Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-12012-9 — the Cambridge World History of Violence Edited by Garrett G

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-12012-9 — The Cambridge World History of Violence Edited by Garrett G. Fagan , Linda Fibiger , Mark Hudson , Matthew Trundle Index More Information

Index

Abbink, Jon 608 Aijmer, Göran 608 Abner, and Joab 619–20 Akhenaton, pharaoh 188, 191 ‘abomination’, biblical notion of 615–16 Akhtoy III, pharaoh 345 Abram (Abraham) 611 Akkad, kingdom of 221, 228 sacrifice of son 617 culture 460 Abu-Lughod, Lila 395 fall of 230 Abydos, Egypt, First Dynasty burials 464 Alcibiades 542 acephalous society warfare see hunter- treatment of wife and dog 392–4 gatherers; raiding Alesia, battle of (52 BCE) 154 Achaemenides, son of Amestris 370 Alexander the Great 29, 235, 552 Acts of Ptolemy and Lucius 583, 584 Alexander Severus, emperor 254 Acy-Romance, France, Iron Age human Alexandria, destruction of the Serapeion (391 sacrifice 453 CE) 513, 515, 520–2 Adrianople, battle of (378 CE) 264, 268 Alken Enge, Jutland, Iron Age massacre adultery deposit 448 biblical punishment of women 616 Allan, William 540 punishment by male members of Allen, Danielle 383 household 385 Alvarado, Pedro de 214 by women in Greece 384, 390 Amarna Letters, between Babylon and Aegospotami, battle of (405 BCE) 538 Egypt 234 Aeneas 550 Amenemhet II, pharaoh 346 and Anchises 676, 681 Amenhotep II, pharaoh 183, 186 Africa Americas Homo erectus 58 evidence of violence in Paleoamericans Homo sapiens in 58 23, 54 Later Stone Age 99–104, 104 initial colonisation 199 see also hunter-gatherers; Kalahari ritualised violence 7 Agathonike, martyr 583 skeletal evidence of health 329 Agathos Daemon, boxer 504 warfare 42, 51, 201 Agia Triada, Crete, depictions of combat 133 see also Chichen Itza; Maya people; Agricola, emperor 249 Yanomamo people agriculture Amestris, wife of Xerxes animal husbandry 483 mutilation of Masistes’ wife 364, 367, 369 Japan 160, 167, 174–6 reputed sacrifice of children 371 Maya 200 revenge on Apollonides of Cos 371–2 see also farmers revenge for death of son 370–1 Agrippa II, king of Jews 251 rivalry with Artaÿnte 363–70 Agris, Charente, France, Iron Age helmet 147 Amfreville, France, Iron Age helmet 148 Aguateca, Guatemala, Maya site 209 Amida, Persian siege of (359 CE) 265, 267

704

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-12012-9 — The Cambridge World History of Violence Edited by Garrett G. Fagan , Linda Fibiger , Mark Hudson , Matthew Trundle Index More Information

Index

Ammianus Marcellinus and violence 15 battle narrative 264, 265 violence by 22, 481, 483 on siege of Amida 265 see also hunting Ammonites, violence against women of Annals, Chinese philosophical texts 431–2, 435 Gilead 366 Antigonids, defeat by Rome 243 Amytis, daughter of Amestris 371 Antioch, riot of the statues (387 CE) 518 Amytis, wife of Cyrus the Great, and death of Antiochus Epiphanes IV, King 573, 574, 577 eunuch Petasakes 373 desecration of Jewish temple (168 BCE) 512 Anacreon, on punishment 539 Antoninus Pius, emperor 252 Anchises, and Aeneas 676, 681 Antonius, Marcus 407 Andrieskraal, South Africa, Later Stone Age and trial of Norbanus 405 remains 106 Antonius, Marcus (Mark Antony) 415 anger, and justice in Athens 383 Aphrodisias, Sebasteion (Turkey), monument Anglesea island, Wales, Roman conquest 672, 673 of 329 Aphrodite, goddess of love 484 animal sacrifice 7 Apollo, god, on animal sacrifice 486, 487 Buddhist critique of 598 Apollonides of Cos, Amestris’ punishment of Egypt 184 371–2 Gupta horse 603 Appian, on Punic Wars 242, 245 see also animal sacrifice, Greece and Rome; Apuleius 567 human sacrifice The Golden Ass 562 animal sacrifice, Greece and Rome 475–90, 539 Aqiva, rabbi 574, 575 civic regulations 477, 478, 483 Arabs classical vegetarian writers and 475, 477, invasions of Roman Empire 257, 259 485–6 and wife beating 386 Empedocles’ view of 484 Arausio, battle of (105 BCE) 405 ended by Christianity 489, 490, 582 Arbela, Mesopotamia 643 Epicurean view 485 Arbousse-Bastide, Tristan 171 exemption of working oxen 481, 485 archaeology 6 Greek gods and 488 of battlefields 155, 248, 249 Greek sacrificial holocausts 481 changing perspectives of 444–5 images 478 and destruction of pagan temples 515 inspection of entrails 479 early China 419–20 Porphyry’s Abstaining from Meat 486–9 evidence of climate change 47, 51 and provision of food 480 evidence from 20, 21 Pythagorean view of 484–5 Iron Age Stoic view 485 Britain 321, 323, 334, 337 Theophrastus on 485–6 ritual violence 442–3, 457 victim as channel of communication with Japan 161–71, 164, 175 gods 480, 481, 483 Later Stone Age Africa 101–8, 103 wild animals 481 of LBK burials 306 animals Maya 198–217 compared with slaves 479 projects 198 and doctrine of substitutions (to excise Mesopotamia 219, 227, 629 maladies) 471–2 Neolithic massacres 299, 301, 304 fights with heroes 637 Roman 247 husbandry 483 signatures of violence 164 and justice (Greece) 482, 484–5, 490 South America, forager raiding warfare 42 killed in siege of Carthage 243 Syria 629 legal status of 475 and warfare 42, 43–4, 55 legal treatment of as criminals 477, 481 see also bioarchaeology; burials; fortifica- as power symbols in Egypt 343 tions; hill forts; settlements; skeletons; trial for murder 483 skulls; weaponry

705

Index

archery see arrows and arrowheads; bows and and Parysatis 375 arrows and wife Stateira 375, 376 Archi, Alfonso 640 Artaÿnte, daughter of Masistes, rivalry with Ardrey, Robert 99, 109 Amestris 363–70 arenas, amphitheatres Artemis, goddess of hunting 481 role of 35, 557, 558 Arthas´a¯stra, treatise on statecraft 687, 697–8 seating by social rank 559 Artoxares the Paphlagonian, eunuch at court see also sport, combat; theatre of Persia 373 Aristides, Aelius 252 Asconius, and travelling retinues 403 Aristophanes Ashurbanipal, king of Neo-Assyria 363, 469, Clouds 392 471, 642 Lysistrata 390–1 Ashurnasirpal II, king of Persia 366, 639, Wasps 380 641 Aristotle 33 punishments of enemies 373 on animals 483 As´oka, Maurya emperor, India 591, 599–600 on violence 534, 535 Asparn-Schletz, Austria, Neolithic massacre armies site 80, 88, 308–9 Greek, hoplites 498 Aspeberget, Sweden, rock art 129 size of Assyria 28, 461 Bronze Age 134 in biblical narratives 612, 621 Roman 242 display of trophy heads 639, 640, 649 see also Chinese army; Roman army; sol- New Empire 29, 32 diers; warfare; warriors palace reliefs 639, 642, 650, 651 Arminius, Germanic leader 155 punishment by blinding 373 armour, Bronze Age 130–2, 138 and substitute king ritual 468 cloak ‘armour’ 131 and violence against women 367 corselets 130 see also Mesopotamia; Syria greaves 132 astrology, Mesopotamia 468 helmets 131 prediction of eclipses 469 organic (layered linen) 131 Athaliah, queen of Judea 619 scale 130 Athenian theatre 540–2 tin bronze plate 130 comedy 541–2 two-part plate 130 tragedy 540–1 armour, Japan, wooden breastplates 170 Athens Arras, Yorkshire, Iron Age cemeteries Agora Bronze Age burials 133 324 Bouphonia festival 487 Arrhachion, pancratiast 501–3 coup (411 BCE) 537 arrows and arrowheads 65, 68, 75 and democracy in classical period arrowheads 101, 102, 106, 119 535–40, 545 bronze, Aegean 128 legal system and law courts 536–7, 542–5 European Neolithic 85, 89, 90, 93 and legal speeches 543 Iron Age 144 and witnesses 543 Japanese 163, 170 military campaigns 537, 538 Neolithic China 419 military service 538 poisoned, San, Kalahari 108, 110 murder law 483, 544 stone, Aegean 128 Scythian archers 542 stone, Korean style 167 slaves 33 wounds from 43, 303, 313 and status 544 see also bows and arrows Thirty Tyrants 537, 545–6 arsenals, Roman fabricenses 271 violence, law and community 531–47 Artaxerxes I, king of Persia 370 as violent city 382, 383, 537, 539–40 Artaxerxes II, king of Persia 362 weakness of state 535, 544, 547 and brother Cyrus 374 Atossa, wife of Darius I 362

706

Index

Atrahasis, poem 633, 651 Maya depictions of 208 ı fi 691–4 Atram-˘has¯s, Babylonian creation myth as ritual sacri ce for warriors (India) 466, 651 Roman 241, 244, 263–6, 555 and flood story 467 Roman depictions 654 Augustine, Saint, City of God 584 see also fighting; warfare Augustus Caesar, emperor 248 Baven, Germany, Bronze Age arrowheads 129 and expansion of empire 556 Beckmann, Martin 674 and gang violence 415–16 beheading see decapitation; headhunting; and golden age of Rome 240 heads and regulation of gladiatorial games Belgium, Neolithic enclosures 92 505, 558 bells, bronze, Japan 172, 173 and reorganisation of collegia 416 Berger, T. D. and E. Trinkhaus 60 Res Gestae 248 Bhagavadg¯ta¯ı 596, 699 Australia, forager societies 50, 52 Bhagavat¯Suı ¯tra 597 axes bia, Greek word for violence 476, 533 Bronze Age 127–8, 129 Bia, personification of violence 534 Neolithic 92, 118, 119, 419 Bible, New Testament as tools 128 apocalyptic texts 624 Aztecs see Nahua Book of Revelation 578, 624 Epistles 578 Baadsgaard, Aubrey 462 Gospel of Mark 577, 578 Babylon, rise of kingdom of 233, 234, 460 Bible, Old Testament (Hebrew) 31, 607–27 diplomatic relations with Egypt 234 Amos 366 Kassite kings 234 apocalyptic stories 624 Babylonian Empire, Old 28 blinding as punishment 373 astrologers 468 cultural and social context 607, 609 culture 465 Daniel 574, 624 Bacchanalia, suppression (186 BCE) 512 and destruction of enemies 612–13 Bagapates/Mastabates, eunuch at court of Deuteronomy 612, 614–15, 617 Persia 374 divine sanction for violence 618, 626 Bahlam Ajaw, Maya king of Tortuguero 206 divine violence 622–5 Bahrani, Zainab 222 Exodus 617 B’ajlaj Chan K’awiil, king of Dos Pilas 208 Ezekiel 367 Balawat, Assyria, Gates of 650 Hosea 366 Ballito Bay, Natal, Later Stone Age individuals in civil legal codes 613–16 remains 105 and Israelites’ claim to territory 611–12 banditry, Rome 562 Jeremiah 617, 622, 623 barbarian tribes Joshua 611 on Chinese frontiers 278 Leviticus 613 horsemanship 262 Micah 617 as increasing threat to late Roman Nehemiah 376 Empire 261 and neighbouring kings 621–2 migrations 36 Noah myth (Genesis) 467 and siege warfare 268 post-biblical intolerance 625 barbarian women religious justification for violence 7, 608–9 Greek portrayal of 360 representations of violence 607, 609–11, Roman depictions 674 626 Batavian revolt against Rome 251 on royal courts 362 Bathsheba, wife of King David 362 story of Jezebel 368 Battersea Shield 147, 150 violence of kings 618–21 battle narratives, Roman 264 violence by patriarchs and foundational battles figures 611–13 blood and carnage of 692 violence by priests and prophets 616–18

