Dynamics of Religious Ritual: Migration and Adaptation in Early Medieval Britain A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Brooke Elizabeth Creager IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Peter S. Wells August 2019 Brooke Elizabeth Creager 2019 © For my Mom, I could never have done this without you. And for my Grandfather, thank you for showing me the world and never letting me doubt I can do anything. Thank you. i Abstract: How do migrations impact religious practice? In early Anglo-Saxon England, the practice of post-Roman Christianity adapted after the Anglo-Saxon migration. The contemporary texts all agree that Christianity continued to be practiced into the fifth and sixth centuries but the archaeological record reflects a predominantly Anglo-Saxon culture. My research compiles the evidence for post-Roman Christian practice on the east coast of England from cemeteries and Roman churches to determine the extent of religious change after the migration. Using the case study of post-Roman religion, the themes religion, migration, and the role of the individual are used to determine how a minority religion is practiced during periods of change within a new culturally dominant society. ii Table of Contents Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………...ii List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………………iv Preface …………………………………………………………………………………….1 I. Religion 1. Archaeological Theory of Religion ...………………………………………………...3 II. Migration 2. Migration Theory and the Anglo-Saxon Migration ...……………………………….42 3. Continental Ritual Practice before the Migration, 100 BC – AD 400 ………………91 III. Southeastern England, before, during and after the Migration 4. Contemporary Accounts of Religion in the Fifth and Sixth Centuries……………..116 5. From Prehistoric to Roman Britain, 100 BC to AD 300 …………………………...167 6. Christianity in Britain in the Fourth Century ………………………………………197 7. Religion and Ritual of Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries ……………………..224 IV. The Archaeological Evidence for Christianity in Britain, AD 400-600 8. The Cemeteries of East Anglia and Kent …………………………………………..241 9. The Ritual Spaces of East Anglia and Kent ………………………………………..335 V. Analysis and Interpretation 10. Christianity in early Anglo-Saxon East Anglia and Kent: Patterns and Analysis …362 11. Interpretating Religion in Post-Migrational Contexts………………………......…..422 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………...437 iii Table of Figures 1. Map of Anglo-Saxon Migration………………………………………………….......57 2. Reconstruction of Anglo-Saxon women and young boy from Tittleshall, Norfolk ....76 3. Pair of girdle hangers from Little Eriswell 28 ……………………………………….77 4. Wrist-clasps from Barrigton B ……………………………………………………….77 5. Saucer brooch from Barrington A ……………………………………………………78 6. Sarre square-headed brooch from Grave 4 …………………………………………...78 7. Small-long brooch from Spong Hill cremation 3095 ………………………………...81 8. Cremation urn from Spong Hill, cremation 2816 …………………………………….82 9. Cremation urn Y22 from Caistor-by-Norwich ……………………………………….82 10. Cremation urn P7 from Caistor-by-Norwich ………………………………………..83 11. Cremation urn, P15, from Caistor-by-Norwich ……………………………………..84 12. Distribution Map of Contemporary Authors 114 ………………………………….119 13. Map of portable Christian artifacts identified within Roman Britain ……………...209 14. Strainer from the Water Newton Hoard ……………………………………………212 15. Silver plaque from the Water Newton Hoard ……………………………………...213 16. Silver necklace with cruciform pendant, Bloodmoor Hill Grave 11 ………………248 17. A gold scutiform pendant and crystal pendant from Edix Hill, Grave 91 …………254 18. Site map of Morning Thorpe, Norfolk ……………………………………………..262 19. Silver ring with incised cross, Grave 384, Morning Thorpe, Norfolk ……………..263 20. Silver horned face, Grave 384, Morning Thorpe, Norfolk ……………………...…263 21. Crystal bead or spindle whorl in Grave 843 ……………………………………….267 22. Grave 823 belt buckle from Mucking ……………………………………………...268 23. Roman intaglio ring featuring Bonus Eventus in Snape cemetery, Inhumation 1….274 24. Spong Hill pendants associated with inhumation 11……………………………….278 25. Cremation urn bases from Graves 6311, 6508, and 6942 ……………………….....282 26. The coin and spindle whorl from Grave 4741 Springfield Lyons ………………....283 27. Spoon and crystal ball from Grave 42 ……………………………………………..297 28. Gold pendant from Grave 29 ……………………………………………………....299 29. Sword and belt plate with swastika engravings from Grave 39 …………………...300 30. Materials from Buckland Grave 290 ……………………………………………....304 31. Modified intaglio with Omphale from Grave 391 …………………………………307 32. Glass bowl with Christian inscription from Grave 4 at Darenth Park Hospital …...311 33. Necklace and glass disc pendant with cross from Grave 