Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. In explanation of his point, Sperry writes: 'It is not just that the poetry is taken up in isolation from the life of the poet, from the deeper logic of his career both in itself and in relation to the history of his times, although that fact is continuously disconcerting. It is further that in reducing the verse to a structure of ideas, criticism has gone far toward depriving it of all emotional reality'(14). 2. See, in particular, Federico Olivero's essays on Shelley and Ve• nice (1909: 217-25), Shelley and Dante, Petrarch and the Italian countryside (1913: 123-76), Epipsychidion (1918: 379-92), Shelley and Turner (1935); Corrado Zacchetti's Shelley e Dante (1922); and Maria De Courten's Percy Bysshe Shelley e l'Italia (1923). A more recent, and important, work is Aurelio Zanco's monograph, Shelley e l'Italia (1945). Other studies of note are by Tirinelli (1893); Fontanarosa (1897); Bernheimer (1920); Bini (1927); and Viviani della Robbia (1936). 3. In researching this field of study, Italian critics have found Shelley to be their best spokesman. 4. A work such as Anna Benneson McMahan's With Shelley in (1907) comes to mind. Hers is a more inclusive anthology than John Lehmann's Shelley in Italy (1947) but needs to be brought up to date. 5. There has been a growing recognition of the importance of the Italian element in Shelley's poetry. Significant studies in English since those of Scudder (1895: 96-114), Toynbee (1909: 214-30), Bradley (1914: 441-56) and Stawell (1914: 104-31) are those of P. N. Roy, Shelley's Epipsychidion (1938) and Shelley and Italian Literature (1943); John Lehmann, Introduction to Shelley in Italy: An Anthology (1947: 7-40); Milton Wilson, 'Shelley's Italian Imagery' in Shelley's Later Poetry (1959: 102-28); Neville Rogers, 'Italian Platonics and Epipsychidion' in Shelley at Work (1967: 230-48); Timothy Webb, 'The Secret Things of Love: Shelley, Dante, and Italy' and 'Translating the Untranslatable: The Divine Comedy' in The Violet in the Crucible (1976: 276-336); and Katherine Folliot, Shelley's Italian Sunset (19831st pub. 1979). Webb's study provides the fullest examination in English to date of Shelley's Italian studies, and his conclusions regarding the importance of the Italian strain are a landmark in this field of research. He pointedly asserts that 'Italy had a profound influence on Shelley and his work' (1976: 277). There is a harmonious interplay between Shelley's de• veloping powers and the creative presence of Italy, with the result that in Italy 'Shelley produced nearly all of his best work' (277).

248 Notes to pp. 2-6 249

Webb shows a firm grasp of the way Shelley's Italian experience came to fruition in his poetry. Of the essays dealing specifically with Shelley's Italian experience in the last twenty-five years, one must cite, in particlar, the work of Frederic S. Colwell on Shelley's response in Italy to sculpture and painting (1979: 59-77; 1980: 43-66); Steve Ellis on Shelley's assessment of Dante (1983: 1-35); Daniel Hughes on the correspondence between Shelley and Leonardo da Vinci (1970: 195-212); Fred L. Milne on The Cenci and the Ninth Circle of Dante's Hell (1977: 117-32); George Yost on the possible influence of Pieracci on The Cenci (1986: 1-52); Richard E. Brown on the role of Dante in Epipsychidion (1978: 223-35); Earl J. Schulze on Shelley's engagement with Dantean and Petrarchan elements in Epipsychidion and The Triumph of Life (1982: 191-216; 1988: 31-62); and Richard Fogle on Dante's links with Adonais (1967: 11-21). 6. Webb breaks new ground by suggesting that the 'intellectual' and 'sensual' aspects of Shelley's 'enriching' experience should not be considered as separate and distinct functions (1976: 276-7). 7. In A Map of Misreading, Harold Bloom writes that '[i]nfluence ... means that there are no texts, but only relationships between texts' (1975: 3), adding that 'to interpret a poem, necessarily you interpret its difference from other poems' (75). One should add that interpretation equally involves discerning the similarities between poems. The concept of 'intertextuality' has been explored by Julia Kristeva (Semiiotike, Paris, Seuil, 1969) and is defined by Gerard Genette 'as an "eidetic" relation of co-presence between two or more texts, and more often as the effective presence of one text in another' ('par une relation de copresence entre deux ou plusieurs textes, c'est-a-dire, eidetiquement e le plus souvent, par la presence effective d'un texte dans un autre', 1982: 8). 8. Shelley's constructive engagement with the past is given theoretical backing in A Defence of Poetry. 9. Discussing the Italian tourist vogue which reached its peak between the years 1819 to 1828, C. P. Brand writes that the interest of English visitors 'centred in general on the scenery, arts, antiquities and literature of Renaissance and medieval Italy, and they usually showed little sympathy for the character, way of life, culture or political aspirations of the modern Italians' (1957: 25). Brand adds that a small, but influential group did express deep concern for the Italians (25). 10. In his political treatise, Della tirannide (On Tyranny, 1789), 'Alfieri presented the very core of his literary inspiration: hatred of tyranny and an inexhaustible thirst for freedom' (Bondanella and Bondanella 1979: 9). 11. Contrary to popular belief, based on distorted or unqualified read• ings of The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli was a devout republican whose intellectual contribution to the 'Risorgimento', by way of Alfieri, is considerable. Shelley's high regard for Machiavelli's thought is suggested in A Defence of Poetry, PP: 492 and L: II, 278. 12. In spite of similarities in the style and thought of both poets, there 250 Notes to pp. 6-13

is little concrete evidence to prove that Leopardi and Shelley had any acquaintance with each other's work. On connections between Leopardi and Shelley, see Zanella (1883: 409-29), Chiappelli (1900: 137-44) and Mariani (1987: 1-22). 13. Histoire des R.epubliques ltaliennes du Moyen Age. Dante's Commedia was another excellent guide to Italian history and politics. 14. The glamour of Italy can have been little recompense for the loss, within the space of nine months (September to June 1818/19), of both Shelley's children; or for the mood of disquiet which, at frequent intervals, seems to have weighed upon the Shelleyan household. 15. These included Turin, Milan, Como, Leghorn, , , Bologna, , , Florence, Pisa and . In a sense, Shelley successfully completed the . He also lived in the Euganean Hills, at the Baths of Lucca, the Baths of Pisa and Lerici, and was acquainted with towns such as Piacenza, Parma, , Padua, Este, Rovigo, Faenza, Cesena, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Foligno, , Terni, Capua, Gaeta, Terracina, Velletri, Lucca, Empoli, Pietra Santa, and La Spezia. 16. Taafe, Medwin, Williams (and Trelawny) have all signalled their admiration for Shelley's poetry. On Shelley's relations with the Pisan circle, see Cline (1952). 17. See De Courten (1923: 121-257). Carducci spoke of Shelley as 'il poeta del Iiberato mondo' ('the poet of the liberated world', Presso l'urnil di P. B. Shelley, 245), D' Annunzio considered Prometheus Unbound 'il piu gran poema di questo secolo, piu grande forse anche del Faust goethiano' ('the greatest poem of this century [nineteenth], even greater perhaps than Goethe's Faust', 253). 18. For the diversity of critical reactions to Shelley, see, for example, White (1972: II, 420). 19. 'Libeccio', the - wind. 20. Both are commercial and maritime cities. 21. Olivero writes: 'Soprattutto l'ammira quando la mette a paragone collo squallore nativo, come nella Lettera aM. Gisborne' ('Above all he admires it [Italy] when he compares it with the squalor of his native England, as in the Letter to Maria Gisborne', 1913: 155). Whereas in Peter Bell the Third 'Hell is a city much like London', in Julian and Maddalo, Italy is the 'Paradise of exiles'. 22. Shelley's debt to Dante has long been noted, if not always appre• ciated. In 1898 Oscar Kuhns claimed that '[a]mong all the English poets none shows a wider and deeper influence of Dante than Shelley' (161). Kuhns's view has been echoed throughout the twentieth century, significantly in a full length study on Dante and Shelley by Corrado Zacchetti (1922), and notably by T. S. Eliot who, observing that The Triumph of Life contained 'some of the greatest and most Dantesque lines in English', added that 'Shelley is the English poet, more than all others, upon whom the influence of Dante was remarkable' (1965: 30). More recently, Timothy Webb has added his voice to the growing recognition that, of all English poets, Shelley is probably the most attuned to the great Notes to pp. 13-22 251

Italian poet. Introducing the notion of intertextuality which Cronin has so effectively applied to Shelley's work in general, Webb points to Shelley's 'fruitful grafting of the imported bloom on to the native stock' (1976: 303). Shelley 'steeped himself in Dante through reading, discussion and translation', and 'assimilated what was most relevant to his own purposes' (304). He adds that 'the particular importance of Dante can only be properly understood when it has been placed in the full perspective of Shelley's Italian experience' (276-7). 23. Federico Olivero (1913: 139-152) was one of the first critics this century to acknowledge the Petrarchan element in Shelley's poetry. His essay was directly followed in England in studies of The Triumph of Life by A. C. Bradley (1914: 441-56) and F. Melian Stawell (1914: 104-31); and then subsequently by Maria Giartosio De Courten, who, in her work on Percy Bysshe Shelley e l'Italia (1923), claimed that 'no other Romantic poet was so greatly and deeply influenced by Petrarch and Dante as was Shelley' ('nessuno anche come lui ne resentl piu largamente e profondamente l'influsso', 87). While critics today are generally agreed on the important influence of Petrarch in The Triumph of Life, there is little acknowledgement of an affinity between Petrarch and Shelley which is evidenced in poems such as Euganean Hills, Epipsychidion and Adonais. 24. Some works were read more than once (see J: II, 631-84). 25. The career of Foscolo parallels that of Shelley's, since he too felt alienated from his own countrymen. Ironically, the Italian poet found refuge in England where he arrived, exiled from his own country, in September 1816. 26. See, for example, Newman lvey White's brief comment on links between The Witch of Atlas and Forteguerri's Il Ricciardetto (1972: II, 219-21), a burlesque poem in thirty cantos, read by Shelley from June to July 1820 (J: I, 324-7). Shelley's Hymn to Mercury, freely translated into 'ottava rima' in July 1820, is the first result ofForteguerri's comic influence.

CHAPTER 1: THE EXILE IN SEARCH OF REFUGE: LINES WRITTEN AMONG THE EUGANEAN HILLS

1. From Bagni di Lucca in July, Shelley wrote to Peacock, 'I have lately found myself totally incapable of original composition' (L: II, 26). The draft of Athanase was composed between July 1818 and August 1819 (Reiman 1986: VII, 147-51). 2. Reiman explains the term 'Celtic Anarch' (1962: 408 n13). 3. Medwin adds that Shelley 'had [Petrarch's] works constantly in hand' (262). 4. In speaking of 'two Italies' when writing to Leigh Hunt from Naples in December, Shelley echoes Petrarch's 'green earth' and ambivalent response to his countrymen (see L: II, 67 and Introduction, supra). 5. Shelley is, in addition, responding to Childe Harold, especially Canto IV. See Charles Robinson (1976: 106-11). 252 Notes to pp. 22-26

6. Byron's poem was composed in July 1818 (McGann 1986: IV, 494) . 7. Shelley is not known to have read Foscolo's Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis (although he was certainly familiar with its model, Goethe's Die Leiden das jungen Werther: see L: I, 95). It does, however, seem likely that he was aware of Foscolo's work since the Italian author was in at the time of Shelley's visit there in 1816; Foscolo was a public figure on his arrival in London at the close of 1816; editions of his epistolary novel were published in London in 1814 and 1817 (Gambarin 1955: lxiv-lxxviii) a translation of an earlier version in 1813 (Radcliff-Umstead 1970: 14); Byron- who rivalled the Italian poet in popular appeal, and was living in Foscolo's city of adoption, Venice- was almost certainly influenced by Jacopo Ortis in composing Childe Harold (Vassallo 1984: 22-3), and could well have communicated the importance of Foscolo's work to Shelley. While not mentioned in the Shelleys' reading lists, Foscolo' s novel was read by Mary Shelley at the time of the poet's fateful departure for Leghorn in June 1822 (J: I, 412). Possible allusions to Ortis in Epipsychidion, Adonais and The Triumph of Life suggest that Shelley might have been reading the novel in 1821-2. 8. The 'day's excursion' recorded in Euganean Hills took place 'among those lovely mountains which surround what was once the retreat, and where is now the sepulchre, of Petrarch' (PW: 167). 9. Describing the setting at Este to Peacock, Shelley mentions Petrarch's house and tomb at Arqua which is 'religiously preserved & visited', and refers to a panoramic view of the 'wide flat plains of Lombardy, in which we see the sun & moon rise & set, & the evening star, & all the golden magnificence of autumnal clouds' (L: II, 43). In the same letter Shelley comments favourably on Byron and Venice (42). 10. In Shelley's eyes he had been 'dragged before the tribunals of tyranny and superstition ... for having exposed their frauds, and scorned the insolence of their power' (L: I, 530). In view of his admiration for Socrates and Jesus, Shelley might have seen himself acting out their sacrifical roles. 11. The situation Shelley faced is examined closely by Barrows who describes it as the 'exile's complex' (1963: 364, 370). The traveller, 'prompted to substitute life in the new country for life in the old', is destined to 'a certain amount of inevitable disappointment' (371). 12. Reiman (1962: 404-13), and Chernaik (LS: 61-82), are, to date, the only critics to have offered in-depth analyses of the poem. Other important contributions have been made by Wasserman (1971: 196-203) and Charles Robinson (1976: 104-12). I am indebted to the insights of all these critics, but must add that they do not give specific attention to Italian issues, even though inevitably touching on them. 13. Cameron's treatment of the poem is exclusively autobiographical (1974: 267-70). 14. Webb (1977). See especially Ch. 2: 'Poetry and the Principle of the Self', 33-73. In his monograph on Shelley, Donald Reiman has stated that Shelley 'is not essentially an autobiographical poet' (1969: 7). Notes to pp. 26-33 253

15. Reiman, it should be noted, is careful not to confine the mariner's role to a symbolic representation of Shelley. 16. It is possible that Shelley took the phrase 'green isle' from Byron who, in a letter to Murray, speaks of Venice as 'the greenest island of my imagination' (Marchand 1976: V, 129). 17. For another notable use of the conceit, see The Witch of Atlas, LXIII:

We, the weak mariners of that wide lake Where'er its shores extend or billows roll, Our course unpiloted and starless make O'er its wild surface to an unknown goal- But she in the calm depths her way could take Where in bright bowers immortal forms abide Beneath the weltering of the restless tide. (546-52)

The same conceit may be traced to Childe Harold IV, 934-45. Byron speaks of 'a little bark of hope' which has 'once more I To battle with the ocean' (938-9). 18. There are no fewer than twenty-eight poems in the Canzoniere which refer to this image-cluster: nos. 14, 26, 28, 63, 73, 80, 132, 151, 177, 180, 189, 206, 212, 230, 235, 264, 268, 272, 277, 290, 292, 299, 317, 323, 331, 333, 365, 366; of these nos. 80, 189, and 235 are entirely based on the conceit, and, if examined separately and in sequence, suggest an intensification of suffering. 19. Reiman gives a penetrating analysis of structure, though he tends to obscure what are, to me, the more obvious formal boundaries of the poem. 20. Both poems present daybreak from a vantage point in the hills, and both juxtapose a symbolic representation of the human condition with a personal experience of sunrise. 21. Cf. PU: I. 759-61; MA: 110-17. 22. Cf. CH: IV, 10-14. 23. Venice, lost and won, Her thirteen hundred years of freedom done, Sinks, like a sea-weed, into whence she rose!

Cf. also Venice. An Ode 1-4; 15-16. 24. Cf. VO: 60-1:

still we lean On things that rot beneath our weight ....

Also cf. 12-13:

and thus they creep, Crouching and crab-like, through their sapping streets.

25. In VO, the city is 254 Notes to pp. 33-36

... the 'kingdom' of a conquering foe, - But knows what all - and, most of all, we know• With what set gilded terms a tyrant juggles! (122-4)

26. Cf. VO: 154-7:

better be Where the extinguish' d Spartans still are free, In their proud charnel of Thermopylae, Than stagnate in our marsh . . . .

27. Cf. again CH: IV, concluding stanzas. 28. In VO: 97-100, the 'seasons' will

repair the blight With a few summers, and again put forth Cities and generations - fair, when free - For, Tyranny, there blooms no bud for thee!

The transmission of freedom through the ages is the central idea of the Ode to Liberty. 29. In stanza 3, the Mediterranean is woken from its dream of 'old and towers I Quivering within the wave's intenser day', an allusion to the halcyon days of ancient Rome: a new spiritual force is being prophesied. 30. ' ... the harsh sound of the barbarian drum' (VO: 20). 31. . .. or if there sprung the yellow grain, 'Twas not for them, their necks were too much bow' d .... (VO: 89-90)

32. Shelley's ideal seems at this point to coincide with Petrarch's, since Laura embodies 'love' and 'reason' (chastity). See e.g. Canzoniere 215, 9; 230, 3; 315, 9-10; 351, 2. These two qualities are symbolised by light imagery. 33. In the 'Preface' to The Revolt of Islam, Shelley writes: 'Could they listen to the plea of reason who had groaned under the calamities of a social state according to the provisions of which one man riots in luxury whilst another famishes for want of bread? Can he who the day before was a trampled slave suddenly become liberal-minded, forbearing and independent?' (PW: 33). 34. 'When Vice walks forth with her unsoften'd terrors ... '(VO: 34). 35. Shelley's visit to Padua probably informed him of the details of Ezzelino's reign, as would his reading of Sismondi's Histoire des Ripubliques Italiennes, 1840: II, 20S-17; 275-80. Reiman usefully sketches the necessary details of Ezzelino's life and Padua's history (1962: 410). 36. Shelley rekindles the 'sparkles of our ashes' which, Byron says, Notes to pp. 36-40 255

'tyranny of late ... tramples down', VO: 131-3. See Ode to Liberty, 76-90 for a different rendering of the idea that liberty 'cannot pass away'. 37. Pointed out by Chemaik (LS: 81). Dante's image is also, presum• ably, the source of the 'unextinguished hearth' in Ode to the West Wind, 66. 38. Clear, geometric outlines co-exist with the broad vagueness of a panaromic view, as Wilson suggests (1959: 127-8). 39. Matthew Brennan writes that 'to communicate the sublime's in• comprehensible semantic, which is beyond the limits of discursive language, Shelley intentionally resorts to a syntax of ambiguity that dissolves the normal boundaries of the sentence and approximates the obscure meaning of sublime transport' (1987: 25). 40. In Stuart Peterfreund's view, Shelley's approach to the ineffable is different from Dante's (1984: 123-9). 41. Cf. also Canzoniere 80:

poi temo, che mi veggio in fraile legno et piu non vorrei piena la vela del vento che mi pinse in questi scogli (28-30)

(and I am afraid, for I see I am in a frail ship I and more than I would wish I see the sail full I with the wind that drove me toward these rocks). 42. A more encompassing and less despondent view of Naples is given in the the opening stanzas of the Ode to Naples, written a year and a half later. In the Ode, Shelley celebrates the preservation of in an oracular and awe-inspiring setting. 43. ' ... the timeless transfiguration at noon has provided him [the poet] with a personal hope of ... a calm persistence like the ongoing autumnal tranquillity that is to remain after the visitation of Intellectual Beauty [Hymn to Intellectual Beauty]' (Wasserman 1971: 203). 44. 'So all the elements of the earlier moment recur in generalized form .... It is as if the real elements of the scene - not simply the physical landscape, but the poet, his song, even the universals of love, light, harmony, odor- are rendered in their spiritual essence' (LS: 72-3). 45. Written in Rome in the spring of 1819. 46. See Ch. 5 infra. 47. An interesting exception to the general trend of these poems is Canzoniere 180, in which the poet's spirit 'overcomes the current and the wind and the sail and the oars' ('l'acqua e '1 vento e la vela e i remi sforza', 8) and 'returns flying to his sweet dwelling' ('torna volando al suo dolce soggiomo', 14). 48. Shelley's preference for distant perspectives is admirably exploited in Adonais. See Ch. 6 infra. It is noticeable that a mountain setting also gives rise to 'vision' in The Triumph of Life. 256 Notes to pp. 40-43

49. In Reiman's view, 'light' is specifically associated in the poem with 'reason'; 'fire' with 'love and imagination'. In certain descriptions, moreover, 'light' and 'fire' (love and reason) are inseparable. Reiman adduces a Shelleyan symbology in which the sea stands for 'mortality', the sky for 'transcendence' and the air for 'mind or thought' (1962: 404-13). 50. For an account of Shelley's reading of Dante, see Ch. 4 infra. 51. Evidently Shelley welcomed the living experience of a quality that• in pre-Italian poems such as Queen Mab, Alastor, Hymn to Intellectual Beauty, Mont Blanc, Laon and Cythna - he already prized. 52. PP: 112 n6. The translation was published with Alastor in 1816. I have used the Italian text in Foster and Boyde (1967: 30); and the English text in Webb (1976: 281). 53. Stephen Spender, who has the highest regard for Euganean Hills (he calls it Shelley's 'lyric masterpiece') claims that Shelley 'forged a language which was highly capable of expressing eloquently and beautifully abstract thought and intellectual ideas. In different circumstances, Shelley might have been held to have invented in England something corresponding to the "dolce stil nuovo" .... It is possible that a more constructively critical study of his work than has yet been given us, might still illuminate for modern poets a path out of their intellectual obscurity, and show how the most complex ideas can be expressed with lucid ease' (1952: 46). 54. Mindful perhaps of Ariostean whimsy, and not dissimilar to The Witch of Atlas in tone. 55. Kroeber (1974: 336) claims that 'in the poem joy and misery, des• pair and hope, do not so much balance as interact: one becomes the other'. 56. Shelley has possibly in mind the lines,

Gentil mia Donna, i' veggio Nel mover de' vostri'occhi un dolce lume Che mi mostra la via ch' al ciel conduce .... (Canzoniere 72, 1-3)

(My noble Lady, I see in the moving of your eyes a sweet light that shows me the way that leads to Heaven .... ) 57. Written after the poem was first completed, probably in De• cember at Naples. See PW: 554 in addition to Reiman (1962: 404 n2). 58. Believed to be a topical reference to the corruptive influence of Venice on Byron. Nevertheless, Shelley's depiction of his friend is one of high praise, as befits his intention of imagining a regenerate Byron. See Reiman (1962: 409-10) and Robinson (1976: 105). The imagery linking Byron and Venice brilliantly combines the personal and cultural significance of the 'green isle'. 59. In a letter to Peacock from Naples, Shelley, whilst decrying Byron's life-style, writes, '[b]ut that he is a great poet, I think the address to Ocean proves' (L: II, 58). Notes to pp. 44-47 257

CHAPTER 2: DUAL PERSPECfiVES AND A VENETIAN SETIING: JULIAN AND MADDALO

1. See L: II, 34. The Shelleys had spent three months in Byron's company at Geneva, from 25 May to 29 August 1816 (see L: I, 476 nS; 504 nl). From Geneva, Byron had, on 5 October, proceeded directly to Italy, arriving in Venice on 10 November 1816 (McGann 1986: IV, XV). 2. The nature of the ride is made clearer from the following account by Byron, in a letter to Thomas Moore, 2 February, 1818: 'Talking of horses, by the way, I have transported my own, four in number, to the Lido (beach in English), a strip of some ten miles along the Adriatic, a mile or two from the city; so that I not only get a row in my gondola, but a spanking gallop of some miles daily along a firm and solitary beach, from the fortress to Malamocco, the which contributes considerably to my health and spirits' (Marchand 1976: VI, 10). 3. Apparently the madhouse on San Servolo, though according to Browning, Shelley 'confused memories of the madhouse on San Servolo with the penitentiary on San Clemente' (Peck 1969: II, 102 n84). The islands are situated close to each other, between the Lido and the city of Venice. James Morris (1983: 286-7) describes the island penitentiaries and claims that Shelley's madhouse was San Servolo. 4. See Baker (1946: 41-73; 1948: 124-138). Baker's view has received the qualified support of Matthews (1963: 57-84) and has been endorsed by Robinson (1976: 81-104). See infra. 5. A tendency in early commentaries. See, for example, Salt (1891: 325-42), Peck (1969 [1927, 1st pub.]: II, 97-107), Grabo (1965 [1936, 1st pub.]: 264-71), and White (1972 [1940, 1st pub.]: II, 42-50). 6. The poem's independence has been repeatedly stressed in recent years. In this regard, the most influential critical discussions are those of Matthews (1963: 57-84) and Wasserman (1971: 57-83). 7. The redating of Julian and Maddalo has brought into focus its similarities to The Cenci (also commented on in Ch. 3 infra). 8. The first of these recent approaches is represented by Cronin (1981: 108--32) and Everest (1983: 63-88); the second by Hirsch (1978: 13-34) and Newey (1982: 71-104), respectively. More recently, Tracy Ware (1987: 109-25) has followed Wasserman in emphasising the conver• sational and dialectical nature of the poem, and the indeterminacy of individual viewpoints. Ware claims that the poem 'moves towards the revelation not of truth but of error' (110). 9. The 'poems' set at Rome and Florence may well be The Cenci and Marenghi, the latter written at Naples (1818) but left incomplete. That set at Naples could be the Ode to Naples, written at Bagni di Pisa in August 1820. Each of these works is based on a 'dreadful reality' and each reflects Shelley's willingness to engage himself in Italian history and politics. 10. Shelley told Hunt that 'two of the characters you will recognize [Julian and Maddalo]; the third [the Maniac] is also in some degree 258 Notes to pp. 41-51

a painting from nature, but, with respect to time and place, ideal' (L: II, 108). 11. Compare Shelley's approach to the one Samuel Rogers adopts in his travelogue on Italy (1822). 12. . .. and yet more Than all, with a remembered friend I love To ride as then I rode. (19-21: my emphasis) 13. Living as they did in harmony with nature, the Venetians had had the courage to 'imagine that which [they] knew' and to 'act that which they imagined', PP: 502. 14. In alluding to Dante, Shelley gives rhetorical weight to Julian's response, but is not thereby enforcing his own opinions. Elsewhere in the poem, he uses Dante to strengthen Maddalo's standpoint as well. See infra. 15. The association of Dante with the 'Paradise of exiles' recurs in A Defence of Poetry. Referring to the religion of love in the Middle Ages and to the role played in particular by Dante in its furtherance, Shelley comments that '[t]he familiar appearance and proceedings of life became wonderful and heavenly; and a paradise was created as out of the wrecks of Eden' (PP: 497). This awakening to the beauties of the familiar world in Italy is recaptured in Julian's response to the Venetian setting. 16. The image of 'purple' light would appear to be distinctively Italian: it is repeated, in passages of elevated description of the Italian landscape, in Euganean Hills, 287, Julian and Maddalo, 72, 84 and Stanzas written in Dejection, 4. 17. Commenting on this passage, Olivero writes: 'Conviene risalire agli abissi di luce evocati dall' Alighieri ... per ritrovare un si intenso splendore di poesia'. ('It is necessary to trace one's way back to the abysses of light evoked by Alighieri ... to rediscover such an intense splendour of poetry', 1913: 163). 18. Concerning this description of the Venetian sunset, J. A. Symonds writes that it 'strikes the keynote to Venetian painting', the 'el• emental conditions' of which are 'light, colour, air, space'. He adds that the 'description, richly coloured and somewhat confused in detail, seems to me peculiarly true to Venetian scenery .... Tunis has the same elements of broad lagoons and distant hills, but not the same vaporous atmosphere' (1935: I, 747 n1). 19. Later linked by Julian with poetry: books are there, Pictures, and casts from all those statues fair Which were twin-born with poetry. (554-6) 20. Milton Wilson writes: 'Certainly Venice became more magical as she became less real; and, when the republic died, the ghost of a city became more enchanted than ever. Venice looks solid in Carpaccio, Notes to pp. 51-56 259

feels palpable and ripe in Veronese, starts to dissolve in Tiepolo, recedes "in a perspective of Canaletto," and becomes a wraith in Turner. The enchantment or magic of Venice is, verbally at least, a late eighteenth-century invention' (1974: 100-1}. Alfonso Lowe (1974) presents a more 'substantial' view of late Republican Venice than the above description might imply. 21. According to Wilson, English Renaissance commentators never ascribe a funereal quality to the vessel. 'On the contrary, to Renaissance observers the gondola was a pleasant, agile vessel, noted for speed, convenience, and manoeuverability, rather than for anything particularly sinister or gloomy' (1974: 93). The term was, however, fashionable in the reign of George the Third and has been traced back by Wilson to the 1740 travel book of Johann Georg Keysler (94). Shelley would have caught the vogue from Byron's Beppo ('Just like a coffin clapt in a canoe', 151) and from Madame de Stael's Corinne ('Ces gondoles noires ... ressemblent a des cercueils ou a des berceaux, a Ia derniere et a Ia premiere demeure de l'homme' - 'these black gondolas ... resemble coffins or cradles, man's last or first resting-place', [undated c. 1805): V, vii, 354). 22. Wilson comments that the gondola becomes 'Charon's bark in pre• Romantic imagery' (1974: 113). 23. A possible allusion to The lAment of Tasso, 241-2: ' ... when all that Birth and Beauty throws I Of magic round thee [Leonora) is extinct ... '. 24. 'But Shelley's images of Venice, like the Jacobeans', can compose both an upperworld and an underworld too ...' (Wilson 1974: 113). Wilson's discussion draws attention to the ambivalence of the 'Traveller's Venice'. 25. It is a central tenet of Shelley's philosophy that 'Nothing exists but as it is perceived', 'On Life' (SP: 174). 26. Julian's statement is made in the present tense, indicating his adult reflection upon his youthful idealism. 27. Based on Allegra, Byron's illegitimate daughter by Claire Clairmont. At the time of Shelley's meeting with Byron, Allegra was one-and• a-half years old. Claire's concern for her daughter was the primary object of Shelley's visit to Venice. 28. What John Freeman has called, the 'Ecology of Love' (1988: 31-51). 29. Earl Wasserman has convincingly established Shelley's sceptical, and indeed Socratic, treatment of the persona-figure in Julian and Maddalo. In his view, the poem is an inner dialogue, both Julian and Maddalo representing opposing aspects of Shelley's psyche. Wasserman com• pares the poem to Yeats's Dialogue of Self and Soul. Most subsequent criticism of the poem has taken its line from Wasserman. 30. Cronin and Everest are, in different ways, concerned with Shelley's status as 'gentleman' and 'radical' poet. 31. 'The polar debate between Julian and Maddalo is carried on (among other ways) in terms of traditional "views" of Venice. "Look here upon this picture, and on this"' (Wilson 1974: 114). 260 Notes to pp. 56-59

32. Cf. Robinson (1976: 88): 'Certainly, Maddalo mirrors Byron, but he also reproduces traits of the Byronic hero that Shelley had discovered in Manfred and in Childe Harold IV.' 33. The phrase is echoed in Julian's rejoinder:

'and those who try may find How strong the chains are which our spirit bind; Brittle perchance as straw.' (180-2)

34. See L: I, 557, 584 and n3, 591. 35. Read, it would seem, in Byron's company(/, 1: 227). 36. Cf. the stanzas on Venice, 1 to 4; 11 to 18. 37. Charles Robinson (1976: 90) claims that Maddalo's words echo Byron's 1816-18 poetry: 'with these words ... Shelley condensed in Maddalo the themes and imagery of ayron's Darkness, Prometheus, Manfred, Childe Harold IV, and The Lament of Tasso'. 38. Critics have been reluctant to take this factor into account, perhaps owing to Maddalo's link with Byron. 39. Julian's attitude reflects the 'Italianate fashion' which reached its peak in the 'ten or twenty years immediately following the Napoleonic wars' (Barrows 1%3: 360). See Introduction supra. 40. C,. P. Brand comments that, in Tasso's letters, 'his ambition, his .. dignity, his insistence on his own importance, are constantly mani• fested .... His persecution complex, or at least the conviction that he was not being treated as he deserved, and his resentment of the slightest apparent affront to his dignity led to his restless wandering from court to court after his release from St Anna (1965: 34, 36). 41. Cf. Canzoniere 128, 115-8:

perche tra gente altera ir ti convene et le voglie son piene gia de l'usanza pessima et antica, del ver sempre nemica

(for you [his song] must go among a haughty people, and their wills are still full of vicious and old custom, always the enemy of truth). 42. On the Second Terrace of Purgatory, Dante claims that his eyes ' ... have little offended with looks of envy; far greater is the fear, which holds my soul in suspense, of the torment below [purgation of pride on the First Terrace], so that already the load down there is heavy upon me':

' . . . poca e I' offesa fatta per esser con invidia volti [gli'occhi]. Troppa e piu Ia paura ond'e sospesa 1' anima mia del tormento di sotto, che gia lo 'ncarco di Ia giu mi pesa.' (Purg. XIII, 134-8) Notes to pp. 59-66 261

Cf. also Purg. XI, 73-8; 118--19. 43. A point in favour of Maddalo is that he is actively helpful to the Maniac, whereas Julian fails to act upon his ideas. Shelley is drawing attention to the discrepancy that exists between theory and practice; furthermore, he suggests that the cynic is, ironically, the better philanthropist because, certain of man's miserable plight, he will do what he can to lessen it. 44. Cf. also JM: 217 with LT: 84: 'Where laughter is not mirth ... '. 45. Byron, on the other hand, stresses the degradation of Tasso's impris• onment among madmen whose 'tyrant will I Is wound up to the lust of doing ill' (LT: 72-3). 46. These lines anticipate Rousseau's account of his fall into 'Hell' in The Triumph of Life. 47. It shares, as well, many parallels with the presentation in The Lament of Tasso. The speeches of the Maniac and of Byron's Tasso are both dramatic monologues of highly sensitive poet-figures who are imprisoned among madmen, and whose words are expressive of grief and apparent mental instability. (Each is of course a 'lament'. For a further discussion of parallels, see infra.) 48. The Dantean element is more noticeable when one compares the isolated monologue of Byron's Tasso with the framed monologue of Shelley's Maniac. 49. This interpretation might be compared with that proposed by Kay (1978). See, in particular, Ch.l, 'The Sin of Brunetto Latini', 3-23. 50. Geoffrey Matthews comments that '[t]he Maniac in his heaven• illumined tower must typify the situation of the poet - not of an individual poet ... but of poets generally, who only become such by virtue of their special vulnerability to suffering' (1963: 75). This conception of the poet accords with Tasso's legendary sensitivity and suffering. 51. Herein lies the thrust ofT. S. Eliot's favourable comparison of the damned in Dante's Hell to the 'hollow men' who lack the courage to commit themselves to any enterprise, good or evil. See also Shelley's 'Preface' to Alastor in which the poet elevates the failed idealist above those who 'abjure' the 'dominion' of the Ideal (PP: 69). 52. Cf. T. S. Eliot's line: 'We had the experience but missed the meaning' ('The Dry Salvages' II, 45). . 53. The Maniac may not live up to his creed (as critics are fond of pointing out): nevertheless his resolve is a positive, if helpless, commitment to life, and is subsumed by an open acknowledgement of personal weakness: the fact that he is 'subdued', and that there is a 'full Hell' within him. One should notice that his creed is the expression of what is desired rather than achieved, as the auxiliary forms in 'would infect' (352), 'may tame ... must leave ... would sink' (359-61), 'will join' (362) indicate. 54. An ironic allusion, one imagines, to the 'misanthropy' of Byron in Childe Harold. In a letter to Peacock from Naples, Shelley writes that '[t]he spirit in which [the poem] is written is, if insane, the most 262 Notes to pp. 66-69

wicked & mischievous insanity that ever was given forth' (L: II, 58). I cite this letter to draw attention to the difference between the Maniac and the Byronic hero. The 'selfish desires' mentioned are also a catalogue of sins represented in Dante's Inferno. 55. Mary Shelley's book-list (De Palacio 1%2: 273) includes a second life of Tasso in Italian in addition to Manso's, one which is in all probability Serassi' s biography. Shelley's oft repeated quotation from Tasso, 'Non c'e in mondo chi merita nome di creatore, che Dio ed il Poeta' ('no one in the world merits the name of creator except God and the Poet', L: II, 30), is found in Serassi's Vita (II, book 3, Guasti 1858: 316). (See also J: I, 203n4 and Beall 1941: 609-10). One wonders whether Shelley had not read John Black's Life of Torquato Tasso (1810) in which the Tasso quotation also appears. Black's description of Tasso is strangely reminiscent of the Mariner-figure of Euganean Hills: 'We are to behold him once more a wandering mariner, launching on the ocean of life, with reason frequently not at the helm, and dashed by the waves and among the rocks of misery' (1810: II, 183; quoted in Brand, 1965: 215). Black responds sympathetically to the love legend and the poet's insanity. Hobhouse, drawing on Black and Serassi for his Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold (1977 [1818]: I, 5-31 passim) gives the Tasso quotation in its correct form (26, n2). 56. Robinson, conjecturing upon Shelley's intentions for the play, sup• poses, with good reason, that 'Shelley would [have] emphasize[d] the tragic nature of Tasso's fall to madness'. He adds, however, that the utter helplessness of Tasso's situation was too 'pathetic' and 'particular' to make for successful tragedy (1976: 87). This view• point is belied by the very 'pathetic' and 'particular' circumstances surrounding Beatrice's plight in The Cenci. 57. See Ch. 4 infra. 58. '[His handwriting] is the symbol of an intense & earnest mind exceeding at times its own depth, and admonished to return by the chillness of the waters of oblivion striking upon its adventurous feet' (L: II, 47). 59. Not, however, a response which critics are always willing to offer towards the Maniac. Wasserman is a noteworthy exception (1971: 57-83). In judging the Maniac's confused state of mind, it is perhaps easy to forget that 'the unconnected exclamations of his agony will perhaps be found a sufficient comment for the text of every heart' ('Preface', PP: 113). Cf. the 'Preface' to The Cenci, where Shelley claims that the purpose of tragedy is 'the teaching the human heart, through its sympathies and antipathies, the knowledge of itself' (240). The Wordsworthian and Socratic origins of these statements are obvious. 60. Cf. PU: I, 772-9; and Ad: 281 ('A Love in desolation masked'). 61. Olivero suggests that the contrasts in Julian and Maddalo reflect a contradictory state of mind 'that is often called forth by Venice, as by every place of ostentatious ruin' ('che viene spesso suscitato dall' ambiente veneziano, come da ogni luogo di fastosa ruina', 1913: 166). Notes to pp. 69-72 263

62. Suicide is also the fate of Goethe's Werther - to whom Shelley refers in a letter to Hogg, 2 June 1811 (L: I, 95) - and of Foscolo's Jacopo Ortis. 63. See Par. III: 70-87. 64. See the link between 'cold' and Dante's Inferno in my commentary on The Cenci, Ch. 3 infra. 65. This last scene has proved something of a stumbling-block for the critics, and interpretations differ widely, as they do for the poem as a whole. My own standpoint might be compared to that of Vincent Newey who believes that Julian progresses towards a 'healthy, witty skepticism' (1982: 95), and who reads the poem as a 'psycho-drama': 'We are invited to take (with Julian) the role of psychologist, not moralist- which is the role that Romantic, and post-Romantic, poetry characteristically would have us assume .... Though there may be no cure for the riven heart, we none the less contemplate it zealously and for our "own good"' (100).

