As a result, Roman sarcophagi were elaborately decorated for the conspicuous display of both wealth and highly honored virtues. There were three main types of sarcophagi produced throughout the Roman world, named for where they are believed to have been produced. Attic sarcophagi are decorated on all four sides, and usually conform to a standard size and shape. These sarcophagi present a wide array of scenes, especially stories from mythology, though they sometimes show battles of Greeks fighting against a barbaric enemy. Though these battles may be somewhat historical, they are mythologized by the nudity of all of the figures. Asiatic sarcophagi can be distinguished by the use of columns to frame the scenes, breaking a continuous narrative in individual figures and groupings. These sarcophagi most often depict various mythological figures. Roman sarcophagi are decorated on only three sides, with the fourth side left blank as they were often placed against a wall. The sizes and shapes of these sarcophagi are extremely variable. Roman sarcophagi from this period are decorated with a wide range of motifs, from mythological scenes to biographical 1 For major works on sarcophagi in general, see Die antiken Sarkophagreliefs; Sarkophag-Studien; Koch and Sichtermann 1982; Zanker and Ewald 2004; Elsner and Huskinson 2011; Birk 2013. 1 representations of daily life. These biographical scenes almost always feature allegorical figures and are more focused on the repetition of imperial virtues rather than true biography. Much scholarship on Roman sarcophagi has been focused on iconography, such as Die antiken Sarkophagreliefs series, published over the last 100 years, which is organized according to the various iconographic types for all Roman sarcophagi. This and other iconographic studies have allowed for a wider examination of the stylistic and ideological changes that occurred during the imperial period. The Sarkophag-Studien series is similarly centered on iconographic studies, with the exception of the most recent volume by Katharina Meinecke.2 Meinecke’s volume is part of a rising trend towards attempting to contextualize sarcophagi, which includes new discussions on sarcophagus placement within the tomb context, production techniques, and the identification of workshops. Further studies have focused on the changing ideologies occurring during the Antonine period, as reflected on the sarcophagi.3 This thesis will focus on Roman sarcophagi that feature a battle between Romans and barbarians on the main front side. This group is distinct in that they represent real Romans fighting in chaotic battles, rather than showing mythologized versions of warfare. Whereas most Roman sarcophagi feature Greek myths or biographical characters interacting with mythological figures, the battle scenes are completely