BUMIPUTRA AUTHOR’S RESISTANCE TOWARD POLITICAL HEGEMONY AND CANONIZATION OF BALAI PUSTAKA IN THE NOVEL HIKAYAT KADIROEN AND STUDENT HIDJO

1Hary Sulistyo & 2)Endang Sartika Universitas Sebelas Maret1) & IAIN Purwokerto2) mail: [email protected]

Abstract The ideological and aesthetic contestation of Balai Pustaka, forcing writer’s resistance particularly Bumiputra writers. The ideological contestation occurs because Balai Pustaka as the apparatus of the Colonial government suppress the resistance attitudes of the indigenous authors. The authors, who ideologically contradicted with the government, resisted the politics of literature through their works. This research is intended to reveal the canonization of Balai Pustaka which governs the aesthetic and ideological standards of literary works and the resistance of Bumiputra authors toward the hegemony of the Dutch East Indies. The method used in this research is descriptive qualitative approach by seeing the text as the representation of hegemony and resistance as well as linking textual and contextual issues to describe literary politics and the reflection of general politics. The objects of this research are the text and historical context represented in the novel Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo. The results show that Hikayat Kadiroen presents exemplary attitudes of fair leaders in solving peoples’ problems and representing the identity of Indonesian literature. Whereas Student Hidjo portrayed concern for the Indigenous people by criticisizing the political hegemony on racial basic. The resistance of Bumiputra authors was shown by raising resistance theme toward colonialism in the Dutch East Indies, as a form of resistance toward political hegemony and canonization of Balai Pustaka.

Keywords: hegemony and resistance, Dutch East Indies, cultural identity.

RESISTENSI PENGARANG BUMIPUTERA TERHADAP HEGEMONI POLITIK DAN KANONISASI BALAI PUSTAKA DALAM NOVEL HIKAYAT KADIROEN DAN STUDENT HIDJO

Abstrak Kontestasi ideologis dan estetis Balai Pustaka, menghadirkan sikap-sikap perlawanan khususnya para penulis Bumiputra. Pertarungan ideologis terjadi karena Balai Pustaka sebagai apparatus pemerintah Kolonial, menekan sikap-sikap perlawanan pengarang Pribumi. Para pengarang yang secara ideologi berseberangan dengan pemerintah, melakukan resistensi atas politik kesusastraan melalui karya- karyanya. Tujuan penelitian ini mengungkapkan kanonisasi Balai Pustaka yang mengatur standar estetis dan idelogis karya sastra dan perlawanan kelompok Bumiputra terhadap hegemoni yang diterapkan di Hindia Belanda. Metode penelitian ini diawali dengan melihat teks sebagai representasi hegemoni dan resistensi dalam

310 novel Hikayat Kadiroen dan Student Hidjo. Menghubungkan persoalan tekstual dan kontekstual untuk menjabarkan politik sastra dan cerminan politik general. Hasil penelitian menunjukan Hikayat Kadiroen menghadirkan sikap keteladanan pemimpin yang adil terhadap rakyat dalam menyeselaikan persoalan dan merepresentasikan identitas kultural kesusastraan Indonesia. Sedangkan Student Hidjo, menunjukkan sikap kepedulian terhadap Pribumi dengan kritik terhadap hegemoni politik atas dasar rasialis. Resistensi pengarang Bumiputra terhadap Balai Pustaka, ditunjukkan dengan mengangkat tema perlawanan terhadap kolonialisme di Hindia Belanda, sebagai bentuk resistensi terhadap hegemoni dan kanonisasi Balai Pustaka.

Kata kunci: hegemoni dan resistensi, Hindia Belanda, identitas kultural.