707

Index

Bible, Old Testament (Hebrew) (cont.) concept of cakravartin (paramount Yhwh 615, 621, 623 king) 592 see also Bible, New Testament; dharma in 591 Christianity; Judaism; patron deities Ma¯navadharmasá¯stra text 594 bioarchaeology 114, 304, 323 hereditary class 591 varn˙ a Bronze Age 132–4 Brastad, Sweden, Bronze Age weapons 127 evidence of health 43, 338 Britain 320–39 see also skeletons age and gender differences 338 birds of prey, corpses on battlefield left for Iron Age 321, 324–9 643, 644 figurines 149 bishops, Christian 518, 522, 525 hill forts 152 negotiators in late antiquity 274 oppida 152 Bisitun inscription, Darius I’s 366, 374 see also Maiden Castle Blok, Anton 608 Roman 329–38 ‘blood money’ 85 indigenous victims 335 bodyguards, Roman elites 402 military activity 332 illegally armed 407, 410 social changes 332 military veterans 407 urban centres 323, 332, 335 payment to gangs 413 Roman invasion (43 CE) 249, 323, 332, 333 for travelling 403 Brodbeck, Simon 698 bog bodies, Iron Age 450–3, 458 bronze Britain 327 mechanical properties of 123, 136 Lindow Man 451 sheet metalworking 130, 138 Oldcroghan Man (Ireland) 451 Bronze Age as ritual execution 327, 451 combat sports in Greece 496–7 torture and dismemberment 451, 452 early cities 27 Boii, Celtic people, mass deportation of 246 emergence of elites 26 Bonampak, Mexico, Mayan murals 198, 208 fortifications 26, 120, 134–6, 139 Book of Documents, Zhou dynasty China 422–3 initial Bronze Age (IBA) 118–20 Book of Songs, Zhou dynasty China 421–2 osteoarchaeology 132–4 ‘Climb the Wooded Hill’ 421 specialised weaponry 26–7, 120–30, 138 ‘No Wraps’ 422 armour 130–2 ‘Sixth Month’ 421 shields 121–2 ‘They Beat Their Drums’ 422 swords 122–6 ‘Waves of the Pan’ 422 warfare in Europe 117–39 Bottéro, Jean 471 bronze objects, Chinese, in Japan 170, Boudicca, British Celtic queen, rebellion 173 249, 334 Brown, Peter 36 bows and arrows 65, 68, 75 The World of Late Antiquity 257, 274 adopted by Maya 212 Brown, Shelby 665 Bronze Age 119, 128–30 Buckley, William 52 Neolithic 119, 302 Buddha (Gautama) 33 Roman use of 263 Buddhism 590 San, Kalahari 111, 113 benevolence 598 see also arrows and arrowheads; spears bodhisattva (Buddha-to-be) 599 boxing, Greece 496, 497–8, 500–1 in China 293–4 hand bindings 500 and concept of cakkavatti (paramount rules and referees 500 king) 598 submission 500 dharma in 597 Brading villa, Isle of Wight, Roman Britain, Ja¯takas 599 body in well 336 and kingship 598–600 Brahmanism (Hinduism) 590, 591–7 and laws of rebirth 590 a¯s´rama stages of life 592 non-violence 589

708

Index

power of monasteries 293 Callinicum, Syria, attack on synagogue (388 uprisings 294 CE) 513 Buffel’s Bay, South Africa, Later Stone Age Campbell, Brian 244 remains 106 Canaan, Israelites’ conquest of 611 Burch, Ernest 52 Cancuen, Guatemala, Maya site 209 burials 43, 54 cannibalism Bronze Age, Athens 133 by animals 489 Bronze Age warriors 139 during sieges 267 chambered tombs 89 Cape Province, South Africa, shell evidence of human sacrifice 419 middens 109 with grave goods captives Mesolithic 71, 73 Chinese massacres of 287 Mesopotamia 227 execution of 67 Neanderthal 64 Maya 208, 215 Royal Cemetery at Ur 461 for human sacrifice, Maya 201 Japan Neo-Assyrian taking of 236 jar coffins 167 Persian treatment of 268 Yayoi warrior graves 168–9 see also prisoners of war Late Palaeolithic 65, 75, 189 Capture of Joppa, Egyptian story 193 LBK rituals 306, 311 Caracalla, emperor, public sculpture Maya 198 676–8, 677 Mesolithic 70 Carn Brea, Cornwall 84 Neolithic cemeteries 83, 299, 304–6 Carthago (New Carthage), Roman capture non-normative Roman Britain 336, 339 of 242 not given for those killed in warfare 54, 67 Casilinum, battle of (554 CE) 263 and ritual slaughter of attendants 227, 420, Cˇaška Veles, North Macedonia, Bronze Age 460 remains 133 see also burials, Iron Age; cemeteries; Cataline Conspiracy (63 BCE) 402 funerary rites; mass graves Catherwood, Frederick 198 burials, Iron Age cavalry chariots 145, 146, 326, 327 Chinese army 287, 289 children, Britain 322 Persian Empire 262 Claudian invasion of Britain 334 Roman army 246, 262, 263 and evidence of human sacrifice 227, 453–4 Ceibal, Guatemala, Pre-classic Maya site 202, grave goods 322 203, 215 hill forts 325, 446, 454 Celtic culture 441–2 performative violence 326 ‘cult of the head’ 442, 454–7 slave (Wales) 328, 449 cemeteries weapons in 145–7, 157 Iron Age 155, 324 Burkert, W. 488 Mesolithic 69, 70 Homo Necans 478 Neolithic 83, 90, 304–6 Burna-Buriash, king of Babylon 234 Roman Britain 323 Burnett, A. P. 541 Ur Royal 227, 461–4, 472 Bushmen see San hunter-gatherers see also burials; mass graves Cetatea Veche, Romania, Bronze Age site Cadbury Castle, Somerset, Iron Age 130, 135 battlefield 155 Champotón, Mexico, Maya site 210, 213 Caepio, Quintus Servilius 405 chariots Calakmul, Mexico, Maya site 204 Iron Age 145, 146, 326, 327 Calgacus, Caledonian chieftain 249 Roman races 560–1 California charitable activities, Christian church and deaths of women in warfare 55 273, 274 forager societies 50 Chariton, Callirhoe (Greek novel) 394

709

Index

Chatters, James 23 treatment of warfare in philosophical texts chemical warfare, Persian use of sulphur 425–32 fumes 266 Warring States period 278, 282, 285, 292, 424 Chemosh, deity of Moab 612, 617, 623 wars of unification 279, 283, 285, 424 Chi You, Chinese warrior god 292 Western Jin dynasty 281, 283, 284 Chichen Itza, Mexico 209, 216 Yellow Emperor myth 292 skull racks 209 Zhao kingdom 287 Spanish at 213 Zhou empire 29, 282, 421–4 children Eastern Zhou 424 biblical ritual killing of 617–18 end of Western Zhou 424 evidence of abuse, Roman Britain 335 overthrow of Shang 422–3 evidence of deficiency diseases 337 see also Chinese army; warfare, China; and infanticide (China) 293 Zheng, emperor Iron Age burials, Britain 322 Chinese army 285–92 Late Palaeolithic burial 65 barbarian elites in 291 Mesolithic burials 71 cavalry 287, 289 sacrificial victims, Maya 202, 203 conscription 280, 286, 288 as victims in Later Stone Age (Africa) divination 292 108 hereditary soldiery 290 China 277–94, 418–36 incorporation of defeated enemies 291 baoli (violence) 277 infantry 286 Buddhism 293–4 Later Han adaptations 288–9 civil wars 281 manpower problems 290–1 Daoism 292 mercenaries 281 early cities 27 and private armies 289–90 Eastern Jin dynasty 281 professionalisation 288 equivocal view of war and heroism 418, and training 286, 287, 288 432, 436 Warring States mobilisation 285 ethnic conflicts 281 Christ, Matthew 544 Former (Western) Han dynasty 279, 283 Christianity, in late antiquity 512 Han dynasty 29 bishops 274, 518, 522, 525 and claims to legitimacy 284, 433–4, 436 and classical animal sacrifice 489, 490, 582 end of empire 36 and conversions of Jews of Minorca 525–7 Later (Eastern) Han dynasty 279 Diocletian’s edicts against 581–2 legitimate violence 277 emphasis on peacefulness 519, 522 Neolithic defensive enclosures 25, 419 and freedom under Constantius 582 northern frontiers 279, 286 and heretical groups 583 north–south division 280 impact on Roman warfare 273–4 private armies 286, 289–90 intra-Christian conflicts 523 Qin dynasty 436 and martyrdom 521, 523, 524, 577–84 fall of 433 moral condemnation of violence 519, First Emperor’s campaigns of conquest 524–7 278, 281, 286 New Prophecy group 584 justification for wars of unification 432–4 persecution 522, 524, 578–81, 582 massacres of captives 287 and post-biblical intolerance 625 terracotta army 32 and sacred forms of violence 519 revenge as duty 434–6 understandings of martyrdom 582–3 Shang dynasty 28, 282 use of violent language 519 oracle bones 420 Cicantakhama the Sagartian 366 Zhou depiction of 422–3 Cicero, Marcus Tullius Spring and Autumn period 424 and Clodius 412, 413 Sui dynasty 281 on gladiators 505 Three Kingdoms period 280, 283 personal bodyguards 402

710

Index

and Pompey 410, 412 representation of Indian kings 603 prosecution of Verres 568 Colchester (Camulodunum), evidence of on slaves 565 Boudiccan rebellion 334 and trial of Norbanus 405 collective violence 12, 39 Cimbri tribe 449 murder of single dangerous male 53 Cinna, Lucius Cornelius 247 Neolithic massacres as 315 circumcelliones, Donatists 523 see also gang violence; inter-group violence; circumcision, Egypt 190, 192 intra-societal violence; massacres; Cirencester, Gloucestershire (Corinium warfare Dubunnorum), female Roman British collegia (local community associations), Rome burials 335 401, 411–12, 413 cities, earliest 27 Augustan reforms 416 and defence 30 Collins, John J. 612, 624 Maya 199, 206 Columbus, Batholomew 213 Mesopotamia 27, 30, 219, 221–2, 227 Comalcalco, Mexico, Maya site 206 see also Athens; Constantinople; Rome; Commodus, emperor 254 settlements communities city gates, display of trophy heads at 640, and boundaries 84 649 and identity 84 civilians size of Neolithic 95 compulsory employment to maintain see also neighbours Roman army 272 community distress, and prehistoric and sieges 241, 243, 267 violence 108 soldiers’ violence towards 272 Confucius 33 Clarke, John 657 Analects 426 Claudius, emperor 332, 333, 556, 559 and Annals 431 monument 672, 673 intellectual heirs of 427–8 Clearchus of Sparta 376, 537 Connell, R. W. 690, 698 Clement, Christian philosopher 584 conscription clergy Chinese army 280, 286, 288 Diocletian’s edicts for arrest of 581 Roman army 270–1 negotiators in late antiquity 274 violence during 271 see also priests Constantina (Tella), siege of 267 clientela relationship, Rome 401, 566 Constantine, emperor 273 climate change Arch of 678–81, 679 as cause of warfare 47, 51, 315 conversion to Christianity 512, 514 environmental crisis (third millennium and toleration of Donatists 524 BCE) 356 Constantinople Little Ice Age 47, 51 attack by Goths on (378 CE) 268 Clodius Pulcher, Publius, tribune 403, foundation of 257 411–13, 414 Persian siege of (626 CE) 259, 269 and Cicero 412 popular riots 518, 562 The Clouds, comedy 541 Constantius, emperor, end of persecution of Coarelli, Filippo 655 Christians 582 Coba, Mexico, road to Yaxuna 207 Copan, Guatemala, Maya kingdom 204, Coelius, Sextus, public scribe 414 208, 216 Cogan, Mordechai 367 Córdoba, Francisco Hernández de 213 Cohen, David 384 Corinth, Isthmian games 499 Cohen, E. 534, 536 Coriolanus, Gaius Marcius, legend of 240 coins Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, Lucius 551 Iron Age Cornell, Tim 239 depiction of warriors 143, 150 Cornesti-Iarcuri, Romania, Bronze Age depiction of weapons 148 fortiﬁcations 120

711

Index

cosmology Jewish War 250 Egyptian concept of ma’at (cosmic order) in Roman wars 241, 242, 245 186, 351, 356 Social War (Italy) 247 Indian 688, 692, 696 Debrück, Hans 241 Iron Age 441, 446, 457 decapitation Mesopotamian 466 of enemies (Mesopotamia) 638–43, Cotta, Lucius Aurelius 405 649 Crete by Germans 252 ‘Boxer Rhyton’ 496 Iron Age deposited remains 450 defensive Bronze Age settlements 135 as punishment in Egypt 352 Crickley Hill, Gloucestershire 84 Roman Britain 336 Crowley, Jason 539 see also executions; headhunting; heads; Ctesias of Cnidus mutilation on Achaemenid Persia court 362, 372 Decius, emperor, and Christians 580, 583 Persica 373 defence on rivalry of Parysatis and Stateira 375 early cities 30 story of Amestris’ revenge on Apollonides by states against nonstate peoples 28, of Cos 371–2 30 story of Amestris’ revenge for death of son see also enclosures; fortiﬁcations 370–1 Delphi, Pythian games 499, 503 Cuello, Belize, Maya mass burial 203 Dendra, Greece, Bronze Age armour 130 Cultural Hegemony, theory of 253 Denmark Cursing of Akkad, Mesopotamian text 230 Iron Age 132, 147, 448 cylinder seals 632, 646–8 Mesolithic burial sites 70 animals and heroes on 637 Neolithic endemic violence 91 Mari 644, 647 deportation Cyrus, king of Persia 374, 621, 622 Chinese forcible migrations 291 mass Roman 246 Dacia, Roman wars against 252, 556, 672 depositions, Iron Age Dadusha, king of Eshnunna 644 bog bodies 448, 450–3 Daimond, Jared 6 watery contexts 448 Dalhanemi, king 598 weapons 147–8, 158, 447–9 Danda, ‘Punishment’ 594 wooden boats 448 ˙ ˙ Danebury hill fort, Hampshire 443 The Destruction of Miletus, tragedy 540 Iron Age burials 329 dharma (pious duty) 590, 591, 597, 686 Daoism, and Way of Great Peace sect 292 Didius, Titus 405 Darius I, king of Persia 362 D¯ghaı Nika¯ya, Maha¯sudassana Sutta Bisitun inscription 366, 374 598 Darius II, king of Persia 363, 365, 372 Dillon, Sheila 674 Dart, Raymond 99 Dio Cassius 248 Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species 39 Diocletian, emperor 270 David, king of Israel 362, 610, 620 anti-Christian edicts 512, 581–2, 583 De Zilk, Netherlands, Bronze Age site 130 Dionysius, on Veii 240 Deacon, Hilary, and Janette Deacon 109 Dirce, Punishment of 660 death rates dismemberment acephalous society warfare 41 bog bodies 451, 452 correlation between murder and death in of enemies 632, 638 combat 253 Dlamini, Nonhlanhla 106, 113 Jo¯mon period, Japan 176 DNA warfare 41–2 and archaeological evidence of death tolls infections 43 Chinese full-scale warfare 287 potential for research 51 interpretation of numbers 245, 247 see also genetics