CHAPTER 3: SHELLEY AND RENAISSANCE ITALY: THE CENCI

1. Shelley's 'Cenci': Scorpions Ringed With Fire (1970). 2. While, according to Bates, '[t]here is no record of [the portrait's] ever having been in the Colonna ' (1908: 4), the Shelleys both claim to have seen it there ('Preface', PP: 242 and]: I, 259). 3. Mary Shelley mentions seeing portraits of Beatrice in both the Colonna and palaces. These portraits 'strongly excited' Shelley's imagination, 'and he urged the subject to me [Mary] as one fitted for a tragedy. More than ever I felt my incompetence; but I entreated him to write it instead ...' ('Note on The Cenci', PW: 335). Although begun in Rome, The Cenci was completed at Villa Valsovano, near Leghorn, in July 1819. The death of William at Rome had compelled the Shelleys to move to Leghorn, 'anxious for a time to escape a spot associated too intimately with his presence and loss' (335). Shelley set up his study in a roofed terrace at the top of the villa. This 'airy cell', as Mary calls it (336), presented a wide panorama of sea and neighbouring countryside, which, together with the storms and blazing heat of the season, revived Shelley's spirits. 4. Critics who devote their attention to the play's socio-political'reality' are James Rieger (1965: 169-84), Harry White (1978: 27-38), and Eugene Hammond (1981: 25-32); while Earl Wasserman contributes many valuable insights to this topic (1971: 84-128). Commentaries on The Cenci tend, in general, to focus on the characters of Beatrice and Cenci, the moral dilemma which Beatrice faces, the tragic element and the stageworthiness of the play. Curran's monograph (1970) exemplifies each of these approaches. Bates argues that Shelley's changes to the original 'take away all possibility of regarding the play as a careful study of Italian life in the sixteenth century, or as any contribution to our historical knowledge' (1908: 34). He excuses Shelley on the grounds that the poet was writing 'not a history but 264 Notes to pp. 72-74

a tragedy' (33). 5. Of particular note is the work of Paul Smith (1%4: 77-85) and Truman Guy Steffan (1969: 601-18). Also of value is Curran's discussion (1970: 39-48). 6. Curran (1970: 40). Paul Smith gives the source as 'Varii successi curiosi', relying for this information on F. Marion Crawford (1964: 78). Shelley says that his manuscript had been 'copied from the archives of the Cenci Palace at Rome', 'Preface', PP: 238. 7. 'The "legend of Beatrice" was born on the day she died; or if the fancies which absolve her and the invention of certain episodes are to be considered as a legend, it may be said that it was born even before her death and has suffused every tale of her, down to our own day' (Ricci 1926: II, 271). 8. The historical facts are told by Corrado Ricci (1926) and summarised by Cuffaro (1976: 2-56). 9. Although Shelley was possibly influenced by Vincenzio Pieracci's play Beatrice Cenci (Yost 1986: 1-52), there is little evidence that he knew of any other historical source but his own manuscript copy. This implies that he accepted its authenticity. At the same time, he was, like Shakespeare, evidently more interested in the transformation of history into legend than in the mere facts of history. 10. Critics often highlight Shelley's departures from the original. These were necessitated, in most cases, by the exigencies of tragic drama. The departures are interesting in themselves and are well docu• mented; yet Wasserman is surely right when he claims that, '[i]n the main, [Shelley's] play is scrupulously faithful to the historical document on which it is based' (1971: 84). See also Curran (1970: 42, 45) and n16 infra. 11. While, on the one hand, Shelley converts sexual threat into incest, on the other, he alters Cenci's crimes of sodomy to murder: in so doing, he ensures that the attack on Beatrice is divested of mere licentiousness on the part of Cenci. Though the charge of incest has never been historically proved or disproved, it is of interest to note that, according to more recent evidence, Prospero Farinaccio, advocate of the Cenci family, claimed in Beatrice's defence that she had been forced to commit incest. See Cuffaro (1976: 45) and Bates (1908: 33). Shelley's alteration of his source may have been influenced by the example of Alfieri's tragedy, Mirra, which dramatises the incestuous love of Mirra for her father Ciniro, King of Cyprus. In attesting the legitimacy of 'incest' as a subject for drama, Shelley cites, among other playwrights, the contribution of Alfieri (L: II, 200). 12. In the Relation, Cenci does this because he finds out about the petition; in the play, it is because he believes his children are plotting his imprisonment, or worse, his death. 13. The invention of Orsino helps Shelley to complicate the murder plot and to lessen the crudity of Beatrice's co-involvement in the murder. This tendency to refine on Beatrice's motives had already Notes to pp. 74-76 265

begun in the Relation itself. Shelley's source makes no mention of the sordid affair between the historical Beatrice and Olympio during her confinement at Petrella. It is this affair that motivates the lovers to act against Cenci. Any mention of these facts (if known) would undoubtedly have diminished sympathy for Beatrice. 14. The scene is similar to the murder of Duncan in Macbeth. Whilst following his source, Shelley draws on Macbeth in order to establish intertextual ties with Shakespeare's play, and to make his English audience more familiar with the world of The Cenci. See Cantor (1976: 91-108) and Harrington-Lueker (1983: 172-89). 15. Most of the Relation deals with the aftermath of the murder. Shelley alters this pattern by confining the trial and imprisonment to the fifth act alone. Strict adherence to the structure of events in the Relation would have nullified the impact of the incest and murder scenes. 16. George Yost produces interesting, although not conclusive, evidence of Shelley's debt to Pieracci (1986: 1-52). He comments on 'ten close parallels to Pieracci not to be found in Es [Shelley's manuscript source]' and 'a number of facts and inclinations, not in Es, that both playwrights share' (41). Perhaps the most noteworthy correspond• ence is the use of the fictional character Camillo/Cammillo, who appears in both plays in the role of intermediary and 'ineffectual pleader' (23). 17. In his 'draft Preface', Shelley writes that '[t)he story is much the same in the tragedy as in the manuscript except that in the latter the action is hurried more hurried [sic), & that Orsino - whose real name was Guerra- plays a more conspicuous part' (Forman 1968: II, 94). 18. Shelley is referring to the castle fortress at La Petrella del Saito, a village situated 'a little beyond Turano (the border-town between the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples), on the road which leads from Rieti to Avezzano' (Ricci 1926: I, 87), about eighty kilometres - of Rome. Although Shelley would have passed reasonably close to Petrella on his way from Spoleto to Rome, he claims in the 'Preface' to have had 'no further information [of the Castle) than that which is to be found in the manuscript' (PP: 242). He does, however, know more about Petrella's exact situation than is given in the source. 19. 'That Shelley made only minor alterations suggests that, aside from finding the limitations congenial to his needs, he also believed his primary duty to be the dramatisation of the myth with its many ambiguities intact. But by compressing the events into a manageable sequence, the poet accentuates these ambiguites' (Curran 1970: 45-6). It is also clear that Shelley was training himself to give full weight to the story. Hitherto he had, according to Mary, 'shown no inclination for, nor given any specimen of his powers in framing and supporting the interest of a story'. Yet he rightly 'believed that one of the first requisites [for writing drama) was the capacity of forming and following-up a story or plot' ('Note on the Cenci', PW: 335, 334). 20. In his comment on Euganean Hills, Karl Kroeber (1974: 321-4; 334-9) 266 Notes to pp. 76-80

shows that the poet's concern to combine history and vision is characteristic of Romantic art. 21. Although Shelley's maturity as a poet is often said to coincide with his exile in Italy, it is not usually recognised how formative Italy was in the shaping of that maturity. As I point out in the Introduction, Italy had become a reliable index of the 'nature of things'. 22. Its present location is marked by 'piazza Cenci' and the street name along the Tiber, 'Lungotevere dei Cenci'. The sight, in St Peter's Square, of three hundred labouring convicts, heavily ironed and under watch of armed soldiers, was dramatic confirmation of the loss of personal liberty in Italy. '[M]oral degradation contrasted with the glory of nature & the arts' was, in Shelley's opinion, 'the emblem of Italy' (L: II, 93, 94). 23. The description reminds one of the madhouse in Julian and Maddalo, 101. 24. The dramatic effectiveness of hinges on the fact that Cenci not only threatens to rape his daughter, but actually does so. His act is so abhorrent that it appears to justify her ruthless, heartless response, making credible the course of action she adopts in the ensuing scenes. Ironically, it was the crucial incest scene which disqualified the play from the English Romantic stage. 25. This character combines the fortitude, strength of purpose and pathos of a Greek heroine such as Antigone, with the gentleness, sensitivity and passion of the Romantic feminine type, exemplified by the actress Eliza O'Neill, for whom Shelley wrote the part of Beatrice. Joseph W. Donohue draws a parallel between Beatrice and Eliza O'Neill and connects them to 'such elegant, dignified, radiantly pathetic figures' as the Danae of Titian, and a Maddalena of Guido (1968: 55); but he fails to remark on the Greek quality in Beatrice which relates her to the Niobe and the Minerva seen by Shelley in the Uffizi Gallery. See infra. 26. This needs stressing as Victorian critics tended to regard her as such. Members of the Shelley Society, for example, 'accept without demur Beatrice's claim that she "Lived ever holy and unstained", conceiving her as a sober and spotless heroine, whose only indiscretion was to kill her father' (Curran 1970: 24). Even scholars as recent as Newman lvey White come close to supporting this view (1972 [1940, 1st pub.]: II, 139). Modem critics tend to veer in the opposite direction, casting Beatrice as totally corrupted by Cenci, perhaps understating the point that she exemplifies the human condition and is a model of nobility and integrity in her fall. 27. It has been rightly observed that, from the very beginning of the play, Beatrice shows signs of weakness; she herself admits to Orsino that 'sorrow makes me seem I Sterner than else my nature might have been' ( I. ii. 34-5). 28. Ronald L. Lemoncelli has shown that Cenci manifests the poet's conception of the imagination - as set forth in A Defence of Poetry - though for evil purposes (1978: 103-17). Robert F. Whitman stresses Notes to pp. 80-84 267

the fact that Cenci is 'not a cold, inhuman personification [of evil]; he is a complex and generally believable individual' (1959: 251). See also Bates (1908: 67). 29. See also Arline R. Thorn (1973: 223) and P. Jay Delmar (1977: 39). The Orsino-Iago parallel is considered on p. 87 infra. 30. For Gian Galeazzo Visconti, see V, 59-83; 109-10; 113-141; 156-66. For Cesare Borgia, see VIII, 137-8; 187-94; 202-8; 235-59; 297; 314; 326-8; 387-8. For Ezzelino da Romano see Ch. 2 n34 supra. 31. '11 suffit de comparer l'Italie telle qu'elle etait au XVe siikle a l'Italie telle qu'elle devint au :XVIIIe, pour s'assurer que les ltaliens avaient perdu dans cet espace de temps le bien social le plus precieux de tous' ('One need only compare the Italy of the 15th century to the country it had become in the 18th to realise that the Italians had lost in that space of time the most precious social good of all', Sismondi 1840: X, 327). The 'good' to which Sismondi refers is 'l'esprit de liberte' ('the spirit of liberty'). 32. Shelley makes Cenci a representative Italian figure of considerable stature: unknown to the poet, the historical personage was vulgar and crude in his behaviour. Shelley's conception of Cenci anticipates a similar treatment of morally debased characters in the dramatic monologues of Browning. 33. Except in times of foreign invasion, the conflict in Italy was less between culture and barbarism than between culture and its refined perversion. 34. Shelley's idea finds support in the religious 'comedies' of Calderon. For parallels between The Cenci and the plays El Purgatorio de San Patricio and La Devocicfn de la Cruz, the two 'ideal dramas' (L II: 153) Shelley was reading in July 1819, see Webb (1976: 212). The 'Calderonian cult' was apparently 'sparked by Italians in ' (Hermindez-Araico 1987: 481). 35. See p. 72 and n4 supra, regarding critical discussion of the play's socio-political reality. 36. Shelley follows the example of Calderon whose 'dramatization of religion' is for him and the Schlegels 'comparable to the ancients' use of mythology in drama', Hernandez-Araico (1987: 482). But while praising Calderon for attempting 'to fulfil some of the high conditions of dramatic representation neglected by Shakespeare; such as the establishing a relation between the drama and religion', Shelley adds, in A Defence of Poetry, that Calderon compromises the scope of his drama by substituting 'the rigidly-defined and ever-repeated idealisms of a distorted superstition for the living impersonations of the truth of human passion' (PP: 490). Thus, in The Cenci, Shelley subverts Calderon's religious confidence since he 'disdains the Spaniard's adherence to dogma' (Hernandez-Araico 1987: 482) and aligns religion, for the most part, with tyranny. 37. It is on similar grounds that the Pope rejects Camillo's appeal for clemency towards the Cenci children:

Camillo: He holds it of most dangerous example 268 Notes to pp. 84-90

In ..... aught to weaken the paternal power Being, as 'twere, the shadow of his own. (II. ii. 54-6)

38. This religious conception reflects the poet's satirical view that in the Christian dispensation '[t]he dirty work is done by the Devil' (On the Devil and Devils: SP: 269). 39. The severance of morality from religion during the Renaissance is excellently documented by Symonds. See The Age of Despots, Ch. VIII: 'The Church and Morality' (1935: I, 225-49). 40. Commenting on religious practice in the seventeenth century, Shelley says that it 'subsisted under all its forms, even where it had been separated from those things especially considered as abuses by the multitude, in the shape of intolerant and oppressive hierarchies' (A Philosophical View of Reform, SP: 232). 41. '[K]now ye not that your body is the temple of the Holy Ghost which is in you, which ye have of God, and ye are not your own? For ye are bought with a price: therefore glorify God in your body, and in your spirit, which are God's' (I Corinthians 6: 19, 20). So restrictive are the mores of Catholic society regarding the chastity of women, that Beatrice cannot utter the dreaded word 'incest' at any stage; nor does she openly plead her innocence in the Palace of Justice on the grounds of incest. 42. For a full discussion of 'self-anatomy' and its role in the play, see Wasserman (1971: 101-26). He identifies 'self-anatomy' with the heroine's 'hamartia', her justification of revenge on the grounds that 'circumstances alter cases'. His interpretation (which I support) runs counter to the one proposed by Curran that 'there is no tragic "flaw" in Shelley's play: the tragedy is that good is helpless to combat evil' (1970: 259). More recently, Stuart Sperry identifies Beatrice's hamartia with her 'idealization of her virginity, as the center of her moral life and nature. It is the element essential to her sense of her own integrity as a human being' (1986: 420). 43. Shelley has been charged here with plagiarising Macbeth, but, in point of fact - as Curran is keen to show (1970: 41) - he is following his source closely: 'Soon after[,] the assassins entered, and told the ladies that pity had held them back, and that they could not overcome their repugnance to kill in cold blood a poor sleeping old man' (Relation, CW: II, 161). Shelley exploits the parallel with Macbeth in order to promote that process of 'restless casuistry' which compels the audience to question Beatrice's actions, even as it desires to justify them. 44. In The Cenci Shelley shows how the oppressor and the oppressed justify violence: both end up employing the same tactics, as is tragically demonstrated in the French Revolution. 45. Harry White is one of the few critics to have highlighted the fanatical strain in Beatrice. His view, for this reason, deserves quoting. Agreeing with Stuart Curran that 'Beatrice struggles "not to save herself but her moral universe'", White adds: 'To rectify the Notes to pp. 90-95 269

moral order is frequently the justification for revenge. However, it needs to be emphasized that such an aim reveals not a larger, less self-centred purpose, but outright religious fanaticism on Beatrice's part'. Like Wasserman, White claims that 'Beatrice sacrifices human life to maintain this abstract notion of a moral universe, imitating by her deed the traditional practice of the Church which will soon sacrifice her, as it has others, to the same principle of a moral universe' (1978: 33-4). 46. As a functionary of the Church, Orsino, it has been claimed, is 'a traitor more dangerous to the struggling champion of good than the avowed oppressor'. He is a 'palterer, who faced with the choice between good and evil tries to play with both for the gratification of his own mean desires' (Rees 1961: 6). It is also significant that in the aftermath of murder, Cenci's tyranny is replaced by that of the Pope, a silent Patriarch who never appears as a character, but whose influence over the action is all the more insidious for that reason. 47. One recalls the last line of Julian and Maddalo in which Julian's disil• lusioned reference to the 'cold world' contrasts with his admiration for Maddalo's daughter. 48. This union of intense suffering and graceful bearing, what Joseph Donohue calls 'pathetic tragic character' (1968: 53), again finds expression in Shelley's poem On the Medusa of Leonardo da Vinci in the Florentine Gallery, written in the autumn of 1819. Cf. 14-16; PW: 582:

'Tis the melodious hue of beauty thrown Athwart the darkness and the glare of pain, Which humanize and harmonize the strain.

It is no coincidence that the three works of art which elicited the deepest response from Shelley at this time were the 'Niobe', the 'Minerva' and the 'Medusa': these are all representations in the Uffizi of female Greek mythological figures, whose nobility enables them to withstand acute distress. There seems little doubt that in the closing moments of The Cenci, Shelley attempted to approximate the tragic intensity of Greek and Italian art. 49. Cf. 'The beauty of the internal nature cannot be so far concealed by its accidental vesture, but that the spirit of its form shall communicate itself to the very disguise, and indicate the shape it hides from the manner in which it is worn' (A Defence of Poetry, PP: 487). 50. It is this view that Curran (1970) argues in what is, to date, the most thorough (if contentious) reading of the play. 51. The tragedy is Aristotelian in so far as the discovery or 'anagnorisis' is contingent upon the heroine's 'fall'. 52. ' ... for wherever he [Love] chances to find a hard and rugged disposition, there he will not inhabit, but only where it is most soft and tender' (Shelley's translation, Notopolous 1949: 435) 53. In stature, he recalls Milton's Satan who, 'as a moral being', is 'far superior to [Milton's] God' (On the Devil and Devils, SP, 267). 270 Notes to pp. 95-101

54. Beatrice, in the act of 'divine' retribution, likewise foregoes her freedom. 55. In Par. IV, 73-87 , Dante implies that once the will submits to an act of violation it is 'broken'. This failure of 'will' seems exactly to explain the origin of Beatrice's 'hamartia'. Yet, while it is perhaps a flaw in Beatrice that she should yield to 'possession', the flaw, being deeply human, cannot justify the injury. If Shelley shares Dante's moral outlook, he, nevertheless, subverts the Dantean concept of divine retribution and punishment. 56. Cf. the demise of Jupiter in PU: III, i. Cenci is a refiguration of Shelley's oppressor god, Jupiter, considered within the context of human history. 57. Like Maddalo's daughter, Bernardo is the representative of Inno• cence in a world of Experience. In the Relation he is said to resemble Beatrice closely, and it is noticeable that,,in the play, he complements her inherent virtue and bears witness to the persistence of good. The Relation depicts him as a man of twenty-six; Shelley, as a boy perhaps no older than fourteen. 58. See Mary Shelley's 'Note on Poems of 1818', PW: 570. Shelley mistakenly gives the title and protagonist's name as 'Mazenghi'. 59. The story of Marenghi is drawn from Sismondi's Histoire des Rt!publiques Italiennes, 1840: V, 260-1. Shelley's depiction of Florence is evidently indebted to Sismondi as well. See, e.g. III, 189-93. In A Philosophical View of Reform, Shelley, following Sismondi, claims that, before the Medicis took complete control over the city, '[f]reedom had one citadel wherein it could find refuge from a world which was its enemy' (SP: 231). 60. 'L'Italie etait devenue ce qu'avait ete Ia Grece; Athenes revivait dans Florence ....' ('Italy had become what Greece had been; Athens revived in Florence ....', Sismondi 1840: IV: 195). The Florentines themselves regarded their city as the new Athens. 61. Cf. Ad: 418-20. 62. Cf. also The Tower of Famine. Pisa, once the 'cradle' is 'now the grave I Of an extinguished people,-so that Pity I Weeps o'er the shipwrecks of Oblivion's wave ...' (2-4).

CHAPTER 4: IT ALlAN ORIGINS, SOURCES AND PRECEDENTS: PROMETHEUS UNBOUND

1. Lines 158-75 of III. iii, suggest that the scene is laid at Athens - specifically, within the Academy and the sacred grove of Colonus (see Hungerford 1974: 196-204). No specific place is cited in the scene direction for Act IV. 2. In Butter's view, though with perhaps no real difference in mean• ing, the action is set in 'some undetermined time in the future' (1970: 275). 3. Described in terms of the Industrial Revolution: 'Many a million• peopled city I Vomits smoke in the bright air' (1. 551-2). Notes to pp. 101-4 271

4. Scholars have given sporadic and isolated attention to the Italian or Roman sources of Prometheus Unbound. Key studies are those by Scudder (1895: 96-144); Kuhns (1898: 163-5); De Courten (1923: 94-98); Lotspeich (1934: 309-11); Hungerford (1974 [1st pub.1941]: 177-91); Roy (1943: 18--26); Matthews (1957: 191-228); Zillman (1959: 71-4 and passim); Kuhn (1959: 596-9); Reiman (1967: 69-78); and Wasserman (1971: 255-373 passim). 5. Little, if any, of Acts II and III appears to have been written at Naples, although the play 'continued to be in the centre of his thoughts, and he was absorbing imagery for it from the things which he saw' (Butter 1970: 256). At Rome, both Acts II and III were completed in March and the first week of April: a fourth Act was not, at that stage, envisaged and a period of six to eight months intervened before the Act was composed. Mary Shelley claims that throughout the first year of his residence, 'Shelley meditated the subject of his drama, and wrote portions of it' ('Note on Prometheus Unbound', PW: 271). 6. While drawing attention to the 'Promethean milieu' of Laon's sufferings and recovery (Laon and Cythna [1817], Cantos III, IV), Stuart Curran maintains that the allusions 'amount to little more than heroic ornamentation' (1975: 36). 7. See Medwin's reported conversation with Byron, in Lovell (1966: 156). 8. See also Zillman (1959: 78). 9. As shown in Ch. 1, this enslavement is depicted in Euganean Hills, composed soon after the completion of Act I of Prometheus Unbound. 10. Curran wrongly gives the opera as Weigl's Il rivale di se stesso, a work seen by the Shelleys on 20 April together with another ballet of Vigano's, La spada di Kenneth (J: I, 205-6 n5). 11. See Ch. 2 supra. 12. Mary Shelley indicates that 'Shelley meditated three subjects as the groundwork for lyrical dramas': 'the story of Tasso', the story 'founded on the Book of Job', and thirdly, 'the Prometheus Unbound' ('Note on Prometheus Unbound', PW: 271). The common ground between these subjects is obvious: heroic suffering in a situation of great adversity. In contrast to Mary, Shelley called his projected play on Tasso a 'tragedy' (L: II, 8). 13. See Ch. 2 supra. 14. Shelley read Tasso's epic repeatedly from 1813 to 1816 and could well have joined Mary in her reading of the Gerusalemme from August 1 to 27, 1818 (J: I, 221-5), or have refreshed his memory in discussing the poem with her. 15. In the Allegoria which was added to the poem as an afterthought, Tasso claims that Jerusalem signifies 'la felicita civile . . . la quale e un bene molto difficil da conseguire' (Solerti 1895: II, 26) ('civill happines ... which is a good, verie difficult to attaine unto' (Lea and Gang: 1981: 89). 16. There has been much debate regarding the causes of Prometheus's change of heart and whether he acts freely or is merely following 272 Notes to pp. 104-7

the course of destiny. The debate is difficult to resolve if one relies on dualistic thinking. By stressing the fact of 'recognition' (that is, a moment of unwilled awareness) in Prometheus's response, I am suggesting that he neither acts wilfully, nor is he merely fated to act as he does; rather I am suggesting that in the very perception of futility lies the energy for change. As Stuart Sperry has pointed out, Shelley did not renounce his belief in Necessity (as many critics like to believe). At the same time, Sperry shows that a state of constancy can, philosophically speaking, provide the appropriate conditions for change (1981: 242-54). 17. The examples he is shown suggest the outcome of Christianity, the Crucifixion itself, and the French Revolution, but these events are never actually named: they are but instances of a similar pattern of events enacted throughout human history. 18. A similar interest in the French Revolution is evinced in the Preface to Laon and Cythna, and, by implication, in the poem itself. 19. 'Between 1815 and 1831, at one time or another hundreds of thousands of Italians joined the Carboneria, which in 1820 was supposed to have had well over 100,000 members in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies' (Salvadori 1961: 32). 20. Shelley's Ode to Naples was written in late August 1820 (]: I, 329) in celebration of the momentary freedom of a city which he calls the 'Metropolis of a ruined Paradise I Long lost, late won, and yet but half regained' (57-8, LS: 214). His excitement at this sign of political freedom in Italy is recorded in L: II, 223 and n3; 234; 261-2. Ironically, as Salvadori records, 'the masses were hostile' to the constitutional government (1961: 34). Byron's active support for the Carbonari led to his removal from Ravenna in late October 1821, following the expulsion of the Gamba family. He arrived at Pisa on 1 November (L: II, 362). 21. 'What in 1796 had been the duchy of Milan and the republic of Venice were united in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom under the of , governed by Austrian officials and garrisoned by Austrian troops' (Salvadori 1961: 15). 22. The same warning is heard in Shelley's call for passive resistance in The Mask of Anarchy (September 1819). Fearing that 'in England things will be carried violently by the rulers, and that they will not have learned to yield in time to the spirit of the age', Shelley writes, in a letter to Hunt, '(t]he great thing to do is to hold the balance between popular impatience and tyrannical obstinacy; to inculcate with fervour both the right of resistance and the duty of forbearance' (L: II, 153). 23. Kenneth Neill Cameron (1943: 728-53) links Prometheus Unbound with the general circumstances of the Age, claiming that Shelley is prophesying a new spirit of hope and liberty growing out of the chaos of the Napoleonic wars. In the 'Preface' to Prometheus Unbound Shelley, nevertheless, disclaims the idea that his poetry is dedicated 'solely to the direct enforcement of reform' (PP: 135). 24. To Italian critics and translators (Emilio Visconti Venosta, G. Aglio, Notes to pp. 107-10 273

Gustavo Strafforello) later in the nineteenth century, poems such as Queen Mab, The Revolt of Islam (Laon and Cythna), Prometheus Unbound, Ode to Naples and Hellas were a powerful vindication of the struggle for a democratic and united Italy. See De Courten (1923: 164-81). 25. The depiction of Oswald's 'rebirth' at Rome in Madame de Stai!l's Corinne (which the poet was reading in December at Naples), may have encouraged Shelley to delay continuance of Prometheus until his return to the Capital in March (he had earlier spent a week at Rome from 20 to 27 November). In Corinne, Rome is associated with warmth and creative vitality, and these qualities are embodied in Corinne herself, 'l'image de notre belle Italie'. Corinne is like 'une admirable production de notre climat, de nos beaux-arts, comme un rejeton du passe, comme une prophetie de l'avenir' ('an admirable production of our climate, of our fine arts, like an offspring of the past, like a prophecy of the future', II: 2, 28). 26. Rome, in Shelley's writings, is characterised by what he calls a 'sublime desolation' (L: II, 84). For example, in his description of the imposing ruins at the Baths of Caracalla, Shelley writes that 'the deformity of their vast desolation [is] softened down by the undecaying investiture of nature' (L: II, 85). Not surprisingly, Shelley uses Roman scenes in Adonais to particularise the contest between life and death, and the process of spiritual renewal. 27. 'In the midst [of the summit of Vesuvius] stands the conical hill ... ' (L: II, 62). The 'Pinnacle of Rock among Mountains' is mentioned in the scene direction for Act II. iii. 28. Inarime is the island of Ischia, and Typhoeus is the Earth-born Typhon, who was imprisoned under the volcano of the island for rebelling against Jupiter (Matthews 1957: 212 n55). Drawing on Lucan in his Ode to Naples, Shelley subverts the traditional request for inspiration from the heavenly muses by signalling the oracular exhalation of 'that Typhaean Mount, Inarime' (44; LS: 214). The exhalation is a 'sunbright vapour, like the standard I Of some aetherial host' (45-6). 29. The link is also examined by Wasserman, who shows that the speech of the Fauns in II. ii. is based on Virgil's Eclogue VI, a poem traditionally associated with Book VI of the Aeneid (1971: 320-3; 310-20). 30. From Anchises, Aeneas discovers 'the nature and actions of the world-soul and of the human soul', as well as the 'future glories of his royal line, glories that are to culminate in the return of the Golden Age' (Wasserman 1971: 321). 31. See Turner (1959: 275) and Wasserman (1971: 323). This passage is preceded by a powerful description of an eruption on Mt Etna (722-5), and it is worth noting that Lucretius considers the wisdom of Empedocles to be even more glorious than the eruption, and the other attractions of Sicily. 32. Asia is both the mythic questor, journeying into the underworld in search of prophetic wisdom, and the priestess whose tongue is loosened by the divine oracle: in this dual role she rouses 274 Notes to pp. 110-15

Demogorgon to enact the destined hour of revolution, depicted as a volcanic eruption:

That terrible shadow floats Up from its throne, as may the lurid smoke Of earthquake-ruin'd cities o'er the sea. (II. iv. 150-2)