INTRODUCTION Dutch Indies era literary has been Literature in Dutch East Indies discussed by Sudibyo (2017). His era before Indonesia become an research discussed about the Uncany, independent nation consisted of Indies the European-blooded people who Literature, Peranakan Tionghoa (Chinese had long lived in the Indies like the De descent) Literature, Literature of Balai Pauly family who felt that the Indies Pustaka, and Sastra Bumiputra. Indies were their homeland and hometown. Literature is literary works written by That kind of experienced is also felt by Dutch (Europeans) and their descent Sonja, an Indo figure. Despite having who live in the Dutch East Indies gained Dutch citizenship, he decided to which was originally written in Dutch. visit his native land and commemorate They wrote their works while visiting his beautiful childhood in Indonesia or working in the Dutch East Indies. (Dutch East Indies). Some of them wondered and fascinated, In order to regulate the literary but some denounced and sigmatized. works written in the Dutch East Indies writers from European descent Indies, the government implemented (not Totok Europeans; totok means media politics by establishing Balai native or pristine), often show abigous Pustaka in 1917/1918. Previously, this identity. Regarding with ethical politics, institution was named the Commander they think that they are better than of the Inlandsce School en Volkslectuur the Indigenous people since they have (People’s Reading Commission) European blood (the Netherlands). which was originally founded in 1908 Ironically, they are not really considered (Rosidi, 1985: 29). This institution well either by the Dutch or by the was established to provide reading text Natives. They degrading the Natives, and book for the people and censoring but they are also not considered equal the publication of literary works in by the Dutch and are seen suspicious by the Dutch East Indies. Balai Pustaka, the Natives. One of the Indies author thereafter, issued Nota Rijnkes; that is is Louis Couperus with his work De a set of rules for censorship provision stille kracht (Occult Science) published for any articles and works of art to be in 1900 (Sastrowardoyo,1983:15). The published in the Dutch East Indies.

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 311 The main provisions in the Nota Rijnkes many suppressive issues as explained oblige that every works should be by Yuliati (2018) about the relationship written in Melayu Tinggi or Riau Malay between the Indonesian Press and press (which later became the main language regulations from the Dutch Colonial of Indonesia/ Bahasa Indonesia) period to the Indonesian Revolutionary and the text should not contain any Period. During this period, the Dutch elements that are considered oppose to Colonial Government, the Japanese the Dutch political policy. Nontheless, Military Government, and the ideologically Nota Rijnkes was used to Government of Indonesia continued to repress resistance as much as possible apply suppressive laws. Nevertheless, to the colonial government especially the Indonesian Press has always dared for the works of art which was written to carry out social responsibility in order in MelayuRendah as the lingua franka at to achieve a better life and freedom for that time. Thus, authors who understand the nation. the political context of Balai Pustaka Meanwhile, in term of literary as ideological censorship opposed and works, Nota Rijnkes of Balai Pustaka were reluctant to join Balai Pustaka. at least censors the resistance of two Notwithstanding, many indigenous literary groups, they are Peranakan authors were affiliated with the colonial Tionghoa (Chinese Descent) writers who publishing organization and achieved continued to write in Melayu Rendah success. (Low Malay) until the 1970s and native Publishing censorship was not writers who were incorporated as merely regulate the literary works but Bumiputra writers. Some of Peranakan also printed media. The Dutch as the Tionghoa (Chinese Descent) writers who ruler want to control every single work in wrote in Melayu Rendah (Low Malay) order not to cause any harm. Therefore, were Nio Joe Lan, Tio Le Soei, and Tjoa they tried to repress the writers to write Hin Hoe (Salmon, 1985). Meanwhile any content that consider inappropriate Bumiputra writers are native writes with the Dutch policies. Research on who ideologically refused and opposed media politics and its correlation with to the Dutch East Indies government. the authorities was once conducted by Some of Bumiputra writers are R.M. Anom (2013) who explained that the Tirto Adisoerjo (Doenia Pertjintaan), development of printed media was FDJ Pangemanan (Tjerita Si Tjonat), progressing and reaching the interests Mas Marco Kartodikromo (Student of all the people of the archipelago. Not Hidjo), and Semaoen Hikajat Kadiroen only used for commercial purposes, but (Sumardjo, 2004: 31-32). also used for political purposes. This Semaoen and Mas Marco situation led the Dutch to create a law Kartodikromo are two examples of the that gave severe penalties to those who Bumiputra authors who consistently had the idea of disrupting order in the voiced resistance to colonialism. Dutch East Indies and criticizing the They wrote their works as a form government. of resistance toward the Dutch East The press of the Dutch East Indies Indies hegemony, both resistance to the era until the Revolutionary era, faced Dutch government and the Indigenous