712

Index

Dnjepr Rapids, Ukraine, Mesolithic and demand for commodities 345–6 cemeteries (Vasilyevka) 69 development of Pharaonic system 342–5 Dobe !Kung, murder rate 100 diplomatic relations with Babylon 234 dogs, as scavengers 368 effect of Nile flooding on 47, 352–4 Dolabella, Publius Cornelius 415 expeditionary forces 349 domestic violence 14 raids 349 Athens 539 sieges 349 beating of parents 392 frontier defences 350 Greece 380–2, 381, 398 funerary ritual of human sacrifice 464, 473 evidence for 396–8 hunting scenes 342 see also women and Israel 622 Donatists, Christian schismatic 523 military forces 348–50 Dos Pilas, Guatemala, Maya site 208 recruitment and training 349 Dossey, Leslie 397 Naqada I period 181 Döttenbichl, Germany, Iron Age–Roman Naqada II period 187 battlefield 154 Naqada III period 188 Douglas, Mary 476 Netherworld Books 186, 190 Drake, Harold 513 punishments 351–2 duels, between warring champions 189, 194, rituals of execration 185, 191, 346 498, 509 sphere of influence 345–7 Duilius, Caius 551 state violence 342, 350–2 Dunbabin, Katherine 663 violence in afterlife 355–6 Dunidam, Jeroen 362 violence among the gods 352–4 Dura-Europos, Roman fortress, Persian see also pharaohs; warfare, Egypt capture of (256 CE) 266 Ejsbøl, Denmark, Iron Age weapons deposit 448 Eannatum, king, and Stele of the Vultures El Djem, Tunisia, Domus Sollertiana 634, 635, 644 mosaic 663 Ebla, Syria, display of trophy heads 639, 640 El Mirador, Maya pyramid site 203 Eckstein, Arthur, Mediterranean Anarchy, Elijah, prophet 618 Interstate War, and the Rise of Rome 239 elites eclipses (solar, lunar, planetary), emergence in Bronze Age 26 Mesopotamian kings and 469 Japan 173, 175 Edessa 272 Mesopotamian military 227, 231 siege of 267 and private armies in Later Han China troops billeted in 272 289–90, 291 Edington Burtle, Somerset, Bronze Age site 130 punishment of 33 Egami, Namio 162 and ritual slaughter of attendants 227, 460 Egnatius Rufus, and urban uprising 415 and warfare 36 Egypt 28, 179–95, 342–58 and warriors 137, 138 acculturation of foreigners 192, 347 see also elites, Roman administrative audits 355 elites, Roman animals as power symbols 343 and intermediaries with gangs 414 annexation by Rome 248 and popular support 404–6, 407–8 bureaucracy (‘civil service’) 344, 350, 357 provision of games 509–10, 558 capture of foreigners for labour 347 punishments 564 combat ritual and festivals 183–7 Empedocles, on animals and justice 484 concept of ma’at (cosmic order, stability) enclosures 351, 356 communal construction of 83, 96 concept of the Restorer 358 and defences 84, 92, 94 contempt for enemies 344 evidence of attacks on 84, 94 crisis at end of Old Kingdom (c. 2200 BCE) Neolithic 25, 83, 92 356–8 see also fortifications; hill forts

713

Index

Enki, Babylonian god 466, 467 beheading 185, 352 Enmetena, king of Lagash 224, 228 of criminals 185 Enna-Dagan, king of Mari 644 death by fire 185, 352 Entremont, Provence, stone monuments hanging inverted of defeated enemies 454–5, 456 186 Enu¯ma eliš, creation epic 466 impalement 188, 191, 352 Ephesus, council of (431 CE) 524 public 195 Epic of the Creation, Mesopotamia 633, throwing to the crocodiles 352 651 exile, as punishment for elite Romans 564 Epicureans, on animal sacrifice 485 Epirus, Roman conquest (167 BCE) 245 Fabius Maximus 245 Esarhaddon, king of Babylon 469, 471 Fabius, Quintus (Maximus Rullianus), Tomb ethnic cleansing see deportation of 665 ethnography Faqing, Buddhist rebel leader (515 CE) 294 and evidence of warfare 45 Faraoskop, South Africa, Later Stone Age of forager societies 49–50 remains 106, 107, 112 and intra-societal violence 52 farmers study of Kalahari San 100–1 group size 95 Etsuji, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171 pastoralists 113 Eulau, Saxony-Anhalt relations with forager societies 49, 55, arrowheads 119 82–5 Mesolithic ambush site 70 social structure 95–6 Neolithic mass grave 80 see also agriculture Eunapius, pagan writer 520 Faulkner, Neil 239 Euripides, Melanippe myth 390 Fei River, Battle of (383 CE) 284, 291 Europe Fertile Crescent, cities 27 Bronze Age warfare and weaponry 117–39 feuding 53–4 Iron Age 142–58, 441–58 Mesolithic 94 Neolithic period 79–97, 86 see also inter-group violence; intra-societal Roman army in 153–5, 157 violence warrior ideology 7 Fiavé-Carera, Italy, Bronze Age site 130 Eusebius fighting Church History 582 bodily techniques, pre-Bronze Age on Diocletian edicts against Christians 581 118 Martyrs of Palestine 582 close-quarters sword 124 Eutherius of Tyana 524 collaborative 136 evolution, warfare and 47 Bronze Age 122 excarnation face-to-face 69 Late Bronze Age 457 lines of battle, Bronze Age 121 Neolithic 314 and single combat (monomachia) 189, executions and death penalties 498, 509 ad bestias (Roman amphitheatre) 493–4, 564 techniques 125–6, 136 Athens 539 see also battles; sport; warfare burial alive 371, 420, 453 Filippokva, Russia, Iron Age weapon burials of captives 67, 366 (kurgans) 146, 150 for cowardly soldiers 694 Final (Late) Palaeolithic period 58 flaying alive 366, 374 burials 65, 75, 189 impalement (of enemies) 649 hunter-gatherer violence in 65–6 in Indian texts 600, 601 Fisher, Nick 382, 383 of poisoners in Persia 377 Fiskerton, Lincolnshire, Iron Age site 449 see also executions and death penalties, Fitzgerald, James 684, 695 Egypt; punishments Flaminius, Gaius, agrarian law (232 BCE) 404 executions and death penalties, Egypt food, as weapon, Egyptian warfare 191

714

Index

forager societies see hunter-gatherers Sulpicius and 408–10 fortifications Gat, Azar 6 and archaeology 43 Gaul, Iron Age 147, 450, 457 Bronze Age 26, 134–6, 139 human sacrifice 453 initial (IBA) 120 Julius Caesar on 143, 446 Italy 135 sanctuaries 449–50 Mycenae 134 see also Gallic Wars Chinese frontier 286 Gaza, destruction of Marnas temple 515 Iron Age 151–3 Gebel Sahaba see Jebel Sahaba oppida 151–3, 441 Geller, Stephen 626 Japan, Inland Sea 172 Gellius, Gnaeus, as intermediary 414 Maya 198, 207, 210 gender relations 32 Mesopotamian palaces and city walls 227 behavioural differences 51 see also hill forts; oppida; settlements and sexual dimorphism 51 Foucault, Michel 13 see also women Fowler, Michael 361 genetics France evidence for Neolithic population increased Neolithic violence 93 migrations 91–3 see also Gaul; Gournay-sur-Aronde; and warfare 48, 50–1 Marmesse; Massalia; Ribemont-sur- ‘warrior gene’ 51 Ancre; Saint-Césaire see also DNA Frank, Tenney 238 Germany Frankfurter, David 624 and Rome 143, 155, 248, 252, 254 Fravartish, of Media 366 violence of tribal fighters 249 Fregellae, near Rome, terracotta reliefs 655–6 see also Halberstadt; Herxheim; frescoes (wall paintings) Heuneburg; Manching; Talheim; chamber tomb 665–6 Tollense Greece 496 Gessert, Genevieve 669 mythological scenes 657–60, 659, 660, 669 Gibbon, Edward 36, 252 Pompeii 656–60 Gilgamesh, epic of 31, 221, 222, 467 The Frogs, comedy 541 wrestling 494 funerary monuments, Roman Gilmore, David, model of machismo allegorical 668 violence 382 depictions of war and violence 665–71 gladiators 505, 506, 508, 509, 558 sarcophagi 667–71, 668, 670 in domestic mosaics 661–5, 663, 664 funerary rites on funerary friezes 666, 667 Iron Age Britain 322, 339 in Roman elite retinues 403 LBK 306, 311 see also sport, combat, Roman and ritual violence 457 Glauberg, Germany, Iron Age statue 149 Roman Britain 323 Gloucester, Roman British mass grave 337 see also burials Goffart, Walter, on barbarian settlement of Roman Empire 258 Galba, Servius Sulpicius 245 Goths 263, 268 Gallic Wars sacking of Rome (410 CE) 268 Caesar’s account of 156, 157, 247–8 Gournay-sur-Aronde, France death toll 247 animal sacrifice 450 Gallienus, emperor, and Christians 581 Iron Age weapon deposits 148, 450 Gambash, Gil 251 Gracchus, Gaius, bodyguards 407 gang violence, early imperial Rome 415–16 Gracchus, Tiberius 414 gang violence, late republican Rome 400–16 agrarian legislation 406–7 employed by Marius 408 Gradište Idjoš, Serbia and intermediaries 414 arrowheads 129 at public assemblies 414 Bronze Age remains 117

715

Index

Grauballe Man, bog body (Jutland) 452 stone monuments, Provence 454–5, 456 Gravettian period 58, 64, 75 see also decapitation Greece, ancient heads, severed animal sacrifice 475–90 of enemies 632, 638–45, 640 Archaic Age 496 ritual treatment of 643, 650 athletic games 35, 495, 499 see also skulls; trophy body parts changing ideas of violence 534, 546 Hebrews, and Garden of Eden 34 combat sport 496–504 helmets 131 early Bronze Age fortifications 120 boar’s tusk 131 endemic violence 382, 383, 398 bronze sheet 131 festivals for gods 499 horned 132 gymnasia 499, 500 Iron Age 144 and honour-and-shame nexus 14, decorated 147 384–6 Waterloo bridge 147, 151 and myths of gods and heroes 34, Helvetii tribe 247 534 Hephaestus, son of Hera 388 violence against women 14, 380–98 Hera, wife of Zeus 388 in literature 387–94 ‘Punishment of’ 389 triggers for 396 Heraclius, emperor 259 warfare 552 Herman, Gabriel 537, 544 see also Athens; domestic violence hero-god, combat with monster, motif of 354 Greek language Herodotus, Histories bia (violence) 476, 533 Persian royal women 360, 362, 372 hybris (arrogance) 533 story of Amestris and Artaÿnte 363–70 thusia and sphagia (sacrifice) 477 on theatre 540 Grosseibstadt, Germany, Iron Age weapon heroism burial 146 Chinese view of 418, 432, 436 Grotte des Enfants, Liguria, Late Palaeolithic Indian view of 684–702 burials 65 Herxheim, Germany, Neolithic site 91, Gundestrup Cauldron 145, 148, 149 305, 314 Guti people, as threat to Akkad 230 Hesiod, on animals and justice 489 Heuneburg, Germany, hill fort 151, 152, 441 hagiography, Christian 516 hill forts Hahn, Johannes 512 Bronze Age defensive 120, 135, 151 Halberstadt, Germany destroyed by fire 135 Neolithic mass grave 80, 89, 310–11, 312 hill forts, Iron Age 151, 152, 443–7 victims as non-local 310 burials 325, 327, 329, 446, 454 Hallstatt scabbard 145, 148, 149 complex entrances 447 Hambledon Hill, Dorset 84 display of trophies at gates 446, 454 Hammurabi, king evolution of 444 conquests 233 lack of water 444, 446 Law Code stele 223, 225 shortcomings for defence 444–5, 447 Han Feizi, Chinese philosopher 430–1 symbolic interpretation 443, 445 Hanina ben Teradion, rabbi 574, 577 Hinduism see Brahmanism Hanson, Victor David 238 Hirabaru, Japan, Yayoi tomb 173 Harries, Jill 568 Hirschlanden, Germany, Iron Age statue 148 Harris, William V., War and Imperialism in Historian’s Records (Shiji), Chinese text 432, 434 Republican Rome 239, 244 Hittite empire 28 Hashiguchi, Tatsuya 166 Hjortspring, Denmark, Iron Age weapons Hathigumpha inscription, India 597 deposit 147, 448 headhunting Hobi, Japan, shell midden 164 Celtic ‘cult of the head’ 442, 454–7 Hochdorf, Germany, Iron Age weapon burial 145, 157