Matthews claims that 'Demogorgon is accurately described in terms of shapeless magma or molten lava; he erupts in order to overthrow Jupiter' (1957: 186). 33. Her name is chosen on the authority of Herodotus, and in preference to the Oceanid Hesione, who is referred to as Prometheus's wife in Aeschylus's Prometheus Bound. Herodotus also suggests that Asia gave her name to the continent (Blakeney 1%4: 305). Asia and Europe are, in origin, apparently Semitic names signifying 'east' and 'west', respectively (305 n2). 34. The Chariot is called 'moonlike' (111) because 'traditionally the chariot of the moon is a biga, as opposed to the chariot of the sun, which is a quadriga or four-horse chariot' (Reiman 1967: 71). 35. The original horses have sought their birthplace in the sun. The temple is also to reside in the sun. Wasserman explains that the horses and chariot are 'symbols of the temporal succession of sun and moon, day and night ... yoked by an "amphisbaenic snake" .... By tautly arresting two opposing motions, [the amphisbaenic snake] serves as a kind of zodiacal sign of the dynamic capture of the perfect present' (1971: 362). 36. To Shelley, the Pantheon seemed 'the visible image of the universe' (L: II, 87). 37. Reiman emphasises the fact that Shelley 'frequently drew the el• ements that he wove into his symbolic patterns directly from [his] "actual" world' (1967: 73). 38. It has been said that the fourth act is the ritualistic counterpart of the 'mythical' acts which precede it (Hildebrand 1974: 219-20), functioning rather like the traditional dance which celebrates the happy union of lovers in comedy. 39. Sarah Dyck (1972: 13-39) believes that the word 'shape' expresses the need to give form to that which is difficult or impossible to conceptualise. Nancy Goslee sees at work in Prometheus the 'principles of compositional form' upon which Shelley bases his analyses of Greek sculpture (1980: 11-22). 40. See John C. Meagher (1962: 258-77) for an account of this motif. It is, of course, unwise to limit the influence of Italian art solely to Act IV: the whole play is imbued with presences familiar in Italian painting and sculpture: the Hours and Mental Spirits are represented in mythological subjects as the Horae and Gratiae; the birth of Asia can be likened, perhaps, to Venus Anadyomene; the customary mother Earth appears as a figure of sorrow or joy; and her child recalls the thousands of cupidons which fill the Notes to pp. 115-18 275

scenes of Incarnation and Resurrection. Frederic Colwell notices a 'unique coincidence between the iconography of Shelley's play and Luca Giordano's ceiling' in the Riccardi-Medici palace in Florence, adding that '[n]owhere, other than in the Giordano, are the figures of Prometheus, Asia, and Demogorgon introduced in relation to one another or to the cosmic drama which Shelley recast' (1980: 61, 65). (Giordano's painting even depicts the ouroboros referred to at II. iii. 95-8 and at the conclusion of the play.) 41. Shelley's individualistically 'classical' or, as John Buxton calls it, 'neo-classical' taste in sculpture (1972: 276-81) might be usefully compared to his reliance, in Prometheus Unbound, on classical sources. 42. Phrases used by Joanna Rapf in her study of the structure of Act IV (1979: 36-47). Increasingly critics are giving attention to this Act, and attempting to justify its function in the drama as a whole. Cronin, for example, states that without Act IV, '[t]he play's resolution would be indequate to its action; the vision of the redeemed world would fail to match the energy with which the old world had been described and destroyed' (1981: 161). See also Twitchell (1975: 29-48) and Neufeldt (1977: 60-86). The undoubted, perhaps even primary, influence of Dante's Paradiso on the composition of Act IV is considered in the second half of this chapter. 43. See Ch. 1 supra. Commenting on Shelley's description of Italian paintings, Colwell speaks of the poet's 'often self-conscious concern with color, which usually centers upon the painter's handling of light, as well as with what he describes as "delicacy, and aerial loveliness" [with reference to Franceschini (L: II, 51)]' (1980: 59). 44. The similarity between Botticelli's Nascita di Venere and Panthea's description of the birth of Asia (II. v. 20-34) has been pointed out by numerous critics (see Colwell 1977: 32). However, as Colwell rightly explains, Shelley almost certainly could not have seen either the Venere (or the Primavera which identifies Venus with the birth of spring) before October 1819, when Acts I to III had already been composed. Both Shelley and Botticelli drew on classical sources (and their derivatives), which associated Venus (Aphrodite) with the Hours (representative of the seasons) and the Graces, who confer benefits on those who yield to the influence of love. See Wasserman (1971: 364-6). 45. An imaginative 'autonomy' not without an Italian foundation: the Ode to the West Wind, for example, describes an actual Mediterranean thunderstorm in autumn. The accuracy of meteorological detail in West Wind or The Cloud has been revealed by F. H. Ludlam (1976: 217-26), Desmond King-Hele (1984: 215-6; 219-27) and Carl Grabo (1968: 119-20). Grabo's comments on The Cloud interestingly link up with the electrical theory of Father Giambattista Beccaria. As is usual in Shelley's poetry, an elevated metaphorical rendering of experience is grounded in precise factual observation. 46. Webb (1976: 279) discusses Shelley's early Italian studies. 47. Mentioned by Shelley in a letter to Peacock from Milan, 20 April 276 Notes to pp. 118-21

1818. The work in question is apparently the Purgatorio, since Mary claims in her Journal entry for 19 April that 'S[helley) reads & finishes Dante's Purgatorio' (/: I, 205). Immediately thereafter Shelley was reading the Paradiso (J: I, 206). 48. Mary's reading of the Inferno at Naples occasionally enjoyed Shelley's participation (J: I, 246-7). The re-reading of Purgatorio and Paradiso is perhaps a project of Mary's in which Shelley joined. Shelley's Italian edition of Dante, containing his brief marginal annotations on the Inferno, is that published by Pietro Qu.gio: Gatti in 1793 (Peck 1969: II, 356). Webb gives Venice as the place of publication and a date of 1772 (1976: 351). It is uncertain when Shelley acquired this edition. 49. ' ... in spite of their professed enthusiasm, their [the Romantics') interest in the Divina Commedia was in most cases strictly limited to a few passages, almost exclusively from the Inferno, which happened to appeal to their Romantic sympathies' (Brand 1957: 71). 50. Keats's pocket copies of Purgatorio and Paradiso have no marginal annotations. Recent evidence suggests that Keats had at least some acquaintance with the second and third canticles (see Jeffrey Robinson 1976: 13-15). 51. Cf. Kirkpatrick (1978: 115): 'There is indeed a sense in which the canticle might be regarded as deliberately gratuitous. For, having dismissed the "piccioletta barca" (Par. II, 1-9), Dante cannot have considered this section of his poem to be altogether essential for salvation or even for understanding'. 52. See n42 supra. 53. In support of her statement, Dyck simply adduces the viewpoint of Maud Bodkin, namely, that 'Shelley has, in Prometheus, expressed the archetypal image of divinity in man in the rebirth myth beginning in bondage and painful oppression, followed by desolation and the paralysis of the life-force, and ending in the transition to release and renewal' (1972: 24). Though not examined further by Dyck, this thought-provoking comment is the core of Bodkin's archetypal analysis of the play (1951: 250-63). See also her discussion of the Paradiso (263-70). 54. By giving free rein to his artistic genius, Milton, in Shelley's opinion, subverts his avowed purpose (that is, of justifying the ways of God to men). 55. While exploiting the tradition that Virgil was a prophet of Christianity, Dante nevertheless consigns him to Limbo where, Virgil explains, 'sanza speme vivemo in desio' ('without hope we live in desire', Inf. IV, 42). It is possible that Virgil suffers this fate because he cannot transform his foreknowledge of Christian redemption into faith (see Hollander 1983: 128). 56. Since 'intertextuality' is dramatically embodied in Dante's poem in the relationship between Dante and Virgil, it seems likely that Shelley saw in the Commedia strikingly positive support for his own methods of composition. Much may be learnt of the scope of Dante's vision from a parallel Notes to pp. 121-24 277

study of the Commedia and the Aeneid (see Enciclopedia Dantesca 1976: V, 1030-49; Ulrich Leo 1951: 41-64; Robert Hollander 1983: 81-115). The relationship of the Commedia to Prometheus Unbound proves equally instructive. 57. Francis Fergusson comments that 'Shelley's description of the Commedia as a bridge across time, joining the ancient and the modern world, fits the Purgatorio exactly' (1953: 8). A similar view is expressed by Ernst Robert Curtius when, considering Dante's 'encounter' with Virgil, he adds: 'Historically, it is the sealing of the bond which the Latin Middle Ages made between the antique and the modern world' (1953: 358). 58. In the final speech of the play, Demogorgon states, with Aristotelian logic, that Eternity presides over the ourobouros (cyclic Time), allowing the serpent to clasp 'her with his length' or freeing him from her as the 'disentangled Doom', IV. 569, thus initiating a break in the cycle. (Reference is to Boccaccio' s Genealogia Deorum I, i, Lotspeich 1934: 310). It is also suggested that the 'empire' of Eternity is secured by 'Love', which has 'its awful throne of patient power I In the wise heart' (557-8). 59. In yielding to the echoes, Asia is not simply responding blindly to them. She consents to yield, because she has felt the onset of rebirth. Sustained by Prometheus's withdrawal of hatred and his recognition that 'all hope [is] vain but love' (824), her 'transforming presence' (832) has altered her wintry vale into springtime growth. 60. The interdependence of Prometheus and Asia, and their eventual love union in Act III suggest that the characters represent two aspects of mind or soul which divide under conditions of mental bondage, separating out as the 'masculine' and 'feminine' principle, but which, under conditions of freedom, unite to form the 'androgynous mind'. Nathaniel Brown (1979: 20--3) relates Shelley's concept of androgyny to the Greek sculptures the poet viewed in Italy. 61. The similarities between the unrepentant Prometheus and Jupiter (or his Phantasm) have led to the now common assumption that Jupiter is merely the shadow or tyrannical aspect of Prometheus. Wasserman asserts that 'when Prometheus first spoke [the curse] he was, in a very real sense, Jupiter' (1971: 259). The implication is that Jupiter and Prometheus are forces battling for supremacy in every mind. Since, in the play, Prometheus gave Jupiter power to rule over him and mankind, the tyrant god has been described by Wasserman as the 'institutional reification of Prometheus' relin• quished powers' (261). 62. This is a leading idea in Shelley's poetry, and has already been considered in the chapters on EH and Cen. See Chs. 1 and 3 supra. 63. The imagery suggests that an unrepentant Prometheus would simply be changing places with Jupiter. The oppressed becomes the oppres• sor, as in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and the cycle of repression continues unabated. 64. These are concupiscence or incontinence (the she-wolf, 'Ia lupa'), violence (the lion, 'un leone') and fraud (the leopard, 'Ia lonza')', 278 Notes to pp. 124-27

each corresponding to the three major divisions of Hell. See Musa (1984: 73) who suggests this interpretation. 65. Vida Scudder (1895: 101-2) considers Act I to correspond to the Inferno (The torture of Prometheus); Act II to the Purgatorio (Love's pilgrimage of redemption); and Acts III and IV to the Paradiso (The fi• nal triumph). Scudder's classification is imprecise: it does not accord exactly with the progression of Shelley's play. Although valuable, her commentary is prejudiced by Victorian misreadings, for example, the claim that Prometheus is unblemished throughout. 66. In Shelley's play, '[t]he very action-centre of life is changed, for sin is gone' (Scudder 1895: 115). 67. Cameron compares them to 'the satellites and agents of court and state, by means of which - as well as by its armies - the ruling aristocratic class kept itself in power' (1943: 731). 68. E. B. Murray suggests that Mercury's threat to the Furies (1. 344-6) recalls the Angel's comparable admonishment at Inf. IX, 91-9 (1975: 18). The phrase, 'towers of iron' (I. 344), refers to the city walls of Dis 'which seemed to be of iron ('mi parean che ferro fosse', VIII, 78), while 'streams of fire' (1. 345) refers to the river of 'boiling blood' (Phlegethon) XII, 47, which encircles inner Hell. As Jupiter's agents of vengeance for disobedience of his authority, the Furies parody their counterparts in the Inferno who, by God's will, preside over the despairing victims of Divine retribution. Perhaps Shelley identifies Prometheus - ironically, of course - with the heretics who are found in the sixth circle, within the gates of Dis. 69. These spirits remind one of the contrary examples of virtue in Purgatorio which lighten the trials of the penitents. The phrase, 'troop of spirits' (PU: I. 664), is a transliteration of 'gente I d'anime', souls who help Dante and Virgil up the steep cliff of Ante-Purgatory (Purg. III: 58-9), and is the phrase used by Cary in his translation (1955: 157). 70. In like manner, the mountain summit, upon which Asia and Panthea stand before entering the cave, possibly alludes to Dante's Eden on the summit of Mt Purgatory. 71. There are further references or allusions to Demogorgon in Lucan's Pharsalia VI, 496-9; 744-8; Orlando Furioso Supp. I, iv, 3-8; Gerusalemme Liberata XIII, x, 3-5, as well as in non-Italian sources which Shelley knew (e.g. Faerie Queene, Dr Faustus, Paradise Lost, and Peacock's Rhododaphne. See Zillman (1959: 313-6). 72. Wasserman indicates that, whereas Boccaccio rejects Demogorgon as being a false-earth deity, Shelley 'inverts Boccaccio's Christian thesis by accepting the pagan god whose existence Boccaccio had attributed to the absence of Christian revelation and to the barbaric ignorance that deified natural forces' (1971: 333). 73. See Pottle who discusses this process (1965: 137-43). 74. 'Dante believed that this path toward self-knowledge was as old as the culture of antiquity, and he built the ancient wisdom into the very structure of the Mountain path, the route which the soul in its quest for freedom and understanding must take' (Fergusson 1953: 49). Notes to pp. 128-34 279

75. Shelley not only subverts the master-pupil, guide-follower relation• ship between authority figure and suppliant in the Commedia, but he also undermines the similar type of relationship that exists between Aeneas and Anchises in the Aeneid. As Wasserman explains, 'the idea of an oracular Anchises implies ... superstitious faith in an external source of revelation', whereas Asia's mind 'must derive its knowledge from itself' (1971: 322-3). 76. Scudder comments: 'In this necessity that the eyes of Beatrice be veiled, we see how close Shelley comes to the thought of Dante. The Love at the heart of the world eludes sight, and is consciousness rather than vision' (1895: 126). 77. So divinely transformed is Piccarda Donati that it is only after she identifies herself that the pilgrim is able to 'recall her features' ('raffigurar', Par. III, 63). The 'shades' Dante meets in Purgatory are, by comparison, more recognisable since they take the form of their own unpurged desires and affections (Purg. XXV, 106-8). 78. Roy writes that '[i]n Shelley's drama the principle of justice has been incarnated in the figure of Demogorgon, and as the Divine Eagle in Dante's poem [Paradiso] speaks of mysterious divine justice ever operating throughout the universe, so also Demogorgon ... gives expression to the idea of justice the roots of which lie deep in the abysm of eternity' (1943: 23). 79. Scudder's comparison of Dante's 'reverent obedience' to Shelley's 'ungoverned equality', though somewhat misleading in its terminol• ogy, nevertheless does greater justice to Shelley (1895: 138-42). 80. This allusion to the Paradiso is pointed out by Reiman and Powers, PP: 208. 81. A remarkable instance of juxtaposition occurs in Paradiso, XXVII. At one point in the canto, Beatrice is describing the perfection of the Crystalline Sphere (Primum Mobile), which 'has no other where but the Divine Mind' ('non ha altro dove I chela mente divina', 109-10) and which 'Light and love enclose ... in a circle' ('Luce ed amor d'un cerchio ... comprende', 112). Suddenly, at 1. 121, she enters into a diatribe against human covetousness which so blinds mortals to the creative link between earth and heaven, that a child, 'lisping, loves and heeds his mother, who after, when his speech is perfect, longs to see her buried' ('balbuzi"endo, ama e ascolta I la madre sua, che, con loquela intera, I disia poi di vederla sepolta', 133-5.) 82. Grabo shows that Shelley's conception is based on Newtonian law (1%8: 160-4). 83. Stephen Spender comments: 'In certain respects, Shelley developed modem poetry further [in PU] than it has gone since. For one aim of modem poetry is surely to make the enormously extended knowl• edge of the universe gained by science, conscious and significant in our minds' (1952: 29). 84. Shelley comments in the 'Preface' that he has drawn his imagery 'from the operations of the human mind, or from those external actions by which they are expressed', adding, '[t]his is unusual in modern poetry; although Dante and Shakespeare are full of 280 Notes to pp. 124-27

instances of the same kind: Dante indeed more than any other poet and with greater success' (PP: 133). Taking his cue from the annotations in Shelley's copy of the Commedia, William Keach draws attention to similarities in the techniques of both Shelley and Dante (1984: 55-60).

CHAPTER 5: EMILIA VIVIANI AND SHELLEY'S 'VITA NUOVA': EPIPSYCHIDION

1. St Anna, in Medwin's recollection, was a 'gloomy, dark convent, whose ruinous and dilapidated condition told too plainly of con• fiscation and poverty. It was situated in an unfrequented street in the suburbs [of Pisa], not far from the. walls' (M: 278). Emilia had entered the conservatory three years previously, and apparently at the behest of her mother who, it has been said, was jealous of her (see Viviani 1936: 23-4). Medwin notes that the Della Robbia family was 'one of the most distinguished for its antiquity of any at Pisa' (M: 277). 2. Known as 'II Diavolo di Pisa', Pacchiani was 'amico di casa' and confessor of the Viviani family, 'procuratore segretario' of St Anna, and a member of the Pisan circle. Pacchiani held 'the chair of logic and metaphysics at the University of Pisa' (J: II, 588). 3. Pacchiani adds: ' ... if you had seen, as I have done, the poor pensionnaires shut up in that narrow, suffocating street, in the summer, (for it does not possess a garden,) and in the winter as now, shivering with cold, being allowed nothing to warm them but a few ashes, which they carry about in an earthen vase, - you would pity them' (M: 278). 4. The visit is recorded in Claire Clairmont's Journal (Stocking and Stocking 1968: 189). 5. See Reiman (1969: 125); White suggests 'the first two weeks of February' (1972: II, 606). 6. See Rogers, who claims that the translation was meant to instruct Emilia 'in the subject of Liberty' (1967: 342). In addition to the Ode, Shelley translated the concluding lyrics of the second Act (48-110) and opening lines of the fourth Act (1-90) of Prometheus Unbound, as well as the first three stanzas and part of stanza four of Laon and Cythna II (Rogers 1967: 242, and Koszul 1922: 471-7). Rogers finds parallels between the translations and Epipsychidion (1967: 243). 7. The imagery was first suggested by Pacchiani: 'she pines like a bird in a cage - ardently longs to escape her prison house' (M: 278). 8. In Mary's opinion, Emilia 'writes Italian with an elegance and delicacy to equal the best authors of the best Italian age' (MSL: I, 165). While Mary's praise now seems overstated, it does point to the admiration Emilia's talents could inspire in one as well read as Mary. 9. The language of the 'dolce stil novo' could still claim enthusiastic Notes to pp. 137-42 281

adherents in the early nineteenth-century. This allegiance, while charming in Emilia's case, was otherwise cause for concern. Shelley is reported to have told Medwin that 'the so-called Classicists have taken to fishing in the rancid pool of the thirteenth century, and become so prostituted and enslaved to antiquity, as to deem no word admissible in their poems, that has not the sanction of Dante and Petrarch' (M: 261). 10. The motto has been called incoherent by Harold Bloom (1969: 208), perhaps owing to a literal reading of the word 'creato'. Emilia is contrasting the natural world of creation with an infinite world whose existence depends upon the soul itself. Her thought is both Petrarchan and Platonic and, in fact, exactly registers the self-generating imaginative quest of the speaker in Epipsychidion. 11. A term originally used by Mary to refer to Shelley's idealisation and apotheosis of Emilia Viviani (MSL: I, 223). Newman Ivey White remarks that the term is an 'admirable critical phrase, but definitely superior and patronizing' (1972: II, 257). 12. Shelley adds, 'yet, I think her tender & true', possibly alluding to Dante's sonnet, 'Tanto gentile e tanto onesta pare'. 13. See Medwin's account of his visit to Emilia shortly before her death in 1836 (M: 288-90). According to White, 'Shelley sought to reconcile Emilia to a marriage that she did not desire and that he desired only as the lesser of two evils' (1972: II, 318). It must, finally, have seemed to him her only possibility of liberation. 14. The story is found in vol. 1, 119-22 (third edition, Florence, 1821, 8 vols) and is reprinted by H. Buxton Forman (1876: IV, 545-8). It is summarised by Rogers (1967: 249-50). Mary records reading Lastri's L'Osservatore fiorentino from 10 to 14 April1821 (J: I, 360-2). 15. These lines and the rest of the fragment (69-219) were, according to Rogers, written in 1822 (1967: 250). 16. See Rogers, who discusses this point (1967: 251). Other poems relating to Emilia are Fiordispina, To Emilia Viviani, The Fugitives and Remembrance. 17. This group, who derive their name from Purg. XXIV, 57, include Guido Guinizelli, Guido Cavalcanti, the young Dante, Lapo Gianni, Gianni Alfani, Dino Frescobaldi and Cino da Pistoia. See Petronio (1979: 77). 18. Cavalcanti and Petrarch likewise celebrate the divinity of the beloved. See, for example, Cavalcanti's 'Fresca rosa novella' and Petrarch's 'Chi vuol veder quantunque po Natura'. 19. Emilia Viviani's transparent manner might not appeal to modern taste. Candour was, however, a decided asset in the Romantic period, as were ingenuousness, forthrightness, and vitality. Furthermore, Emilia, in her letters, argues from a position of strength. She admits her 'sincerity and innocence' ('1' Anima mia e sincera e pura', Viviani 1936: 81), adding that she will never give up her candour even though she has suffered for it. Her hatred of 'pretence' ('finzione', 82) must have pleased Shelley. 20. A similar anxiety finds expression in his desire that the poem be 282 Notes to pp. 142-44

published anonymously 'to avoid the malignity of those who tum sweet food into poison' (L: II, 263). To John Gisbome, he sardonically complained that even the cognoscenti 'are inclined to approximate me to the circle of a servant girl & her sweetheart' (L: II, 363). 21. In VN: XXV, Dante excuses his personification of love in the vernacular on the grounds that such licence has always been granted to the Latin poet: he implies, of course, that his poetry is not meant to be read literally. We are reminded that poetic licence• the poet's freedom to fictionalise his experience- could not, at one time, be taken for granted. In the passage which Shelley cites, Dante assures his readers that his fiction expresses a true meaning ('verace intendimento') which he, if put to the test, is every bit capable of explaining. 22. It has now become fashionable to ignore the biographical substratum of Epipsychidion. Whilst reductionist readings, which treat the text merely as disguised biography, are of little help in understanding the poem (as witness Cameron's famous reading of the Planet-Tempest passage (1948: 950-72), the opposite extreme, represented by the New Critics, who consider biography to be irrelevant to a reading of the text, seems equally untenable. As it has been my purpose to show, Shelley was adept at reconstituting and reshaping his personal experience of Italy. Important, therefore, in any consideration of Epipsychidion is the manner in which Shelley chooses to figure forth what appears to be a genuine experience of sublimity. The relevance or irrelevance of biographical elements in Epipsychidion is not explained by evading the issue. 23. The poet's detachment has been strongly emphasised in noteworthy discussions of Epipsychidion. See, for example, Wasserman (1971: 417-61) and Hughes (1961: 260-83). 24. Like Shelley in the 'Advertisement', Dante, in the Vita Nuova 'consid• ers two groups of readers: perceptive lovers who will apprehend all his work's nuances, and a greater number who cannot appreciate the things of love' (Brown 1978: 225). See e.g. VN: IV and XIV. In Par. II, Dante, recognising that few will be able to follow his 'ship' ('legno') on the final part of his journey, counsels the less able, those in a little bark ('la piccioletta barca'): 'do not put forth on the deep, for, perhaps, losing me, you would be left bewildered' ('non vi mettete in pelago, che, forse, I perdendo me, rimarreste smarriti', 5-6). 25. 'Dull' (8) is Shelley's addition. Dante is more appreciative of the incomprehension of his readers, and hopes simply that they will at least consider how fair his 'canzone' is ('Ponete mente almen com'io son bella!', 61). 26. The published version of the fragment omits these lines (Salama 1973: 296). 27. That Shelley was working toward this concept is evident in his depiction of Asia, and in the idealisation of figures such as the 'Lady' in The Sensitive Plant and the 'Witch of Atlas'. 28. Richard Garnett claimed that 'the first draft of his Epipsychidion existed some time before Shelley met Emilia', though he added Notes to pp. 144-50 283

that '[Shelley's] meeting with her supplied the needful impulse to perfect and complete that piece of radiant mysticism and rapturous melody' (1949-50: XVIII, 37). 29. One cannot discount the possibility that Fiordispina is a prelimi• nary representation of Emilia Viviani. Initially, Shelley may well have wished to avoid any explicit treatment of his relationship with Emilia. 30. This idea has been proposed by Enrica Viviani (1959: 185-6) who noticed that Shelley's Emilia had two suitors (Giovanni Danieli and Luigi Biondi), just as the Emilia of Boccaccio's tale was loved by two knights, Palemone and Arcita. (The Teseida is, of course, the source of Chaucer's Knight's Tale.) Enrica Viviani lists several correspondences between the Teseida and Epipsychidion which indicate that Shelley was familiar with the Italian poem. Given that Shelley's mysticism is more sensual than either Dante's or Petrarch's, it may be that he was welding Boccaccio's 'Venus' figure on to his own conception of the 'donna ideale'. One should note that, in his prologue to the Teseida, Boccaccio identifies the Emilia of his tale with his own Fiammetta (see Limentani 1964: 246-7). 31. Some critics call this idea the 'epipsyche', thus offering a different, literal interpretation of the title. The term 'epipsyche' has been discounted in recent criticism. See e.g. Wasserman (1971: 418--9). 32. The English rendering of the title is drawn from Shelley's translation of the poem, made in 1820. 33. The most notable contributions are those of Corrado Zacchetti (1922: 221-82); P. N. Roy (1938); Neville Rogers (1967: 230-48); Timothy Webb (1976: 291-309); Richard E. Brown (1978: 223-35); and Earl Schulze (1982: 191-216). My discussion in the rest of this chapter is indebted to each of these writers. A seminal study in English is that of Carlos Baker (1948: 215-38); yet, while citing important links between Epipsychidion and Dante's poetry, Baker misleadingly states that 'care should be exercised not to overemphasize the influence Dante's poetry exerted upon the composition of Epipsychidion' (221). This statement has led subsequent critics to take the Dantean element for granted. In addition to Rogers and Webb (see Introduction supra), Brown and Schulze are, to my knowledge, major exceptions to the rule: the former considers a broad pattern of influence; while the latter provides a highly specialised and intensive intertextual study of the narrative quest in section two of Epipsychidion in relation to the first 'canzone' of the Convivio, and the Vita Nuova. 34. 'E qui si conviene sapere che li occhi de la Sapienza sono le sue demonstrazioni, con le quali si vede la veritade certissimamente; e lo suo riso sono le sue persuasioni, ne le quali si dimostra la luce interiore de la Sapienza sotto alcuno velamento: e in queste due cose si sente quel piacere altissimo di beatitudine, lo quale e massimo bene in Paradiso'. ('And here it is right to know that the eyes of wisdom are her demonstrations, whereby the truth is seen most certainly, and her smile is her persuasions, whereby the inner light of wisdom is revealed behind a certain veil; and in these two 284 Notes to pp. 150-52

is felt that loftiest joy of blessedness which is the supreme good in Paradise', Convivio III, xv:2.) 35. This definition of the soul is given in The Reference Dictionary (1985: 896). An early formulation of Shelley's concept oflove appears in a letter to Hogg, 12 January 1811. He writes: 'The question is What do I love? ... Do I love the person, the embodied entity (if I may be allowed the ex[pressio]n No! I love what is superior what is excellent, or what I conceive to be so ...' (L: I, 44). 36. McConnell (1971: 100-12) is one of a number of critics who prefer not to interpret Shelley's poetry 'allegorically' (even though this preference does not always work out in practice). In McConnell's opinion, writes Earl Schulze, Shelley's 'verse will not sustain the tenor-vehicle analysis normal to allegorical interpretation' (1982: 192). Though sensibly sceptical of 'cut-and-dried' interpretations of Shelley's symbolism, one would be wrong to imply that allegory is outmoded. The example of Dante would have been sufficient proof for Shelley of the efficacy of the allegorical method, even though he found it impossible to follow this method to the letter. 37. Cf. Dante's similar reference to his 'disabled mind' ('la mente ingombra') in Purg. XXXI, 139-45. The failure of Shelley's lover (repeated again at Ep: 123-5), suggests an element of parody which might, for some readers, recall Arcita's complaint to Amor in the Teseida IV, stanzas 67-71. Stanza 68, 4-6 corresponds fairly closely with Ep: 123-5. 38. On the repeated cycle of coherence and collapse in Epipsychidion, see D.]. Hughes (1961: 260-83). 39. This refers to writing in which there is 'a mutual dependence between sign and object' (Waller 1980: 25). 40. Marguerite Waller argues that Petrarch's Canzoniere expresses a breakdown of linguistic 'confidence in an order or an ordering principle which [in Dante's Commedia] is somehow immanent in the medium as well as beyond or outside it' (1980: 31). Petrarch's 'anxiety of influence' with respect to Dante provides Shelley with a linguistic model which, though subversive of Dante's figural mode, is, in Shelley's application of it, less nervously in competition with Dante's ordered vision. 41. Although the 'orphan' might refer to Mary (orphaned from birth) whom Emilia often addressed as her sister, Shelley's Italian version of these lines suggests that the 'orphan spirit' is, in fact, his soul:

bella dolce chi [sic] sei la sorella Anima Di quella orfana anima che regge 11 nome e la forma mia. (De Bosis 1913: 16)

(Sweet spirit, you who are the sister I Of that orphan spirit that rules my name and form.) The word 'bella' is deleted: see Reiman Notes to pp. 152-55 285

(1985: 11). De Bosis, citing the above lines which, in late 1819, Shelley had written into the manuscript of The Mask of Anarchy, also suggests a correspondence with the first line of Petrarch's sixth 'canzone' (Canzoniere 53):

Spirito gentil che quelle membra reggi . . . .