312 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 government in power. Their great are features to explain the conditions and Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo. representations of society reflected An interesting thing that can be in both novels as well as to elucidate found in the works of Bumiputra, Seamoen and Mas Marco Kartodikromo especially Hikayat Kadiroen and Student position as atraditional intellectual Hidjo, is the representation of resistance authors. by reflecting the conditions in the Indies The purpose of this study is to era as a form of resistance and concern analyze the expression of resistance in for the fate of the Indigenous people. the novel Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Related to the position of Indonesian Hidjo against the hegemony and the literature as a representation of canonization of Balai Pustaka which Indonesian identity, the recognized governs the aesthetic and ideological convention was more on Balai standards of literary works. It will Pustaka’s works which ideologically analyze the attitude of Bumiputra have political aspects to control the as Indigenous authors who did not spirit of the movement. Therefore, accommodate the rules and remained the thought and representation of resistant to the Dutch East Indies the nationalism of the Bumiputra government even though their works authors is important to be analized in were ultimately black listed. the concept of „Indonesian-ness’ (being In addition, this paper is an attempt Indonesian) because historically and to deconstruct the historical view of geographically, Indonesia and the Indonesian literature which generally Dutch East Indies are located in the considers that Balai Pustaka literature same land. Wiyatmi, (2003) explained was the forerunner of Indonesian that the pre-independence nationalism literature. Literature censorship is a was encompasses in Student Hidjo’s consensus or even domination of Balai novel including the rejection of the Pustaka, toward Bumiputra authors who Dutch government’s hegemony by the represents the struggle and sympathy natives; the love of the motherland and of the Indigenous people. This paper its culture; and distrust of brotherhood is expected to renew the understanding offer by the Dutch because of inequality that Indonesian literature was not of social strata and position. merely Balai Pustaka literature, but it This study will draw upon Antonio is also necessary to acknowledge the Gramsci’s State and Hegemony Theory. existence of other groups’ literature, Gramsci explained the features of the especially Bumiputra. In addition to the theory related to the concept of the similarity of geographical and historical state, hegemony, consensus, resistance, aspects, Bumiputra authors represented and dominance. All those elements the spirit of nationalism as the begining are always exist in every country of Indonesia. elicited by an irreconcilable historical problem, that is the existence of social METHOD class distinction. Gramsci’s views on Research method is defined as the way organic intellectuals and traditional to interpret the data based on hypotheses intellectuals are important theoretical on specific variables (Faruk, 2010). This

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 313 research uses descriptive qualitative As supporting data regarding the methods including descriptions of the representation of both authors thoughts, text in the novel Hikayat Kadiroen and their brief profile will be presented to Student Hidjo as relevant issues to reflect elaborate the collective subject or class the resistance of indigenous people they represent. The elaboration of the toward socio-cultural conditions in the results and discussion in this study are Dutch East Indies era. The object of as follows: this research are novel Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo. The data are taken Result from those two novels supported by Concerning the profiles of the two other relevant sources such as articles, authors, Semaoen was born in Jombang journals, books and other theories. in 1899 and grew in Surabaya. He is a The descriptive method in this study son of a lowly mason employee on the illustrates textual facts, describing the railroad service. Smart and critical in resistance to cultural hegemony and the thinking, he has progressive political political canonization of Balai Pustaka career at CSI (Central Sarekat Islam), rpresented in the novel Hikayat Kadiroen SI (Sarekat Islam), and ISDV (Indische and Student Hidjo. Sociaal-Democraticsce Vereeniging) under The analysis in this study begins Sneevlit nurture in 1915. He was an with the classification of data based editor of the Malay language newspaper on formal objects in the text which Sinar Djawa-Sinar Hindia in Semarang will then be described in tabular form besides being involved actively in as a result of the research. The formal political parties. Meanwhile, Mas object is the representation of the Marco, is a journalist who was raising conditions of hegemony and resistance his journalistic talent in Bandung as a in the text which are supported by Medan Prijaji journalist. contextual aspects, namely historical The description of the textual events and other research results. Next, conditions in Semaoen’s Hikayat Kadiroen in the discussion section, the correlation and Mas Marco Kartodikromo’s Student between the condition of the text and Hidjo represented both hegemony and the assumptions of Antonio Gramsci’s resistance to the Dutch East Indies theory will be explained regarding government. This resistance was not hegemony, resistance, and domination. necessarily a form of political resistance to the government system, but also RESULT AND DISCUSSION resistance toward hegemoy formed by This section will describe two phases the Dutch. of analysis that is the presentation The condition of resistance of results and discussion. The results represented in the novels will be of this study describe the forms of ellaborated through text description, hegemony and resistance toward the then it will be classified into three parts: reality in the Dutch East Indies reflected (a) resistance to Dutch colonialism; in the novels. Furthermore, the text will (b) to the government system; and (c) be analyzed using Antonio Gramsci’s to the culture carried out in the Dutch theory and supported with relevant East Indies era. It has relevance to the data.