716

Index

Hodgson, Dawn 462 ritual killing of servants and burial with Hohlenstein-Stadel, Germany, Mesolithic elites 227 skull nest 73 Rome 35 Hokkaido, Japan, hunter-gatherers 160 Shang dynasty China 420 Holocene period 58 see also animal sacrifice Homer human sacrifice, Mesopotamia 460–73 on athletic events 496, 500 killing of royal retinue at death of kings Iliad 32, 497, 534 460, 461–4 violence against women 387–9 substitute king ritual 460, 468–72 Odyssey 32, 533, 534 humans homicide (murder) debate on nature of 99 Chinese terminology 431 violence as innate in 6, 19 and deaths in combat 253 Humphreys, Anthony 109 murder in Old Testament 31 Huns, and Roman warfare 262 by slaves of owner (Rome) 568 Hunter, Fraser 143 as tool of political intrigue (China) 430–1 hunter-gatherers Homo, earliest species 58 avoidance of conflict 21, 301 Homo erectus 58 ethnographers’ encounters with 49–50 evidence of violence 59–60 evidence of violence (Palaeolithic and Homo heidelbergensis 58 Mesolithic) 58–76, 82 evidence of violence 59–60 explorers’ accounts of 50 Homo neanderthalensis 58 Final (Late) Palaeolithic 65–6 see also Neanderthals in Japan 160 Homo sapiens 58, 59 Mesolithic 58 honour cultures 10 raiding warfare 40, 41, 48–50 honour-and-shame nexus in Greece 14, relations with farmers 49, 55, 82–5 384–6 social structure 82, 94 and level of abuse 394–6 and territory 93, 109, 300 and machismo 382 Upper Palaeolithic 64–5 and masculinity 10, 382, 394–6 see also San hunter-gatherers, Kalahari and women 11 hunting 35, 539 Horemheb, pharaoh 184 in Egyptian rock art 342 Hornish Point, Scotland, Iron Age sacrificial Greek literature on 481, 483 burial 453 India 601 horse pits, staked, Maya use of 214 Neanderthal risky strategies 61, 75 horses Roman arena spectacles 559 in Iron Age warfare 145 warfare equated with, in Egyptian see also cavalry depictions 181, 182–3, 195 Horus, Egyptian falcon god 344 Husain, Irfan 395 and Seth-animal myth 353–4 Hyksos, Theban attack on 193 Hulu caves, Nanjing, China, Pleistocene Hypatia, philosopher 513 skulls 60 human rights, in classical philosophy 490 Iberia human sacrifice 7, 35, 419 Bronze Age shields 121 Iron Age, evidence from burials 453–4 hilltop defensive fortifications 120 Iron Age Britain 327, 453 see also Spain bog bodies 327 Ignatius, Letter to the Romans 583 Maya 198, 210 Illerup Âdal, Jutland, Iron Age weapons of captives 201 deposit 448 children 202, 203 Inanna, Babylonian goddess 472 mass graves of victims 201, 203, 208, Inarus of Lybia 370 210 India Neolithic China 419 Buddhist non-violence 589

717

Index

India (cont.) Stele of the Vultures 224, 228, 634, 635, and concept of non-violence 7, 589, 604 643, 644 distinction between force and violence 590, violence and warfare in 221, 224 597, 604–5 Instruction of Merikare, Egyptian fiction 194 early cities 27 inter-group violence 51, 89 heroism and warrior identity 684–702 Iron Age 445 ideal of heroism 685 Britain 325 Jainist non-violence 589 Gaul 450, 457 kingship and violence 589–605 Late Palaeolithic 66 political treatises 600–1 Mesolithic 67, 69, 75, 113, 301 political violence 589 Neolithic 89–90, 300 religious traditions of non-violence and interpersonal violence 9, 14, 31 renunciation of violence 589 among forager societies 40 Vedic texts 32 Neanderthal 62 see also Brahmanism (Hinduism); prehistoric Japan 164 Buddhism; Jainism; kings and king- skeletal evidence of 59, 325, 337 ship; Maha¯bha¯rata; Sá¯nti Parvan; war- see also domestic violence; fighting; fare, India; warrior ideology homicide India, modern northern 395 intra-societal violence 40, 523 infanticide, religious meaning, China 293 ambush 70 injuries Late Palaeolithic 66 accidental 68, 74 management of 40 archaeological evidence of battle wounds and warfare 52–3 43, 54, 204 Iñupiaq people, Alaska 50, 52 assistance and care for 62, 64, 75 Ireland, Bronze Age shields 121, 122 blunt-force trauma 68, 69 Iron Age healed 108, 307, 324 early cities 27 parry fractures of ulna 68, 69 improved weaponry 28 penetrative weapons 62, 65, 66, 69, 75 see also hill forts; Iron Age, Britain; Iron Mesolithic 68, 70 Age, in Europe Neolithic arrows 303 Iron Age, Britain 321, 324–9 traumatic bone lesions 101, 108 hill forts 152 see also skeletons; skulls slaves 328 inscriptions Iron Age, in Europe 142–58 Chinese steles 283, 432–3 battlefields 153–5 Moabite Mesha stele 612 culture and society 441–2, 446 Roman 551 evidence of violence 142, 157 Zhou dynasty bronze vessels 423 fortifications 151–3 see also inscriptions: Indian, Maya, Gaulish sanctuaries 449–50 Mesopotamian (below); pictorial ritual violence 441–58 representations and Roman armies of conquest 157 inscriptions, Indian 599–600 scale of violence 142–4 Allahabad pillar 601 symbolism of weaponry 143, 145, 157, 443 Hathigumpha 597 weaponry 143–5, 150–1 inscriptions, Maya hieroglyphic 205, 206, written descriptions 156 216 see also hill forts emblem glyphs 206 Iron Gorge (Gates), Serbia, Lepenski Vir and Hieroglyphic Stairways 208 Vlassac Mesolithic sites 69 inscriptions, Mesopotamian 219, 231 Isara, battle of the River (146 BCE) 245 Assyrian 641 Ishizaki Magarita, Japan, Yayoi settlement steles 223, 225, 632, 646 site 171 stele of Dadusha 644 Israel, kings of 618–21 stele of Sargon 634, 636, 643 Itazuke, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171

718

Index

Iunius Brutus, Decimus, and first gladiatorial Joshua the Stylite, chronicler 267, 272 spectacle 504 Judah 611 Iximché, Guatemala, Maya fortification 210 Judaism and book of Daniel 574 Jainism 590 martyrdom in 573–7 dharma in 597 rabbinic literature 574–6 and laws of rebirth 590 and theory of martyrdom 575 non-violence 589 see also Bible on warfare 597–8 Judea James, Simon 143 kings of 618–21 Japan Ptolemaic control over Palestine 573 archaeological research trends 161–3 Julian, emperor 269 ecological diversity 160 persecution of Christians 523 Kojiki and Nihon shoki texts 32 Julius Caesar Japan, prehistoric 6, 160–77 account of Gallic Wars 156, 157, 247–8 agriculture and violence 160, 167, 174–6 assassination 248 archaeological record of violence 163–71, on battles 154, 264 164, 175 on construction of oppida 152 hunter-gatherers 160 and Dolabella 415 Jo¯mon period 160, 174 on Gauls 143, 446, 450 skeletal trauma 164–6 use of popular violence 410–11 population increases 174, 175 just war settlements 163, 171–2 Chinese notions of 281–5 warrior graves 168–9 Mesopotamian concept of 224 Yayoi period 160, 175, 176 Justinian, emperor 259, 273 skeletal trauma 166–8 elimination of religious dissent 515 warfare 162 and Nika riot 518 Jebel Sahaba, Sudan, Late Palaeolithic Qadan Juvenal, Satires 566 culture burials 66, 189 Jehu, king of Israel 619 Kaanul Snake Kingdom, Maya 205, 216 Jephthah 617 war with Tikal 205 Jericho 611 Kagan, Kimberley, The Eye of Command 264 Jerusalem 622 Kalahari Desert Jesus Christ 34 linguistic variations 109 death of 577–8, 617 and territorial ownership 109 and imitation of suffering and death see also San hunter-gatherers 578 Kalahari Research Group 99 ˙ Jewish War (66–73 CE) 250–1 Ka¯lida¯sa, Raghuvam´sa 602 and siege of Masada 250 Kalkriese, Germany, site of Battle of Jews Teutoburg Forest (9 CE) 154, 249 conversion, Minorca 525–7 Ka¯mandaka, N¯tisaı ¯ra 601 suicide by 577 Kaqchikel social group, Guatemala 210, violence against in late antiquity 515 212, 214 600–1 687 697–8 willingness to endure martyrdom Kaut˙ilya, Arthasá¯stra , , 572 Kavad, king of Persia 267 see also Judaism K’awiil Ajaw, Queen Lady of Coba 207 Jezebel, queen 368 Kebara, Israel, Late Palaeolithic burials 66 Joab, and Abner 619–20 Keegan, John 264 John Chrysostom, bishop 518 Keeley, Lawrence 92 Josephus War Before Civilization 21, 44, 55 account of Jewish War 250–1 Kennewick Man, North America 54 on martyrdom 574 Kessel, Roman battlefield 248 Joshua 611 Kharavela, Jaina king 598

719

Index

113 595 Khoekhoe pastoralists, South Africa Kuruks˙etra, battle of ’ 210 212 214 603 K iche social group, Guatemala , , Kus˙a¯na kings, India Kilianstädten see Schöneck-Kilianstädten Kyushu, Japan, Yayoi sites 166 kin networks 40 kings and kingship, India 589–605 La Tène, Switzerland administration of justice 593 decorative style 447 and armies led by disguised substitute 697 human remains 449 Buddhism and 598–600 Iron Age sword deposits 147, 150, 448, 449 classical model of 590 Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 582 and compassion 596 Lagash, Mesopotamia 224 compensation for inherent violence 597 wars with Umma 228, 645 and Danda, ‘Punishment’ 594 Langklip, South Africa, Later Stone Age ˙ ˙ and dharma (pious duty) 590, 591 remains 105, 105 and expediency of force 604 Late Neolithic Corded Ware culture and force in warfare 594–6 (CWC) 92 Maya people 203, 204, 215 Late Palaeolithic see Final Palaeolithic; Upper and practice of non-violence 591 Palaeolithic regicide sanctioned 597 Later Stone Age (Africa) 99, 104 role in encouraging soldiers in battle 695, archaeological evidence for violence 697–8, 701 101–8, 103 theories of origin of 592–4 scale of violence 114 kings, Mesopotamia see also San hunter-gatherers annual military campaigns 235 Latin claims of supremacy 225 meanings of violentia 476 divine kingship 220, 229, 235 sacriﬁcium and immolatio (sacriﬁce) 477 and domestic stability 224 Latium, Roman hegemony over 240 dynastic 227 LBK see Linearbandkeramik (LBK) period imagery 223 (Neolithic) military campaigns for booty 223, 231 Leakey, Richard 99 monopoly of violence 221, 223, 225, 234 LeBlanc, Steven 21 power of 223 Lee, Richard 100, 108 royal graves and death pits of Ur 461–4 legal codes scale of divine mandate 235 biblical ritual 616 substitute king ritual 460, 468–72 control and punishment 31 as war leaders 228 Greece 384, 536–7, 542–5 K’inich Janaab Pakal, Maya king of Judean (biblical) civil 613–16 Palenque 207 and legal treatment of animals 475, 477, K’inich Kan Bahlam, Maya king of 481, 483 Palenque 207 lex talionis 614 K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’, Maya king 204 Mesopotamia 223, 225, 226 Kinzig, Wolfram 515 and norms of violence 14 Kish, Mesopotamian city 228 see also Rome, republican Kishik, David 533 Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius 405 Kitakogane, Japan, Jo¯mon site 166 Levi, attack on Shechem 611 Klawans, Jonathan 609 Li Feng 423 Knossos, New Hospital site, bronze Libanius 522 helmet 131 For the Temples (381–92 CE) 515, 516 Ko¯jindani, Japan, Yayoi hoard 173 Libya, wars with Egypt 190 Korea, weapons in Japan 168, 170 Ligurians, mass deportation of 246 Kowoj social group, Maya 212 Lincoln, Iron Age shield in River Witham Krapina, Croatia, Neanderthal remains 61, 62 147, 150 Ksatriya (hereditary class) 591, 686, 690 Lincoln, Bruce 372, 625 ˙ varn˙ a Kuma Nishioda, Japan, Yayoi site 168 Lindow Man, Iron Age bog burial 328, 451

720

Index

Linearbandkeramik (LBK) period (Neolithic) Liu Bang, Former Han emperor 279, 292 90, 303, 306 Liu Bei, Shu-Han emperor 284 burials and mass killings 306–11 Liu Xiu, Later Han emperor 279, 284 funerary rituals 306, 311 Livy (Titus Livius) 550 Lisnacrogher, Ireland, Iron Age site 449 on battles 241, 555 literature on Celts 454 evidence of religious violence in late on Epirus 245 antiquity 516–17 on illegitimate use of violence 403–4 Tamil (Sangam) poetry 603 on Punic Wars 242 violence in 31 Second Macedonian War 243 see also literature: Chinese, Christian, clas- on Veii 240 sical, Egyptian, Greek, rabbinic, Llyn Cerrig Bach, Wales, Iron Age slave Sumerian (below); texts burial 328, 449 literature, Chinese 418 London, Iron Age weapons 147, 150 allusion to violence 421 Lorenz, Herbert 151 Annals 431–2, 435 Lövåsen, Sweden Book of Documents 422–3 Bronze Age weapons 127, 128 Book of Songs 421–2 rock art 132 Gongyang Commentary 435 Lü, empress, torture of rival 434 Historian’s Records (Shiji) 432, 434, 435 Lu Xun, and Daoist rebellion 293 Ritual Record 435 Lucan, poet 442 treatment of warfare in philosophical texts Lusitanians, Roman massacre of (150 BCE) 245 425–32 Luttwak, Edward 250 Zhou Rituals 435 Lysias, On the Death of Eratosthenes 545 Zuo Commentary 431, 435 literature, Christian Maba, China, Pleistocene skulls 60 and martyrdom 583 Maccabeans, martyrdom of 574, 576 and suicide (voluntary martyrdom) 583–4 Macedonia 552 literature, classical vegetarian 475, 477 Macedonian War, Second (200–197 BCE) 243 Porphyry 486–9 maces, pear-shaped, Egyptian 187 Theophrastus 485–6 McHardy, Fiona 360 literature, Egyptian 193, 194–5 machismo 382–3 fictional 194 Maddern, Philippa, ‘moral hierarchy of historical novel 195 violence’ 10 royal novel 194 magic, Egyptian recourse to 346 literature, Greek Maha¯bha¯rata, Sanskrit text 32, 593, 595, Callirhoe 394 684, 686 examples of violence against women in on compassion 596 387–94 and regicide 597, 604 and notion of good death 573, 585 Sá¯nti Parva 593–4, 684–6 timo¯ria (revenge) 368, 370 S´tr¯ı Parvan 700 and vengeful woman 360–1, 377 on warfare 687 literature, rabbinic 574–6, 577 Maha¯sudassana, king 598 Tosefta Shabbat 575 Maiden Castle, Dorset, hill fort 151, 152, 443, literature, Roman see Cicero; Josephus; Julius 444, 447 Caesar; Livy; Plutarch; Seneca; cemetery 155, 334 Tacitus Mailleraye-sur-Seine, France, Iron Age literature, Sumerian/Babylonian 463–4 weapon cremation 146 The Chronicle of Early Kings 471 Mamom pottery, Maya 202 The Death of Bilgames 463 Ma¯nava Dharmasá¯stra, treatise 687 The Death of Ur-Namma 464 Manching, Germany, Iron Age settlement Epic of Erra and Išum 467 148, 151, 153 Little Ice Age 47, 51 Manishtushu, king of Akkad 221