('Noble spirit, you who govern those members ... ') (De Bosis: 1913: 17). Elsewhere in the poem, Emilia is both the speaker's 'spouse' and 'sister', allusions in this case to the imagery of love-relationship in the Song of Songs. See Wasserman (1971: 419-21). 42. Cf. Arcita's address to Emilia in Teseida IV; stanza 6, 2-3: ' ... posto che tu giammai non fosse mia, I essendo io tuo ... ' (' ... since you never might be mine, I being yours ... '). 43. Roy contrasts Dante's asceticism with Shelley's 'fusion of the meta• physical and the physical, of the sensuous and the supersensuous' (1938: 37). 44. While the language of extravagant praise is Petrarchan, the raptur• ous tone and sensual imagery draw upon the Song of Songs. Cf. Wasserman (1971: 421-4). 45. The sequence leading from 'praise of the beloved' to a 'testament of faith' might be usefully compared to the Gloria and Credo of the Mass; or to the Hymns and Sermons of the Church service. The central section of the poem would correspond to the Lesson, and the third to the Communion. This implicit analogy between love poem and Christian religious celebration reinforces Emilia's divinity, while it heretically undercuts church dogma and ritual. Shelley's sermon also relates to Dante's 'moral' level of meaning. See Baker (1948: 223). 46. Cf. also the first exchange between the lovers in Antony and Cleopatra:

Cleo. If it be love indeed, tell me how much. Ant. There's beggary in the love that can be reckon' d. Cleo. I'll set a bourn how far to be belov'd. Ant. Then must thou needs find out new heaven, new earth. (1. i. 14-17)

47. See, for example, Zacchetti (1922: 271-2); De Courten (1923: 103); Webb (1976: 300); Schulze (1982: 198-9); and Ellis (1983: 13-14). 48. Cf. Purg. XVII, 17-18: 'Moveti [imaginativa) lume che nel del s'informa, I per se o per voler che giu lo scorge' ('A light moves thee [imagination) which takes form in the heavens, either of itself or by a will which directs it downwards'); see also Purg. XV, 67-75 where the 'eternal goodness' is said to 'speed to love, as a sunbeam comes to a bright body' ('corre ad amore I com' a Iucido corpo raggio 286 Notes to pp. 155-57

vene') so that 'like a mirror the one returns it to the other' ('come specchio !'uno all'altro rende'). 49. 'The great secret of morals is Love; or a going out of our own nature, and an identification of ourselves with the beautiful which exists in thought, action, or person, not our own' (PP: 487). 50. Conversely the body or 'subject matter' of philosophy is wisdom ('per subietto materiale qui ha [Filosofia]la sapienza', III, xiv, 1). 51. The beloved's power of instilling virtue is, of course, a dominant theme of the Vita Nuova, as it is of the poems of Guinizelli, Cavalcanti, and Petrarch. See, for example 'I' vo' del ver Ia mia donna laudare' (Guinizelli: Kay 1967: 54); 'Chi e questa che ven, che'ogn'om Ia mira' (Cavalcanti: Rime IV); 'Le stelle, il cielo, et gli elementi a prova' (Petrarch: Canzoniere 154). 52. Using narrative modes (soul history; pastoral), the second and third sections organise the chaotic elements of the first 'into a stable, meaningful, and satisfying pattern of relationships' (Wasserman 1971: 430). They give a measure of coherence to an experience of epiphany that words cannot adequately express. 53. Earl Schulze maintains that Shelley 'alludes specifically ... to the first "canzone" of the Convivio, "Voi che 'ntendendo," and through the "canzone" to the verse and narrative of the Vita Nuova' (1982: 199). In regarding the Vita Nuova as the primary model, I have, following Richard Brown (1978: 223-35), aimed to stress Shelley's interest in the overall shape of the Dantean soul-journey, which receives final definition in the Commedia. I am at the same time much indebted to Schulze's ingenious reading of the 'Dantean Quest of Epipsychidion'. In presenting his own version of the quest, Shelley's strategy is one of 'repeating Dantean motifs in antithetical contexts so as to bring out a new perspective' (Schulze 1982: 200). Shelley, therefore, does not follow each step of the Vita Nuova in sequence, but frequently conflates different aspects of it, as the following discussion shows. He takes his example from Dante himself who, first in the Convivio, and then in the Commedia, 'changes his [life's] story to fit new circumstances' (200). Shelley also repeats key motifs: for example, the death-motif (the passing of the vision) recurs for each successive displacement of the ideal. 54. Cf. the beginning of Shelley's Italian prose tale, 'Una Favola', the language of which is in conscious imitation of Dante and Petrarch: 'AI spuntare della decima quinta primavera della vita sua uno chiamandosi Amore, apparivo a questo giovane .. .' ('At the dawn of the fifteenth spring of his life, a certain one calling himself Love appeared to this youth .. .' (Forman 1968: III, 158, 151-2) [my adapted transl.]). In Garnett's edition of 'Una Favola', which appears to correct Shelley's manuscript version, the sentence continues ' ... dicendo che una chi egli aveva molte volte veduto nei sogni gli stava aspettando' (' ... saying that one whom he had ofttimes beheld in his dreams abode awaiting him', 159). Cf. also l. 192 with the first line of Canzoniere 23: 'Nel dolce tempo de Notes to pp. 157-62 287

la prima etade' ('In the sweet time of my first age'). Petrarch's 'canzone' recounts his eventual succumbing to love's power. The poem's landscape imagery, symbolising the soul's experience, is reminiscent of Shelley's 'allegorical' style. 55. ' ... ed Amore se ne torno sospirando alia sua terza sfera' (' ... and Love, sighing, returned to his third heaven'), 'Una Favola' (Buxton Forman 1968: III, 162, 153). In this allegory, Love and Life are represented as antagonists. 56. Cf. the 'poison lady' with the false Siren-figure, 'Life', who causes Love to abandon the questor in 'Una Favola'. There are many correspondences between 'Una Favola' and Epipsychidion, a fact which has led some critics to assume that the tale was written for Emilia. See Hunter (1966: 58-64). 57. See also Wasserman (1971: 433). In each case prior to the fulfilment of the quest, the beloved is a failed substitute for the true vision; yet it is also clear that, for the questor, it is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish appearance from reality, a true manifestation of the ideal from an apparent one. Shelley wishes to emphasise the fact that the ultimate vision is hard won, and that its discernment is a matter of right perception: the success of the quest depends on the speaker's own imaginative capabilities. 58. Alluding to the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, Shelley suggests that the questor's experience is 'God sent', thus giving the moon-lady quasi-divine status. The allusion is parodied in the course of the quest. 59. Cf. VN: XXXV-XXXVIII; and 'Voi che 'ntendendo: 40-52. In 'Una Favola', the 'compassionate lady', who seems to deliver the questor from his sorrows, is said to be she 'for whom Love led the youth through that gloomy , making him suffer greatly' ('per la quale amore menava il giovane in quel oscuro laberinto, e gli fece tanto soffrire' (Buxton Forman 1968: III, 166, 155 [my adapted translation]). The conflict between 'Life and Death' which follows the advent of this lady parallels the opposition of the moon and sun figures in Epipsychidion. 60. The moon-lady has also been identified with Mary, who began living with Shelley in 1814. See Cameron (1948: 950-72). 61. Shelley's draft letter to Oilier (early March 1821) clarifies the dis• tinction in terms of the poem's symbology. Writing of The Four Ages of Poetry, Shelley says that Peacock 'would extinguish Imagination which is the Sun of life, & grope his way by the cold & uncertain & borrowed light of the Moon which he calls Reason ... (L: II, 273). That Shelley is singing the praises of Italy as well as Emily is revealed in his Italian review on 22 January 1821 of a performance of 'La Morte d'Ettore' by the improvissatore Sgricci: claiming that 'it was rather a God who spoke in him, and created the ideas more rapidly than the human reason could ever have combined them' ('era piutosto un Dio che parlava in lui, e creava le idee piu rapidamente che l'intelletto umano avrebbe potuto mai combinarle'), Shelley, speaking as an Italian, adds that Sgricci's ability 'is the most dis- 288 Notes to pp. 162-68

tinctive characteristic of Italy - among us the imagination performs in an instant the work which the reason accomplishes among others in a long period of time' ('e tutto pur d'Italia -l'imaginazione fa, fra di noi, in un momento l'opra che l'intelletto consomma fra gli altri in lungo tempo', Dawson 1981: 28, 29; 26). 62. The English translation is Shelley's (Webb 1976: 292-3). The descent of Philosophy is related to Emilia in the first section of Epipsychidion: 'a Splendour I Leaving the third sphere pilotless' (116-7). 63. See Convivio, III, ii, 10-19. In summary, Dante writes: 'Onde si puote omai vedere che e mente: che e quella fine e preziosissima parte de l'anima che e deitade.' ('So now we can see what is mind: it is that refined and most precious part of the soul, which is deity' [my adapted translation].) 64. His poetry seems to derive its strength and impetus from his imagi• native reworking of prior literary artefacts. If one might reapply his own political metaphor cited in the previous chapter, one could say that a poem like Epipsychidion charts a daring course between the 'despotism' of convention and the 'anarchy' of subversion. 65. The address, in the preceding verse-paragraph, is also to the moon and comet ladies. 66. This imagined voyage is to be like the 'fruit ... of the trees of Paradise' (386-7). Reference is to lady Philosophy whose 'eyes and ... lovely smile' ('li occhi e [il] suo dolce riso') manifest the 'joys of Paradise' ('de' piacer di Paradiso'), Convivio, second 'canzone', 'Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona', 56-7). 67. Wasserman comments that 'Emily's physical confinement to the convent is . . . a model of all the limitations the poem seeks to overcome, and the poet's proposal that they take flight to the island extends Emily's escape from the convent into an escape from all the constraints the world imposes to prevent a totally liberated life' (1971: 445). 68. See Petronio (1979: 70) for the use of this term. 69. Cf. the Witch's power of transforming harmful situations into beneficent ones. Her qualities seem to represent the autonomous imagination. 70. This fact has been frequently observed. See e.g. Zacchetti (1922: 279); Roy (1938: 46); Rogers (1967: 239-40); Reiman (1969: 131); and Webb (1976: 307). 71. Both works were read by Shelley in 1815 (/: I, 92), and Aminta was read again in April1818 (J: I, 203). Roy is quoting from the conclusion to Act I of Aminta (ii. 666, 679). A chorus ('0 bella eta dell'oro') celebrates freedom from 'Honour' ('Onore'), the 'idol of error and deception' ('idolo d'errori, idol d'inganno', 671) and imposer of unnatural constraints. A similar chorus ('Oh bella eta de l'oro') concludes Act N of 11 Pastor Fido (ix). 72. While the Venus depicted on Mt Cithaeron is a goddess of concupis• cence, her eventual triumph in the marriage of Palemone and Emilia (the subtitle of the Teseida is Delle Nozze d'Emilia) is further evidence of Shelley's debt to the poem. Robert Hollander claims that in the Notes to pp. 168-73 289

Teseida, as in Boccaccio's work in general, there are two Venuses: one 'carnal' and the other 'celestial' (1977: 65). 73. This substitution is earlier suggested when 'this glorious One [Emily] I Floated into the cavern where I [the questor]lay, I And called my Spirit' (336-8), much as the spirit of the Lord called Elijah from his cave. See Wasserman (1971: 437) who notes this allusion to I Kings 19 and claims that it 'defines Emily as divine power'. Emilia is also a descendent of the Feminine divinity celebrated in the Book of Wisdom (Apocrypha). 74. '[L]ove ... is ... the universal thirst for a communion ... of our whole nature, intellectual, imaginative, and sensitive' (On the Man• ners of the Antient Greeks, SP: 220). 75. 'For Shelley, then, the progress through these three levels, from the intellectual to the imaginative to the physical, is the path that leads to the ultimate unity of love' (Stempel1966: 17). Stempel shows that Shelley inverts the Platonic (and therefore Dantean) hierarchy of the soul and ladder of ascent. There is a similar interweaving of sexual and spiritual connotations in Donne's poetry. Shelley's highly-wrought conceit of love-union is an instance of his 'serious wit', particularly evident in The Witch of Atlas, and the early unused drafts for Epipsychidion. 76. A point argued by D.]. Hughes (1961: 260-83). 77. Cf. also Cavalcanti's Ballata 'Perch'i' no spero di tornar giammai' (Rime, XXXV). The Cavalcanti poems are cited by Zacchetti (1922: 281). 78. The lines seem to echo Beatrice's implied rebuke in Purg. XXXI, 52-4:

'e se '1 sommo piacer si: ti falli:o per la mia morte, qual cosa mortale dovea poi trarre te nel suo disio ?'

('and if the highest beauty thus failed thee by my death, what mortal thing should then have drawn thee into desire for it?')

CHAPTER 6: ROME, DANTE AND THE SOUL'S ASCENT: A DONAIS

1. Keats died seven weeks earlier, on 23 February 1821. 2. It was sent to the press on 16 June (L: II, 300). 3. Nor is the influence marked or explicit in The Sensitive Plant, The Witch of Atlas, Ode to Naples, Oedipus Tyrannus, or Hellas. Epipsychidion is, to some extent, an exception, since the paradise island seems to distil aspects of the climate at Pisa and the scenery along the Tuscan coast. But it is impossible to disentangle Pisan influence from that of Naples or that of literature or painting. While offering the poet a stable, peaceful environment, and a haven for his exile, Pisa and its countryside are, to a large extent, a silent witness to the composition 290 Notes to pp. 173-76

of the above poems. Only in briefer works, like The Tower of Famine (1820), Evening: Ponte al mare, Pisa (1821), The Boat on the Serchio (1821 ?), To Jane. The Invitation and To Jane. The Recollection (1822), do we sense the immediate presence of the Pisan setting. The varied scenes depicted in these poems - including the spectral gloom of Ugolino's tower, the 'magic circle' experienced in the pine forest, and the 'full enthusiasm' of the 'twisting' River Serchio- express, 'in miniature', the range of Shelley's Italian experience, reminding one of the stimulating environment within which Adonais was written. 4. Likewise the Ode to Naples (San Giuliano, August 18-25, 1820 - J: I, 329) drew on Shelley's earlier visit to Naples in the winter of 1818-9. 5. The burial of his ashes took place on 21 January 1823 (White 1972: II, 383), some six months after his death. 6. Unknown to Shelley, it was also Keats's wish that he find peace in the Protestant cemetery. In his MS. Recollections, Joseph Severn writes: 'At times during his last days ... [Keats] made me go to see the place where he was to be buried, and he expressed pleasure at my description of the locality of the of Caius Cestius, about the grass and the many flowers, particularly the innumerable violets, also about a flock of goats and sheep and a young shepherd - all these intensely interested him. Violets were his favourite flowers, and he joyed to hear how they overspread the graves. He assured me "that he already seemed to feel the flowers growing over him'" (Sharp 1973: 93). 7. Shelley did not have the full facts of Keats's death when he wrote Adonais. As it turned out, this was to his advantage: it allowed him to shift his attention away from the pain of death to a more philo• sophical enquiry into the nature and cause of death. Commenting to John Gisborne after receiving a 'heart rending account of the closing scene' of Keats's life, Shelley wrote: 'I do not think that if I had seen it before that I could have composed my poem - the enthusiasm of the imagination would have been overpowered by sentiment' (L: II, 299-300). 8. To my knowledge there has been no single study of the Roman stanzas. Of critics who do give more than passing attention to these stanzas, a most interesting account is that given by Wasserman (1971: 491-5). 9. 'The impression of it [the majestic City] exceeds any thing I have ever experienced in my travels' (L: II, 58). 10. An allusion to Petrarch's Trionfo della Marte. Another version of the 'Triumph of Death' is found in the depiction of Anarchy as a deathly tyrannical king in The Mask of Anarchy (30-7). As has been frequently noted, Shelley was reading Petrarch's Triumph at the time of writing the Mask (M: I, 297): the Italian poem may have suggested the idea of representing the authoritarian English government in terms of a macabre triumphal pageant. 11. As Petrarch's succeeding Triumph, Trionfo della Fama, implies. 12. In two lengthy letters to Peacock, Shelley highlights the 'sublime Notes to pp. 176-81 291

desolation' of Rome. See L: II, 59-60; 84-6, and cf. Ch. 4 n26 supra. 13. This process of redefinition is, according to Wasserman, a key stylistic element in the poem (1971: 469-77). Potential ideas, rep• resenting a new or advanced perspective, are at first prevented from becoming actual, but are subsequently allowed to realise themselves, or undergo a further stage of development before achieving final realisation. Cf. n37. Shelley's technique is possibly indebted to Petrarch's Trionfi, which offer a series of advanced perspectives. 14. 'Only mind is eternal, and its earthly function is to struggle against the mutability that inheres in the sublunary realm' (Wasserman 1971: 492). This conflict between 'mind' and 'matter', eternity and time, is a central concern of The Triumph of Life (if not, indeed, of all Shelley's poetry). 15. In a letter to Peacock, Shelley writes that 'Rome is yet the Capital of the World. It is a city of palaces & temples more glorious than those which any other city contains, & of ruins more glorious than they' (L: II, 87). 16. Shelley's Rome had '[w]ide wide fields', which were enclosed by 'vast & antique walls' within 'a circumference of sixteen miles', a space then 'nearly as great as London'. Furthermore, 'there are grassy lanes & copses winding among the ruins, & a great green hill lonely & bare which overhangs the Tiber. The gardens of the modern palaces are like wild woods of cedar & cypress & pine, & the neglected walks are overgrown with weeds' (L: II, 59). The Edenic isle of Epipsychidion is called a 'wilderness' (483). The lonely 'pleasure-house' on the isle 'scarce seems now a wreck of human art, I But, as it were Titanic' (493-4). 17. As 'tribune of the plebeians' in Rome in the first century BC, Cestius was a 'minister of justice and defender of the common people against the political oppression of the patricians' (Wasserman 1971: 493). Little else is known of Cestius or may be assumed about him. The Oxford Classical Dictionary mentions that he held both 'the tribunate and praetorship' and that he 'died before 12 B.C., naming Agrippa [builder of the Pantheon] as one of his heirs' (Hammond and Scullard 1984: 224). 18. In Euganean Hills, the voyager must reach the 'haven of the grave': if the general condition of life is one of misery, then death is the 'green isle' which is sought. 19. Nature has now been linked to art as an imperfect manifestation of Truth, a 'fading coal which some invisible influence, like an inconstant wind, awakens to transitory brightness' (PP: 504). 20. Representing the 'vulgar' in this instance would be the comment by Sismondi that, in the Paradiso, Dante 'neither awakens our associa• tions, nor revives our habits. We never thoroughly understand him; and the perpetual state of astonishment in which we are placed, tends only to fatigue us' (Roscoe 1846: I, 261-2). 21. Ironically, on the day of Shelley's death, July 8. 22. Taafe, in 1822, published A Comment on the Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, a 499-page elucidation of the first eight cantos of the Inferno. 292 Notes to pp. 181-84

In spite of such detailed interest in the Inferno, Taafe, like Shelley, 'finds the Purgatorio and especially the Paradiso "incomparably finer"' (Fogle 1968: 34). Taafe is presumably one of the 'acutest critics' referred to above. 23. Also of note is Ross Woodman's chapter on Adonais (1964: 158-79). Woodman bases his analysis on Dante's conception of the four levels of meaning as presented in the second treatise of the Convivio. He provides several useful hints in a brief but pointed comment on the differences between the Paradiso and the conclusion of Shelley's Adonais (176-7). 24. Writing in 1941, Edward Hungerford said that 'Shelley's Adonais is the most complex poem based on a mythological theme produced by any poet of the Romantic generation. So complex, indeed, is the mythological understructure of the poem that its true character has been scarcely observed' (1974: 216). 25. The influence of Marino has been acknowledged by Edward Hungerford (1974: 237-8) and Angela Leighton (1980: 40). Leighton comments that '[a]lthough there are some tempting similarities between Adonais and Adone, such as the stylised personifications of Morning and Death, the references to Urania, and the play on the flower imagery in the canto La Sepoltura, the influence of Marino shows I think mainly in the unusually tight rhetorical figures of Shelley's poem, which have the ring of seventeenth century wit: of 'ingegno' (40 n6). 26. Compare Woodman's statement that '[t]he path which Shelley follows in Adonais is the path of Dante in The Divine Comedy; he descends into the Hell of material annihilation that he may truly rise into the "white radiance of eternity"' (1964: 170). Woodman does not follow up this interesting comparison. Rather, he discusses the ascent in Adonais in terms of the way Shelley 'radically opposes the literal and allegorical to the moral and anagogical dimensions of his poem' (160). 27. For some critics, the second stage of Adonais commences at stanza 21; others posit an unbroken first section covering two thirds of the poem, and a shorter second section taking up the last third, from stanza 38 onwards. My structural division agrees in the main with that of Wasserman (1971: 470, 473) and Reiman (1969: 134-40). 28. The three distinct canticles of the Commedia combine, like Adonais, to form a bipartite structure which contrasts the earthly regions of Hell and Purgatory with the heavenly domain of Paradise. The Earthly Paradise is the point of transition of the entire composition. 29. Cf. also Adone, XVIII:

... E' morto Adone. Amor dolente, or che non piagni? 11 bell' Adone e morto. Piangete, Grazie, e voi piangete Amori. (stanza 133, 1-2, 8) Notes to pp. 184-86 293

Piangete Adone, Adon degno e di pianto, sbranato da cinghial; crudo e vorace. Adone, il nostro Adone or piu non vive. Piangete, o fonti e lagrimate, o rive. (stanza 134, 5-8)

Pianga la bella dea 1' amante amato se pur quaggiu dala sua sfera il mira.

Piu del mostro omicida ha il cor spietato se '1 caro Adon non piange e non sospira; stilli in lacrime gli occhi afflitti e molli. Piangete, o selve e rispondete, o colli. (stanza 135, 1-2, 5-8)

(Dead is Adonis. 0 sad Love, I why weepst thou not? Adonis fair is dead .... Weep ye graces, weep you little Loves .... Weep for Adonis, he deserves your plaints, I torn cruelly by a voracious boar. I Adonis, our Adonis, lives no more. I Weep, 0 ye fountains, shed your tears, 0 shores. Let the fair goddess weep for her dear love, I if from her sphere she spies him here below .... More pitiless than murderous beast her heart I would she not weep and sigh for dear Adonis. I Let her distill afflicted eyes in tears. I Weep, 0 ye woods, and answer, 0 ye hills.) Both Marino and Shelley are, in turn, drawing on Bion's Lament for Adonis whereas Shelley's lines repeatedly echo Milton's Lycidas. 30. In stanza 4, 36, Milton, the 'Sire of an immortal strain', is 'third among the sons of light': Shelley explains in A Defence of Poetry that 'Milton was the third Epic Poet' after Homer and Dante (PP: 499). Elsewhere in the Defence, Dante is 'the Lucifer of that starry flock which in the thirteenth century shone forth from Republican Italy, as from a heaven, into the darkness of the benighted world' (499-500). As 'Lucifers' (an ironic reference to their republican resistance of authority and to their visionary daring), the epic poets are reflected in the words of the Platonic epigram which, by implication, is addressed to Keats (Adonais): 'Thou wert the morning star among the living, I Ere thy fair light had fled'. His 'eternal fame' as Vesper (the evening light of Venus) is suggested in the second part of the epigraph: 'Now, having died, thou art as Hesperus, giving I New splendour to the dead'. Shelley's allusion to Dante, by way of Milton, is, in itself, a tacit acknowledgement of the Dantean element in the poem. Milton's presence is felt, of course, through allusions to Lycidas who, like Adonais, is 'dead ere his prime' (8). 31. Cf. also Adone XVIII: stanza 132 (the one directly preceding the 'Lament of the Nymphs'):

L' Aurora in tanto che dal suo balcone gli umidi lumi abbassa a la campagna, vede anelante e moribondo Adone 294 Notes to pp. 186-90

ch' ancor con fievol gemito si lagna. (1-4)

(Meanwhile Aurora from her balcony, I dropping her moist eyes to the fields below, I beholds the fair Adonis, breathless, dying, I who still complains with feeble sighs and groans.) Hungerford writes that Shelley's 'phrase "eastern watch-tower" is a literal translation of the word balcona [sic], which is derived from the Arabic bala, "look-out place," and was used in early Italian for the "sky," or the "East," or as "window of Heaven"' (1974: 238). 32. Cf. the opening scene of Prometheus Unbound. 33. Cf. Ch. 3 supra. p.OOOO 34. Dante arrives in Purgatory at dawn on Easter Sunday. Day and night alternate three times in the course of the ascent of Mt Purgatory until, on the morning of the fourth day, the Earthly Paradise is reached. Musa (1984: 21) notes that 'Purgatory alone of the three realms of the otherworld exists in time'. 35. In Ovid's account of the myth, the blood of the dead Adonis is transformed by Venus into a flower, the anemone (Metamorphosis X, 734-9, Miller 1977: II, 117). 36. This correspondence was first noted by Taafe (see Fogle 1968: 41), and is briefly appraised by Fogle (1967: 16). 37. Throughout stages one and two there are intimations of spiritual rebirth or transcendence which remain latent or dormant, concealed by the speaker's prevailing perspective. See Wasserman (1971: 469-77). 38. Taafe cites one reference, namely, to the 'hosts of splendours' ('turbe di splendori', Par. XXIII, 82) who are dazzled by the light of the Mystic Rose (Mary), and who are themselves compared to a 'field of flowers' ('prato di fiori', 80) glistening in the sunlight. 39. She is Plato's 'heavenly Aphrodite' (as opposed to Venus Pandemos) as well as Shelley's own avowed muse of poetry, 'his mistress Urania' (L: II, 261). Many other sources for Urania/Venus have been cited. See e.g. Silverman (1972: 88-94). 40. In Epipsychidion, Shelley refers to Emily's 'panting, wounded breast' (17) and to the 'rugged hearts' of those who have imprisoned her (7). Urania's 'tender feet' and 'soft Form' convey the idea of love's sensitivity, mentioned in Plato's Symposium. Her descent alludes, ironically, to the martyrdom of the incarnate, suffering Christ. 41. Urania's conception later enables the speaker to recognise the divine immortality of Adonais. See Fogle (1967: 20). 42. The 'frail Form' is usually taken to be Shelley himself: if this as• sumption is correct, as seems likely, Shelley, as poet-speaker, would be portraying his 'unredeemed poetic self', as the use of 'phantom' and 'frail' imply. What is sometimes taken to be self-pity on the part of the poet is really a dramatic representation of the limitations and inadequacies of the aspiring poet, or indeed of poetry itself. The speaker engages in an implicit act of self-confrontation. One thinks of Dante-pilgrim whose imperfections, as poet and pilgrim, Notes to pp. 190-93 295

are mirrored throughout Purgatory. The characterisation of the 'poet• figure' represents a definitive condition of the soul: it is no closer to the actual person, Shelley, than is the idealised self-portrayal in Epipsychidion in the course of the love-quest. Likewise Adonais bears little resemblance to the Keats of history. The other mourners (Byron, Moore, Hunt), like Dantean shades, are identified, metonymically, by some distinct attribute: 'The Pilgrim of Eternity', 'The sweetest lyrist', the 'gentlest of the wise'. The personae who people Shelley's poem are archetypal figures, not human characters. 43. 'A pardlike Spirit beautiful and swift': an image taken, as Taafe noted, from Inf. I, 32: 'una lonza leggiera e presta molto' ('a leopard light and very swift'). See Fogle (1968: 45). 44. Cf. also Beatrice Cenci's farewell comment that, 'Though wrapped in a strange cloud of crime and shame', she 'Lived ever holy and unstained' (V. iv. 148-9). 45. Cf. Dante's description of himself as 'florentinus et exul immeritus' ('Florentine and an exile without blame') in a letter addressed 'scelestissimis Florentinis intrinsecis' ('to those most wicked Floren• tines who live within the walls'), Epistole VI, 1-2, Mengaldo et al. (1979: 550). 46. The Actaeon-myth also features prominently in Petrarch's Canzoniere. See e.g. 23, 147-60; 52; 323, 1-12. The myth derives from Ovid's Metamorphoses III, 138-252 (Miller 1977: I, 135-43). The torment of Shelley's poet-figure, like that of Petrarch's, is protracted since neither is destroyed by these 'hounds'- as was the case with Acteaon for having glimpsed the immortal naked beauty of Diana. 47. The fate of the persecutor echoes the thought of Foscolo in Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis, Milano, 4 dicembre: 'Perseguitate con la verita i vostri persecutori. E poiche non potete opprimerli, mentre vivono, co' pugnali, opprimeteli almeno con l'obbrobrio per tutti i secoli futuri'. ('Persecute your tormentors with the truth. And since you can't pursue them with daggers while they're alive, at least you can overwhelm them with infamy for all future generations'.) 48. Literally 'small area of cultivated ground'. Sinclair's rendering alludes to 'l'aia' (threshing-floor) of which 'l'aiuola' is the diminu• tive form. 49. From the 'seventh spere', the risen 'goost' of Troilus, like Dante, doun from thennes faste he gan avyse This litel spot of erthe, that with the see Enbraced is, and fully gan despyse This wrecched world, and held al vanitee To respect of the pleyn felicitee That is in hevene above . . . . (V: 1814-19) This perspective is particularly striking, since the 'tragedie' of Troilus's fate is suddenly transformed at the end into 'comedie' (1786, 1789: the whole of stanza 256 alludes to the Commedia). Recent studies suggest Chaucer's considerable debt to Dante. 296 Notes to pp. 193-95

See e.g. Boitani (1983: 115-39). Shelley, sensitive to the issue of Italian influence, anticipates modern scholarship when, in the Defence, he claims that, owing to Chaucer, 'the superstructure of English literature is based upon the materials of Italian invention' (PP: 500). Chaucer had, in fact, 'caught the sacred inspiration' of the revival of literature and art in Italy (500). In October 1821 Shelley planned a work based on Troilus and Cressida (L: II, 357). 50. This Platonic idea is echoed by Chaucer: ' ... thinketh al nis but a fayre I This world, that passeth sone as floures fayre' (Troilus and Criseyde V: 1840-1). 51. The influence of Petrarch is acknowledged by Rogers, who cites White as his point of reference (1967: 263). 52. Compare, e.g. the discourses of Beatrice in Par. I and II. 53. In her commentary on the Paradiso, Barbara Reynolds writes that 'the timelessness of Heaven' and 'the variation in the degrees of celestial bliss' are 'interdependent as concepts and [that] both may be expressed in terms of a third, namely the absence of progress' (Sayers and Reynolds 1966: III, 24). Accordingly, she explains: 'If Heaven is unconfined by time and space, it follows that all the Blessed are as they are, and can be no other, for eternity. Yet each spirit is content to be its true self, which now it knows ... ' (25). By contrast, the 'progression of [Dante's] story ... moves in time and space like the hands of a clock across the motionless dial'. Unconstrained even by the demands of narrative sequence, the speaker in Adonais yet experiences something like Dante's 'expansion of being', as newer perspectives of the Truth reveal themselves to his mind. In this respect, Dante-pilgrim and the Shelleyan persona do continue to experience a form of 'progress': the former by virtue of the guidance of those who experience beatitude, and the latter entirely by virtue of his own insight. Richard Cronin presents an argument for 'progression' when he claims that the conclusions reached or asserted in stage three of Adonais continue to be unstable. In his view, 'the reader is asked to comply with the poem's continuance, to become the poet's accomplice as he searches for a more positive description of immortality' (1981: 194). 54. For a summary of Dante's 'Neoplatonist cosmology', see Boyde (1981: 265-9). Cf. also the discourse of Aquinas, Par. XIII: 52-81. 55. Cf. Par. VII: 64-75; see Boyde (1981: 209). 56. The grouping of Chatterton, Sidney and Lucan is characteristically heretical (all three willingly gave up their own lives). Lucan is remembered for his passionate defence of the Republican cause in the Pharsalia. Shelley's reclamation of imperfect genius correponds to Dante's inclusion of blemished characters in Paradise, but subverts his exclusion of non-Christians, especially the pagan poets. 57. An earlier reference occurred in Euganean Hills. See Ch. 1 supra. 58. Just prior to this statement, Shelley compares Dante to Lucifer who, as Reiman and Powers note, signifies "'Light-Bearer", or morning star' (PP: 499 n3). An early reference to the 'spark of inextinguishable thought' occurs in the Defence at PP: 486. Notes to pp. 195-99 297

59. The theology of the Commedia is, in itself, so rarefied that there is no disharmony in Dante's vision between the ideal tenets and structures of institutionalised religion and a mystic conception of the world. 60. Shelley is, I believe, re-examining the contest in life between body and soul which, according to Socrates in the PMedo, leads the 'philosopher' - the one who loves and searches for the truth - towards spiritual refinement, the divinity in himself, and prepares him for death and that immortality that awaits him. The truth to which the philosopher/poet dedicates his life exists outside of time and space. For Shelley's debt to the Phaedo, see Rogers (1967: 263, 270, 272) and Notopoulos who writes that 'the death of Keats evoked the PMedo, which Shelley had read and partially translated in 1820, for the expression of his elegiac grief which could find comfort only in the Platonic immortality of the spirit ... ' (1949: 291). 61. Adonais is one of 'those I Who bear the untransmitted torch of hope I Into the grave across the night of life' (PU: III. iii. 170-2). 62. The pilgrim's 'experience' of redemption inspires in him the desire to perpetuate it. This desire is an expression of Love, and may be compared to the questor's desire for soul-union which, in Epipsychidion, is achievable only in death. In 'Una Favola', Death dwells 'col Amore ed Etemita ('with Love and Eternity', Forman 1968: 168, 156). 63. The depiction of Venice at sunrise in EH repeats the same idea of 'purgation'. 64. Noted in PP: 406 n9. 65. See Ch. 5 n24. 66. Cf. Shelley's 'fire for which all thirst' (485). 67. Cf. also PU: II. iii, and see Ch. 1 supra. 68. By contrast with Euganean Hills, Adonais deals with the cleansing of vision which leads towards epiphany. The 'raptus intellectus ', commensurate with death itself, is finally considered beyond the reach of poetry: it is surely for this reason that Urania cannot join Adonais. Angela Leighton comments that 'the seas which must be crossed by the prevailing "breath" of this last inspiration, are not those of poetry, not those of something to be written. For these seas lead to the beckoning voice of the dead, and to that original "One" which "remains" while "many change and pass". But to reach this place the poet must now leave behind him the far shores both of his life and of his poem' (1980: 51). 69. One recalls that the 'wisdom' of Emily also 'beacons' the poet• speaker in Epipsychidion. The death and heavenly assumption of Adonais is prefigured in the loss and recovery of Dante's Beatrice, and of Petrarch's Laura in the Trionfi. 70. These lines are cited by Taafe (Fogle 1968: 51). Strangely, Taafe notices no other allusions to the Paradiso in the concluding stanzas of Adonais. 71. The entire superstructure of Dante's cosmos is implied in these lines, which are later explained at Par. XIII: 52-69. 72. Baker suggests that '[i]f Shelley has in mind any specific location for 298 Notes to pp. 199-202

the region to which Adonais has risen, it is the third Heaven [Vesper] of Dante's Paradiso' (1948: 249). With equal logic, Taafe thinks of the 'Unapparent', that is, the deepest reality, as being the 'Empyrean Heaven' (Fogle 1%8: 48). Since all souls are, in reality, gathered in the Empyrean of Dante's cosmos, it is probable that Shelley is conflating the Empyrean, the 'heaven that is pure light' (Par. XXX, 39), and the Third Heaven in one composite image. 73. Only imaginative or creative thinkers seem to qualify for Shelley's Paradise. 74. Shelley's standpoint is eloquently phrased in his Address to the Irish People: 'Can there be worse slavery than the depending for the safety of your soul on the will of another man? ... Do not inquire if a man be a heretic, if he be a Quaker, or a Jew, or a heathen; but if he be a virtuous man, if he loves [love?] liberty and truth, if he wish the happiness and peace of human kind' (SP: 43). Adonais subverts not only Dante's Christian edifice but also that of subsequent elegists. 75. A case in point, in a more general context, is Steve Ellis's chapter on 'Shelley, Dante and freedom' (1983: 3-35). See, in particular, 18--19 and 29-30.