314 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 forms of hegemony in that era and to the Village Head. Thus, many people’s the Nota Rijnkes reflected in both novels. problems were not resolved properly. In this case, the resistance is a form of In addition, the attitude of the Camat opposition toward the hegemony of the was often arbitrary towards his people government. which made conditions in the Dutch In the novel Hikayat Kadiroen, East Indies even more difficult. Another Semaoen’s resistance as an author was form of criticism of the complicated reflected in his attitude towards Dutch bureaucratic system is when the main policies which considered prejudice the character reports fraud committed Indigenous. The Dutch that was by the Regent. It must go through a initially came for trading turned resident recommendation before the into colonialism. Even when the report reaches the Governor-General. cooperation with the Indigenous people Priviledge given to Europeans is also initially went well, the cultuursteelsel criticized by Semaoen in his novels. It is turned unbalanced and made people narrated that an Indigenous government suffer even more. Hence, that the term employee was so occupied and serious cultuursteelsel was more identical to forced solving the problem when the wife cultivation. In this case, the profit-sharing of a Dutch controulur’s chicken lost. system for farming changed into misery Ironically, his attitude was reluctant to for the farmers. The Impact of Forced the report of the Native’s Buffalo lost. Cultivation in the Dutch East Indies, It is certainly related to the conception was discussed by Kurniawan (2014), of hegemony which gives an exclusive Hermawati (2013), and Zulkarnain position for Europeans by placing (2011) who explained that imperialism Europeans in the first position. was inhumane, impacted peoples’ Another resistant attitude shown by irregular life, and was a brutal system Semaoen in the novel is his criticism of of exploitation and resulted in peasants the inability of Amtenaar (Dutch official experiencing poverty and hunger. from the Indigenous group) whose The commodity mandatory work is to mediate the people and the planting was specifically discussed by government. The officials were chosen Sondarika (2015). First, 32,722 bahu for because of their compliance with the Sugar (Cane); 22,141 bahu for Tilapia Dutch government. The novel contains (Indigo); 324 bahu for Tea; 268 bahu for criticism that Indigenous officials do Tobacco; 30 bahu for Cinnamon; and 5 not understand the problems of their bahu for Cotton. The land used for the people. The criticism is portrayed system does not cover the entire island by showing an example of an ideal of Java. The highest number was in leader who is able to understand the 1845 with 5% land in Java. historical-cultural conditions of his Another form of resistance in community and is willing to make direct Hikayat Kadiroen’s novel relates to his observations to the field as an effort to criticism of the bureaucratic system solve the problem. is the rule that regulate the ordinary The form of resistance related to people who want to meet the District the cultural aspects in the Dutch East Head (camat) must be accompanied by Indies was also reflected in the novel.

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 315 Hikayat Kadiroen shows that feudalism agricultural and livestock businesses hegemonized the lives of people. Poverty were not successful. The elaboration of increasing crime and ignorance. Various these problems on the following table:

Table 1. Representation of problems in the Novel Hikayat Kadiroen Classification Resistance Forms Collonialism The Dutch did not favour the natives Dutch East Indies corrupt bureaucracy, corruption of native officials, Privilege to European, incompetent Ambtenaar (indigenous employees), Native officials do not understand the problems of the people Culture Feudalism of native officials, Class hierarchy, ignorance and crime