721

Index

Mannlefelsen, Alsace, Oberlarg Mesolithic of war captives by Chinese 287 skull nest 74 see also massacres, Neolithic Manu, and king as warrior 594, 687 massacres, Neolithic 299–317 Ma¯r-Issar, Babylonian scholar 469, 470 archaeological indicators 299, 301, 304 Marcellus of Apamea 524 as collective response to threats 315 Marcomanni, German tribe 252 evidence of 80, 88, 94, 96 Marcus Aurelius, emperor 252, 556 identification of 304–6 column 674 LBK burials and mass killings 306–11, 316 Marduk, god of Babylon 622 mass graves 299 Mari 644 men as perpetrators 312 cylinder seals 644, 647 patterns and peculiarities 311–15 Marincola, John 361 possible ritual nature of 314 Marius, Gaius, general 408 sites of conflict (unburied bodies) 299 alliance with Sulpicius 409–10 Massalia, France 442 Marlowe, Elizabeth 680 Matsugi, Takehiko 175 Marmesse, France, Bronze Age cuirasses 130 Mattern, Susan 238 marriage Maxentius, war with Constantine 678 monogamy, hunter-gatherers 94 Maya people 47, 198–217 polygynous, pastoralists 95 agriculture and settlement 200 Martial, on gladiators 506 city-states 199, 206 martyrdom 572–85 Colonial period 212–15 actively sought 523 divine kingship and dynasties 203, 204, 215 and choice of exile 580 Early Classic period 204–6 Christian 521, 523, 524, 577–84 food production 216 Christian literature on 583 historical periods 200 and classical notion of a good death human sacrifice 198 572–3, 585 intelligence gathering 214, 215 Judaism 573–7 Kaanul Snake Kingdom 205, 216 and suicide 576, 583–4 languages 199 Masada, siege of (73 CE) 250 Late Classic period 206–8 masculinity murals 198, 203 and honour 10, 382, 394–6 overview 199–202 in Indian warrior ideology 690, 698–9 population 210 and machismo 382–3 Post-classic period 210–12 Masistes, brother of Xerxes 363, 365 Pre-classic period 202–4 mass graves research and knowledge of 198–9 Maya Terminal Classic period 208–10 massacre victims 209 world beliefs 201 sacrificial victims 201, 203, 208, 210 see also warfare, Maya Mayapan 211 Mayapan, Mexico, Maya fortification 210, Neolithic 25, 306–11 211, 216 Halberstadt 80, 89, 310–11, 312 Cocom and Xiu conlict 213 Kilianstädten 80, 88, 309–10 Mead, Margaret 50 massacre victims, disorganised 299 Medbo, Sweden, Bronze Age weapons 127 Talheim 80, 88, 89, 307–8, 311 medicine Roman Gloucester 337 and care for injuries 62, 64, 75 see also burials human sacrifice 460 massacres use of scapegoat 460 China 287 Medinet Habu, Thebes, mortuary tomb 182 Jutland 448 Megabyzus, of Persia 370 of Lusitanians (150 BCE) 245 Melkbosstrand, South Africa, Later Stone Age Maya royal family at Yaxuna 205 remains 105 Mesolithic 301 Memmius, Gaius 412

722

Index

men treatment of enemies 634–7, 648 and biblical civil legal codes 614 violence as cultural element 631 and machismo 382–3 violence in war 632, 637 mass grave as evidence of inter-group world view of conquest 222–3 conflict 89 wrestling 494 murder of single dangerous male 53 see also Akkad; Assyria; Babylon; kings; skeletal evidence of violence 326 Sumeria; Syria; Ur; warfare, see also domestic violence; masculinity; Mesopotamia patriarchy; warriors; women Mexico see Bonampak; Chichen Itza; Maya Mencius, Chinese philosopher 282 people; Mayapan; Yaxuna aversion to violence 427 migration Merneptah, pharaoh 188, 191 barbarian tribes 36 Meskalamdug, Sumerian king 463 Chinese forcible 291 Mesoamerica 200 evidence of Neolithic 91–3, 301 see also Chichen Itza; Maya people; Nahua Roman Britain 337, 338, 339 Mesolithic era millenarianism, China 294 burials and cemeteries 69, 70, 71, 73 Milo, Titus Annius, and Clodius 403, 412 defined 58 Minami-Usu, Hokkaido, Jo¯mon site 165, 166 evidence of violence 66–74 Minamikata, Japan, Yayoi site 168 feuding 94 Minatogawa, Japan, late Pleistocene site 164 intensification of violence 66, 67, 75 Minorca, conversion of Jews 525–7 inter-group violence 67, 69, 75, 113, 301 burning of synagogue 525, 526, 527 massacres 301 Mirgissa, Egyptian fortress 185 Mesopotamia 219–36, 630 Miriam bat Tanhum 575 cities, city-states 27, 30, 219, 221–2, 227 Mithridates of Caria, eunuch at court of concept of just war 224 Persia 374 cultures of 460 Moab, king of 617 definition 219, 629 Moabites 612, 623 Early Dynastic period 227–8 Mochlos, Crete, Agora Bronze Age burials 133 economy 231, 232 Moctezumah, Aztech emperor 214 environment 226 Modder River, South Africa, Later Stone Age examples of violence 632–7 remains 105, 107 growth of territorial state 221, 224, 228, 233 Modrzejewski, Joseph Mélèze- 482 historical developments 226–34 Molina, Manuel 231 Inana goddess 222 Molleson, Theya 462 later period 235–6 Mommsen, Theodor 238 law codes 223, 225, 226 Monkodonja, Croatia, Bronze Age military campaigns 220, 221, 235, 460 fortifications 120 myths and epics 465–8 monks, Christian, conscription into Roman Neo-Assyrian Empire 235, 362 army 271 Persian invasion (502–5 CE) 267 monomachia (single combat in battle) 189, punishment of crime 460 498, 509 relations of gods and kings 634 Mont Lassois, France, hill fort 151 religious ritualised violence 633–4 Montejo the Younger, and Maya 213 representations of violence 629–52 Montfort Saint-Lizier, France, Late public access to 649 Palaeolithic burials 65 visibility of 646–50 Monthuhotep II, pharaoh 194 royal graves and death pits of Ur 461–4 Morris, Alan 102, 103 spectacularisation of violence 633, Morris, Ian 28, 46 637–46, 652 Morse, Edward 161 substitute king ritual 460, 468–72 mosaics, Roman, domestic gladiatorial scenes temples 645, 651 661–5, 663, 664 Third Dynasty of Ur 230–3 Moses, prophet 610, 611, 612

723

Index

Mountain Arapesh tribe, New Guinea 50 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon 621, 622 Mozi, Chinese intellectual, on violence Nefertiti, queen of Egypt 193 428–9 Nehemiah, at court of Artaxerxes I 376 Mulhouse-Est, LBK cemetery 90 neighbours murder see homicide and domestic violence 395 Mursa, Battle of (351 CE) 271 and public order in Rome 400 mutilation Nemean games, Argos 499 and display of body parts 190 Kreugas–Damoxenos boxing match Egypt 190, 352 501 of enemy on battlefield 190, 365, 366, Neo-Assyrian Empire 235 643 Royal Annals 362 and Neolithic massacres 310, 313 see also Ashurbanipal Persia 366, 374 Neolithic era 24, 79–97, 86 of women 364, 367, 369, 614, 615 cemeteries 83, 90, 304–6 see also decapitation; dismemberment changing patterns of violence 25, 79 Mycenae enclosures 25, 83, 92 Bronze Age shields 121 evidence for population migrations fortifications 134 91–3, 301 organic armour 131 evidence of violent skeletal trauma 81, shaft graves 136 85–9, 86, 87 myths factors in collective violence 302, 315 Babylonian epic of creation of humans in-group and out-group violence 89–90, 466–7, 651 300 Chinese Yellow Emperor 292 increased inequality 93–6, 300 flood story 354, 467–8 LBK burials and mass killings 306–11 of golden (peaceful) past 34, 45 massacres 299–317 Greek 34, 390, 534 move to settled farming communities hero-god and monster 354 79, 300 Horus and Seth 353–4 need for cooperation 300, 302 Mesopotamian 465–8 population growth 83, 95, 315 Roman 34, 668, 668–9 scale of violence 80, 94, 96 in frescoes 657–60, 659, 660, 669 social norms of violence 90–1 Sumerian 222 use of tools as weapons 302–3 see also Linearbandkeramik; mass graves; Nabatake, Japan, Yayoi site 171 weaponry, Neolithic Nagano Miya-no-mae, Japan, Yayoi site 167 Nestorius 524 Nagy, Gregory 535 Netherworld Nahua (Aztec) people 201 Egyptian 186, 190 as allies of Spanish 214 Mesopotamian 464, 472 Naka, Japan, Yayoi settlement site 171 New Guinea Nakao, Hisashi 164 Dani people 48 Naram-Sin, king of Akkad 229 Mountain Arapesh tribe 50 Naram-Sin stele 223 Nguni cattle herders, South Africa 111, 113 Nasica, Scipio, opposition to Tiberius Nicanor, governor of Judea 576 Gracchus 406–7 Nicomedia, destruction of Christian church Nataruk, Lake Turkana, Kenya, Mesolithic (303 CE) 581 inter-group violence 67, 75, 113, 301 Nietszche, Friedrich 475 Native American tribes, Pequot 446 Nigeria, Kano dynasty 362 Neanderthals 58 Nika riot (532 CE), Constantinople 518, 562 archaeological sites 61, 62, 63, 75 Nile, river, changes in flooding patterns 47 care for injured people 62, 75 Nimrud, North-West Palace relief 639 evidence of violence in 60–4, 75 Nineveh, Assyrian relief 642, 650 risky hunting strategies 61, 75 Ningirsu, god 224, 634

724

Index

Niobids, Roman sculptural groups 661 defined 58 Nippur Murder Trial, Mesopotamia 225 rarity of human remains 59 Nirenberg, D. 513 warfare 6 Nock, Arthur Darby 572 see also Final (Late) Palaeolithic period; non-violence, India 7, 33, 589–605 Later Stone Age (Africa); Upper Buddhist 589 Palaeolithic and compensation for unavoidable Palenque, Mexico, Maya site 204, 207 violence 597 Pannonia, rebellion against Rome 249 impossibility of absolute 596 Parkington, John 112 Jainism 589 Parthia as part of dharma 595 Arsacid regime 258, 260 practice of 591 invasion of Roman Empire (161 CE) 252 Norbanus, Gaius, tribune of the plebs, trial (95 and Rome 254 BCE) 404–6 see also Persia Nordheim, Germany, Iron Age weapon Parysatis, queen of Persia 372 deposits 148 blinding of eunuch Mithridates of Caria 374 Nozick, Robert, theory of revenge 368, 369 and death of eunuch Artoxares 373 Nubia and death of eunuch Bagapates 374 Egyptian campaigns in 184, 191, 195 rivalry with Stateira 375–6 Egyptian slave raids in 347 Pass Lueg, Austria, Bronze Age helmet 131 Nuceria, riot (53 CE) 656 Paterculus, Velleius 247 Nydam, Denmark, Iron Age weapons Patrae, annual bonfire to Artemis 481 deposit 448 patriarchy modern traditional cultures 386–7, 394–6 Ofnet (Groβe Ofnet), Bavaria, skull nests 71–3, see also domestic violence; wife beating 72, 75, 82, 305 patron deities oikos (family, family property, house), Chemosh of Moab 612, 617, 623 traditions of 384–6 Queen of Heaven 623 Oldcroghan Man, Irish bog body 451 role of 621 Olmo di Nogara, Italy, Agora Bronze Age violence against own people 622, 623, 626 burials 133 patronage, Roman clientela institution 401, Olympia, athletic games 495, 496, 499 566 Ōmori shell midden, Tokyo 161 Paul, St 578 Opimius, Lucius, consul 407 Paullus, Aemilius 245 oppida, Iron Age 148, 151–3, 441 Paulus Orosius, on massacre by Cimbric oracle bones, China 420 warriors 449 Oresteia 541 Pausanias, regent of Sparta 537 Osterby Man, bog body (head), Germany 452 Pausanius Östra Gerum, Sweden, Bronze Age cloak on animal sacrifice 479, 481 armour 131 on boxing 501 Ostwald, M. 546 Pax Romana 252–3 Otterbein, Keith 175 peace Ottoman Empire, harem politics 363 Christian emphasis on 519, 522 Ötzi, Tyrolean Iceman 54 evidence for periods of 45 Neolithic period 79 Pachomius, Egyptian monk 270 see also non-violence paganism Pedanius Secundus, L., murder of 568 crimes of 521, 528 Pentheus, death of (fresco) 658, 659 Egypt and 520 Perpetua, Christian martyr, dream 493–4, late Roman legislation against 515 504, 505 persecution of Christians 522 Persepolis, reliefs 365 paintings see frescoes Persia, Achaemenid 360–78, 552 Palaeolithic era dynastic politics 361