CHAPTER 7: LERICI AND THE IT ALlAN VISIONARY EPIC: THE TRIUMPH OF LIFE

1. In her 'Note on Poems of 1822', Mary Shelley writes: 'The scene was indeed of unimaginable beauty. The blue extent of waters, the almost landlocked bay, the near castle of Lerici shutting it in to the east, and distant to the west; the varied forms of the precipitous rocks that bound in the beach, over which there was only a winding rugged footpath towards Lerici, and none on the other side; the tideless sea leaving no sands nor shingle, formed a picture such as one sees in Salvator Rosa's landscapes only' (PW: 676-7). Though Shelley admired Rosa's paintings (L: II, 88), his interest in Italian scenery was closer in spirit to that of Turner. 2. Elsewhere, Mary writes that '[a]t night, when the unclouded moon shone on the calm sea, he often went alone in his little shallop to the rocky caves that bordered it, and, sitting beneath their shelter, wrote the Triumph of Life, the last of his productions' ('Preface to Posthumous Poems', 1824, PW: xxvi). Donald Reiman disputes Mary's account. Working from the evidence of the extant manuscript, he believes that, to the contrary, Shelley 'must have written at a table or desk .... Apparently near the end of May he set up a study in one of the outbuildings in which the servants lived' (1965: 248). Reiman concludes that Shelley either 'began The Triumph of Life late in May 1822 and returned to it late in June' or that he 'wrote the entire fragment after 18 June' (250). 3. Although she had been hostile to her new environment on account of practical difficulties, ill health, and mental disquiet, Mary expressed the conviction that 'the two months we passed there [at Lerici] were Notes to pp. 202-5 299

the happiest he [Shelley] had ever known: his health even rapidly improved, and he was never better than when I last saw him, full of spirits and joy, embark for Leghorn, that he might there welcome Leigh Hunt to Italy' ('Preface to Posthumous Poems', 1824, PW: xxvi). Her statement is corroborated by a letter to Maria Gisborne in which she writes that Shelley 'never was in better health or spirits than during this time' (MSL: I, 244). 4. In the Purgatorio, Dante refers to the 'wild and broken scree between Lerici and Turbia [the eastern and western limits of the Italian Riviera]' (III, 49-50), which he compares to the difficult ascent at the foot of Mt Purgatory. Musa points out that '[b]etween these two towns along the coast, the mountains descend abruptly - indeed, perpendicularly- into the sea, making passage all but impossible' (1987, 35). 5. Dante refers to the thirty-fifth year of life, while Shelley was approaching thirty at the time of composition. The setting on the mountain also suggests the idea of Purgatory (halfway between Hell and Paradise). 6. Shelley speaks of Lerici as 'this divine bay' (L: II, 442). 7. Addressed -it would seem -to Jane Williams, the poem is 'possibly the last lyric Shelley wrote' (LS: 163). See also PP: 452 n5. 8. The speaker's Petrarchan mood fittingly accords with the allusion to the earlier poem - an allusion noted by Chernaik (LS: 175). Cf. also PU: I, 635. 9. Cf. 'But I, whom thoughts which must remain untold ...' (TL: 21) and 'I dare not speak I My thoughts ... ' (BL: 35-6). The 'cone of night', Dantean image of the earth's shadow (Par. IX, 118) and representing the extent of terrestrial imperfection, recurs frequently in Shelley's poetry. See also Ep: 228; and Ad: 352. 10. A circumstance of central importance in the Romantic period. 11. The period is one which precedes consciousness of self or betokens some form of heightened experience or self-transcendence, like Eliot's 'moment in the rose-garden'. Rousseau has, himself, only a vague notion of how his life's journey began. 12. The hot and dusty setting of the vision itself possibly reflects the dry, sultry weather experienced at Lerici. The tempestuous advent of the chariot might also have been suggested by the 'gales and squalls' which greeted the Shelleys on their arrival. See 'Note on Poems of 1822', PW: 677. 13. This need is a fundamental constituent of Shelley's Italian poetry, and of his view of Italy as 'The Paradise of exiles'. One recalls the opening lines of Euganean Hills:

Many a green isle needs must be In the deep wide sea of Misery,

and the temporary discovery of such an isle in the hills overlooking Venice and Padua. Ivan Roe suggests that it is 'hard to resist the conflicting atmos- 300 Notes to pp. 205-6

phere of timelessness and mortality that pervades the Bay of Lerici' (1953: 12). Neville Rogers, in more scholarly mood, echoes Roe when he writes: 'Even today in the modern Lerici ... there are moments when it is still possible to feel that strange sense of a place suspended in time.... It was as if [Shelley] were suspended with "the monster of his thought" somewhere in the Platonic mid-space between transience and eternity, semblance and reality ... '(1967: 286). This 'conflicting atmosphere' is dramatised in the poem, and may be said to emblematise Shelley's complex experience of Italy. 14. See Ch. 5 supra. p. 171 15. Pioneer work in this field of literary influence has been done by A. C. Bradley (1914: 441-5); F. Marion Stawell (1914: 104-31 passim); M. L. De Courten (1923: 109-17); and, more recently Harold Bloom (1969 [1st pub. 1959]: 220-75 passim) and Donald Reiman (1%0, 1%5 passim). . 16. Katherine Folliot and Earl Schulze are the only critics to have explored the Italian literary influence exclusively. Folliot's lists of allusions, textual similarities, and correspondences in imagery and style make impressive reading, though her work in other respects lacks scholarly finesse. Earl Schulze brilliantly examines 'Shelley's creative and ironic use of the tradition of Dante and Petrarch' (1988: 62). Noting that Shelley exploits 'traditional vehicles while simul• taneously undermining their traditional meanings', Schulze claims that Shelley 'mounts an allegory against allegory in an attempt to reclaim whatever authority he can for the visionary imagination' (32). Schulze bases his analysis on the latter half of Shelley's fragment and does not examine the Trionfi in any detail. Timothy Webb, in his study of Shelley's Italian translations, confidently asserts that 'the whole flavour and atmosphere of this poem [The Triumph of Life] has been moulded by Shelley's reading of Dante and of Petrarch's Trionfi' (1976: 327). 17. It must not be supposed that other models and analogues are necessarily peripheral or even unimportant. A glance at Reiman's commentary (1965) is sufficient to disprove any suggestion of the kind. The influence of Milton's and Rousseau's work is, in fact, considerable, and a separate study on Rousseau and The Triumph has already been conducted by Duffy (1979). I do, however, wish to stress the cardinal and far-reaching significance of the Petrarchan and Dantean models in the composition of Shelley's poem. 18. Not only is Dante's epic universally considered the great Italian masterpiece, but the Trionfi, in the immediate centuries succeeding Petrarch's death, was also immensely influential, even eclipsing the Commedia and Petrarch's own Rime in popular esteem. See Wilkins (1%2: v.). James Hall (1983: 236) remarks that '[t]he theme of the Triumph, presented either as a single episode or as a series, appeared in paintings of every kind- especially on marriage chests ('cassoni'), as well as on tapestries, ceramics, medals and enamels'. Shelley could hardly have failed to notice several of these. 19. As mentioned in the previous chapter (nlO), the earlier use of the Notes to pp. 206-9 301

triumphal motif in The Mask of Anarchy is probably indebted to Petrarch's example in the Trionfo della Marte (Triumph of Death). Petrarch is said to have derived his use of the motif from Roman literature as well as from the historical example of triumphal conquest (Allott 1982: 251). The Roman Triumph was, in fact, revived in the thirteenth century by Frederick II, and again, in the Renaissance (Hall 1983: 230, 235, 245). As Schulze suggests, Shelley gives new life to the figure of the triumph in accordance with his theory that poetry recreates the associations of an image which in the course of time become abstract and obsolete (1988: 35). 20. Boccaccio's poem, translated as The Vision of Love, is also an allegory in 'terza rima', and is heavily influenced by the Commedia. Robert Hollander believes that, scholarly opinion to the contrary, Petrarch 'took the basic concept of his work from Boccaccio', and that the Trionfi 'reflect large amounts of the earlier work' (1977: 207). 21. An earlier dating (1340-4) has been suggested by Calcaterra. Bezzola (1984: 16) finds the later dating, that suggested by Billanovitch, 'more convincing' ('piu convincente'). 22. The Prophecy was probably read by Shelley in August 1821, during his visit to Byron at Ravenna, and may have prompted him to write The Triumph in stylistic imitation of Dante and Petrarch. Byron's handling of 'terza rima' is very different from Shelley's. As Richard Cronin points out, while Byron's language works against the rhyme as if it were an incumbrance, Shelley takes full advantage of its resources, 'exploiting the form rather than attacking it' (1981: 203, 207). 23. See also the fragment 'And what art thou presumptuous who profanest', an early attempt in 'terza rima' at what was to become the Ode (Rogers 1967: 223-4); and the fragment in 'terza rima' entitled 'To One Singing' (PW: 541), which anticipates the first lines of Asia's lyric, 'My soul is an enchanted boat'. For dating and correct title of Athanase, see Reiman (1986: VII, 151, 110-11). 24. Rogers believes that the poem is 'certainly a Keats allegory despite Mary Shelley's odd ascription of it to 1818' (1967: 263). 25. 'Incomplete as it is, Shelley's version [of canto XXVIII] has a fluency which is missing from Cary's and this must be attributed not simply to his readiness to take greater liberties but also to his efforts to reproduce something of the intricate music of the Italian in the pattern of his own verse' (Webb 1976: 324). 26. Shelley's approach to translation is that of the poet learning his craft. See Webb's discussion of the Purgatorio translation and Shelley's use of 'terza rima' (1976: 310-29). 27. 'Terza rima is so difficult to maintain in English ... that ... Shelley, as the manuscript of "The Triumph" shows, was often hard put to continue the interlocking rhyme without interruption' (Reiman 1965: 87). 28. Byron is an interesting exception: The Prophecy of Dante is longer than The Triumph by some 120 lines; and while he disguises his use of 'terza rima', Byron's seems to have little difficulty finding 302 Notes to pp. 209-12

the appropriate rhyme word, perhaps because the rhyme serves a less complex function than Shelley's. 29. Reiman, analysing Shelley's use of 'terza rima', writes: 'Shelley's basic stylistic problem was to reinforce his meaning through the prosody without violating the basic pattern of his adopted metrical form; he had to speed up the lines without falling into anapaestic or dactylic rhythms and without resorting to internal rhymes .... [In comparison with Dante] [h]e relied, therefore, on subtler manipula• tions of varied weight of accent, pauses within lines, and patterned assonance to achieve this desired end' (1965: 89). 30. The second simile recalls the original source of Dante's comparison, Aeneid VI, 309-10: the souls of the dead stream 'quam multa in silvis autumni frigore primo I lapsa cadunt folia' ('thick as the leaves of the forest that at autumn's first frost dropping fall'). This simile is assuredly also the source of the 'Pestilence-stricken multitudes' of dead autumn leaves which, in the Ode to the West Wind, 'Are driven, like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing' (5, 3). See PP: 221 n3. The allusions are repeated at lines 508-9 ('Others ... like small gnats and flies, as thick as mist I On evening marshes'); and at lines 528-9 ('shadows, numerous as the dead leaves blown I In Autumn evening from a poplar tree'). Repetition binds the first infernal scene (41-175) to the second (480-543). 31. Eliot, in a famous allusion, transfers Dante's lines to the 'Waste Land' of modem Europe:

A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many, I had not thought death had undone so many. ('The Burial of the Dead', 62-3)

Like Eliot, Shelley has in mind those who, in Dante's phrase, 'lived without disgrace and without praise' ('che visser sanza infamia e sanza lodo', Inf. III, 36-7) and who 'never were alive' ('che mai non fur vivi', 64). 32. Richard Cronin comments that 'terza rima' is 'a verse form ideally suited to Shelley's narrative in which one event merges with its successor, and in which value is a doubtful construct imposed on the flux of experience. Shelley releases certain potentialities of "terza rima" that Dante and Petrarch deliberately resist' (1981: 207). 33. Within the dream, the narrator is a despairing participant. At lines 298-9, the Shelleyan persona, echoing the opening line of TA: II, says that his 'eyes are sick of this perpetual flow I Of people and [his] heart of one sad thought'. At lines 228-9, he grieves 'to think how power and will I In opposition rule our mortal day', a lament which is explained by its ironic reference to Dante's Paradise where, by contrast, 'power and will are one' ('dove si puote cio che si vuole'). Shelley suggests that man might not be capable, on this earth, of fulfilling his desires for the good. Future prospects did not, it seems, fill him with hope: ' ... all, more or less, subdue themselves to the element that surrounds them, & contribute to the Notes to pp. 212-15 303

evils they lament by the hypocrisy that springs from them . . . . I see little public virtue, & I foresee that the contest will be one of blood and gold ... ' (L: II, 442). 34. Most of Dante's cantos range in length between 133 and 145 lines, while the shortest is 115 and the longest 160 lines. Petrarch's 'capitoli' (of which there are altogether twelve in the recognised text) are less consistent in length than Dante's, the briefest running to 118 lines and the longest 193. Byron follows suit, but more obviously, in The Prophecy of Dante: he writes four cantos, whose length ranges from 145 to 193 lines. 35. It is possible that The Triumph of Life was to form part of a projected poem entitled The Creator: the opening description of the Sun as creator and benefactor of life, much as God is portrayed in Genesis, lends support to this view. See L: II, 294. 36. Section (v) sometimes initiates the next canto, thus creating continu• ity from one scene to another. 37. Modelled, though largely for ironic purposes, on the Paolo-Francesca episode in Inf. V. See Bernardo (1974: 104-5). 38. Petrarch has just witnessed 'the twain of Rimini' ('la coppia d' Arimino', Paolo and Francesca, 83) in the train of captives. His own captivity recalls Francesca's account in Inf. V: 'Amor ... prese costui ... Amor ... mi prese ... ' ('Love ... seized this man ... Love ... seized me ... , 100, 101; 103, 104). 39. Com paring The Triumph of Life with Petrarch' s Triumphs, Cronin notes that 'Shelley has abandoned a parallel structure in which analogous events follow one another in favour of an involved structure. Petrarch uses parallel structures ... to confirm and emphasise distinctions. Within Shelley's involved structure, the reader is offered the career of Rousseau as a parallel to the experience of the visionary, but the parallel is incomplete or indefinite, and it blurs rather than clarifies' (1981: 204). 40. Such might have been the ultimate form of Shelley's poem: it is possible that Shelley intended two or even a series of triumphs. Because 'terza rima' proceeds in a step-wise manner, it is particularly suited to a linear narrative progression. 41. The figure who, for Petrarch, ideally represents the virtues of ancient Rome, and is celebrated in his Latin epic, Africa. 42. The name refers to Venus, 'Turner-of-hearts-to-chastity': see North (1979: 23) and Ovid's Fasti IV, 160: 'inde Venus verso nomina corde tenet' (Frazer 1976: V, 198). 43. The 'shape all light' has been the subject of endless debate. Interpre• tations of the fragment depend on an understanding of her role, the question being whether the 'shape' is a malevolent seducer, a wholly beneficent force, or an ambiguous figure. My argument rests on the assumption that the shape is, by her very nature, enigmatic. Though 'paradisal' in her appearance, her cup of nepenthe grants 'knowledge of good & evil' (the chariot of life) to which, Shelley said in a letter to Byron, 'we are damned' (L: II, 358). The ideal which she represents remains 'for ever sought, for ever lost' (431). See infra. 304 Notes to pp. 216-19

44. Folliot claims that 'the structure of Shelley's fragment corresponds almost exactly to that of Trionfo d'Amore' (1983: 77). While the Trionfo d' Amore does serve as Shelley's basic model, Folliot oversimplifies the correspondence between the two works. (See 77-89.) 45. Recently thought to be Boccaccio. See Robert Hollander, who finds the theory 'entirely attractive' (1977: 207). 46. Identified in the manuscript draft as 'Homer & his brethren' (Reiman 1965: 173). 47. Shelley alludes to the 'popes, rulers, emperors' whose futile emblems of power and wealth are listed in Trionfo della Morte I: U' sono or le richezze? u' son gli onori? e le gemme e le scettri e le corone, e le mitre e li purpurei colori? (82-4) (Where now their riches? Where their honors now? I Where now their gems and sceptres, and their crowns, I Their mitres, and the purple they had worn?) 48. This account relates to the depiction of Caesar, the first-mentioned of Petrarch's captives. Where Napoleon 'sought to win I The world, and lost all it did contain I Of greatness' (217-9), Caesar 'though conqueror of the world, was vanquished, I That Love [the conqueror], who vanquished him, should have the glory' ('vinse il mondo, ed altri a vinto lui, I che del suo vincitor sia gloria il vitto', TA 1: 92-3. Shelley implies that Napoleon is the heir to Caesar's imperial aspirations and folly. 49. Although the spectator laments the 'spent vision' of the past, he seems to lose sight of its beneficial aspects: power is being shown up for what it is. He seems to resist the truth rather than accept it, reminding one of the pilgrim's limited comprehension of events which are dramatised in the Commedia. 50. Since Rousseau has overreached himself, he is, in this respect, like, rather than unlike, Napoleon. I agree with David Quint's comment that Rousseau's 'own claims to the contrary, he is an exemplary rather than an exceptional figure' (1978: 641). Rousseau's pride and sense of difference link him, with Maddalo, to the noble yet degenerate figures Dante meets in' Hell. See Ch. 2 supra. 51. Aldo Bernardo (1974: 119) defends Petrarch's conception against the criticism of E. H. Wilkins. 52. For a discussion of the reconcilement of Virtue and Fame in Trionfo dell'Eternittl, see Bernardo (1974: 141-62). 53. The charioteer is variously said to represent Time; Destiny; Ne• cessity; a parody of the faculties of Love, Wisdom, Power and Imagination; Mundane Terrestrial Creation; the Poet; the Calculat• ing Principle (Reason); and Selfhood. The 'four faces' of Shelley's charioteer refer specifically to Janus Quadrifons (a 'Janus-visaged shadow' (94)). His temples 'were built with four equal sides, with a door and three windows on each side. The four doors were the emblems of the of the year, and the three windows in Notes to p. 219 305

each of the sides the three months of each season, and, all together, the twelve months of the year' (Lempriere's Bibliotheca Classica, a text owned by Shelley and cited by Patrick Story 1972-3: 155}. Story magnificently combines several interpretations when he writes: 'Selfhood, the banded shadow of imagination which is in effect a blind Necessity, presides over the intricate cycles of day, month, and year in the poem, and demonically consumes Rousseau as he plunges toward the chariot in 'April prime' (line 308}, the first month of the year in the Roman calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox (March 21} and presided over by Janus, the guardian of beginnings' (158}. It must be stressed that the eyes of Shelley's charioteer are banded, implying that he has the potential for vision. 54. The 'shape' also alludes to 'Death' in Milton's Paradise Lost. Cf. TL: 91-2 and PL: II, 672-3. This reference to Milton's epic has been frequently observed. Milton's Death is a terrible parody of kingship, as is Shelley's figure of the Conqueror who, in turn, is another version of the Jupiter-god. Lucretius, it may be remarked, speaks of ' ... man's life ... crushed beneath the weight of Religion, which displayed her head in the regions of heaven, threatening mortals from on high with horrible aspect', Delerum Natura I, 62-5} ('Humana ... vita ... oppressa gravi sub religione I quae caput a caeli regionibus ostendebat I horribili super aspectu mortalibus instans .. .'}. 55. This description recalls the 'pace stately and fast' (38} of Anarchy in The Mask of Anarchy. Shelley's Triumph is in many respects a re-elaboration of The Mask, itself indebted to Petrarch's Trionfo della Morte. 56. As Charles Robinson has shown (1976: 228-30} there is a striking resemblance between Shelley's conception and that of Byron's in the latter's Prophecy of Dante. The Italian poet declares that 'few' poets shall soar upon that eagle's wing, And look in the sun's face with eagle's gaze, All free and fearless as the feather'd king But fly more near the earth . . . . (III, 69-73} Though Ariosto and Tasso are 'birds of Paradise', they 'are form'd of far too penetrable stuff': therefore while they long to flee Back to their native mansion, soon they find Earth's mist with their pure pinions not agree, And die or are degraded .... (169-72} Dante wishes to be numbered among the exceptions: Yet some have been untouch'd, who learn'd to bear, Some whom no power could ever force to droop, 306 Notes to pp. 219-21

Who could resist themselves even, hardest care! (179-81)

Shelley admired Byron's poem, calling it 'sublime' (L: II, 347). In their idea of a home for the spiritually free, both Byron and Shelley appear to have in mind the argument, in Par. IV, concerning Piccarda and Cunizza who, as nuns, gave assent to violence 'when they might have fled back to the holy place' ('possendo riffugir nel santo loco', 81). Although they broke their vow of chastity, both Piccarda and Cunizza are among the elect in Paradise. 57. The eagle-spirited Adonais has 'outsoared the shadow of our night'. 58. Shelley partly draws his description of the Triumph from the Arch of Titus and the Arch of Constantine at Rome. Of the former, Shelley notes: ' ... Titus is represented standing on a chariot drawn by four horses, crowned with laurel & surrounded by the tumultuous numbers of his victorious army [and the] magistrates & priests & generals & philosophers dragged in chains beside his wheels. Behind him stands a victory, eagle-winged' (Notes on Sculptures, SP: 343, corrected from Hyman 1976: 465-6). Concerning the latter Arch, Shelley, in a letter to Peacock, 23 March 1819, refers to 'bases ... loaded with reliefs of captives in every attitude of humiliation & slavery'. On upper compartments of the four Corinthian columns is expressed 'in bolder relief the enjoyment of success, the conqueror on his throne or in his chariot, or riding over the crushed multitudes who writhe under his horses hoofs, as those below expressed the torture & abjectness of defeat . . .. Never were monuments so completely fitted to the purpose for which they were designed of expressing that mixture of energy & error which is called a Triumph' (L: II, 86). Shelley describes Constantine as 'this stupid & wicked mon• ster . . . one of whose chief merits consisted in establishing a religion . . . the destroyer of those arts which would have rendered so base a spoliation unnecessary'(86). As Reiman remarks, the word '' is an ironic reference to 'the "year of release" in which slaves were freed (Deuteronomy 15 [see also Leviticus 25: 8-24])' (PP: 458 n5); the word also alludes to Dante's comparison of the panders and the seducers in the circle of the Fraudulent (Malebolge) to the 'great throng' ('l'essercito molto') of pilgrims visiting Rome for the 'year of the Jubilee' ('l'anno del giubileo', lnf. XVIII, 28, 29). The Jubilee of 1300, inaugurated by Pope Boniface on 22 February, is the time in which Dante's 'vision' is said to have taken place (during Holy Week of Holy Year). On the occasion of the jubilee 'great benefits in the afterlife were promised to those who made the pilgrimage to Rome ...' (Anderson 1983: 152). Shelley suggests that the jubilee was merely a celebration of Papal power and enslavement of worshippers. 59. In contrast, Life degrades Shelley's captives, so that 'the trunk survive[s] both fruit and flower' (124). Paradoxically, their nobility resides in the degree to which they resist Life's destructive power. Notes to pp. 221-25 307

60. Dante's concept of Rome has been discussed in earlier chapters. See Chs. 4 and 6 supra. Interestingly, he considers the chariot of the Griffin to be more glorious than that of Rome:

Non che Roma di carro cosi bello rallegrasse Affricano, o vero Augusto, rna quel del Sol saria pover con ello .... (Purg. XXIX, 115-7)

(Not only did Rome not gladden Africanus or Augustus himself with a car so splendid, but that of the sun would be poor beside it . . ..) 61. This, of course, is the same answer given in Adonais, and suggests the corollary, 'Death is Life' ('He is not dead ... He hath awakened from the dream of life ... We decay'). Shelley's logic, looking back to Metaphysical poetry and forward to T. S. Eliot, should not be simply put down to 'Platonism'. The 'cry of despair' has been given currency by the fact that the poem appeared to break off with this question. The editions of Matthews (1960) and Reiman (1960, 1965) have restored the four remaining lines that conclude the fragment. 62. The 'wild dance ... Swift, fierce and obscene' (138, 137) was possibly modelled on the villagers of San Terenzo who, according to Mary Shelley, were 'wilder than the place': 'Many a night they passed on the beach, singing, or rather howling; the women dancing about among the waves that broke at their feet, the men leaning against the rocks and joining in their loud wild chorus' ('Note on Poems of 1822', PW: 677). In another account, which Geoffrey Matthews closely approxi• mates to Shelley's lines (1962: 131), Mary writes that '- they are like wild savages- on festa's [sic] the men & women & children in different bands - the sexes always separate - pass the whole night in dancing on the sands close to our door running into the sea then back again & screaming all the time one perpetuel [sic] air - the most detestable in the world ... '(MSL: I, 249). A further source of the 'dance', as shown by line 147, is Shelley's description of the sculptured Maenads in the Florentine Gallery: 'The tremendous spirit of superstition aided by drunkenness and producing something beyond insanity seems to have caught them in its whirlwinds .... Their hair loose and floating seems caught in the tempest of their own tumultuous motion ... ' (Notes on Sculptures, SP: 349). 63. One notes how similarly aphoristic are the styles of Shelley and Petrarch in the above comparison. 64. All that is mortal of great Plato there Expiates the joy and woe his master knew not. (254-5)

65. Another possibility, one put forward by Matthews (1962: 125), is that the spectator views the distorted images of the historical past impinging on the present. If the whole of the Triumph is simply a 308 Notes to pp. 225-29

masquerade of phantoms and images, then it is possible that the true forms of the captives will finally emerge when 'the last clouds of cold mortality are consumed'; that is, when life is perceived unstained by the dross of history. 66. Dante, too, undergoes expiation in Purgatory. His journey must be regarded, primarily, as a cleansing of vision. 67. Rousseau's 'plunge' refers biographically to his 'repeated and elabo• rate laments over that fateful turning point in his life when, forsaking the peaceful repose of the provinces, he plunged into a new world of theatre, cafe, and drawing room' (Duffy 1979: 116). Rousseau himself says, in his Reveries, that 'his destiny threw [him] into the torrent of the world' ('rna destinee me rejetta dans le torrent du monde ... ', 'Troisieme Promenade', Raymond 1959: I, 1014). 68. The repeated use in the poem of the verb 'to temper' (lines 8, 93, 243, 277) should be noted, although in the first instance it is used ironically. The verb 'temperare' is a favourite of Dante's: it is used on twelve occasions in the Commedia (six in the Paradiso), and means variously to 'correct', 'moderate', 'temper', 'attenuate', 'modify', 'naturally dispose', 'harmonise': the derivative Latin meaning is 'to mix in just proportions'. Sophrosyne, as used by Socrates, implies self-knowledge and temperance, the very qualities which 'The wise,/ The great, the unforgotten' (208-9) are said to lack. See North (1966). One notes Foscolo's reference to 'those few who by living ignored among the common people, or meditating in solitude, have been able to preserve their elevated temperament, without being scoured down' ('que' pochi che vivendo negletti fra il popolo o meditando nella solitudine serbano rilevati i caratteri della loro indole non ancora strofinata', Jacopo Ortis, 11 dicembre [1797]). 69. An alternative theory suggests that the journey commences on the Monday preceding Good Friday and concludes on Easter Monday. See Anderson (1983: 281-2). 70. Not only were the Trionfi written over a great length of time (more than twenty and, in some estimations, more than thirty years), but the speaker's pilgrimage in love extends beyond the moment when Petrarch has his first vision: the impression is created that it is only in later life that Petrarch is granted a vision of Eternity. Petrarch was, in fact, writing the last Triumph in the last year of his life. It must be added that he never arrived at a final text: for this reason, critics regard the collection as unfinished. See Wilkins (1962: vi). 71. The terms referring to daybreak ('east', 'dawn', 'sunrise', 'morning', 'birth') may all be applied metaphorically to spring. 72. The reference to the Sun as the 'father' of 'all things that in them wear I The form and character of mortal mould' (16-17) alludes, perhaps ironically, to Dante's depiction of the sun, in Par. XXII, 116, as 'father of each mortal life' ('padre d'ogni mortal vita'). Shelley's account also alludes to the dawn in Eden, Paradise Lost IX, 192-99. A similar depiction of the sun occurs in The Boat on the Serchio, 30-l(PW: 655; Raban 1967: 60). Notes to pp. 229-34 309

73. This technique of transformation is precisely the one Shelley used in Adonais. 74. In many respects the Shelley of 1822 had outgrown his former self. He had become a disciple of Imagination, not Reason, and of self-transcendence rather than self-control. Looking back on Queen Mab in 1821, Shelley considered the poem to be 'perfectly worthless in point of literary composition; and . . . in all that concerns moral and political speculation, as well as in the subtler discriminations of metaphysical and religious doctrine, it is still more crude and immature' (L: II, 304). 75. Dates are those of first publication. Duffy (1979) examines all three sources. See, in particular, 109-11; 134-7. 76. In Adonais, Shelley has identified his persona-figure with Dante's leopard ('A pardlike spirit .. .'). Some scholars suggest that, in Dante's work, the leopard or linx stands for fraud and the she-wolf for incontinence. See Ch. 4 n64. 77. Cf. the account of the Fall in Paradise Lost IX. 78. That Rousseau is already tainted by experience in the 'valley of per• petual dream' is suggested by the fact that his thirst for knowledge 'suspends' him between 'desire and shame' (394), the very condition of Adam and Eve after the fall, and we may say, of Rousseau himself once he enters Life's train. Rousseau appears already to have lost peace of mind in the state prior to his fall: his acts parody his former oblivion in innocence, based, it has been suggested, on the historical Rousseau's capacity for 'reverie' (Duffy 1979: 309-11). No further reasons are given for Rousseau's fall, because (as with the damned in Inferno) his fallen condition is sufficient proof of the cause. 79. These words are echoed by Petrarch in the line, 'che tutti siam macchiati d'una pece' (TA: III, 99), cited above. 80. Petrarch's use of 'temprare' should also be noticed. The verb is used three times in the Triumph of Death. See also I, 71 and II, 138. 81. Many critics have pointed to the correspondence between Rousseau's 'valley of perpetual dream' and Dante's Earthly Paradise. See e.g. Bradley (1914: 442-3); De Courten (1923: 112-4); Bloom (1969 [1st published 1959]: 254-5; 271); Webb (1976: 317-8); and Schulze (1988: 50-3). Bloom, who considers the scene in The Triumph to be a 'sinister parallel and possible "diabolic parody"' of Dante's encounter with Matilda, comments that he does not 'think the Rousseau-Shape meeting can achieve its full meaning without [the Dantesque parallel]' (1969: 254-5). 82. Dante's 'brain is now stamped by [Beatrice]' ('segnato e or da voi [Beatrice)lo mio cervello', Purg. XXXIII, 81). In contrast, Rousseau's 'brain', after he has drunk the Nepenthe, is like the 'shore' where 'the fierce wolf ... I Leaves his stamp visibly' (408-9). The wolf might refer to the 'lupa' of Inferno I (symbol, according to Musa, of 'the different types of Concupiscence or Incontinence, which are punished in Circles Two to Five ([Cantos) V-VIII)', 1984: 73). Earl Schulze links the wolf to the hounds which register Actaeon's guilt at having seen the naked goddess Diana (1988: 55-6). 310 Notes to pp. 235-39

83. At line 463, Rousseau refers to the 'stream's Lethean song'. The mere sound of the 'rivulet' induces forgetfulness of 'All pleasure and all pain, all hate and love' (319): all, that is, that constitute, however attractive, 'the sad reality' of Life; 'Ills, which if ills', according to Rousseau, 'can find no cure from thee' (328). This Lethe is like Dante's stream which 'takes from men the memory of sin' ('toglie altrui memoria del peccato', Purg. XXVIII, 128). The efficacy of intangible 'sound' contrasts with the efficacy of palpable 'taste', the Nepenthe that induces forgetfulness of Lethean innocence. 84. The forest scene which opens Rousseau's account (308-10) alludes to P11-rg. XXVIII, 2. 85. The deformed figure of Life in the chariot is also a 'shape': yet she casts gloom over the cold light of the chariot, as might the shadow of the old moon upon the new. The image implies the cyclic interrelationship of the cold glare of the moment and the deathlike conqueror of the past who casts a pall over the new light's attraction. The moon image seems to be another rendering of the cold light of Reason. Cf. the use of the moon-figure in Epipsychidion (another 'shape all light'). 86. All of which may be summarised by the term 'ideologies' expressing the 'tyranny of the "sign'" or, as Rousseau puts it, 'signs of thought's empire over thought'. These ideologies appear as 'grey phantoms' which fill the grove and are compared by Shelley to 'vampire-bats' (484) who drain reality of its 'life-blood' and who impose the night of ignorance before it is yet evening. (Cf. TL: 214-5.) 87. The reverse of this process, the tearing away of the veil to reveal the truthful inner being, is also suggested in Lucretius's poem: 'The mask is torn off; the reality remains' ('eripitur persona, manet res', III, 58 [my adapted translation)). 88. Shelley's affinity for Lucretius can be ascribed to the fact that, like Dante, the Latin writer was a 'philosophical' poet. Yet, in spite of his admiration for the Roman's Epicurean philosophy, Shelley also disclaimed adherence to it in A Defence of Poetry. While 'Lucretius is in the highest, and Virgil in a very high sense, a creator' (PP: 494), the former had, nevertheless, 'limed the wings of his swift spirit in the dregs of the sensible world' (499). His rationalist and materialist ethic makes him, too, a captive of Life, like Rousseau. 89. Earlier mentioned in relation to The Triumph by Blunden (1946: 291; 1968 [1st pub. 1954]: 53), the fresco is dated mid-fourteenth century and is by Francesco Traini, though in Shelley's day it was attributed to Orcagna. It was greatly damaged in the last war. See illustrations in Ramat (1957: 576 facing) and Hartt (1980: 131). 90. Matthews (1962: 124 n2) cites the Handbook of Painting: The Italian Schools, ed. Sir Charles L. Eastlake, London, 1891 (6th edition, I, 111). 91. In Schulze's view 'Rousseau's allegory ... echoes the theme of destruction of Petrarch's Triumph of Death, but intemalises its figurative world. . .. Within that shadow world, figures point to nothing beyond the will. They are the psyche's own energies Notes to pp. 239-42 311

shaped by repression, nightmares of a will in conflict with itself' (1988: 41). 92. Shelley echoes Dante's own formulation of his experience in his words to Cacciaguida in Par. XVII:

Giu per lo mondo sanza fine amaro, e per lo monte del cui bel cacume li occhi della mia donna mi levaro, e poscia per lo ciel di lume in lume, ho io appreso . . . . (112-16)

(Down through the world of endless bitterness, and on the mountain from whose fair summit the eyes of my Lady lifted me, and after, through the heavens from light to light, I have learned ....) Re-echoing Dante and Shelley, Eliot writes that 'Love is itself unmoving, I Only the cause and end of movement .. .' ('Burnt Norton', V, 163-4). 93. The phrase 'through every Paradise' may, at first sight, seem over-emphatic. It is, however, an accurate summation of the nine Paradises through which Dante ascends, as it were, 'step by step', a journey which, ultimately, takes him 'through all glory', that is, into the very centre of God's light which, in turn, radiates outwards to the far reaches of the starry cosmos. 94. 'When Shelley makes explicit reference to Dante, he does more than simply use the "Triumph" as a forum within which to compliment his maestro ed autore. In addition he fixes an identity in argument and invites a comparison in craft. He boldly but tactfully suggests that in him Dante has found a worthy successor, one whose intellect and skill are equal to the measure of the Commedul (Duffy 1979: 156). 95. The same idea is, notably, at the basis of Shelley's early thought. Item XXX in his Declaration of Rights reads: 'Sobriety of body and mind is necessary to those who would be free' (SP: 72). 96. One notices that not even Beatrice is mentioned in Rousseau's tribute: she is identified with the 'Love that moves the sun and the other stars' ('l'amor che move il sole e l'altre stelle', Par. XXXIII, 145). 97. The allusions, noted by Bradley (1914: 442n), were acknowledged by Reiman (1%0: 320-1), and are used by Folliot to support her reading of the fragment (1983: 113). At the conclusion of the Triumph of Eternity, Petrarch, summarising his entire vision, distinguishes between the first five triumphs which were seen on earth ('i cinque in terra giuso'), and the final one ('il sesto') which, with God's grace, will be seen in heaven above ('vederem lassuso') (121-3). 98. The seething crowds at the Roman triumph are themselves a 'living sea' (TL: 113). 99. The image of the 'sea of life' is, unquestionably, of ancient lineage and is also used forcefully in De Rerum Natura. See, e.g. V: 11-12 where Epicurus is said to have 'brought life out of those tempestuous billows and that deep darkness, and settled it in such a calm and in 312 Notes top. 242

light so clear' ('fluctibus e tantis vitam tantisque tenebris I in tam tranquillo et tam clara luce locavit '). 100. Reiman suggests that 'fold' may refer to 'Love's folding star', Venus (1%5: 83), an image found in The Witch of Atlas, 74, Epipsychidion, 374, and Hellas, 1029. Noticeably, Jesus is described, in the same drama, as 'the folding star of Bethlehem', 231. Cf. John X, 16: 'There shall be one fold and one Shepherd'. Select Bibliography

SHELLEY TEXTS

Butter, P. H. (ed.) (1970) Percy Bysshe Shelley: Alastor and Other Poems; Prometheus Unbound and Other Poems; Adonais (London: Collins). Chernaik, Judith (1972) The Lyrics of Shelley (Oeveland: The Press of Case Western Reserve University). Clark, David Lee (ed.) (1966)· Shelley's Prose or The Trumpet of a Prophecy (Albuquerque: The University of New Mexico Press [1st pub. 1954]). De Palacio, Jean (1961) 'Shelley and Dante: An Essay in Textual Criticism', Revue de Litterature Comparee (Notes et Documents), XXXV: 1 (Janu• ary-March), 105-12. -- (1962) 'Shelley Traducteur de Dante: Le Chant xxviii du Purgatoire', Revue de Litterature Comparee (Notes et Documents), XXXVI: 4 (Octo• ber-December), 571-8. Dicks, Robert Stanley (1975) Shelley's Julian and Maddalo: A New Text, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Ohio University (University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1980). Forman, H. Buxton (ed.) (1876) The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 4 vols (London: Reeves and Turner). -- (1968) Note Books of Percy Bysshe Shelley (from the originals in the Library of W. K. Bixby), 3 vols (New York: Phaeton Press; reprint of 1911 edn). Hutchinson, Thomas (ed.) (1983) Shelley: Poetical Works (Oxford: Oxford University Press; rev. edn G. M. Matthews, 1970; 1st edn 1904). Hyman, Sally Laura (1976) The Prose Manuscripts of Percy Bysshe Shelley: An Edition with Notes and Commentary, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York University (University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michi• gan, 1986). Ingpen, Roger and Peck, Walter E. (eds) (1965) The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley (Julian edition), 10 vols (London: Ernest Benn; reprint of 1926-30 edn). Jones, Frederick L. (ed.) (1964) The Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Knerr, Anthony D. (1984) Shelley's 'Adonais': A Critical Edition (New York: Columbia University Press). Koszul, A. (1922) 'Inedits ltaliens de Shelley' (Notes et Documents), Revue de Littirature Comparee, II: 3 (July), 471-7. Locock, C. D. (ed.) (1969) An Examination of the Shelley Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library (Folcroft Press; reprint of 1903 edn). Matthews, Geoffrey M. (1960) 'A New Text of Shelley's Scene for Tasso', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XI, 39-47. - (1960) 'The Triumph of Life: A New Text', Studia Neophilologica, XXXII, 271-309.