68 ………………………314 34. Photograph of the belt buckle from Grave 95 ……………………………………..316 35. Drawing of pendant from Grave 138 ……………………………………………...318 36. Equal arm cross graffiti on the base of a copper alloy bowl ………………………320 37. Lyminge Grave 44 crystal ball and spoon ………………………………………....323 38. Pierced Roman coins from Grave 32 ………………………………………………325 39. Bronze Roman key from Grave 39 ………………………………………………...325 40. Intaglio from Grave C4699 ………………………………………………………...327 41. Grave goods from Sarre, Grave 4 ………………………………………………….329 42. Drawing of bronze cylinder ………………………………………………………..331 43. Umbonate disc brooch from Temple Hill Grave 54 ……………………………….333 iv 44. The two ritual rooms of the Lullingstone Villa ……………………………………351 45. Lullingstone Villa Roman and Medieval phases …………………………………..353 46. Phases of St Martin’s construction ………………………………………………...357 47. Map of cemeteries, churches, hoards, and identified Christian artifacts …………..363 48. Distribution map of churches with evidence for post-Roman use and Christian artifacts 364 ………………………………………………………………………..364 49. Glass bowl from Grave 4, Darenth Park Hospital …………………………………368 50. Bronze vessel from Grave 2, Strood …………..…………………………………...368 51. Map of Darenth Park Hospital and Strood …………..……………………………..370 52. Silver strainer from Traprain Law Hoard ……..…………………………………...376 53. Cemeteries with Strainers in Burials ……..………………………………………..377 54. Spoon details from Kent ……..…………………………………………………….377 55. Spoon detail from Buckland ..……………………………………………………...378 56. Map of sites with Christian materials ……………………………………………...380 57. Distribution map of cemeteries with rock crystals ………………………………...386 58. Crystal pendant from Edix Hill, Grave 91 ………………………………………...388 59. Cemeteries in Kent with crystal balls in burials …………………………………...389 60. Examples of latch-keys in the early medieval burials ……………………………392 61. Cemeteries in East Anglia with keys ………………………………………………393 62. Cemeteries in Kent with Keys ……………………………………………………..393 63. Map of key distribution in the fifth and sixth centuries in East Anglia and Kent …394 64. Coins in Kent Cemeteries ………………………………………………………….396 65. Coins in East Anglian Cemeteries …………………………………………………397 66. East Anglian Burials with Amuletic Items ………………………………………...411 67. Kentish Burials with Amuletic Items ………………………………………..........413 68. Burials with Amulets in East Anglia ……………………………………................417 69. Burials with Amulets in Kent ……………………………………...........................418 v Preface Fifth century Britain was one of the most turbulent times of English history. It was a period when Roman Britain changed into England and when the native religion of the Romano-British adapted in response to the newly introduced Anglo-Saxon practices. In the early fifth century, when the last of the Roman military was recalled from Britain to defend other parts of the Empire, Britain was left to defend itself after not having done so for almost four centuries. In response, the Britons invited the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes to defend them. Subsequently, the Germanic groups decided to stay and conquer most of the island. In the first half of the fifth century, and within two generations, Britain went from being Britannia, a Roman province, to the beginnings of England, a country that was culturally Anglo-Saxon. The shift from Roman Britian to Anglo-Saxon England brought with it an enormous amount of change. The changes encompassed every aspect of life including religion. Even though the Anglo-Saxon religion appears to have been pervasive, Gildas, Bede, Constantius, and Prosper state that Christianity continued to be practiced after the Anglo- Saxon migration. Christianity represents one of the only practices we have evidence for enduring, however, the archaeological record and the historic texts do not align. The disconnect between the contemporary authors and the archaeological materials is the subject of this study. By the end of the fourth century, Christianity had spread through Britain and traditional Romano-British religions continued, but by the mid-fifth century, the archaeology 1 reflects predominantly Anglo-Saxon ritual remains. The Romano-British were a group characterized by a combination of cultural traits taken from the people sent to Britain by the Roman Empire, not all of whom were from the Mediterranean, and the Iron Age Britons. Christianity appears to have begun to spread through Britain sometime in the early fourth century. In stark contrast, the Anglo-Saxons were a conglomeration of Germanic and Scandinavian groups that practiced a form of religion that later developed into Old Norse. The Germanic regions on the Continent would not be Christianized until the eighth century. Religion is one of the cornerstones of every society and migration