725

Index

Persia, Achaemenid (cont.) Pierce, Leslie 363 poisonings at court 376 Pindar 476, 503 power of women in royal court 362–3, 372 Pinker, Steven 6 punishment of eunuchs 372–5 Better Angels of Our Nature 22 punishment techniques 366 Piye, king of Nubia 191 rivalries in harem 377 Plataea, battle of (479 BCE) 498 Persian Empire 235 Plato 33 cavalry and archery 262 Euthyphro dialogue 544 rise of 29 Laws 482, 483 Sassanid dynasty 254, 258 Republic 535 and siege warfare 265, 266 Plautus, on slaves 566 as threat to Rome 258, 260, 269 Pleistocene era 58, 59 treatment of captured Roman cities 268 Plettenberg Bay, South Africa, Later Stone use of elephants 266 Age remains 106 use of sulphur fumes 266 Pliny 245 see also Parthia and Christians in Bithnyia-Pontus 579 The Persians, tragedy 540 plunder Peru, ritual warfare 40 after battles, Egypt 190 Pescennius Niger, claimant to Roman displayed in Roman houses 655 Empire 677 by Roman army 254, 554, 556 Petasakes, eunuch at court of Persia 373 Plutarch 375 Petite Chasseur, Switzerland, depictions of on Epirus 245 weapons 120 on Gallic Wars 248 Petrie, Sir W. M. Flinders 464 Life of Alcibiades 392–4, 542 Petronius, on gladiators 507 on Punic Wars 242 Pfeiffer, Susan 108, 112, 115 on slaves 566 evidence of violent trauma 102, 103 story of flaying of Bagapates/Mastabates pharaohs, Egypt 342–5 374, 375 as avatars of Horus 344 on Sulpicius 410 icons of power 187–8, 343 poison retinue, Followers of Horus (smsw-Hr) 348 San arrowheads 108, 110 smiting with mace 188, 344, 347 use at Achaemenid court of Persia 376, trampling of enemies 188 377 and waf-khasout (bending back) gesture 188 Polybius, on Punic Wars 242 Philip II, king of Macedonia 552 Polycarp, martyr 577 Philip V, king of Macedonia 243 Pompeii, frescos and sculptures 656–60 Philo Judaeus of Alexandria 503 Pompey (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) 247 Philostratus, on the pancratiast Arrhachion and Cicero 410, 412 501, 503 triumph 554 The Phoenician Women, play 540 and use of popular violence 410 Phrynichus, general 538 population pictorial representations Iron Age estimates 441 Egyptian warfare 32, 179–95 Japan 174, 175 Fregellae terracotta reliefs 655–6 Maya 210 inlays (Mesopotamia, Syria) 640, 646 Neolithic rise of 83, 95, 315 Iron Age warriors and weapons 148–50 and warfare 51 Japanese warriors 172 population density, and body size 109 Roman warfare, Trajan’s column 252, 672, Porphyry 515 675, 676 Abstaining from Meat 486–9 see also cylinder seals; frescoes; inscriptions; and rights of animals 490 mosaics; rock art; sculpture; statues sacrifice of cattle 487 Piedras Negras, Mexico 216 sacrifice of pigs 486 rivalry with Yaxchilan 207 sacrifice of sheep 487

726

Index

Port, Switzerland, Iron Age sword burial alive 371 deposits 147 flaying alive 366, 374 Portonaccio sarcophagus 669–71, 670 gouging out of eyes 373 Poseidonius, on Celts 454 molten lead in ears 374 Postumius, Marcus, publicanus 403, 411 mutilations 366 Praetorian Guard, Rome 249, 557 pricking of eyeballs 371, 373 Prexaspes, Cupbearer at court of public display 374 Cambyses 376 ‘Trough’ or ‘Boats’ 371 priests punishments, Rome 563–5 violence by (Bible) 616–18 hierarchy of 563 see also clergy in late antiquity 517 primates, aggression and violence 22, 49 for slaves 564, 565–6 prisoners of war, Egypt 184 Pyrrhic War 242, 244 acculturation into Egypt 192 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus 242 binding of 185, 193 Pythian games, Delphi 499, 503 care for 190 treatment of 186 Qafzeh, Israel, Neanderthal juvenile burial prisoners of war, Rome, ransom 274 63, 75 Procopius 263, 264 Quadi, German tribe 252 Propertius, on animal sacrifice 479 Quirigua, Honduras, Maya kingdom 208 property Q’umarkaj, Guatemala, Maya fortification acquisition and protection of 33 210 and oikos 384–6 Quoin Point, South Africa, female Later Pṛthu, king as warrior 593 Stone Age skeleton 101, 102 Pseudo-Demosthenes 543–4 public monuments raiding battle imagery (Roman) 676–7 death rates and pervasiveness 41 to civil conflict (Arch of Constantine) by forager parties 40, 48–50, 94 678–81, 679 Maya 201 emperor Claudius 672, 673 Ra¯ma¯yana, Sanskrit text 593, 595, 604 paintings as models for 676 Ramesses III, pharaoh 182, 191 Roman provincial 672, 676 ‘Rape of the Sabine Women’ 550 Rome 671–81 Razis, martyrdom of 576–7 of victory 672 rebellions 15 see also funerary monuments Britain (Boudicca) 249, 334 Punic Wars 242–3, 244 China 287, 292, 293, 294 Second 35 Roman Empire 249, 569 Third 245 records, written punishments earliest 27 Athens 539 see also literature; texts biblical ritual codes 616 Reformation, view of religious violence 514 and lex talionis (retributive) 614 Reiss, Werner 533, 536, 544 and status 33 religion see also executions and death penalties association of monotheism and violence punishments, Egypt 351–2 513–14, 625 100 lashes 351 Iron Age societies 442, 446 exile 352 and legitimation of violence 7 of foreign enemies 184 and military ritual, China 292–3 incarceration 351 and modern state toleration 514 mutilation 352 and ritualised violence 7, 446 recourse to magic 346 violence motivated by 8 punishments, Persia 366 see also Bible; Buddhism; Christianity; cos- blinding 366, 373, 374 mology; Jainism; Judaism; symbolism

727

Index

religious violence Kalahari 110, 111, 113 sacred killing (Mesopotamia) 633 Scandinavia 121, 129, 132 see also Bible; religious violence, late anti- Rollinger, Robert 360, 363 quity; ritual violence Roman army 555–6 religious violence, late antiquity 512–28 acts of genocide 334 critique of narrative of 515–20 archers 262, 263 destruction of temples 515 auxiliary troops 143, 249 language of 518 cavalry 246, 262, 263 nature of 513 changes in battle tactics in late antiquity pre-Christian 512 263–6 representation of violence as citizen militia 555 Mesopotamia and Syria 629–52 combat engineers 246 Roman 654–82 conscription 270–1 see also coins; frescoes; inscriptions; litera- demonstrations against levy (151 BCE) 246 ture; pictorial representations; rock discipline 238, 243, 253–4 art; sculpture; statues effect of Christianity on morale 274 resources, competition for 23, 302 evidence of brutality 245–6, 254 revenge field armies 272–3, 275 as duty in China 434–6 frontier forces 272 as justification for war 285 heavy infantry 246, 262 theory of 368 hoplite system (militia) 240 revenge violence 85 increased size of 270, 273, 275 in Greece 540, 546 institutional violence in late antiquity 270–3 Rome 562 and Iron Age Europe 153–5, 157 by women 360–78 legions 246, 249 see also vigilantism manipular legion system 242 R̥ gveda, heroic champion in, 685, 691 phalanx organisation 254 Rhine, river, late Roman frontier 259, 269 professionalisation 246, 249, 556 Ribemont-sur-Ancre, France tattooing 270 Iron Age weapon deposits 148, 450 Roman Empire 36, 550–70 ossuaries 450 and aggression 254 Riches, David 608, 609 animal sacrifice 475–90 Ridley, Matt 95 civil war (191–93 CE) 254 Riot in the Amphitheatre, fresco in Pompeii conquered people’s perception of 249 656 control of 252 riots domestic depictions of war and violence Antioch 518 655–65 Constantinople 518, 562 Early 248–55 in late antiquity 518, 562 emperors as military leaders 556 Nuceria 656 funerary monuments 665–71 and public ritual 518 gang violence in 415–16 at Roman circuses 561, 656 gladiatorial spectacles 505–10, 557–60 Roman theatre 561 increased tempo of warfare 254 ritualised violence 5, 35 invasion of Britain 249, 323, 332, 333 and biblical notion of abomination 615–16 life expectancy 569 divine sanction for 618 Marcus Aurelius’ column 252 Iron Age Europe 441–58 nature of imperialism 238, 245 killing of children (biblical) 617–18 Pax Romana 252–3, 254, 260, 569 and religion 7, 446 provincial monuments 672 see also animal sacrifice; human sacrifice; rebellions 249, 569 religious violence representations of war and violence 654–82 rock art Severan dynasty 254 Egypt 342 third-century endemic civil war 254

728

Index

triumphs (for victorious generals) 554, agrarian laws 404, 406–7 560, 671 animal sacrifice 475–90 Year of the Four Emperors (69–70 CE) 251 aristocratic military virtues 553–4 see also Roman army; Roman Empire, late brutality as exceptional 245, 250–1 antiquity; Rome, republican chariot races 560–1 Roman Empire, late antiquity 257–75 civil unrest 247, 563 alliance of church and state 514 client states 243 Arab invasions 257, 259 clientela relationship 401, 566 barbarian invasions 254, 258, 259, 261 collegia (local community associations) 401, changing social and religious identities 411–12, 413, 416 516, 527 Conflict of the Orders 404 Christianity in 273, 512 culture of militarism 551–7, 654, 681 persecution 522, 524, 578–81, 582 gang violence 400–16 violent imposition of 513, 515 gladiatorial games 35, 557–60 civil wars 260, 261 human sacrifice 35 and Danube frontier 259 individual use of force 400 emphasis on defence 273 Late Republic 246–8 fall of Western Empire 257 law on violence (lex de vi) 563 forms of popular violence 517–18 Middle Republic 242–6 history and historiography 257–62 and myths of Saturn’s Italy 34 military competition for imperial office 261 neighbourhoods 401 moral condemnation of violence 519 open concept of community 552–3 pagan acts outlawed 515 patriarchal control 9, 566 and Persia 260, 269 provincial system of government and Rhine frontier 259, 269 243 warfare compared with Pax Romana 260, punishments 563–5 274 hierarchy of 563, 564 see also Roman army; Rome, city of; Rome, religious festivals 560 republican representations of war and violence 654–82 Roman navy 249, 551 domestic depictions 655–65 Romano-Bosporan conflict (49 CE) 250 rise of 29 Rome, city of sacking by Gauls (387 BCE) 241 Arch of Constantine 678–81, 679 self-help for maintenance of public order Arch of Septimius Severus 676 400–1, 404–6, 562–3, 570 Asylum (Capitoline Hill) 553 slaves in 565–6 Baths of Caracalla, Farnese Bull social hierarchy 569 sculpture 677 Social War (91–88 BCE) 247, 408 Christian catacombs 574 taxation 34 Circus Maximus 560 theatrical spectacles 561–2 Flavian Amphitheatre (Colosseum) 506, tribunes’ use of popular violence 404–6, 554, 557 407–8 Horti Lamiani sculptures of Niobids 661 triumphs (for victorious generals) 554, Horti Sallustiani sculptures of Niobids 560 661, 662 Twelve Tables (law code) 563 monumental buildings 554, 556 use of private guards to disrupt public public monuments 671–81 business 403, 414 sack by Goths (410) 268 violence against lower orders 566–9 Trajan’s Column 252, 672, 675, 676 and claim of powerlessness 567–8 Vandals at (455) 269 violence of early Rome 239–42, 550, 552 victory monuments 672 war with Greek city-states (280 BCE) 242 see also Latin; Roman Empire; Rome, wars of conquest 552 republican assimilation of conquered peoples as Rome, republican 550–70 allies (socii) 241