313 314 Select Bibliography

Reiman, Donald H. (1960) Shelley's 'The Triumph of Life': A Variorum Edition and Critical Study, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois (University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor Michigan, 1980). - (1965) Shelley's 'The Triumph of Life': A Critical Study (Based on a Text Newly Edited from the Bodleian Manuscript) (Illinois Studies in Language and Literature 55) (Urbana: University of Illinois Press). - (1985) (ed.) Percy Bysshe Shelley Volume II: The Mask of Anarchy (The Manuscripts of the Younger Romantics) (New York: Garland Publishing). Reiman, Donald H. and Powers, Sharon B. (eds) (1977) Shelley's Poetry and Prose (Norton Critical Edition) (New York: W. W. Norton). Shelley Mary (ed.) (1839) The Poetical Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley (London: Edward Moxon). Stocking, David M. and Stocking, Marion Kingston (1980) 'New Shelley Letters in a John Gisborne Notebook', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XXXI, 1-9. Webb, Timothy (1976) The Violet in the Crucible: Shelley and Translation (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Zillman, Lawrence John (ed.) (1959) Shelley's Prometheus Unbound: A Vario• rum Edition (Seattle: University of Washington Press). -- (1968) Shelley's 'Prometheus Unbound': The Texts and the Drafts. Toward a Modern Definitive Edition (New Haven: Yale University Press).

ADDITIONAL TEXTS

Aldiss, Brian (ed.) (1985) Mary Shelley: The Last Man (1826) (London: The Hogarth Press). Bennett, Betty T. (ed.) (1980-88) The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, 3 vols (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press). Berardinelli, Alfonso (ed.) (1977) Dante Alighieri: Vita Nuova (I grandi libri) (Milano: Garzanti). Bezzola, Guido (ed.) (1984) Francesco Petrarca: Trionfi (I classici della Bur) (Milano: Rizzoli). Bigi, Emilio (ed.) 1968: Triumphi/Trionfi in Opere di Francesco Petrarca (Milano: Ugo Mursia [1st pub. 1963]). Blakeney, E. H. (ed.), Rawlinson, George (trans!.) (1964) The Histories of Herodotus, 2 vols (London: Dent (Everyman) [1st pub. 1910]). Bondanella, Peter, and Musa, Mark (eds and translators) (1979) The Portable Machiavelli (New York: The Viking Press). Booth, Stephen (ed.) (1978) Shakespeare's Sonnets (New Haven: Yale Univer• sity Press [1st pub. 1977]). Branca, Vittore (ed.) (1966) Giovanni Boccaccio: Decameron, 3 vols (Napoli: Alberto Marotta). Cazzani, Pietro (ed.) (1957) Vittorio Alfieri: Le Tragedie (Milano: Mondadori). Ciccuto, Marcello (ed.) (1978) Guido Cavalcanti: Rime (I classici della Bur) (Milano: Rizzoli). -- (1985) Brunetto Latini: Il Tesoretto (I classici della Bur) (Milano: Select Bibliography 315

Rizzoli). Cudini, Piero (ed.) (1980) Dante Alighieri: Convivio (I grandi libri) (Milano: Garzanti). De Stael, Madame (c.1805) Corinne ou L'Italie (Paris: Garnier Freres). Dowden, Edward (ed.) (1970) The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley by Thomas Jefferson Hogg (Michigan: Scholarly Press; reprint of 1906 edn). Duff, J. D. (transl.) (1977) Lucan: The Civil War (Pharsalia) (Loeb Classics) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press [1st pub. 1928]). Durling, Robert M. (transl.) (1976) Petrarch's Lyric Poems: The 'Rime sparse' and Other Lyrics (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Univer• sity Press). Eliot, T. S. (1963) Collected Poems 1909-1962 (London: Faber and Faber). Fairclough, H. Rushton (transl.) (1935) Aeneid in Virgil (Loeb Classics), 2 vols (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press [1st pub. 1916]). Feldman, Paula R. and Scott-Kilvert, Diana (eds) (1987) The Journals of Mary Shelley 1814-1844, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Flora, Francesco (ed.) (1968) Canti in Tutte le opere di Giacomo Leopardi, vol. 1 (Milano: Mondadori [1st pub. 194D]). Forman, H. Buxton (ed.) (1971) The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley by Thomas Medwin (1847) (Michigan: Scholarly Press; reprint of 1913 rev. edn). Forman, Maurice Buxton (ed.) (1952) The Letters of John Keats, 2 vols (Lon• don: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1931]) Forteguerri, Niccolo (1803) n Ricciardetto (Pamaso Italiano XXVII), 3 vols (Venezia: Sebastiana Valle [1st pub. 1738]). Foster, Kenelm and Boyde, Patrick (eds and translators) (1967) Dante's Lyric Poetry, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Frazer, Sir James George (transl.) (1976) Ovid: Fasti (Loeb Classics) vol. 5 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press [1st pub. 1931]). Frugoni, Arsenio and Brugnoli, Giorgio (eds and transl.) (1979) Epistole in Mengaldo, Pier Vincenzo et al. (eds), Dante Alighieri: Opere Minori, vol. 2 (Milano: Riccardo Ricciardi), 507-643. Gambarin, Giovanni (ed.) (1955) Ugo Foscolo: Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis (Opere di Ugo Foscolo) vol. 4 (Firenze: Felice Le Monnier). Gilbert, Felix (transl.) (1960) Niccolo Machiavelli: History of Florence and the Affairs of Italy, from the Earliest Times to the Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent (1532) (Harper Torchbooks) (New York: Harper and Row [1st pub. 1901]). Guasti, Cesare (ed.) (1858) Pierantonio Serassi: La Vita di Torquato Tasso (1785), 2 vols (Firenze: Barbera, Bianchi and Co.). Havely, N. R. (ed. and transl.) 1980: Chaucer's Boccaccio: Sources of 'Troilus' and the 'Knight's' and 'Franklin's Tales', Chaucer Studies V (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer). Hobhouse, John Cam (1977) Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold: Containing Dissertations on the Ruins of Rome; and an Essay on Italian Literature, 2 vols (Norwood editions; reprint of 1818 edn). Horwood, E. C. and Houghton, R. E. C. (eds) (1968) William Shakespeare: Othello (The New Clarendon Shakespeare) (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Jones, Frederick L. (ed.) (1951) Maria Gisborne & Edward E. Williams, Shelley's Friends: Their Journals and Letters (Norman: University of 316 Select Bibliography

Oklahoma Press). Kay, George (ed.) (1967) The Penguin Book of Italian Verse (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1958]). Knight, W. Jackson (transl.) (1960) Virgil: The Aeneid (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1956]). Latham, R. E. (transl.) (1983) Lucretius: On the Nature of the Universe (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1951]). Lea, Kathleen M. and Gang, T. M. (eds) (1981) Godfrey of Bulloigne: A Critical Edition of Edward Fairfax's Translation of Tasso's 'Gerusalemme Liberata' [1600], together with Fairfax's Original Poems (Oxford: Clarendon Press). Limentani, Alberto (ed.) (1964) Teseida delle nozze di Emilia in Tutte le opere di Giovanni Boccaccio, vol. 2 (Milano: Mondadori). Lovell, Ernest J. jr (ed.) (1%6) Medwin's Conversations of Lord Byron (1824) (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press). Maier, Bruno (ed.) (1982) Torquato Tasso: Gerusalemme Liberata, 2 vols (Milano: Rizzoli [1st pub. 1%3]). Maier, Bruno and Barelli, Ettore (eds) (1987) Torquato Tasso: Aminta (I classici della Bur) (Milano: Rizzoli [1st pub. 1976]). Manso, Giovanni Battista (1821) Vita di Torquato Tasso (Pisa: Capurro; Microfilm) [1st pub. 1621]). Marchand, Leslie A. (ed.) (1976) Byron's Letters and Journals, vol. 5: (1816-7), vol. 6: (1818-9) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press). McGann, Jerome J. (ed.) 1980-6: Lord Byron: The Complete Poetical Works, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press). McWilliam, G. H. (transl.) (1975) Giovanni Boccaccio: The Decameron (Penguin Classics) (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1972]). Miller, Frank Justus (transl.) (1977) Ovid: Metamorphoses (Loeb Classics), 2 vols (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press [1st pub. 1916]). Molinaro, Julius A. and Corrigan, Beatrice (eds and translators) (1961) Vittorio Alfieri: Of Tyranny (1777) (Toronto: University of Toronto Press). Muir, Kenneth (ed.) 1%6: Collected Poems of Sir Thomas Wyatt (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul [1st pub. 1949]). Musa, Mark (transl.) (1973) Dante's Vita Nuova (Bloomington: Indiana University Press). -- (1984-7) Dante Alighieri: The Divine Comedy vol. 1: Inferno; vol. II: Purgatory (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1971, 1981]). Nelson, Lowry jr (ed. and transl.) (1986) The Poetry of Guido Cavalcanti (Garland Library of Medieval Literature 18) (New York: Garland Publishing). Pozzi, Giovanni (ed.) 1976: L' Adone in Tutte le opere di Giovan Battista Marino, vol. 2 (Text and Notes) (Milano: Mondadori). Priest, Harold Martin (transI.) (1967) Adonis: Selections from 'L' Ad one' of Giambattista Marino (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press). Radcliffe-Umstead, Douglas (transl.) (1970) Ugo Foscolo's 'Ultime lettere di ]acopo Ortis', A Translation (Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures 89) (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press). Select Bibliography 317

Ramat, Raffaello (ed.) (1957) Francesco Petrarca: Rime e Trionfi (Milano: Rizzoli). Raymond, Marcel (ed.) (1959) Les Reveries du promeneur solitaire in Jean• Jacques Rousseau: Oeuvres Completes (Bibliotheque de la Pieiade), vol. 1 (Paris: Editions Gallimard). Ridley, M. R. (ed.) (1961) Antony and Cleopatra (based on the edition of R. H. Case) (London: Methuen [1st pub. 1906]). Romano, Vincenzo (ed.) (1951) Giovanni Boccaccio: Genealogie Deorum Gentilium Libri, 2 vols (Bari: Gius. Laterza e Figli). Roscoe, Thomas (transl.) (1846) J. C. L. Simonde de Sismondi: Historical View of the Literature of the South of Europe, 2 vols (London: Henry G. Bohn; original version 1813). Rouse, W. H. D. (transl.) (1931) Lucretius: De Rerum Natura (Loeb Classics) (London: William Heinemann [1st pub. 1924]). Salinari, Carlo, Romagnoli, Sergio and Lanza, Antonio (eds) (1980) Dante Alighieri: La Divina Commedia (Inferno Purgatorio Paradiso), 3 vols (Universale letteratura) (Roma: Editori Reuniti). Sansone, Mario (ed.) (1968) Vittorio Alfieri: Vita scritta da esso (1803) (Pad ova: R.A.D.A.R.) Sayers, Dorothy L. and Reynolds, Barbara (translators) (1966-7) The Comedy of Dante Alighieri The Florentine, Cantica I: Hell ; II: Purgatory ; III: Paradise (Penguin Classics), 3 vols (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1949, 1955, 1962]). Sharp, William (1973) The Life and Letters of Joseph Severn (New York: AMS Press; reprint of 1892 edn). Shelley, Mary (1835) Lodore (Paris: A. and W. Galignani). -- (1844) Rambles in Germany and Italy, in 1840, 1842, and 1843, 2 vols (London: Edward Moxon). Sinclair, John D. (transl.) (1978--81) The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri (1: Inferno; 2: Purgatoria; 3: Paradiso), 3 vols (New York: Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1939]). Sismondi, J. C. L. Simonde de (1840): Histoire des Ripubliques Italiennes du Moyen Age, 10 vols (Paris: Fume et de [1st pub. 1807-20]). Skeat, Walter W. (ed.) (1%5) Chaucer: Complete Works (London: Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1912]). Smith, J. C. and De Selincourt, E. (eds) (1957) The Poetical Works of Edmund Spenser (London: Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1912]). Solerti, Angelo (ed.) (1895) Gerusalemme Liberata: Poema Eroico di Torquato Tasso, 3 vols (Firenze: G. Barbera). Stocking, Marion Kingston and Stocking, David Mackenzie (eds) (1968) The Journals of Claire Clairmont (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press). Tredennick, Hugh (transl.) (1979) Plato: The Last Days of Socrates (Penguin Classics) (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1954]). Trelawny, Edward John (1887) Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author (1878) (London: Pickering and Chatto). Turchi, Marcello (ed.) (1980) Ludovico Ariosto: Orlando Furioso (I grandi libri), 2 vols (Milano: Garzanti [1st pub. 1974]). Waldman, Guido (transl.) (1983) Ludovico Ariosto: Orlando Furioso (Oxford: 318 Select Bibliography

Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1974]). Whitfield, J. H. (ed.) (Fanshawe, Richard, transl.) (1976) Battista Guarini: fl Pastor Fido The Faithful Shepherd (Edinburgh Bilingual Library 11) (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press). Wicksteed, Philip H. (transl.) (1903) The Convivio of Dante Alighieri (London: Dent and Co.). Wilkins, Ernest Hatch (transl.) (1962) The Triumphs of Petrarch (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Wright, B. A. (ed.) (1962) Milton's Poems (Everyman's Library) (London: J. M. Dent [1st pub. 1956]).

GENERAL WORKS: CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL

Books Abbey, Lloyd (1979) Destroyer and Preserver: Shelley's Poetic Skepticism (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press). Allott, Miriam (ed.) (1982) Essays on Shelley (Liverpool English Texts and Studies) (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press). Anderson, William (1983) Dante the Maker (London: Hutchinson [1st pub. 1980]). Angeli, Helen Rossetti (1973) Shelley and His Friends in Italy, Scarce Scholarly Books (New York: Haskell House; reprint of 1911 edn). Baker, Carlos (1948) Shelley's Major Poetry: The Fabric of a Vision (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press). Barrell, Joseph (1967) Shelley and the Thought of His Time: A Study in the History of Ideas (Yale Studies in English 106) (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books; reprint of 1947 edn). Bates, Ernest Sutherland (1908) A Study of Shelley's Drama 'The Cenci' (Columbia University Studies in English, Series II, Vol. III, No. 1) (New York: Columbia University Press). Bergin, Thomas G. (1981) Boccaccio (New York: The Viking Press). Bernardo, Aldo S. (1974) Petrarch, Laura, and the 'Triumphs' (Albany, New York: State University of New York Press). Bernheimer, Lydia (1920) Saggio di studi shelleyani: Shelley in Italia (Piacenza: Tipografia Sociale Progresso). Biagi, Guido (1976) The Last Days of Percy Bysshe Shelley: New Details from the Unpublished Documents (Folcroft Library; reprint of 1898 translation; original version 1892). Bickersteth, Geoffrey L. (1951) Dante's Virgil: A Poet's Poet (The twelfth W. P. Ker Memorial Lecture delivered in the University of Glasgow, 7th December 1950, Glasgow University Publications LXXXIX) (Glasgow: Jackson, Son and Co.). Bini, Bino (1927) La fortuna di Percy Bysshe Shelley e le idealittl umanitarie nel risorgimento italiano 1822-1922 (Fiume: La Vedetta d'ltalia). Bloom, Harold (1969) Shelley's Mythmaking (Cornell Paperbacks) (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press [1st pub. 1959]). --(1975) A Map of Misreading (New York: Oxford University Press). Select Bibliography 319

-- (eel.) (1979) Deconstruction and Criticism (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul). Blunden, Edmund (1946) Shelley: A Life Story (London: Collins). -- (ed.) (1968) Selected Poems: Percy Bysshe Shelley (London: Collins [1st pub. 1954]). Bodkin, Maud (1951) Archetypal Patterns in Poetry: Psychological Studies of Imagination (London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press [1st pub. 1934]). Boitani, Piero (ed.) (1983) Chaucer and the Italian Trecento (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Bornstein, George (ed.) (1977) Romantic and Modern: Revaluations of Literary Tradition (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press). Boyde, Patrick (1981) Dante Philomythes and Philosopher: Man in the Cosmos (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Branca, Vittore (Monges, Richard, transl.) (1976) Boccaccio: The Man and His Works (New York: New York University Press). Brand, C. P. (1957) Italy and the English Romantics: The Italianate Fashion in Early Ninteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer• sity Press). -- (1965) Torquato Tasso: A Study of the Poet and of His Contribution to English Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Brown, Margaret (1972) Casa Magni: La casa sui mare (Milano: Mondadori). Brown, Nathaniel (1979) Sexuality and Feminism in Shelley (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press). Browning, Robert (1888) An Essay on Percy Bysshe Shelley (for the Shelley Society) (London: Reeves and Turner; reprint of 1852 edn). Buxton, John (1978) The Grecian Taste: Literature in the Age of Neo-Classicism 1740-1820 (London: Macmillan). Cacciatore, Vera (1961) Shelley and Byron in Pisa (Torino: Eri-Edizione RAI). Cameron, Kenneth Neill (ed.) (1961-70) Shelley and His Circle 1773-1822: A Complete Edition of the 'MSS' in the Shelley and His Circle Collection (1773-1822) of the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library, New York, vols 1-4 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press). Cameron, Kenneth Neill (1974) Shelley: The Golden Years (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press). Cassidy, John A. (1964) Algernon C. Swinburne (New York: Twayne Publishers). Chiappelli, Bice (1956) Il pensiero religioso di Shelley con particolare riferimento alia 'Necessity of Atheism' e al 'Triumph of Life' (Uomini e Dottrine 4) (Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura). Chinol, Elio (1961) P.B. Shelley (Collana di saggi XIV) (Napoli: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane [1st pub. 1951]). Churchill, Kenneth (1980) Italy and English Literature 1764-1930 (London: Macmillan). Cline, C. L. (1952) Byron, Shelley and their Pisan Circle (London: John Murray). Coxe, Henry (1818) A Picture of Italy; Being a Guide to the Antiquities and Curiosities of that Classical and Interesting Country (London: Sherwood, 320 Select Bibliography

Neely, and Jones [1st pub. 1815]). Cronin, Richard (1981) Shelley's Poetic Thoughts (London: Macmillan). Cuffaro, Gastone Filiberto (1976) The Story of Beatrice Cenci: A Study in Different Perspectives (Italian text), Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, New York University (University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1980). Curran, Stuart (1970) Shelley's Cenci: Scorpions Ringed with Fire (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press). -- (1975) Shelley's Annus Mirabilis: The Maturing of an Epic Vision (San Marino, California: Huntington Library). Curtius, Ernst Robert (Trask, Willard R., trans!.) (1953) European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; original version 1948). Dawson, P. M. S. (1980) The Unacknowledged Legislator: Shelley and Politics (Oxford: Clarendon Press). De Beer, G. R. (ed.) (1951) Harriet Charlotte Beaujolais Campbell: A Journey to Florence in 1817 (London: Geoffrey Bles). De Courten, Maria Luisa Giartosio (1923) Percy Bysshe Shelley e l'Italia (Milano: Fratelli Treves). Dowden, Edward (1886) The Life of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 2 vols (London: Kegan Paul, Trench and Co.). Duffy, Edward (1979) Rousseau in England: The Context for Shelley's Critique of the Enlightenment (Berkeley: University of California Press). Eliot, T. S. (1975) The Use of Poetry and the Use of Criticism: Studies in the Relation of Criticism to Poetry in England (London: Faber and Faber [1st pub. 1933]). Ellis, Steve (1983) Dante and English Poetry: Shelley to T. S. Eliot (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Everest, Kelvin (ed.) (1983) Shelley Revalued: Essays from the Gregynog Conference (Leicester: Leicester University Press). Fergusson, Francis (1953) Dante's Drama of the Mind: A Modern Reading of the 'Purgatorio' (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press). Fogle, Richard Harter (1962) The Imagery of Keats and Shelley: A Comparative Study (Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books; reprint of 1949 edn). Folliot, Katherine (1983) Shelley's Italian Sunset (East Molesey: Forge Press; reprint of 1979 edn). Fontanarosa, Vincenzo (1897) Gli amori di P.B. Shelley e le sue poesie sull'Italia (Napoli: Emilio Prass). Genette, Gerard (1982) Palimpsestes (Paris: Editions du Seuil). Gittings, Robert (1956) The Mask of Keats: A Study of Problems (London: William Heinemann). Gosse, Sir Edmund and Wise, Thomas James (eds) (1968) The Complete Works of Algernon Charles Swinburne, vol. 5 (Prose Works) (New York: Russell and Russell; reprint of 1925 edn). Grabo, Carl (1965) The Magic Plant; The Growth of Shelley's Thought (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press [1st pub. 1936]). -- (1968) A Newton Among Poets: Shelley's Use of Science in Prometheus Unbound (New York: Cooper Square Publishers; reprint of 1930 edn). Select Bibliography 321

Hall, James (1983) A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art (London: John Murray). Hall, Jean (1980) The Transforming Image: A Study of Shelley's Major Poetry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press). Hartt, Frederick (1980) A History of Italian Renaissance Art (London: Thames and Hudson [1st pub. 1970]). Highet, Gilbert (1959) Poets in a Landscape (Harmondsworth: Penguin [1st pub. 1957]). Hildebrand, William H. (1974) Shelley's Polar Paradise: A Reading of 'Prometheus Unbound' (Salzburg Studies in English Literature 18) (Salzburg: Salzburg University). Hollander, Robert (1977) Boccaccio's Two Venuses (New York: Columbia University Press). -- (1983) (Castellini, Anna Maria and Frankel, Margherita, translators) Il Virgilio Dantesco: Tragedia nella 'Commedia' (Biblioteca di 'Lettere Italiana', Studi e Testi 28) (Firenze: Leo S. Olschki). Holmes, Richard (1976) Shelley: the Pursuit (London: Quartet Books [1st pub. 1974]). Hungerford, Edward B. (1974) Shores of Darkness (Gloucester, Massachus• etts: Peter Smith; reprint of 1941 edn). Jacobsen, Sally-Ann H. (1978) Shelley's Idea of Tragedy and the Structure of 'The Cenci', Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Purdue University (University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1980). Kay, Richard (1978) Dante's Swift and Strong: Essays on 'Inferno' XV (Lawrence: The Regents Press of Kansas). Keach, William (1984) Shelley's Style (New York: Methuen). Kerenyi, C. (Manheim, Ralph trans!.) (1963) Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence (Bollingen Series LXV: Archetypal Images in Greek Religion, vol. 1) (New York: Pantheon Books; original version 1959). King-Hele, Desmond (1984) Shelley: His Thought and Work (London: Macmillan [1st pub. 1960]). Kirkpatrick, Robin (1978) Dante's 'Paradiso' and the Limitations of Modern Criticism: A Study of Style and Poetic Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). -- (1987) Dante: The Divine Comedy (Landmarks of world literature) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Kuhns, Oscar (1904) Dante and the English Poets from Chaucer to Tennyson (New York: Henry Holt). Kurtz, Benjamin P. (1970) The Pursuit of Death: A Study of Shelley's Poetry (New York: Octagon Books; reprint of 1933 edn). Larrabee, Stephen A. (1943) English Bards and Grecian Marbles: The Relation• ship between Sculpture and Poetry, especially in the Romantic Period (New York: Columbia University Press). Lehmann, John (1947) Shelley in Italy: An Anthology (The Chiltern Library) (Paulton, Somerset: John Lehmann). Lowe, Alfonso (1974) La Serenissima: The Last Flowering of the Venetian Republic (London: Cassell). Madariaga, Salvador de (1965) Shelley & Calderon and Other Essays on English and Spanish Poetry (Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press; reprint 322 Select Bibliography

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Reiman, Donald H. (1%9) Percy Bysshe Shelley (New York: Twayne Pub• lishing House). -- (ed.) (1973-86) Shelley and His Circle 1773-1822: A Complete Edition of the 'MSS' in the Shelley and His Circle Collection (1773-1822) of the Carl H. Pforzheimer Library, New York, vols 5-8 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press). Renzulli, Michele (1932) La Poesia di Shelley (Foligno-Roma: Franco Campitelli). Ricci, Corrado (Bishop, Morris and Stuart, Henry Longan, translators) 1926: Beatrice Cenci, 2 vols (London: William Heinemann; original version 1923). Ridenour, George M. (ed.) (1965) Shelley: A Collection of Critical Essays (Twentieth Century Views Series) (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall). Robinson, Charles E. (1976) Shelley and Byron: The Snake and the Eagle Wreathed in Fight (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press). Roe, Ivan (1953) Shelley: The Last Phase (Stratford Place, London: Hutchinson. Rogers, Neville (comp.) (1957) Keats, Shelley and Rome: An Illustrated Miscel• lany (for the Keats-Shelley Memorial Association) (London: Christopher Johnson [1st pub. 1949]). Rogers, Neville (1967) Shelley at Work: A Critical Inquiry (Oxford, Clarendon Press [1st pub. 1956]). Rossetti, William Michael (1888) A Memoir of Shelley (The Shelley Society Publications, Fourth Series, No. 2) (London, Richard Clay and Sons [1st pub. 1870)). Roy, P. N. (1938) Shelley's Epipsychidion: A Study (Calcutta: The Modern Publishing Syndicate). -- (1943) Shelley and Italian Literature: A Study in Poetical Derivation (London: Probsthain). Salama, Adel (1973) Shelley's Major Poems: A Re-interpretation (Salzburg Studies in English Literature 9) (Salzburg: University of Salzburg). Salvadori, Massimo (1961) Cavour and the Unification of Italy (Princeton, New Jersey: D. van Nostrand). Schuyler, Eugene (1901) Italian Influences (London: Sampson Low, Marston and Co.). Sells, A. Lytton (1955) Italian Influence in English Poetry; From Chaucer to Southwell (London: George Allen and Unwin). Silverman, Edwin B. (1972) Poetic Synthesis in Shelley's 'Adonais' (Series Practica 36) (The Hague: Mouton). Spender, Steven (1952) Shelley (for the British Council and the National Book League: Supplement to British Book News 29) (London: Longmans, Green and Co.). Sturm-Maddox, Sara (1985) Petrarch's Metamorphoses: Text and Subtext in the Rime sparse (Columbia: University of Missouri Press). Swinden, Patrick (ed.) (1976) Shelley: Shorter Poems and Lyrics (Macmillan Casebook) (London: Macmillan). Symonds, John Addington (1890) An Introduction to the Study of Dante (Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black [1st pub. 1873]). 324 Select Bibliography

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Articles, Essays and Reviews Adams, Charles L. (1965) 'The Structure of The Cenci', Drama Survey, IV: 2 (Summer), 139-48. ABott, Kenneth (1960) 'Bloom on The Triumph of Life', Essays in Criticism, X (April), 222-8. ABott, Miriam (1982) 'The Reworking of a Literary Genre: Shelley's The Triumph of Life' in ABott (ed.), Essays on Shelley, 239-78 (see General Works). Angeli, Diego (1922) 'Shelley e l'ltalia' (Review of Corrado Zacchetti's Shelley e Dante), Il Giornale d'Italia, 17 November, 3. Anon (1896) 'Italian Influence on English Poetry', Review article on David M. Main, A Treasury of English Sonnets, Edinburgh Review, CLXXXIII: 375 (January), 28-54. Babcock, R. W. (1947) 'English Interest in Italy and Italian Romantic Criti• cism in the 18th Century', Philological Quarterly, XXVI: 2 (April), 152-8. Baker, Carlos (1946) 'Shelley's Ferrarese Maniac' in English Institute Essays: The Critical Significance of Biographical Evidence; the Methods of Literary Studies (New York, Columbia University Press), 41-73. Barrows, Herbert (1963) 'Convention and Novelty in the Romantic Genera• tion's Experience of Italy', Bulletin of the New York Public Library, LXVII (June), 360-75. Baskiyar, D. D. (1971) 'Beatrice of Shelley's Drama The Cenci', Indian Journal of English Studies, XII (December), 33-41. Bass, Eben (1967) 'The Fourth Element in Ode to the West Wind', Papers on Language and Literature, III: 4 (Fall), 327-38. Beall, Chandler B. (1941) 'A Tasso Quotation in Shelley', Modern Language Quarterly, II: 4 (December), 609-10. Beatty, Bernard (1982) 'The Transformation of Discourse: Epipsychidion, Adonais and Some Lyrics' in Allott (ed.), Essays on Shelley, 213-38 (see General Works). Becht, Ronald E. (1981) 'Shelley's Adonais: Formal Design and the Lyric Speaker's Crisis oflmagination', Studies in Philology, LXXVIII: 2 (Spring), 194-210. Berry, Francis (1955) 'Shelley and the Action of Hope', Orpheus, II (Janu• ary-May), 83-98. Boas, Louise Schutz (1944) 'Shelley's Lines written among the Euganean Hills', The Explicator, III: 2 (November), item no. 14. Bone, J. Drummond (1981) 'On "Influence", and on Byron's and Shelley's Use of "Terza Rima" in 1819', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XXXII, 38-48. Bradley, A. C. (1914) 'Notes on Shelley's Triumph of Life', Modern Language Review, IX: 4 (October), 441-56. Brennan, Matthew C. (1987) 'Shelley's Lines written among the Euganean Hills', The Explicator, XLV: 2 (Winter), 23-6. 326 Select Bibliography

Bright, Michael H. (1978) 'The Pleasure-house in Shelley's Epipsychidion', American Notes and Queries, XVII: 4 (December), 55-7. Brown, Richard E. (1975) 'Self-Resolution in Shelley's Julian and Maddalo', Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature, XXIX (Spring), 39-47. --(1978) 'The Role of Dante in Epipsychidion', Comparative Literature, XXX: 3 (Summer), 223-35. Bruca, Renzo (1908) 'L'ultima dimora di Shelley: Villa Magni', Emporium, XXVIII (August), 113-22. Burriss, Eli Edward (1926) 'The Classical Culture of Percy Bysshe Shelley', Classical Journal, XXI: 5 (February), 344-54. Butter, P. H. (1962) 'Sun and Shape in Shelley's The Triumph of Life', Review of English Studies, n.s. XIII: 49 (February), 40-51. Buxton, John (1972) 'Shelley's Neo-Classical Taste', Apollo, XCVI: 6 (Octo• ber), 276-81. Caldana, Giovanni (1907) 'Giudizi di Percy Bysshe Shelley sui poeti italiani', Nuova antologia di scienze e lettere e d'arti, 16 June, 660-72. Calitri, Antonio (1922) 'L'Italia nella poesia di Shelley', Il Carroccio: The Italian Review (New York), XVI (September), 277-86. Cameron, Kenneth Neill (1943) 'The Political Symbolism of Prometheus Unbound', PMLA, LVIII: 3 (September), 728-53. -- (1948) 'The Planet-Tempest Passage in Epipsychidion', PMLA, LXIII: 3 (September), 950-72. Cameron, Kenneth Neill and Frenz, Horst (1945) 'The Stage History of Shelley's The Cenci', PMLA, LX: 4 (December), 1080-1105. Cantor, Paul A. (1976) '"A Distorting Mirror": Shelley's The Cenci and Shakespearean Tragedy', in Evans, G. B. (ed.), Shakespeare: Aspects of Influence (Harvard English Studies 7) (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press), 91-108. Caturegli, Anna Fochi (1985) 'Shelley interprete di Dante e Guido Cavalcanti', Italianistica, XIV, 47-56. Cecchi, Emilio (1961) 'Percy Bysshe Shelley' in I grandi romantici inglesi, Firenze; Sansoni, 201-41. Cherubini, W. (1942) 'Shelley's "Own Symposium": The Triumph of Life', Studies in Philology, XXXIX: 3 (July), 559-70. Chiappelli, Alessandro (1900) 'Shelley e Leopardi a Napoli' in Leggendo e meditando (Pagine critiche di arte, letteratura e scienza sociale) (Roma: societa editrice Dante Alighieri, 137-44). -- (1927) 'Leopardi e Shelley' (Commenti e Frammenti), Il Marzocco, XXXII: 29, 17 July, 4. Cocozza, Enrico (1975) 'Shelley and Byron in Italy', Journal of the Association of Teachers of Italian (Bath), XV (January), 19-27. Collins, Ben L. (1970) 'The Stanzaic Pattern of Shelley's Ode to the West Wind', Keats-Shelley Journal, XIX, 7-8. Colwell, Frederic S. (1977) 'Shelley's Asia and Botticelli's Venus: An Infectious Shelley Myth', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XXVIII, 32-5. -- (1979) 'Shelley on Sculpture: The Uffizi Notes', Keats-Shelley Journal, XXVIII, 59-77. -- (1980) 'Shelley and Italian Painting', Keats-Shelley Journal, XXIX, 43-66. Select Bibliography 327