729

Index

Rome, republican (cont.) depictions of violence on 667–71, 668, 670 and punitive actions 251 mythological scenes 668, 668–9 see also Roman army; Roman Empire; Sargon, king of Akkad 28, 228, 229, 621 warfare, Rome stele of 634, 636, 643 Romulus 550 Sarmatians, invasion on Roman frontier 252 Roymans, Nico 143 Saturninus, Gaius Sentius, consul 415 Ruffell, I. 541 Saturninus, Lucius Appuleius, tribune 407 Rufinus, account of the destruction of the Scandinavia Serapeion 520–2 fortifications 135 Russell, Frank 251 Iron Age depositions 448 martial symbolism 137 sacrifice 7, 35, 512 Mesolithic sites 70 battle as (India) 691–4 rock art 121, 129, 132 Christian view of pagan 521, 522, 528 see also Denmark; Sweden of grain, incense and honey 484, 485 scapegoats see also animal sacrifice; human sacrifice; and doctrine of substitutions 471–2 ritual violence substitute king ritual 460, 468–72 Saint-Césaire, Roche-à-Pierrot, France, used in Mesopotamian medicine Neanderthal remains 62, 63, 75 460 Sakaeiso, Hokkaido, Jo¯mon site 165, 165 Schela Cladovei, Romania, Late Mesolithic Saldanha Bay, South Africa, Later Stone Age site 69 remains 106 Scheper-Hughes, Nancy and Lock, Sallust 553 Margaret 691 Samaria, capital of ancient Israel 621 Schmidt, Bettina 608 violence against women of 366 Schöneck-Kilianstädten, Neolithic mass grave Samnites, Roman treatment of 247 80, 88, 309–10 Samudragupta, Gupta emperor 602 evidence of mutilation 310, 313 San Bartolo, Guatemala, Maya site 203 Schröder, Ingo 608 San hunter-gatherers, Kalahari 99 Scipio Africanus 242 conflict with Nguni cattle herders 111, 113 Scripture on Great Peace, China 293 disputes over women 100, 108, 115 Scullard, H. H. 238 ethnographical study of 100 Sculptor’s Cave, Scotland, evidence of and European colonists 110 decapitation 457 historical reports of violence 110 sculptures reputation as peaceful 100 bas-reliefs, Mesopotamia 632, 639, 642, 646, rock art 110, 111, 113 650, 651 use of poisoned arrows 108 colossal groups (Caracalla) 677 San Juan Ante Portam Latinam, Spain, of Indian kings 602 Neolithic site 85 monuments of war (Mesopotamia) 645, San Teodoro, Sicily, Late Palaeolithic 646 burials 65 Neolithic China 419 Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Heleen 365, 375 Roman 661, 662 sanctuaries, Iron Age see also inscriptions; statues Gaulish 449–50 Seleucids, defeat by Rome 243 weapon deposits 148 self-help Sannai Maruyama, Japan, Jo¯mon settlement for maintenance of public order (Rome) site 171 400–1, 404–6, 562–3, 570 Sanskrit, negative compound words 589 and vigilantism in classical Athens 536, 537, Sá¯nti Parvan 593–4, 684–6 542, 545 rules of warfare 687 self-inflicted violence Santosuosso, Antonio 246 to avoid conscription into Roman army 271 sarcophagi, Roman see also suicide battle scenes 669–71, 670 Semonides, On Women (Greek poem) 389

730

Index

Seneca, Lucius Annaeus 550, 570 Shizukawa, Hokkaido, Jo¯mon settlement Sennacherib, king of Assyria 235, 621, 641, 650 site 171 Sentium, Battle of (295 BCE) 241 Sho¯goro¯Tsuboi 161 Senwosret III, pharaoh 344 Shu-Suen, king of Ur 232 Septimius Severus, emperor 556 Shulgi, king of Ur 230 monuments 676–7 siege warfare Serapeion, Alexandria, destruction of (391 CE) Assyrian 648 513, 515, 520–2 China 287, 291 Sertorius, Quintus 247 Egypt 349 servants Persian 259, 265, 266, 269 ritual slaughter and burial with elites 227, see also siege warfare, Roman 420, 460 siege warfare, Roman 246, 262, 275 see also slaves Amida 266 Sestius, Publius 412 barbarians and 268 settlements Carthage 243 Bronze Age, Crete 135 Edessa 267 China, fortified 291 food and logistics 267 Iron Age 151–3, 441, 446 killing of captives 241, 243, 268 Japan 163, 171–2 Masada 250 entrance gates 172 pogrom of Jews in Constantina 267 watchtowers 172 Valentia 247 Maya 200, 202 Sihyaj K’ahk’, Maya king 204, 205 defensible 203, 210 Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca, Spain, see also cities; fortifications Pleistocene skulls 60, 74 Sety I, pharaoh 195 Sima Qian 436 Severus, bishop, on conversion of Jews of Historian’s Records (Shiji) 432, 434 Minorca 525–7 Simeon, attack on Shechem 611 sexual dimorphism, and male inter-group Situla Art, Iron Age 149 conflict 51 Skedemosse, Sweden, Iron Age massacre sexual violence 5, 14 deposit 448 in Greek comedy 541, 542 skeletons, evidence from within family in Athens 383, 534 Bronze Age weapon-inflicted trauma shabti figurines, in Egyptian burials 465 132 Shalmaneser III, king of Assyria 650 carnivore gnawing 309, 310, 314, 325 shame, and honour cultures 10, 14, 384–6 disarticulated 326 Shang Yang, The Book of Lord Shang 429–30 Egyptian weapon trauma 189 Shanidar, Iraq, Neanderthal remains 62, 75 of interpersonal violence 59, 325, 337 Sharples, Niall 143 Iron Age weapon trauma 156, 324, 326 Shenoute, Egyptian abbot 516 Later Stone Age forager violence 102–8 Sherwin-White, Adrian 579 Neanderthal injuries 61 Shield Jaguar III, Maya king of Yaxchilan 208 Neolithic violent trauma 81, 85–9, 86, shields, Bronze Age 121–2 87 bronze 121 massacre sites 303, 307–8, 313 and fighting techniques 136 sharp force (arrows) 309, 313 figure of eight 121 parry fractures of ulna 68, 69 round 121 performative violence 326, 327, 329, 339 tower 121 processing of sacrificial victims, Maya wood and leather, Ireland 121, 122 210 shields, Iron Age see Battersea Shield trauma, Japan 163–8 Shimizukaze, Japan, pictorial jar 172 trauma to long bones 313 Shimon ben Gamli’el, rabbi 574, 575 traumatic bone lesions 101, 108 Shinmachi, Japan, Yayoi site 167 violence against women 55, 69

731

Index

skeletons, evidence from (cont.) society war injuries 43, 54, 204 and acceptability of violence 4, 13 see also injuries; skeletons: evidence of and norms of violence 17, 90–1 health, healed lesions (below); skulls role of low-level violence 31 skeletons, evidence of health and diet 323, 329 see also intra-societal violence; social Iron Age Britain 329 hierarchy and origin 310 Sogdianus, pretender to Persian throne 372 Roman Britain 337–8 soldiers stress indicators 324, 337 billeting of Roman field armies 272–3, 275 skeletons, healed lesions 108, 307 hereditary (China) 290 Iron Age Britain 324 and religion 273 skull nests and severed heads of enemies 639–40, 640 Hohlenstein-Stadel 73 specialist 28 Ofnet, Bavaria 71–3, 82 violence against civilians 272 skull racks, Maya 209, 214 see also Chinese army; Roman army; skulls warriors blunt-force injuries Solomon, king of Israel 620 Japan 165, 165, 166 Solon, on law on animals 483 Neolithic massacres 308, 309, 310, 312 South America healed lesions 62, 63, 64, 66, 70 forager raiding warfare 42 Maya 203 see also Yanomamo people injury evidence 59, 72 Spain Neolithic 85, 87 increased Neolithic violence 93 location of injuries 59, 72, 72 and Maya peoples 212–15 hat brimline, Neanderthal 61 Spartans 537, 574 Pleistocene 59 spear throwers, Maya 204, 209 see also skeletons spears 119, 126–7 Sky Witness, Kaanul Maya king 206 cutting edges 127 slaves European styles 126 Athens 33, 539 fighting styles 126 ‘culpable’ 482 Roman 254 enslavement after sieges 268 split socket (Aegean) 126 Iron Age Britain 328 Sweden 127, 128 mass enslavement by Rome 245, 250, 254 Upper Palaeolithic 65, 75 as part of Roman elite retinues 402 Spierenburg, Pieter 3 Roman Britain 337 Spišský Štvrtok, Slovakia, Bronze Age Roman punishments for 564, 565–6 fortifications 120 in Rome 565–6 sport status of 33, 565 Greek athletic games (agones) 35, 495, 499 see also servants Maya ball games 201 Snuifklip, South Africa, Later Stone Age and violence with animals 15 remains 105 wrestling (Mesopotamia) 494 social hierarchy see also sport, combat and biblical civil legal codes 614 sport, combat, Egypt and Indian ´su¯ra heroic warrior 684, 700 stick fighting 184 Iron Age Britain 321, 324 wrestling 184 punishment defined by 563, 564 sport, combat, Greece 496–504 Rome 569 boxing 496, 497–8, 500–1 violence against lower orders 10, 33, 566–9 Bronze Age depictions 496–7 social inequality, Neolithic increased 93–6, funerary games 497 300 ideology of ‘victory or death’ 503–4 social substitution 84 importance of spectators 497 Social War (91–88 BCE), Italy 247 Mycenaean sword fighting 496

732

Index

pancratium (wrestling/boxing) 494, 501–3 Strauss, Barry 392 prizes 498 substitute king ritual violence as ‘valuable’ 495 apotropaic rites 470, 471 wrestling 500 choice of substitute 469–70 sport, combat, Roman gladiatorial 494, Mesopotamia 460, 468–72 504–10, 557–60 process of 470 Christian rejection of 522 sacrifice of substitute 471 depicted in domestic mosaics 661–5, 663, 664 substitutions, doctrine of 471–2 depicted on funerary friezes 666, 667 Suetonius 655 given by local elites throughout empire suicide 509–10, 558 Jews 577 in Greek world 508 and martyrdom 576, 583–4 lanista (trainer) 504 as punishment for elite Romans 564 as munus (duty) 504, 505, 558 Suku Okamoto, Japan, Yayoi site 173 origins in aristocratic funerals 504–5, 558 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius 247, 409 as purposive violence 508 Sulpicius, Publius, tribune referees 506 alliance with Marius 409–10 role of the crowd 506 employment of gangs 408–10 rules and conventions 507–8 Sumeria 28 signal of submission 506 culture 460, 465 types of armament 507 myth composition 222 Staré Hradisko, Czech Republic, Iron Age Sun En, Daoist rebel 293 oppidum 153 Sund, Norway, Bronze Age remains 117, 133 state violence 4 Sunghir, Russia, Upper Palaeolithic burials Egypt 342 64, 75 modern state monopoly of 514 Sunzi (Sun Tzu, Sun Wu), The Art of War 425–6 Stateira, wife of Artaxerxes II 375 and avoidance of violence 425 and Parysatis 375–6 ´su¯ra (heroic warrior) 698 state(s), early Susa, Mesopotamian city 223 7 592 and control of violence Sutta Pit˙aka, Buddhist text and defence 28, 30 Suzuki, Hisashi 164 Mesopotamia 219 Sweden and move to empires 27–9 Bronze Age 127, 128, 131 political violence 9, 27 Iron Age 448 and rebellions 15 Mesolithic burial sites 70 and religion 514 rock art 129, 132 taxation and tribute 34 swords, Bronze Age 122–6 and warfare 28 combat techniques 125–6 statues, Iron Age European 123 British figurines 149 hammer and sabre grips 124, 126 depictions of weapons and warriors 148 hilted 123, 125 stone monuments (Provence) 454–5, 456 leaf-shape 123, 125 see also sculptures long, mid-rib 123 Ste Croix, Geoffrey de 579 short 123, 125 steles see inscriptions spread of varying types 124 Stephen, Saint 578 swords, Iron Age Stephens, John Lloyd 198 in deposits 147–8 Stoics, on animal sacrifice 485 Hallstatt scabbard 145, 148, 149 Storax, Lusius, funerary frieze 666, 667 and male status 145 Story of Sinuhe, Egyptian fiction 194 ornamentation 145, 147, 150–1 Strabo, on Gaulish human sacrifice 453 swords, Roman, short (gladius) 242, 243, 555 Stradonice, Czech Republic, hill fort 151 symbolism Strasbourg, battle of (357 CE) 265 Egyptian animals 343

733

Index

symbolism (cont.) Teutoburg Forest, Battle of (9 CE) 154, of hill forts 443, 445 249 Iron Age weaponry 143, 145, 157, 443 texts Japanese weaponry 173 Chinese 431–2, 434, 435 Scandinavian martial 137 classical Syria 630 early Imperial Rome 248 archaeology 629 on Iron Age peoples in Europe 142, 156, 454 examples of violence 632–7 on Late Republican Roman army 247 extent 629 Indian 593, 595, 600, 601, 604 representations of violence 629–52 Japanese 32 spectacularisation of violence 633, Mesopotamia 219, 230 637–46, 652 Spanish accounts of Maya colonisation 212 temples 645 Third Dynasty of Ur 230 violence as cultural element 631 ‘Triumph of Horus’ 354 violence in war 632, 637 see also inscriptions; literature; visibility of representations of violence Maha¯bha¯rata, Sanskrit text 646–50 theatre 35 Athenian 540–2 Tacitus 564 Rome 561–2 Agricola 249 Theodosius I, emperor Annals 248 executions in Thessalonica (390 CE) 518 Germania, on bog burials 452 legislation against paganism 515, 524 on Germans 143, 249 Theophrastus, vegetarian polemic against on Jewish War 250 animal sacrifice 485–6 on naval arena spectacle 559 Thera, Greece, Minoan fresco 496 on Nucerian riot 657 Thesmophoriasuzae, play 542 Taginae, Battle of (552 CE) 263 Thessalonica, riot (390 CE) 518 Takasago, Japan, Jo¯mon site 166 Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall 99 Tale of the Two Brothers, Egyptian story 368 Thormarton, England, Bronze Age warrior Talheim, Germany, Neolithic mass grave 80, remains 117 88, 89, 307–8, 311 Thucydides Tamatsu Tanaka, Japan, Yayoi site 168 on Cleon 535 Tanagra, Greece, sword fighting 496 on coup in Athens (411 BCE) 537 tattooing on war 30, 538 of Roman arsenal workers 271 Thutmosis I, pharaoh 183, 186 Roman soldiers 270 Thutmosis III, pharaoh 183, 195 tax collection, use of soldiers for, Rome 271 Tiamat, murder of, Mesopotamian epic of taxation 34 creation 466 Tayasal, Guatemala, Maya capital 215 Tiberius, emperor, anti-pagan riots (580 CE) 518 Teate Marrucinorum, funerary frieze 666, 667 Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria 367, 641, 649 Tecúm, Maya general 214 Tikal, Guatemala, Maya site 204 Tela, attacked by Ashurnasirpal 366 and Dos Pilas 208 Tell Beydar, cylinder seals 647, 647 wars with Kaanul Snake Kingdom 205 Tencteri, German tribe 248 Tintignac, France, Iron Age weapons Teotihuacan, Mexico, Maya site 204 deposit 147 ter Haar, Barend 426 Tiryns, Greece, fortifications 134 Terasawa, K. 168 Tollense Valley, northern Germany, Bronze Tertullian Age battlefield 26, 130, 134, 137 on Christian martyrdom 572 Tollund Man, bog body (Jutland) 452 on gladiators 508, 509 Tonina, Mexico, Maya site 207 Tetovo, North Macedonia, sword 124 tools Teumman, king of Elam 642 axes 128

734

Index

as weapons 92, 169, 303 arrangement of bodies 462 see also weaponry and death pits 461–4 Toro, Japan, Yayoi site 162 evidence of trauma 462 torture Standard of 228, 231 archaeological evidence of, Valentia 247 Third Dynasty (Ur III) 230–3 bog bodies 451, 452 Ur-Namma, king of Ur 220, 222, 464 China 434 Urban Cohort, Rome 557 of slaves in Rome 566 Uruk, Mesopotamian city 222 ‘traditional’ cultures, modern, treatment of seal impressions 647 women 386–7, 394–6 Usipetes, German tribe 248 Trajan, emperor 252, 556 Uxellodunum, Gaulish oppidum 446 and Christians 579 Column 252, 672, 675, 676 Vacˇe, Slovenia, Iron Age belt plate 149 Great Frieze 672 Valdivia, Pedro de 213 victory games (107 CE) 557 Valens, emperor 271 tribute Valentia, siege of (75 BCE) 247 annual 34 Valerian, emperor, and Christians 580–1 to kingdom of Ur 232 van der Merwe, Nikolaas 112 ‘Triumph of Horus’ text 354 van der Post, Laurens 99 trophy body parts Van Straten, F., Hiera Kala: Images of Animal display of 190 Sacrifice ...478 Mesopotamia 638–45, 640 Vandals, pillaging of Rome (455 CE) 269 Iron Age 454 Vatin, Serbia, Bronze Age battle-axe 129 Maya 201 Vatinius, Publius, trial of 412 Roman Britain 334 Vedbæk-Bøgebakken, Denmark, Mesolithic see also heads cemetery 70 trophy taking vegetarianism, in classical literature 475, 477, Egypt 190 485–9 Maya 202 Veii, Roman conquest of 240, 241 Trou de Han caves, Belgium 455 Veksø, Denmark, horned helmets 132 trumpets (carnyxes), Iron Age 145 Velim, Czech Republic Tulum, Mexico, Maya fortification 210 arrowheads 129 Turchin, Peter 46 Bronze Age remains 133 Turkana, Lake see Nataruk hill fort 135 Tutankhamun, pharaoh, durbar scenes 184 Vergil (Publius Vergilius Maro), Aeneid 239, tyrants, tyranny 557, 681 Athens 537, 545–6 Vespasian, emperor 251 India 604 Victory, personification of 672 Tz’utujil, Maya kingdom 214 vigilantism Athens 536, 537, 542, 545 Uaxaclajuun Ub’aah K’awiil, Maya rule of Rome 562–3 Copan 208 Vindolanda, Northumberland, Roman fort Ulpian, Digest 482 332, 334 Umm el-Qa’ab, Egypt, royal necropolis 464 Vinnecombe, Patricia 110 Umma, Mesopotamia 224 violence wars with Lagash 224, 228 in ancient world 29–36 Upper Palaeolithic period 58 benefits of 22–3 violence in hunter-gatherers 64–5 cultural variety 10 weapons 65, 75 definitions 3–5 see also Later Stone Age (Africa) in early prehistory 23–6 Ur, Mesopotamia 220 etymology of Greek bia 533 fall of 233 evolution of 20–2 Royal Cemetery 227, 472 forms of 4, 40

735

Index

violence (cont.) violence against women 366–7 as innate in humans 6, 19 and wealth acquisition 33 and intention to cause harm 3 see also fortiﬁcations; injuries; just war; legitimate and illegitimate forms 14 raiding; siege warfare; warfare: China, as method of control 10 Egypt, India, Maya, Mesopotamia, nature of 17 Rome (below); warriors; weaponry origins of 19 warfare, China (early imperial) 277–94 regional variations 26 and concept of just war 281–5 social and economic contexts 19 conquests as punitive 281 and social norms 17, 90–1 literary treatment of 425–32 society’s view of (acceptable and need for preparation (Confucius) 426 unacceptable forms) 4, 13 and religious ritual 292–3 spectacularisation of 633, 637–46, 652 and ‘righteous armies’ 281 see also collective violence; domestic vio- Shang dynasty 420 lence; gang violence; homicide; inju- Zhou dynasty 423 ries; inter-group violence; inter- warfare, Egypt 56, 185, 189–92 personal violence; intra-societal vio- hand-to-hand combat 343 lence; massacres; non-violence; reli- and hunting 195 gious violence; ritualised violence; in depictions 181, 182–3 sexual violence; state violence; military training 189 warfare representations of 32, 179–95 Vix, France, Iron Age statues 148 rituals of 181, 188 Vultures, Stele of the 224, 228, 634, 635, 643, 644 scorched earth policies 191 siege warfare 349 Wandlebury, hill fort, Cambridgeshire, Iron women and 193 Age burials 327 warfare, India Wang, C. H. 419, 421, 429 Buddhism and 599, 600 War Scroll (1 QM) (Dead Sea Scroll) 624 Jainism on 597–8 Ward-Perkins, Bryan, The Fall of Rome and the ritual of battle 691–4 End of Civilization 258 rules of 687–8 warfare 24 use of force by kings 594–6 as anarchic 41 warfare, Maya 44, 198–217 and archaeology 43–4 colonial period 212–15 Bronze Age 28, 117–39 conquest and collapse 208, 216 size of armies 134 late classic period 206–8 death rates 41–2 local rivalries 205, 206, 213 deﬁnitions 40 postclassic period 210–12 and elites 36 psychological 214 endemic in early Mediterranean world 552 ritual motivations 215 future research on 55–6 and social changes 215 genetic consequences of 50–1 strategies of 215 impact on societies 46 terminal classic 208–10 and intra-societal violence 52–3 warfare, Mesopotamia 219–36 Mesoamerica 201 growth of military elites 227, 231 origins of 39–56 representations of violence of 632 Palaeolithic era 6 taking of captives and livestock 236 as political control 209 treatment of enemies 634–7 reasons for 45, 47 ubiquity of 220, 222–3, 230, 231 regional variations 30 warfare, Rome 238–55 ritual 40 changing nature of in late antiquity 262–9 role in prehistory 21 character of 238–9 scale of Iron Age 157 cross-border raiding 269 strategies against defences 28, 30 culture of 253

736

Index

impact of Christianity in late antiquity 273–4 knobbed sticks, San 111 increase in second century 254 Neolithic 119, 303, 419 mining 266 ‘battle axes’ 92, 118, 119, 419 motivation for 244 projectile 65, 66, 118 reduction in early empire 249 Mesolithic 68, 70 textual evidence for 264, 265, 267 spears, Upper Palaeolithic 65, 75 violence of close combat 243 see also arrows and arrowheads; bow and see also siege warfare arrow warrior graves, Japan 168–9, 173 tools used as 169, 302–3, 419 warrior ideology see also armour; bows and arrows; spears; emergence of 7 swords; weaponry: Bronze Age, see also soldiers; warrior ideology, India; China, Iron Age, Japan, Maya, Roman warriors (below) warrior ideology, India 684–702 weaponry, Bronze Age 26–7 acceptance of pain and injury 689–91 advantages of metal over stone 118–19 application to actual martial groups 701 armour 130–2 battle as ritual sacrifice 691–4 daggers 119 collective oath before battle 695 halberds 119 condemnation of cowards 694–7 shields 121–2 death in battle, rewarded in heaven 689 slings 130 heroism as transcendent ideal 699 spears 119, 126–7 justification for violence 688 swords 122–6 and masculinity 690, 698–9 wooden clubs 137 rewards for heroism 696, 698 see also armour; shields; swords ´su¯ra, heroic warrior 684, 688–91, 698 weaponry, China warriors, Bronze Age 136–8 Neolithic 419 archers 121 Shang dynasty 420 body modification 137 weaponry, Egypt 349 changing identity 137, 138 weaponry, Iron Age 143–5 as elites 137 from battlefields 153–5 non-specialist 137 bronze 144 training 138 in burials 145–7 see also fighting; weaponry defensive 144 warriors, Iron Age deposits 147–8, 158, 447–9 ‘Celtic’ mercenaries in Mediterranean iron 28, 144 142, 156 ornamentation 145, 147, 150–1, 157, pictorial representations 143, 148–50 447 weapons and identity 447 pictorial representations 148–50 see also soldiers symbolic 143, 145, 157, 443 warriors, Japan 172–3 weaponry, Japan 169–71 representations 172 arrowheads 170 warriors, Maya 204 bronze 170 depictions 208 iron 170 Way of Great Peace sect, Yellow Turban Korean bronze 168 Rebellion (184 CE) 292 polished stone daggers 169 Wayland’s Smithy, Oxfordshire 89 sling stones 170 Wê-ila, Babylonian god 466 stone ‘rods’ (sekibo¯) 169 wealth symbolic 173 and social inequality 95 tools as weapons 169 and warfare 33 wooden breastplates 170 weaponry weaponry, Maya clubs 118, 119, 137 darts 209 flint daggers 119 spear throwers 204, 209

737

Index

weaponry, Roman army violence against 14, 380–98 shortsword (gladius) 242, 243, 555 triggers for 396 spears 254 Woolley, Sir Leonard, excavations at Ur Web of Violence model, Britain 320 461, 462 Weerdinge, Netherlands, Bronze Age site wounds see injuries 130 Wrangham, Richard 6 Wetwang Slack, Yorkshire, Iron Age burials Wu, emperor of Former Han 285, 287, 288–9 324, 327 and Chi You warrior god 292 Whitcher’s Cave, South Africa, Later Stone Wu, king, leader of Zhou conquest of Age remains 106 Shang 423 Wiederstedt, Neolithic mass grave 80 Wiesehöfer, Josef 377 Xenophon 538 wife beating animal sacrifice 480 Arab nomos of 386 Oeconomicus 394 Athens 383, 394 on Persia 373 and class 393 Xerxes, king of Persia 363 Wilson, Edward O. 6 dispute with brother Masistes 365 Winter, Irene 648 Xiang Yu, rebellion against Qin empire 287 Wolpert, A. 545 Xiaowen, emperor of Northern Wei 285 women Xiongnu steppe confederation 284, 286 in Achaemenid Persia 360–78 as threat to Former Han 287, 288 as agents of violence 12, 360–78 Xunzi, Chinese philosopher 282 in depictions of war and violence 674 on proper and improper violence 427–8 as Egyptian rulers 193 as heavenly reward for warriors 689 Yanomamo people, South America 48 and honour 11 intra-societal violence 52–3 hypothetical case of wife protecting Yax Nuun Ayiin I, king of Tikal 216 husband (in Deuteronomy) 614–15 Yaxchilan, Mexico, rivalry with Piedras and Indian warrior ideology 698, 700–1 Negras 207 Iron Age weapon graves 145 Yaxuna, Mexico, Maya site 205 in modern ‘traditional’ cultures 386–7, 394–6 destruction of 210 skeletal evidence of violence 55, 69 road to Coba 207 evidence of elder abuse 335 Yellow Emperor, myth, China 292 Iron Age Britain 325 Yellow Turban Rebellion (184 CE), China 292 Japan 164, 176 Yishma’el, rabbi 574, 575 Roman Britain 335 Yokokuma Kitsunetsuka, Japan, Yayoi site 168 slitting of wombs of pregnant 366 York, Driffield Terrace Roman British burial status of 5, 32 ground 336 in Roman Britain 338 Yose ben Kisma, rabbi 577 as victims of violence 12, 176 Yoshinogari, Japan, Yayoi defensive and warfare 366–7 settlement 162, 163, 172 captured 55, 89, 96 Yoshitake Takagi, Japan, Yayoi warrior coffin Neolithic 308, 312 tomb 168, 170 in Egypt 193 Yu Rang, and revenge 435 see also adultery; children; domestic vio- Yucatan, Spanish encounter with Maya 213 lence; masculinity; men; sexual violence; wife beating; women, in Zacpetén, Guatemala, Maya site 210 Greece Zakutu (Naqia), Neo-Assyrian queen women, in Greece 362 examples in literature 387–94 Zama, battle of (202 BCE) 243 Greek vision of vengeful 360–1 Zámecˇek, Slovakia, Bronze Age and honour–shame nexus 384–6 fortifications 120 male control of 386 Zanker, Paul, and Björn Ewald 669

738

Index

Zeus conﬁscation of private weapons 278 animal sacriﬁce 488 Zliten, Lepcis Magna, Roman mosaic 663, threats against Hera 388 664 Zevit, Ziony 612 Zoroastrianism, purity and impurity Zheng of Qin, First Emperor 278, 283 372 campaigns of conquest 278, 281, 286, 433 Zuo Commentary, Chinese text 431, 435

739