Cooke, Dermot (1980) 'Percy Bysshe Shelley and Leghorn' in Atti del convegno di studi (Gli inglesi a Livorno e all'Isola d'Elba, sec. xvii-xix), Livorno, G. Bastogi, 95-101. Cooksey, Thomas L. (1984) 'Dante's England, 1818: The Contribution of Cary, Coleridge, and Foscolo to the British Reception of Dante', Papers on Language and Literature, XX: 4 (Fall), 355-81. Curran, Stuart (1986) 'The Political Prometheus', Studies in Romanticism, XXV: 3 (Fall), 429-55. Dawson, P.M.S. (1981) 'Shelley and the "lmprovvisatore" Sgricci: an Unpublished Review', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XXXII, 19-29. De Bosis, Adolfo (1913) 'On the First Two Lines of Epipsychidion', Bulletin and Review of the Keats-Shelley Memorial, Rome, II, 14-19. Delmar, P. Jay (1977) 'Evil and Character in Shelley's The Cenci', Massachusetts Studies in English, VI: 1 & 2, 37-48. De Man, Paul (1979) 'Shelley Disfigured' in Bloom (ed.), Deconstruction and Criticism, 39-73 (see General Works). De Palacio, Jean (1962) 'Shelley's Library Catalogue: An Unpublished Document', Revue de Litterature Comparee, XXXVI: 2 (April-June), 270-6. Donohue, Joseph W. jr (1968) 'Shelley's Beatrice and the Romantic Concept of Tragic Character', Keats-Shelley Journal, XVII, 53-73. Dougherty, Charles T. (1979) 'The Protestant Cemetery in Adonais', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XXX, 48-50. Doughty, Oswald (1951) 'Dante and the English Romantic Poets' in Praz (ed.), An English Miscellany, 125-69 (see General Works). Dudley, Fred A. (1943) 'Shelley's Stanzas written in Dejection Near Naples', The Explicator, 1: 4 (February), item no. 31. Duerksen, Roland A. (1978) 'Shelley's Prometheus: Destroyer and Pre• server', Studies in English Literature 1500-1900, XVIII: 4 (Autumn), 625-38. Duffy, Edward (1984) 'Where Shelley Wrote and What He Wrote For: The Example of The Ode to the West Wind', Studies in Romanticism, XXIII: 3 (Fall), 351-77. Dyck, Sarah (1972) 'The Presence of that Shape: Shelley's Prometheus Un• bound', Costerus: Essays in English and American Language and Literature, I, 13-79. Eggenschwiler, David (1972) 'Sexual Parody in 'The Triumph of Life', Con• cerning Poetry, V: 2 (Fall), 28-36. Eliot, T. S. (1965) 'What Dante Means to Me' (A talk given at the Italian Institute, London, on July 4th, 1950) in To Criticize the Critic and Other Writings, London, Faber and Faber, 125-35. Evans, James C. (1975) 'Masks of the Poet: A Study of Self-Confrontation in Shelley's Poetry', Keats-Shelley Journal, XXIV, 70-88. Everest, Kelvin (1983) 'Shelley's Doubles: an Approach to Julian and Maddalo' in Everest (ed.), Shelley Revalued, 63-88 (see General Works). Fogle, Richard Harter (1945) 'The Abstractness of Shelley', Philological Quarterly, XXIV: 4 (October), 362-79. --(1948) 'The Imaginal Design of Shelley's Ode to the West Wind', Journal of English Literary History, XV: 3 (September), 219-26. 328 Select Bibliography

-- (1952) 'Image and Imagelessness: A Limited Reading of Prometheus Unbound', Keats-Shelley Journal, I (January), 23-36. -- (1967) 'Dante and Shelley's Adonais', Bucknell Review, XV (Decem• ber), 11-21. --(1968) 'John Taafe's Annotated Copy of Adonais', Keats-Shelley Journal, XVII, 31--52. Freeman, John (1988) 'Shelley's Ecology of Love' in Curreli, Mario and Johnson, Anthony L. (eds), Paradise of Exiles: Shelley and Byron in Pisa (Salzburg Studies in English Literature 80:3), Papers from the International Conference Held in Pisa, 24-26 May 1985 (Pisa, ETS editrice), 31--51. Gardiner, Leslie (1964) 'At the Riviera's End', Blaclavood's Magazine, CCXCV: 1783 (May), 395-408. Garnett, Richard (1894) 'Shelley in Italy', The English fllustrated Magazine, XII: 135 (December), 143-9. -- (1949-50) 'Shelley' in Stephen, Sir Leslie and Lee, Sir Sidney (eds), The Dictionary of National Biography from the Earliest Times to 1900, vol. 18, London, Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, 31-40 [1st pub. 1897]. Gnudi, Teach (1936) 'Shelley and Carducci', Italica (Chicago), XIII, 79-84. Goslee, Nancy C. (1980) 'Shelley's "Notes on Sculpture": Romantic Clas• sicism in Prometheus Unbound', The Comparatist, IV, 11-22. Hall, James M. (1969) 'The and the Silkworm: Shelley's Letter to Maria Gisborne', Keats-Shelley Memorial Bulletin, XX, 1-10. Hall, Jean (1984) 'The Socialized Imagination: Shelley's The Cenci and Prometheus Unbound', Studies in Romanticism, XXIII: 3 (Fall), 339-50. Hammond, Eugene R. (1981) 'Beatrice's Three Fathers: Successive Betrayal in Shelley's The Cenci', Essays in Literature, VIII: 1 (Spring), 25-32. Hardy, John and Brown, Nicholas (1985-6) 'Shelley's "Dome of Many• Coloured Glass"', Sidney Studies in English, XI, 103-6. Harrington-Lueker, D. (1983) 'Imagination versus Introspection: The Cenci and Macbeth', Keats-Shelley Journal, XXXII, 172-89. Havens, Raymond D. (1930) 'Julian and Maddalo', Studies in Philology, XXVII: 4 (October), 648-53. Haworth, Helen E. (1971) 'Ode to the West Wind and the Sonnet Form', Keats-Shelley Journal, XX, 71-7. Hemandez-Araico, Susana (1987) 'The Schlegels, Shelley and Caldern', Neophilologus, LXXI: 4 (October) 481-8. Hibbard Esther L. (1962) 'Shelley's Farewell to the World: A Study of the Triumph of Life', Bulletin of the Doshisha Women's College, XIII (December), 320-40. Hickey, Bernard (1966) 'II soggiomo romano di Shelley nella testimonianza del poeta', Palatino, X: 3-4 (July-December), 218-27. -- (1971) 'Percy Bysshe Shelley e l'unita d'ispirazione nei suoi poemi euganei', Padova e 1a sua provincia (January), 1-4. Hill, James L. (1968) 'Dramatic Structure in Shelley's Julian and Maddalo', Journal of English Uterary History, XXXV: 1 (March), 84-93. Hirsch, Bernard A. (1978) '"A Want of that True Theory": Julian and Select Bibliography 329

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Actaeon, myth of 159, 191, Apollo 32, 114, 129; see also 295,309 Lucretius Adam and Eve 15, 85, 231, 309 Apuan Alps 203 Adriatic 44, 47, 257 Apulia 75 Aegaean 106, 167 Aquinas, Thomas; see Dante; Aeschylus 9, 120-1, 125; Thomism and Hesione 274; and Arabic 294 Ocean Nymphs 102; and Arcadia 167 Prometheus 120, 274: see also Ariosto, Ludovico 19, 41, 256, Shelley: Prometheus Unbound; 305; and Demogorgon 278; Prometheus Bound 102, 120-1, Orlando Furioso 13, 278 123; Prometheus the Fire-Bringer Aristotelian logic 277; probabil- (lost sequel), 120; and ity 83; tragedy 269 Zeus 120 aristotle 217 Aethiopian 98 Arqua 21, 23, 43, 252 'agape' 226, 239, 240 Astronomy 188, Aglio, G. 272 Athens 7, 84, 98, 101, 121, Aldobrandino, Ippolito; see Pope 219, 226, 240, 270; and Clement VIII Academy 270; and grove of Alexander the Great 217 Colonus 270 Alfieri, Vittorio 4, 19, 75, Atlas Mountains 19 249, 264; and Ciniro, King Augustus Caesar; see Dante; Rome of Cyprus 264; Della Ausonian 8 tirannide 249; Mirra 264; Austria 105 Vita 4 Austrian emperor 272; rule 8, Alfonso, Duke of Este 57, 67 22, 33, 34-5, 105, 254-5, 272 Allott, Miriam 206, 301 Avezzano 265 Alps 8, 23, 25, 36, 48, 50, 102, 106 Avon 43 Amore 134, 215, 219, 221, 222, 226, 227, 284; see also Petrarch: Bagni di Lucca (Baths of Trionfo d' Amore Lucca) 21, 25, 146, 250, 251 Amphitrite 31 Bagni di Pisa (Baths of Pi sa); see Anderson, William 306, 308 San Giuliano Terme Antigone 266 Baiae 215, antiquity 4, 5, 12, 13, 15, 34, 36, Baker, Carlos 67, 157, 257, 283, 100, 107, 108, 110, 113, 120, 285, 297-8 121, 127, 173, 175, 217, 221, ballad 208 225, 277, 278, 281 baroque 112-13, 115, 176, 182, 197 Apennines 23, 30, 36, 75, 202-3, Barrows, Herbert 252, 260 214, 228 Bartolini, Lorenzo 141 Aphrodite 134, 188, 294; see Bates, Ernest Sutherland 263, also Venus 264, 267

336 General Index 337

Beall, Chandler B. 262 Butter, Peter 101, 127, 270, 271 Beatrice; see Dante: Beatrice Bradley, A. C. 248, 251, 300, Beauharnais, Eugene de, viceroy of 309,311 Kingdom of Italy 105 Brand, C. P. 66, 249, 260, 262, 276 Beethoven Ludwig von 103 Brennan, Matthew 255 Bernardo, Aldo S. 229, 303, 304 Brown, Nathaniel 277, Berni, Francesco 19 Brown, Richard 151, 159, 160-1, Bernini, Gianlorenzo 71 249,282,283,286 Beccaria, Cesare 19, Browning, Robert 9; dramatic Beccaria, Father Giambattista 275 monologues 267 Bernheimer, Lydia 248 Buxton, John 275 Bethlehem 312 Byron, Clara Allegra 259 Bezzola, Guido 301 Byron, George Gordon, Lord 4, 'biga' 111, 274; see also Vatican 5, 9, 14, 21, 22-3, 32, 43, 44-5, Museum 46, 47, 48, 52, 56-9, 60-1, 67-8, Billanovich, G. 301 102, 141, 178, 189, 231, 233, Bini, Bino 248 252,253,254-5,256,25~259, Biondi, Luigi 283 260, 261, 262, 271, 272, 295, Black, John, Life of Torquato 301-2, 303, 305-6; Beppo 19, Tasso 262 57, 259; Childe Harold's Pilgrim• Blake, William 169, 220, 244, age 32, 43, 44, 47, 52, 56-7, Bloom, Harold 220, 249, 281, 66, 177, 230, 251, 252, 253, 254, 300, 309 256, 260, 261-2; Darkness 260; Blunden, Edmund 310 Don Juan 19; Lament Bion, Lament for Adonis 182, 293 of Tasso 53, 57, 58,60-1, Boccaccio, Giovanni 19, 66, 67-8, 259, 260, 261; 127, 167-8, 278, 301, 304; Manfred 59, 66, 260; Amorosa Visione 207, Prometheus 102, 260; Prophecy 301; and Arcita 168, 283; of Dante 207, 301-2, 303, Decameron 13, 167-8, 203; 305-6; Venice. an Ode 22-3, and Demogorgon 127, 278; 252, 253-4, 255 Genealogie Deorum 127, 277, 278; and Mt Cithaeron 168, Cain 95, 191 288; and Palemone 283; Caina 95 Teseida 145, 168, 283, 284, Calcaterra, C. 301 285,288-9 Calder6n della Barca, Pedro 267; Bodkin, Maud 276 El Purgatorio de San Pat- Boitani, Piero 296 ricio 267; La Devocicfn de la Bologna 40, 114, 115, 250 Cruz 267 Bondanella, Julia Conaway 249 Canaletto, Antonio 259 Bondanella, Peter 58, 249 Capua 250 Book of Job 271 Carpaccio, Vittore 258 Book of Revelations 220 Cameron, Kenneth Neill 26, 125, Book of Wisdom (Apocrypha) 289 252, 272, 278, 282, 287 Borgia, Cesare 81, 267 Campania 109, Borgia family 80 Cantor, Paul A. 265 Botticelli, Sandro 116, 275; Nascita Capuccini, I 21 di Venere 275; Primavera 275 Carbonari 105, 272 Boyde, Patrick 296 Carducci Giosue 9, 250; 338 General Index

Presso l'urna di P. B. contemporary Europe 7, 103, 104, Shelley 250 105, 107, 121, 206, 217, 302-3 Cary, Rev. H. F., The Divine Comedy Copernican system; see Newtonian (translator) 118, 278, 301 cosmology Casa Magni 202, 203 Corinthians I 268 Casti, Giambattista 19 Correggio, Antonio 197; Christ Catholicism; see Italian religion Beatified 41, 128 Cavalcanti, Guido 19, 41, 165, Corsica 203, 281, 286; Rime 140, 171 ('La Counter-Reformation 76, 82 forte e nova'); 281 ('Fresca rosa Crawford, F. Marion 264 novella'); 286 ('Chi e questa Creation 203, 228-9 che ven'); 289 ('Perch'i' no Cronin, Richard 3, 48, 55, 56, 63, spero') 126, 131, 206, 216, 230, 251, Celt 8, 22, 34, 106, 251 257, 259, 275, 296, 301, 302, 303 Cenci, Beatrice; Cenci, Count Crucifixion 101, 126, 272 Francesco; see Shelley: Cuffaro, Gastone 59, 264 The Cenci Cupid; see Amore Cesena 250 'cupiditas' 215, 236; see also Chancery affair 44 Petrarch: Trionfo d' Amore Chatterton, Thomas 296 Curran, Stuart 71, 73, 80, 83, 91, Chaucer, Geoffrey 15, 193, 295-6; 103, 114, 263, 264, 265, 266, Knight's Tale 283; Troilus and 268, 269, 271 Criseyde 193, 295, 2% Curtius, Ernst Robert 277 Chernaik, Judith 39, 106, 252, Cyprus 214, 215 255, 299 Chiappelli, Alessandro 250 Danieli, Giovanni 283 Christ (Jesus) 15, 68, 92, 104, 125, D'Annunzio, Gabriele 9, 250 126, 191, 220, 226, 252, 294, 312 Dante Alighieri ix, 3, 9, 13, 15-16, Christianity 85, 101, 104, 121, 127, 17, 19, 20, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 129, 130, 175, 178, 182, 246, 40-2, 46, 49-50, 52, 53, 59, 268, 272, 276, 278, 285, 297, 60-3, 69-70, 94-8, 117, 118-34, 298, 306; see also Agape; Dante; 138, 140, 142-67, 169-72; Italian religion; Thomism 180-201, 206-42 passim, 244-7, Church; see Italian religion 248, 249, 250-1, 255, 258, 260, Church service 285 261, 270, 276-7, 278, 279-80, Cino da Pistoia 281 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, Cinquecento; see Renaissance 289, 291, 292, 293, 294-7, 298, Clairmont, Claire 9, 135, 137, 138, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 259,280 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, Cline, C. L. 250 311; and Acheron 52, 60, Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 9 211; and Aquinas 296; and Colwell, Frederic 116, 249, 275 Arnault Daniel 233-4; and Communes: free city states 81, Augustus Caesar 307; 107, 122, 244 and Beatrice 49, 53, 69, 70, Como 25,250 97, 98, 122-3, 126, 128, 130, cone of night 158, 205, 299 133, 140, 144-63 passim, 180-1, of Vienna (1815) 4, 35, 185, 188-90, 192, 194, 196-7, 103, 105 198, 199, 235, 236, 240, 279, Constantine I; see Rome 289, 296, 297, 309, 311; and General Index 339

Bonagiunta of Lucca 240; and 147, 149-50, 153-63 passim, Brunetto Latini 59, 63, 232, 164, 165, 171, 180, 286 ('Voi 261; and Cacciaguida 311; che 'ntendendo' 143, 146-7, and Caina 95; and chariot 150, 153, 157-8, 162-3, (triumph) of the Griffin 188, 170, 171, 180, 282, 283, 286, 207, 220, 221, 226-7, 234, 238, 287, 288; 'Amor che ne la 307; and Charles Martel 188; mente', 155-6, 164, 288; 2nd and Charon 52, 122-3, 210, treatise 147, 149-50, 153, 259; and Cocytus 95; 180, 292; 3rd treatise 147, Commedia 9, 15, 17, 18, 155, 156, 163, 164, 283-4, 286, 20, 49, 58, 96, 97, 118--34, 288); and Cunizza 188, 306; 144, 147, 149, 153, 159, 160-1, Epistole 295; and Ezzelino da 163, 170, 180-2, 183, 180-201, Romano 35; 203-4, 206-42 passim, 244, and Farinata degli 245, 246, 250, 276-7, 278, Uberti 59, 233; and Forese 279, 280, 284, 286, 291, 292, Donati 192, 197, 232; and 295, 297, 300, 301, 303, 304, four levels of meaning 150, 308, 311; Inferno 17, 33, 35, 292; and Furies 125-6, 278; 49, 52, 53, 59, 60-1, 62-3, 76, and Guido Guinizelli, 233-4; 94-6, 98, 119, 120, 121, 122-5, 'Guidoi' vorrei tu' 41-2, 126, 127, 156, 158, 159, 160, 147, 165-6, 171; and Henry 181, 183, 184-6, 189, 191, 196, VII and Holy Roman 201, 203-4, 207-8, 210, 211, Emperor 221; 'la donna 214, 215, 223, 224, 225, 226, pietosa', 157, 159; and Lady 227, 228--9, 231, 232, 233, 237, Philosophy 146, 147, 150, 153, 239-40, 246, 249, 261, 262, 263, 156-63 passim, 288; and law 276, 277-8, 291-2, 295, 302, of the 'contrappasso', 61, 224; 303, 304, 306, 309, 311; and Lethe 234-6, 310; and Purgatorio 17, 39, 59, 97, Limbo 276; and Lucifer 95; 119, 120, 121, 125-31, 149, and Matilda 234-7, 309; and 153, 154, 158, 160, 169, 181, Oderisi of Gubbio 59; 183, 185, 186-92, 196, 197, 201, and Omberto Aldobrand• 207, 208, 209, 215, 221, 224, esco 59; and Paolo and Franc• 226, 229, 232, 233, 234-8, 240, esca da Rimini 214, 223, 303; 241, 246, 260-1, 276, 277, 278, and Phlegethon 35, 278; and 279, 281, 284, 285-6, 289, 292, Piccarda Donati 70, 279, 306; 294-5, 299, 301, 307, 308, 309, and Piero della Vigne 232; 310, 311; Paradiso 17, 33, 36, and Proserpine 236; and 40, 42, 49, 50, 53, 69, 70, 97, Provenzan Salvani 59; 98, 119, 120, 122, 125, 128, 130, and Roman Church 129, 131-4, 132, 147-53 passim, 154, 200 (see also Dante: chariot 163, 164, 165, 167, 169, 170, of the Griffin); and Scipio 180-2, 183, 187, 188--9, 192-3, Africanus, the Younger 307; 194-201, 224, 226, 228, 229, and Shelley's Italian edition of 234, 239-40, 242, 246, 255, 263, Dante 276, 280; 270, 275, 276, 278, 279, 282, S's reading of Dante 13, 291, 292, 294, 295, 296, 297-8, 251; S's reading of The 299, 302, 306, 308, 311; Commedia 118--9, 256, 275-6; Convivio (Convito) 18, S's translation of Dante 251; 340 General Index

and Ugolino 207; and 302, 307; Four Quartets: 'Burnt St Bernard 197; and Norton' 222, 299, 311, Ulysses 226; and Virgil: see 'Dry Salvages' 26-1; Hollow Dante's Virgil and Commedia; Men 261; Waste Land: 'Burial and Virgin Mary 197; Vita of the Dead' 302 Nuova 3, 8-9, 18, 49, 140, 142, Elizabethan drama 75; 144, 145, 146-53 passim, 156-63 kingship 114 passim, 170, 171, 172, 180, 197, Elysion 121, 166 246, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287 Empoli 250 De Bosis, Adolfo 9, 285 England 5, 8, 9, 10-12, 15, 24-26, De Courten, Maria 248, 250, 251, 44, 76, 174, 220, 250, 251, 271, 273, 285, 300, 309 256,272 Della Robbia family 280 English audience 265; charac- Delmar, P. Jay 87, 267 ter 12, 58; climate 5; com• Demogorgon 278; see also mentators 259; contemporary Prometheus Unbound society 4-5, 9, 10-12, 24, 83, De Stael, Madame, Corinne 259, 250, 252, 272; critics 9-10, 11, 273 266; government 290; land• Deuteronomy 306 scape 10; literature 9, 250, Diana 295, 309; see also Actaeon 296; qualities 12; stage 266; Diodati 102, tradition 8; visitor 249 'dolce stil novo' 256, 280-1 Enlightenment CAge of Reason) 'donna amata ed ideale' 20, 161, 217, 230, 234 78, 97, 140-64 passim, Epic 206, 207, 208, 209, 217, 227; 169-71, 280-9 passim; see also poet 293 Cavalcanti; Dante: Beatrice; Epicurean philosophy 310 Guinizelli; Petrarch: Laura; Eros 115,134,223 Viviani, Teresa (Emilia) Este 21, 22, 41, 45, 51, 66, 102, 104, 'donna gentile' 59, 140 105, 113, 250, 252 Donne, John 289 Ethiopian; see Aethiopian Donohue, Joseph W. 266, 269 Euganean Hills (i Colli Euganei) Doria, house of 106 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 32, 38, 39, 42, Duffy, Edward 230, 233, 300, 308, 48, 50, 104, 250 309, 311 Europe 274; see also contemporary Dyck, Sarah 119, 274, 276 Europe European culture 8, 9, 13, 217, Easter 227, 294, 308 220-1, 244; history 122, 217; Eden 15, 39, 56, 163, 166, 167, 214, models 9 231, 236, 258, 278, 291, 308 Everest Kelvin 55, 63, 257, 259 Egyptian bondage 287; exile 1, 4, 9, 12, 14-17, 15, 19, 23, obelisk 112-13 24-7, 37, 38, 39, 43, 48-9, 53, Elba 203, 55, 56, 69, 97, 99, 100, 122, 123, elegist 196, 298 125, 127, 134, 178, 191, 192, elegy 182, 183, 193, 199, 219 201, 212, 227, 228, 236, 245, Eleonora d'Este; see Leonara d'Este 247, 250, 251, 252, 258, 266, Elijah 289 289, 295, 299 Ellis, Steve 119, 130-1, 143, 249, Exodus 287 285, 298 Ezekiel 220 Eliot, T. S. 9, 12, 250, 261, 299, Ezzelino da Romano 35, General Index 341

81, 254, 267; see also Garnett, Richard 282-3 Dante Gemini 229, Genesis 303 Faenza 250 Genette, Gerard 249 Fano 250 Geneva 257 Farinaccio, Prospero 264 106, Ferdinand I, King of Naples 105 gentile 127 Fergusson, Francis 277, 278 George III 259 Ferrara 24, 66, 103, 114, 250; German invader 22, 105; see also hospital of St Anna 66, Austrian rule; Celt 67,260 Germany 7, 267 Florence 4, 7, 15, 46, 49, 75, Gianni Alfani 281 98-100, 102, 113, 114, 115, Gibbon, Edward 57 119, 122, 192, 227, 250, 257, Ginevra degli Almieri; see Lastri 270; and Florentine Gallery: Giordano, Luca 275; ceiling see Uffizi Gallery; and depicting Prometheus, Riccardi-Medici Palace 275 Asia, Demogorgon (Birth of Florentines 59, 135, 139, 140, Man) 275 232,295 Giotto 35 'fino amore', 20, Gisbome, John 142, 204, 282, 290 Fogle, Richard 181-2, 183, 249, Gisbome, Maria 11, 12, 299 292, 294 Gittings, Robert 119 Foligno 250 God win, William 5 Folliott, Katherine 206, 216, 248, Goethe, Wolfgang, Faust 204, 231, 300, 304, 311 250; Werther 23, 252, 263 Fontanarosa, Vincenzo 248 Golden Age 167, 273, 288 foreign invasion 6 gondola 44, 51-2, 60, 64, 259 Forteguerri Niccolo 19; Il Goslee, Nancy 274 Ricciardetto 251 Grabo, Carl 257, 275, 279 Foscolo, Ugo 6-7, 23, 251, 252, Grand Canal 58 295, 308; Ultime lettere di Jacopo Gratiae (Graces) 274, 275 Ortis 6, 23, 252, 263, 295, 308 Greece 7, 15, 100, 101, 107, 110, 7, 35 120, 168, 217, 270 Franceschini, Marcantonio 41, Greek culture 8, 13, 15, 54, 116, 197, 275 98, 119, 120, 121, 217, 226; Frederick II of Sicily Holy Roman drama 267; dramatists 75; Emperor 81, 232, 301 etymology 145; habit 22; Freeman, John 259 heroine 93, 266; land- French Revolution 35, 101, 104, scape 169; literary source 9, 105, 106, 218, 234, 244, 254, 120, 182; literature 118, 217, 268, 272, 277 269; muse 141; myth 101, Frescobaldi, Dino 281 269; name 111; physi• Fucci, Count Maddalo, 57-8 ognomy 141; poets 217; Furies 38; see also Dante; Shelley: quality 266; sculpture 93, Prometheus Unbound 115, 116, 141, 266, 269, 274, 277, 307; temple 111-12 Gaeta 250 'green isle', 17, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, Gamba family 272 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 50, Gambarin, Giovanni 252 52, 69, 98, 99, 117, 137, 166, 342 General Index

168, 191, 242, 245, 253, 256, Industrial Revolution 270 291,299 infernal: see Hell Guarini, Giovan Battista 19, 167, Inquisition 82 182; Il Pastor Fido 167, 288 Intellectual Beauty 152, 200, 255 Guicciardini, Francesco 81 intertextuality 3, 249, 251, Guinizelli, Guido 281, 286; 'I' vo' 276, 283 delver', 286: see also Dante Ionia 168, 215 Israelites 287 Hall, James 300, 301 Italian art and architecture 6, 12, Hammond and Scullard 291 31-2, 37, 40-1, 51, 54, 71, 76, Hammond, Eugene 263 93,107-8, 111-13, 114-17, 118, Harrington-Lueker, D. 265 122, 173, 178, 180, 243, 246, haven 23, 24, 26, 29, 39, 49, 53, 249, 258, 266, 269, 273, 274, 170, 246, 289, 291 275, 289, 296, 300; ballet 103, heathen 121, 298 114, 271; cities 4, 7, 8, 12, Hebrew culture 13 32-3, 34, 36, 46, 49, 54, 100, Hell 17, 52, 59-66 passim, 68, 104, 106, 114, 220; 69, 94-8, 108-10, 117, 120, contemporary society 4-8, 121, 122-5, 126, 127, 137, 170, 9, 12, 14, 16, 19, 21-22, 23, 24, 184-6, 191, 201, 215, 216, 223, 25, 32-36, 43, 51-2, 57, 58, 232, 237, 239-40, 246, 250, 259, 71, 82, 102-3, 104-7, 135-6, 261, 273, 299; see also Dante: 246, 249, 251, 253, 254, 266, Inferno; Virgil 267, 272, 280, 281, 307; critics, heretic 278, 298 1, 9, 248; Hermindez-Araico, Susana 267 decline and foreign rule 4-8, Herodotus 27 4; and Asia 27 4 14, 16, 22, 23, 24, 32-3, 34-6, Hildebrand, William H. 274 39-40, 51-2, 57, 58-9, 76, 82, Hirsch, Bernard A. 257 98, 102-3, 104, 107, 246, 253, Hobhouse, John Cam, Historical 254, 255, 267, 270, 271, 272; illustrations of Childe Harold despotism and patriarchy 16, IV 262 32, 35-6, 77, 79, 80-2, 83-100, Hogg, Thomas Jefferson 263, 284 102, 103, 104, 106, 112-13, Hollander, Robert 276, 277, 288-9, 129, 135, 145, 177, 196, 200-1, 301,304 220-1,238,246,266,269, 270; Holy Week/Holy Year 306 emancipation 4, 6-8, 9, 14, Homer 43, 140, 185, 293, 304 18, 23, 33-4, 35, 36, 92-4, 97, Horae (Hours) 114, 274, 275 105-7, 164, 172, 244, 254, 272, Hughes, Daniel J. 117, 249, 282, 273; femininity 53, 69-70, 284,289 76-80, 93, 95, 97-8, 135-72 Hungerford, Edward B. 127,270, passim, 280-9 passim: see also 271, 292, 294 Cavalcanti; Dante: Beatrice; Hunt, Leigh 1, 45, 75, 102, Guinizelli; Petrarch: Laura; 119, 251, 257, 272, 295, 299; Viviani, Teresa (Emilia); Foliage 44 creative influence (general), Hunt, Marianne 102, 136 see esp. Preface, Ch. 1 and Hunter, Parks C. 287 Conclusion 248-9, 296; history and legend 1, 2, 7, Inarime (Ischia) 109, 273 8, 12-13, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 31, Indian Caucasus 101, 110, 122 32-6, 39-40, 47, 51-2, 54, 57, General Index 343

58--9, 71-100 passim, 103, 104, Riviera 299; ruins 4, 5, 8, 105, 106, 107, 108--10, 112-13, 10, 12, 16, 246 (see also Italian 121, 122, 154, 175-80, 196, art and architecture; Rome); 200-1, 220-1, 243, 244, 245, sensibility 288; tourism 4, 246, 250, 253, 254, 257, 263-70 249; translations (Shelley) 13, passim, 272, 293, 301, 306; 300 (see also Shelley: Humanism 13, 15, 82, 98--100, TRANSLATIONS); studies 121-2, 293; landscape and (Shelley) 248, 251, 275, 288 climate 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10-12, 14, Italianate fashion 249, 260 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23-43 passim, Italy: index of reality 16, 266 44, 46-59 passim, 61, 62, 69, 76, 103, 106, 107-9, 110, 167-9, Jacobean 259 173-80 passim, 202-5, 214, 243, Jame~ Henry 41 245, 246, 248, 249, 251, 252, Janus 219, 222, 227, 304-5; Janus 253, 254, 255, 257, 258--9, 263, Quadrifons 304-5 266, 273, 275, 289-90, 291, 298, Jerusalem 104, 219, 226, 240 299-300; Jew 298 language 13-14, 301; liter• John, Gospel according to 312 ary sources and influence 3, Jonson, Ben 114 8--9, 13, 15-16, 17, 18--20, 21-2, Judeo-Christian 15 23, 28--9, 33, 35-6, 37, 38, 39, Juggernaut 220, 40-2, 43, 45, 46, 49-50, 52, 53, Julius Caesar; see Petrarch; Rome 57-9, 60-3, 66-8, 69, 70, 72-5, Jupiter 108, 273; see also 76, 81, 94-8, 103-4, 109-10, Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound; 117, 118--34, 137-8, 139-40, Shelley: Prometheus Unbound 142-72, 174, 176, 180-201, 203, 206-42, 243-7, 248--312 passim Kay, Richard 261 literature ix, 2, 6, 8--9, 12, Keach, William 280 13, 16, 19, 20, 106, 113, 117, Keats House ix 118, 140, 142, 145, 165, 167, Keats, John 10, 66-7, 119, 170-1, 182, 206, 207, 227, 233, 173-80 passim, 208, 276, 289, 243, 249, 280, 281, 289, 296; 290, 293, 295, 297, 301; as opera 103, 114, 271; people Adonais 184-201 passim, and character 2, 4, 5, 6-7, 293-8 passim, 306; Ode to a 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 22, Nightingale 173, 208; On 32, 33, 34, 35-6, 40, 53, 57-9, Melancholy 117 66-70, 71-100, 102-4, 105-6, Keysler, Johan Georg 259 110, 113, 135-72, 177, 244, Kingdom of Italy 105 246, 249, 251, 253, 254, 266, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 272 267, 272, 280-9 passim, 307; King-Hele, Desmond 275 platonics 138, 281; Kings I 289 religion 16, 72, 82-94, Kirkpatrick, Robin 152, 224, 276 95-8, 112-13, 120, 121, 154, Koszul, A. 280 174, 175, 177, 200-1, 217, Kristeva, Julia 249 220, 238, 267, 268, 269, 270, Kroeber, Karl 256, 265-6 285 (see also Christianity; Kuhn, Albert J. 271 Dante; Medieval Catholic Kuhns, Oscar 250, 271 Europe; Scholasticism and Kurtz, Benjamin 224 Thomism); Risorgimento 249; 344 General Index

Lapo Gianni 281 110, 237, 238, 305, 310, 311-12; La Spezia 250 and Empedocles 110, 273; Lastri, Marco; and Antonio Rond• and Epicurus 311-12; and inelli 139, 140; and Francesco Pythia 110 Agolanti 139; and Ginevra Ludlam, F. H. 275 degli Almieri 139-40; L'osseroatore fiorentino Machiavellian 80 139-40,281 Machiavelli Niccolo 4, 13, Latini, Brunetto 19; see also Dante: 19, 58, 81, 249; History of Brunetto Latini Florence 81; The Prince (Il Leghorn (Livorno) 10-12, 46,· 72, Principe) 58, 81, 249; Prose 119, 250, 252, 299; and Villa Discourses 81 Valsovano 263 Maenad, Cadmaean 121 Lehmann, John 248 Magna Graecia 110, Leighton, Angela 292, 297 Manso, Giovanni Battista, Vita di Lemoncelli, Ronald L. 266 Tasso 66 Lempriere, John, Bibliotheca Mantegazza, Paolo 203 Classica 305 Marenghi, Albert 98-100 Leonardo da Vinci 117, 249; see Mariani, Andrea 250 also Shelley: On the Medusa of Marino, Giambattista 19, 182, Leonardo da Vinci 195, 197, 292; Adone 176, Leonora d'Este 66, 67, 259 182-3,292-4 Leopardi, Giacomo 6, 7, 249-50; Marlow 21, All'Italia 6 Marlowe, Christopher; and Leo, Ulrich 277 Demogorgon 278; Dr Lerici 202, 204, 205, 29S-300; Bay Faustus 80, 278; Tambur• of 202, 214, 250, 298, 299-300 laine 278 Lethe 234-6,310 masque 114 Leviticus 306 Mass 285 'libeccio', 250 Matthews, Geoffrey 45, 108-9, Liguria 203 238-9, 243, 257, 261, 271, 273, Ligurian coastline 202; sea 203 274, 307, 310 Limbo 121 McConnell, Frank D., 284 Liternum 215 McGann, Jerome 66, 252, 257 Lcimbardo-Venetian kingdom 272 McMahan, Anna 248 Lombardy 23, 252 McTaggart, William ix London 10-12, 55, 250, 252, 291 :Meagher, John C. 274 London Bridge 302 Medici family 270 Lotspeich, Henry G. 271, 277 Medici, Lorenzo de' 167, Lowe, Alfonso 259 Mediterranean 8, 12, 22, 39, 43, Lucan 296; and Demogorgon 167, 254, 275 278; Pharsalia 109, 273, Medwin, Thomas 14, 22, 137, 140, 278,296 141, 208, 250, 251, 271, 280, 281 Lucca 250; see also Dante: Medieval Catholic Europe 121, Bonagiunta di Lucca 154 Lucifer (Morning Star) 293, 296 Medieval Italy 122, 249 Lucretius 42, 84, 237-8, 245, 273, Metaphysical poetry 307; 305, 310; and Apollo 110; wit 133, De Rerum Natura 16-17, 42, Metastasio, Pietro 19 General Index 345

Michelangelo Buonarotti 117 Phlegraean Fields 108-9; and Middle Ages 120, 154, 201, 241, Vesuvius 108, 109, 273 258,277 Napoleon Bonaparte 4, 103, 105, Milan 26, 81, 103, 106, 114, 118, 217-8, 220, 304 250, 272, 275, 295; cathe- Napoleonic wars 260, 272 dral 118; and La Scala 103 Narcissus 159 Milne, Fred. L. 94-5, 97-8, 249 Neo-Classical 166, 275 Milton, John 9, 15, 39, 120-1, Neo-Platonism 115, 116, 296 176, 185, 220, 269, 276, 293, nepenthe 232, 236, 303, 309, 310 300, 305; and Christ 220; Neufeldt, Leonard N. 275 and Demogorgon 278; New Critics 282 and God 120, 269, 276; Newey, Vincent 257, 263 Lycidas 182, 293; Paradise Newtonian cosmology 134, 161, Lost 39, 49, 120-1, 123, 188, 244; law 279 220, 269, 276, 278, 305, 308, Nirvana 132, 137 309; Paradise Regained 49; and Nordic invasion 8, 34; see also Satan 120, 123, 236, 269; and Austrian rule; Celt; German Urania 188 invader Modena 250 Northern Europe 54 modern taste 281; world 100, North, Helen 303, 308 277 North Italian Republics 81 'moira' 123 North Italy 4 Molza, Francesco Maria 167 Notopoulos, James A. 200, 297 Montagne des Eschelles (la) 102 Monte San Pellegrino 19 Oceanus 31 Monti, Vincenzo 19 Olivero, Federico 248, 250, 251, Moore, Thomas 257, 295 258, 262 Morris, James 257 Ollier, Charles 15, 287 Moschus, lAment for Bion 182, O'Neill, Eliza 266 Mt Cithaeron 168 Orcagna, Andrea, Trionfo della Mt Etna 109, 127, 273 Morte; see Traini Mt Purgatory 122, 126, 128, 215, 'ottava rima' 19, 182, 251 278, 294, 299 outcast; see exile Muratori, Ludovico Antonio, Ovid, Metamorphoses 159, 294, Annali d'Italia 72 295; Fasti 303 Murray, E. B. 278 Murray, John 253 Pacchiani, Francesco 135, 280 Musa, Mark 58, 159, 278, 294, Padua 17, 23, 24, 25, 30, 32-3, 299,309 34-6, 40, 81, 98, 104-5, 114, 220, 245, 250, 254, 299 Naples 38, 41, 45, 46, 66, 98, 107, Paduan society 34, 35-6 108-9, 110, 113, 114, 168, 250, pagan 121, 127, 130, 178; 251, 255, 256, 257, 261, 265, gods 127; poets 133, 2% 271, 272, 273, 276, 289, 290; 202, 203, and Astroni crater 108-9; Pantheon 111 and bloodless revolution 8, Papacy 73, 80, 82, 83, 91, 94, 95, 105; and constitutional govern• 97, 112-13, 304, 306 ment 106; and Cumae 108; Papal States 265 and Lake Avernus 108; and Paradise 7, 12, 14-17, 20, 24, 25, 346 General Index

26, 30, 32, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 49, 226, 227-8, 229, 233, 236, 240, 53, 55, 56, 59, 61, 69, 73, 92, 96, 254, 256, 297; and Massinissa 97, 98, 100, 117, 122, 128-34, and Sophonisba 213; and 156, 161, 164-70, 171, 178, Paolo and Francesca 303; 180-2, 183, 185, 187, 190, 192, and Scipio Africanus 215, 194-201, 205, 214, 215, 219, 303; and Seleucus and 234-7, 239-40, 242, 246, 247, Antiochus 221; 258, 259, 283-4, 292, 288, 289, Trionfi 9, 18, 193-4, 206-42 298, 299, 303, 305, 311; passim, 291, 297, 300, 301, 303, see also Dante: Purgatorio 308 (Trionfo d' Amore 206, (Earthly Paradise: Cantos 211-12, 213-14, 215, 216, XXVIII-XXXIII); Paradise; 217, 218, 219-20, 221, 222, Paradise of exiles; Petrarch: 223, 227-8, 231, 236, 302, Trionfo dell'Eternita 303, 304, 309, 311; Trionfo Paradise of exiles 14-17, 19, 26, della Pudicizia 206, 214, 215, 48-9, 53, 55, 56, 69, 97, 100, 216, 218, 219, 221, 226, 228, 134, 178, 201, 212, 245, 250, 236, 311; 258, 299 Trionfo della Morte, 193-4, Parma 250 206, 210, 211, 216, 218, 219, Pastoral 182, 183, 187, 194, 221, 222, 225, 226, 228, 233, Peacock, Thomas Love 1, 26, 238-9, 240, 290, 301, 304, 305, 51, 107, 108, 112, 115, 140, 309, 310, 311; Trionfo della 173, 175, 251, 252, 256, 261, Fama 193, 206, 216, 217, 218, 275, 282, 290, 291, 306; and 219, 221, 225, 290, 311; Trionfo Demogorgon 278; and Four del Tempo 193, 206, 216, 218, Ages of Poetry 287; and 219, 221, 225, 229, 311; Trionfo Rhododaphne 278 dell'Eternita, 193, 206, 216, 218, Peck, Walter E. 257, 276 219, 221, 225, 226, 228, 241-2, Pesaro 250 304, 308, 311); and Tuscan Peterfreund, Stuart 255 guide 216 Petrarch, Francesco ix, 3, 7, 13, Petrella, Castle of 74, 75, 77, 265 19, 20, 21-2, 23, 28-9, 35, 38, Petrella del Saito 265 40, 41, 42, 43, 58-9, 132, 138, Petrocchi, Giorgio 132 140, 142, 151, 153, 159, 165, Petronio, Giuseppe 281, 288 171, 172, 193-4, 206-42 passim, Phidias 111-12 244, 246-7, 248, 249, 251, 252, Piacenza 250 254, 281, 283, 284, 285, 286, Pieracci, Vincenzio 249, 265; 295, 296, 297, 299, 300-1, 302, Beatrice Cenci 75, 264 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 311; Pietra Santa 250 Africa 303; Pisa 98, 99, 135, 141, 173, 207, Canzoniere (Rime), 7, 18, 238, 250, 270, 272, 280, 21-2, 28-9, 38, 39, 42, 58-9, 289-90; and camposanto, 140, 151, 153, 158, 171, 227, 238; and conservatory of St 228, 231, 242, 253, 254, 255, Anna 135, 280; and tower 260, 284, 285, 286-7, 295, 300; of Famine 207, 270, 290; and Julius Caesar 304; and university 280 Laura 28-9, 41, 42, 140, 151, Pisan circle 9, 250, 280 153, 159, 194, 207, 211-12, 213, Pisans 99 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 225, Plato 134, 217, 219, 225, 233, General Index 347

294, 307; and Agathon 95; Reformation 85, and Aristophanes 152; refuge 5, 9, 14, 15, 23, 25, 26, 27, Phoedo 200, 240, 297; 28, 29, 84, 179, 251, 270 Symposium 21, 95, 152, 171, Reiman, Donald 21, 26, 45, 269,294 111-13, 222, 251, 252, 253, 254, Platonic ix, 130, 137, 138, 142, 150, 256, 271, 274, 279, 280, 288, 152, 162, 195, 200, 207, 281, 292, 296, 298, 300, 301, 302, 289, 293, 297, 300 306, 307, 311, 312 Platonism 307 Renaissance 4, 12, 13, 20, 37, Poliziano, 11 (Angelo Ambrogini) 71-100 passim, 103, 113, 115, 167 119, 121, 167, 244, 245, 246, Pompeii 54, 255 249, 259, 263-70 passim, 301 Pope Alexander VI 81 Renaissance character 78-9, 80-2 Pope Boniface 306 Reni, Guido 116, 197; Maddalena Pope Oement VIII 73, 74, 75, 83, 266; supposed portrait of 86, 87, 91-2, 267, 269 Beatrice Cenci 71, 77-80, 93 Pope Gregory VII 217 retreat 14, 130, 252 Pope John 217 revolutionary ethos 103; popes 113, 217, 304 liberation movements 7, 8, Portovenere 202, 298 105, 106, 136 Pottle, Frederick 278 Reynolds, Barbara 2% Powers, Sharon B. 279,296 Ricci, Corrado 264, 265 Pre-Romantic 259 Rieti 265; battle of 105 Promethean 20, 28, 65, 66, 68, 86, Riege~James 263 102, 103, 110, 114, 131, 139, Rimini 214, 250, 303 246,271 Robinson, Charles 67, 102, 251, Protestantism 85 252,256,25~260,262,305 Protestants 179 Robinson, Jeffrey 276 Ptolemaic cosmology 133, Rogers, Neville 137-8, 139, 149, 134, 206 243, 248, 280, 281, 283, 288, 'pudicizia' 215, 226, 236; see also 296, 297, 300, 301 Petrarch: Trionfo della Pudicizia Rogers, Samuel 258; Italy 258 Pulci, Luigi 19 Ro~Ivan 203,299-300 Purgatory 17, 125-31, 160-1, 183, Roman calendar 305; cathe- 186-92, 201, 233, 237, 240, 246, dral 180; church (see Italian 299; see also Dante: Purgatory religion); conquest, 112-13, Pythian 189 129, 177, 200-1, 220-1, 301, 306; culture 8, 13, 15, 121, 'quadriga' 274 175-80, 196, 200-1, 226, 273, Quaker 298 290-1; emperors 113, 217; Quinn, Mary 41 empire 16, 57, 121, 129, 175, Quint, David 304 177, 196, 200-1, 217, 220-1; literature (latin) 121, 282, 301; Raban,Jonathan 207,308 name 110-11, 129; republic Radcliffe-Umstead, Douglas 252 4, 7, 15, 121, 175-9, 244; source Rapf, Joanna 275 (literary) 175, 182, 271; Raphael, St Caecilia 41, 116, 128 stanzas (Adonais) 175-80, Ravenna 250,272,301 196, 200-1, 273, 290-1; Rees, Joan 269 sympathies 206; virtue 221, 348 General Index

226; triumph 220-1, 301, 306, Rosa, Salvator 298 311; women 141 Rossetti, Dante Gabriele 9 Romans 71, 74, 107, 112, 121, 174, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 204, 205, 176, 177, 179, 185, 196, 201, 212, 214, 215, 216, 217-18, 222, 220, 221, 306 224-5,226,228,229,230-42 Rome 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 15, 20, 45, passim, 261, 299, 300, 303, 46, 57, 71-100 passim, 102, 304, 305, 308, 309, 310, 311; 107-8, 110, 111-13, 114, 121, Confessions 230, 309; Julie ou 129-30; 173-80, 185, 196, Ia Nouvelle Heloise 230, 309; 200-1, 215, 217, 220-1, 246, ~~~230,308,309 250, 254, 257, 263-70 passim, Rovigo 250 271, 273, 290-1, 303, 306, Roy, P. N. 119, 167, 248, 271, 279, 307; and Agrippa 291; and 283,285,288 Arch of Constantine 306; and Arch of Titus 306; and Sacchetti, Franco 19 Augustus Caesar 121; and Salama, Adel 144, 282 Baths of Caracalla 107-8, Salinari, Carlo et al. 238 178, 273; Caius 177, 179, 211, Salt, Henry S. 257 291; and Camillus 176, and Salvadori, Massimo 4, 272 Capitol 219-20; and Cestius; sanctuary 15, 32 and Coliseum 108, 178; and San Giuliano Terme 173, 250, Constantine 217, 306; and 257,290 Forum 178; and Jewish Sannazzaro, Jacopo 167, 182, Ghetto 76; and Jubilee 306; Sansone, Mario 4 and Julius Caesar 217; and San Terenzo 202, 307 Lungotevere dei Cenci 266; Sardinia, King of 102 and Piazza Cenci 266; and Savoy 102 Piazza del Quirinale 112; Sayers, Dorothy 188 and Piazza Navona 112; and Scamander 43 Piazza San Pietro 112, 266; and Schlegel brothers 267 Palatine 57, 178; and Palazzo Scholasticism 13, 120; see also Barberini 71; and Palazzo Thomism Cenci 75, 76, 264, 266; Schulze, Earl 154, 155, 158, 161, and Palazzo Colonna 263; 205, 206, 235, 236, 237, 239, Palazzo Doria 263; and 240-1,249,283,284,285,286, Pantheon 111, 274,291; and 300, 301, 309, 310-11 Protestant cemetery, 173-80, Scudder, Vida 119, 248, 271, 196, 290; and Pyramid of 278,279 Cestius 173, 177, 178-9, 196, Scylla and Charibdis 245 243, 290; and Regulus 176; Serassi, Pierantonio, Vita di and ruins 4, 5, 7, 8, 12, 16, 57, Tasso 66, 262 107-8, 112-13, 129-30, 175-80, Serchio river 290; see also Shelley: 200-1, 246, 273, 291; and Scipio The Boat on the Serchio Africanus (see Dante, Petrarch); Seventeenth century 268; and Sistine frescoes 71; wit 292 and temple of Venere Severn, Joseph 174, 290 Verticordia 215; and Tiber, Sforza family 81 266, 291; and Titus 306; and Sgricci, Tommaso 19, 287-8; La walls of Honorius 173, 178 Marte d'Ettore 287 General Index 349

Shakespeare, William 43, 295, 297, 299, 310 Evening: 71, 83, 119, 267, 279-80; Ponte al mare, Pisa 18, 290 Antony and Cleopatra 285; Fiordispina 18, 143-5, 281, and Duncan 88, 265; and 282, 283 Edmund 80; Hamlet 27; Fugitives, The 281 and Iago 80, 87, 267; Ginevra 18, 139-40 King Lear 80; and Lady Hellas 19, 222, 273, 289, 312 Macbeth 88, 89; Mtlcbeth 88, Hymn to Intellectual Beauty 7, 89, 265, 268; Othello 80, 87, 152, 200, 255, 256 267; Romeo and Juliet 140; Julian and Maddalo 13, 14, Sonnet C:XVI 153, 241 18, 19-20, 21, 44-70, 71, Shelley, Clara 24, 250 75-6, 95, 96, 102, 104, 117, Shelley, Mary 1, 9, 22, 27, 41, 44, 118, 201, 246, 250, 257-63, 72, 73, 102, 119, 135, 136, 137, 266,269 141-2, 143, 171, 202, 252, 262, Laon and Cythna (The Revolt of 263, 265, 270, 271, 276, 280, Islam), 54, 55, 118, 254, 256, 281, 284, 287, 298--9, 301, 307; 271, 272, 273 and Clorinda Saviani 141; Letter to Maria Gisborne 10-12, Frankenstein 102; Lodore 141 18, 243, 250 Shelley, Percy Bysshe WORKS Lines written among the Euganean NOTEBOOKS Hills 5, 13, 17, 18, 19, Bod.MS. Shelley adds. e.8 164, 21-43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 52, 54, 165-6 69, 76, 81, 98, 99, 102, 104, POEMS 106, 117, 118, 128, 165, 166, Adonais 10, 13, 18, 20, 147, 177, 179, 198, 203, 205, 220, 173-201, 205, 208, 219, 220, 242, 245, 246, 251-6, 258, 225, 244, 246, 249, 251, 252, 262, 265, 271, 277, 291, 296, 255, 262, 270, 273, 289-98, 297,299 299, 306, 307, 309 Lines written in the Bay of Alastor 54, 55, 69, 256, 261 Lerici 18, 204-5, 299 'And what art thou presumptu• Marenghi 18, 98--100, 257, 270 ous', 301 Mask of Anarchy, The 9, 19, 219, Athanase 18, 207, 208, 251, 301 253,272,285,290,300-1,305 Boat on the Serchio, The 8, 18, Mont Blanc 256 207, 290, 308 Ode to Liberty 5, 7, 18, 118, Cenci, The 13, 18, 20, 46, 66, 121-2, 136, 254, 255 71-100, 102, 104, 117, 118, Ode to Naples 5, 8, 18, 106, 118, 128, 139, 141, 175, 220, 245, 255,257,272,273,289,290 246, 249, 257, 262, 263-70, Ode to the West Wind 8, 16, 18, 277,295 34, 118, 207, 208, 254, 255, Charles I 84 275, 301, 302 Cloud, The 8, 118, 275 Oedipus Tyrannus 19, 289 'Creator, The': projected On the Medusa of Leonardo da poem? 303 Vinci 18, 117, 269 Epipsychidion 3, 9, 13, 18, 20, 39, Peter Bell the Third 19, 250 135-72, 173, 177, 180, 183, Prometheus Unbound 5, 9, 13, 188, 189, 191, 199, 200, 206, 18, 20, 21, 26, 27-8, 35, 38, 215, 236, 245, 246, 248, 249, 39, 65-6, 75, 97-8, 101-34, 251, 252, 280-9, 291, 294, 144-5, 147, 156, 161, 164, 350 General Index

167, 169, 175, 177, 178, 180, Epipsychidion 1-3, 284 183, 191, 201, 220, 237, 244, Laon and Cythna II, i-iv 280 245, 246, 250, 253, 255, 262, Ode to Liberty (stanzas 270-80, 294, 297, 299, 301 I-XIII) 136, 280 Queen Mab 40, 118, 230, 256, Prometheus Unbound: lyric: 273, 309 'Life of Life' 144-5, Remembrance 281 280; lyric: 'My soul is an Rosalind and Helen 18, 21, 24, enchanted Boat' 280; Act 25-6, 27, 28, 54-5 IV 1-90,280 Sensitive Plant, The 19, 208, TRANSLATIONS III (from Greek 282,289 into English) Stanzas written in Dejection 18, Bion: Lament for Adonis 38-9,258 (excerpt) 182 'Tasso' (projected play) 66, 103, Homer: Hymn to Mercury 251 271; 'Scene for Tasso' 58; Moschus: Lament for Bion 'Song for Tasso' 68 (excerpt) 182 To a Sky-Lark 8, 18, 53, 118 TRANSLATIONS IV (from Latin To Emilia Viviani 281 into English) To Jane: The Invitation 290 Virgil: Eclogue X (excerpt) 63, To Jane: The Recollection 290 207 'To One Singing' 301 Virgil: Georgics IV (excerpt) 207 Tower of Famine, The 18, 207, PROSE 270, 290 Address to the Irish People 298 Triumph of Life, The 9, 13, 18, 20, Coliseum, The 108 30, 61, 175, 177, 179, 202-42, Declaration of Rights 311 246-7, 249, 250, 251, 252, Defence of Poetry, A 13, 84, 253, 255, 261, 291, 298-312 120-1, 142, 162, 170, 171, 'Troilus and Cressida' (projected 172, 176, 177, 180-1, 195, poem) 296 203, 249, 258, 266, 267, 269, Witch of Atlas, The 19, 165, 251, 286, 293, 296, 310 253,256,282,288,289 Notes on Sculptures 93, 115, Woodman and the Nightingale, 306, 307 The 207,208 'On Life' 259 TRANSLATIONS I (from Italian 'On Love' 21, 146, 151, into English) On the Devil and Devils 120, Dante: Sonnet: 'Guido, I would 268, 269 that Lapo' 41-2, 165-6, 256 Philosophical View of Reform, Dante: Purgatorio XXVIII A 119, 268, 270 (ll.1-51) 208, 209, 235, 301 On the Manners of the Antient Dante: 'You who intelligent', Greeks 21, 118, 289 Convivio 1st canzone 143, 'Una Favola' 286, 287, 297 150, 153, 157, 170, 171, 282, Shelley Society 266 283, 288 Shelley, William 45, 173, 179, Plato: Symposium 21, 152 250, 263 Relation of the Death of the Family Sicily 109, 232, 273 of the Cenci 72-4, 75, 76-7, Sidney, Sir Philip 15, 296 80, 83, 264, 265, 268, 270 Silverman, Edwin B. 183, 294 TRANSLATIONS II (from Sinclair, John D. 130, 232, 295 English into Italian) Sismondi, J. C. L. Simonde de, General Index 351

Histoire des Ripubliques 47,57-8, 60-1, 66-8, 71, Italiennes 7, 58, 81, 99, 250, 103-4, 167, 182, 260, 261, 254, 267, 270; Historical View 262, 271, 305; Aminta 167, of the Literature of the South of 288; and Demogorgon 278; Europe 291 Gerusalemme Liberata 13, 104, Smith, Paul 87, 264 271, 278; and Jerusalem 271; Socrates 200, 226, 240, 252, 262, see also Byron: Lament of Tasso 297, 308 Teolo 23 Socratic 259 Terni 250 Song of Songs 285 Terracina 250 Sophocles 71 'terza rima' 207-11, 213, 214, 'Sophrosyne' 226, 240, 308 301-2,303 Southern Italy 110 Tetreault, Ronald 114 Southey, Robert 9 Theocritus, Idyls 182 82 Thermopylae 254 Spallanzani, Lazzaro 19 Thomism 131, 182, 195, 218, 244 Spaniards 82 Thorn, Arline 87, 267 Spanish Liberal Revolution Tiepolo, Giambattista 259 (1820) 7, 136 Tirinelli, G. 248 Spartans 254 Titian, Danae 266 Spender, Stephen 256, 279 Tito, island of 202 Spenser, Edmund 9, 15, Toynbee, Paget 248 28-9; Amoretti 28, 29, Traini, Francesco, Trionfo della Astrophel 182; and Morte 238, 310 Demogorgon 278; Faerie Trecento (thirteenth century) 106, Queene 19, 119, 278 134, 281, 293 Sperry, Stuart 1, 248, 268, 272 'trecentisti' 206 Spezia, Bay of 203; Gulf of 202 Tredennick, Hugh 240 Spoleto 250, 265 Trelawny, Edward John 250 Sporades 138 Trionfo della Morte (fresco); Stawell, F. Marion 222, 248, see Traini 251,300 Tunis 258 Steffan, Truman Guy 264 Turano 265 Stempel, Daniel 289 Turbia 299 'stilnovisti' 140, 281 Turin 102, 114, 250 Story, Patrick 305 Turner, Joseph William 31, 248, St Paul 86, 259, 298 Strafforello, Gustavo 273 Turner, Paul 237, 273 Switzerland 252 Tuscan love poetry 145-6; see also Sybil, cave of the 108, Cavalcanti; Dante; Guinizelli; Symonds, John Addington 81, 82, Petrarch; 'stilnovisti' 85,258,268 Tuscany 168, 203, 289 Twitchell, James B. 134, 275 Taafe, John 144, 181, 250, 291-2, Typhoeus (Typhon) 109, 273 294, 295, 297, 298; A Comment Tyrrhenian coast 202 on the Divine Comedy 291 Taenarus 127 Uffizi Gallery 93, 115, 116, Tansillo, Luigi 167 117, 141, 266, 269; and Mae• Tasso, Torquato 18, 19, 45, nads 307; and Medusa 269; 352 General Index

and Minerva 93, 266, 269; La Spada di Kenneth 271; and Niobe 93, 266, 269; Otello 103, 114; Prometeo Underworld; see Hell 103, 114 Urania 182, 184, 185, 188-90, 191, Villa Valsavano; see Leghorn 292, 294, 297 Virgil 34, 62, 121, 207, 276, 310; Vado, marshes of 98 and Aeneas 109-10, 273, 'Varii successi curiosi' 264 279; Aeneid 109-10, 121, Vassallo, Peter 252 127, 273, 277, 279, 302; and Vatican 75 Anchises 110, 273, 279; Vatican Museum, Sala della and Dante's Commedia 52, Biga 111-12 97, 122--3, 126, 130, 153, 154, Velletri 250 163, 189, 190, 196-7, 211, Venere Verticordia, temple of 215 216, 230, 234, 239, 240, 276, Venetian painting 258 277, 278; Eclogue V 182; Venetians 33, 45, 47, 57-8, 105, Eclogue VI 273; Eclogue X 253-4,258 63, 182, 207; and Elysian Veneto 34, 54 Fields 110; Georgics IV 207; Venice 14, 17, 18, 19, 22-5, and Golden Bough 109-10; 30--37, 40, 43, 44-70 passim, and Sybil 109; and Under• 62, 64-5, 69, 98, 104-6, 114, world 108, 109-10, 121, 127 179, 203, 220, 245, 246, 248, Virgin Mary 294 250, 252, 253-4, 256, 257, Visconti family 80, 258-9, 262, 272, 276, 297, 299; Visconti, Gian Galeazzo, Duke of and Lido 44, 47, 56, 257; Milan 81,267 and Malamocco 257; and Viviani, Blandina (Emilia's Palazzo Mocenigo 58; and mother) 280 San Clemente 257; and San Viviani, Enrica 139-40, 142, 168, Servolo 257 248, 280, 283 Ventimiglia 6 Viviani family; see Della Robbia Venosta, Emilio Visconti 272 family Venus 188, 215, 275, 283, 288-9, Viviani, Francesco, governor of 294, 303; temple of 168, 236; Pisa 135, 136 see also Aphrodite Viviani, Teresa (Emilia/Emily) Venus Anadyomene 274 18, 135-72, 188, 189, 236, Venus and Adonis 182, 185-6, 245, 280-9, 294, 297; Il Vero 187, 188; see also Bion; Marino; Amore 137-8, 153, 156, Moschus; Ovid: Metamorphoses; 165, 245 Urania Venus, evening star 158, 162, Waller, Marguerite 284 229-30, 293, 312 Ware, Tracy 257 Venus Pandemos 294 Wasserman, Earl17, 85-6, 92, 93, Venus, third heaven 150, 110, 117-18, 159, 161, 162, 166, 163, 188, 199, 287, 288, 182, 186, 188, 190, 252, 257, 298 259, 262, 263, 264, 268, 269, Veronese, Paolo 259 271, 273, 274, 275, 277, 278, Vesper (Hesperus) 158, 195, 279, 282, 283, 285, 286, 287, 293, 298 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 294 Vigano, Salvatore 103; Die Waterloo 105 Geschopfe des Prometheus 103; Watson, Sara Ruth 80 General Index 353

Webb, Timothy 26, 130, 143, 243, Wilson, Milton 248, 255, 259 248--9, 250-1, 252, 267, 275, Woodman, Ross 190, 292 276, 283, 285, 288, 300, 301, 309 Wordsworth, William 9, 243, 262; Weigl, Joseph, Il rivale di se Lyrical Ballads 243; Tintern stesso 271 Abbey 21 White, Harry 263, 268--9 Wyatt, Sir Thomas 15, 28 White, Newman lvey 142, 193-4, 250, 251, 257, 266, 280, 281, Yeats, William Butler 9; Dialogue 290,296 of Self and Soul 259 Whitman, Robert F. 266-7 Yost, George 249, 264, 265 Wilkins, Ernest Hatch 300, 304,308 Zacchetti, Corrado 13, 248, 250, Williams, Edward 171, 250 283, 285, 288, 289 Williams, Jane 171, 299 Zanco, Aurelio 79, 248 Winter (von Winter), Peter Zanella, Giacomo 250 Etelinda, opera 103 Zillman, Lawrence 271, 278 Poem Index: Commedia, Vita Nuova and Petrarch's Canzoniere

Inferno XXIX: 39, 169, 188, 215, 221, 226, 1: 122, 127, 158, 159, 160, 185, 278,307 203-4, 210, 211, 227, 228--9, XXX: 39, 149, 169, 185, 215, 278 231, 295, 309 XXXI: 39, 128, 149, 158, 160, 169, II: 185, 189, 196 189, 215, 236, 278, 284, 289 III: 52, 60-1, 123-4, 210, 211, 223, XXXII: 39, 128, 169, 215, 221, 232, 302 238, 278 IV: 276 XXXIII: 39, 169, 189, 215, 234, 236, V: 214, 223, 303 278, 309 VIII: 278 IX: 125-6, 278 Paradiso X: 59, 233, 278 1: 36, 170, 195, 199, 224, 296, 297 XII: 35,278 II: 165, 197-8, 276, 282, 296 XIII: 232 III: 70, 263, 279 XV: 59, 63, 232 IV: 270, 306 XVIII: 306 VI: 130 XXVI: 210, 226, 302 VII: 296 XXXII: 94-5, 98 IX: 188, 299 XXXIII: 94-5, 207-8 XIII: 296, 297 XXXIV: 94-5 XVII: 311 XVIII: 279 Purgatorio XXI: 188 1: 97, 186 XXII: 192, 229, 295, 308 III: 278 XXIII: 199, 294 X: 125 XXVII: 199, 279 XI: 59, 261 XXVIII: 132, 279 XIII: 125, 186, 260 XXX: 187, 200, 298 XV: 154, 285-6 XXXIII: 50, 169, 170, 197, 199, XVII: 285 228,311 XXIII: 232 XXIV: 192, 197, 232, 240, Vita Nuova 281 VN: 157 (inclusive) XXV: 279 1: 170 XXVI: 233 II: 140 XXVIII: 39, 126-7, 128, 169, 207, III: 140 208, 209, 215, 234-7, 278, IV: 282 301, 310 XIV: 282

354 Poem Index 355

XVIII: 147, 159 che '1 parlar') XIX: 146, 147-9 ('Donne 132: 38, 253 ('5' amor none') ch'avete') 151: 253 ('Non d'atra et XXI: 152 ('Ne li occhi porta') tempestosa') XXIII: 158, 159-60 ('Donna 154: 286 ('Le stelle, il cielo, et gli pietosa') elementi') XXV: 142 177: 253 ('Mille piagge') XXVI: 49, 281 ('Tanto gentile') 180: 253, 255 ('Po, ben puo' tu') XXXI: 171 ('Li occhi dolenti') 189: 28-9, 253 ('Passa Ia XXXIII: 158 nave mia') XXXV: 287 206: 253 ('5' i' '1 dissi mai') XXXVI: 287 212: 253 ('Beato in sogno') XXXVII: 287 215: 254 ('In nobil sangue') XXXVIII: 287 230: 253, 254 ('I' piansi, or canto') XXXIX: 157 235: 253 ('Lasso, Amor mi XLII: 157 trasporta') 248: 281 ('Chi vuol veder') Canzoniere 264: 253 ('I' vo pensando') 1: 158, 227 (Voi ch' ascoltate') 268: 253 ('Che debb' io far?') 14: 253 ( 'Occhi miei lassi') 272: 253 ('La vita fugge') 16: 151 ('Movesi il vecchierel') 277: 253 ('5' Amor novo 23: 286-7, 295 ('Nel dolce tempo') consiglio') 26: 253 ('Piu dime lieta') 290: 253 ('Come va '1 mondo!') 28: 253 ('0 aspettata in Ciel') 292: 253 ('Gli occhi di ch' io 37: 153 ('5i e debile') parlai') 52: 295 ('Non al suo amante') 299: 253 ('Ov' e Ia fronte') 53: 58-9, 285 ('5pirto gentil') 315: 254 ('Tutta Ia mia fiorita') 63: 253 ('Volgendo gli occhi') 317: 253 ('Tranquillo porto') 72: 256 ('Gentil mia Donna') 323: 253, 295 ('5tandomi un 73: 153, 253 ('Poi che per mio giorno solo') destino') 331: 253 ('5olea da la fontana') 80: 253, 255 ('Chi e fermato') 333: 253 ('lte, rime dolenti') 90: 153 ('Erano i capei d'oro') 351: 254 ('Dolci durezze') 125: 171 ('5e '1 pensier') 365: 253 ('I' vo piangendo') 127: 153 ('In quella parte dove 366: 253 ('Vergine bella') Amor') 128: 21-2, 260 ('ltalia mia, ben