Mas Marco Kartodikromo’s when a native Dutch bellboy received resistance in Student Hidjo is criticizing and brought Hidjo’s bag when he the class hierarchy as a result of arrived in the hotel or when a Dutch colonialism based on racist aspects. polished his shoes. It is certainly a Student Hidjo showed resistance toward serious insult toward the Dutch because colonialism in Hidjo’s character as an in the Dutch East Indies, the Dutch Indigenous youth who was “chased” had a high position. Meanwhile, this by Dutch girls. It is an examplary of novel depicting a Dutch become an identity resistance because generally it Indigenous East Indies servant which was the Indigenous women who were is contradict with the condition in the being chased and used by the Dutch East Indies. This novel also illustrates through an illegal marriage system the background of many Dutch soldiers called gundik (mistresses). This novel, in the East Indies came from the lower however, narrated a native Dutch girl classes in the country, inclusind very name Betje being pregnant with Hidjo, “dirty” work such as a pig slaughterer. an Indigenous man and aborted her However, they became very arrogant in pregnancy because she chose to end the the East Indies and getting respected by relationship. the Indigenous people. The classification The resistance to Dutch colonialism of data relating to these problems can is also depicted in the novel, particularly be seen on the following table:

316 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 Table 2. Representation of problems in the Novel Student Hidjo Classification Resistance Forms Collonialism Dutch women felt in love and used by Hidjo an Indigenous man, Dutch army parents were a pigmen, Native Dutch as hotel bellboy, Dutchmen polish Hidjo shoes, Hidjo is dating Dutch women in the Netherlands Dutch East Indies Hidjo criticized the organization in the Dutch East Indies, the occurrence of the SI meeting in Solo Culture Walter danced Tandak (a traditional dance in Jarak), Wungu refused to love Walter, Hidjo refused becaming Dutch by marrying a Dutch woman, arranged marriage

Discussion was found that coastal communities Representation of hegemony toward are represented as poor, ignorant, the Dutch East Indies in the Novel dirty, insulted and subordinate people. Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo Whereas urban society is represented The hegemony representation of the as noble, smart, rich, respectable, Dutch East Indies era was related to the clean, and superior people. It happens attitude of feudalism at that time. This because development is only oriented attitude caused by the racialist political towards cities as the center of human impacts imposed by the Dutch. As the civilization during the colonial era. ruler, the Dutch regulated the rules The representation of hegemony about caste in society based on race, toward the Dutch government for social position as well as economic instance was the establishment of a aspects. The first position is the Dutch school for Indigenous nobility as an and other Europeans, followed by effort to answer the needs of educated other Asians, and subsequently the personnel for Dutch institutions. In Indigenous people who are divided into addition, it is also an effort to give Priyayi, including nobles, officials and position to the Indigenous ruling class. wealthy merchants. Meanwhile, lowly Indah (2013) explained that there employees and ordinary people rank were a number of schools exist at that respectively in the lowest position. A time including ELS (Europese Largere research about social inequalities related School), HBS (Hogere Burger School), to the aspect of colonialism has been HIS (Hollands Inlandsche School), and discussed by Farida (2019), regarding OSVIA (Opleiding School voor Indlansche the socio-economic inequality of coastal Ambtenaren). and urban communities in Pramoedya Political racist has significant impact Ananta Toer’s novel Gadis Pantai. The on the social strata, including the research shows the representation of services and administrative processes. the socio-economic gap between coastal Dutch and European have the privilege and urban communities in five aspects both in terms of facilities and respect. including; economics, education, It was an exemplary form of hegemony environment, social, and culture. Based created by the Dutch, so that they were on these five aspects, the dichotomy respectively entitled by all Indigenous

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 317 people. That model was formed to an Administrator officer, Assistant perpetuate power as an effort to create Wedono’s attitude who should have high an integrated community system. enough position shows the same attitude This issue is also reflected in as Pigi who was only a messenger. The Semaoen’s Hikayat Kadiroen. When one novel clearly illustrates the Indigenous of the Dutch East Indies government attitude towards Europeans, especially officials came to a Wedono Assistant the Dutch. They seems feared the Dutch office, the attitude of one of the figures and pay exagerated respect toward them in the novel showed hierarchical because they were hegemonized over relationship between two very striking racist political policies. racial groups. Mr. Administrator who is In addition to the above quote, the native Dutch, getting more respect from feudalism hegemony in the Dutch East Assistant Wedono and his adjutants. Indies era was related to racist political Their attitude is excessive and afraid for policies. It can be seen from the being late as in the following quote: interaction between indigenous officials “What is called Opas here is an old (ambtenaar) towards people with lower man named Pigi. He has worked socio-economic strata6. In this case, the 33 years as Opas Asisten Wedono official occupies the strata commonly Semongan too. He used to get referred to as Priyayi shows different lessons on how to respect all Dutch attituted towards lower classes society guests. Especially if the guest is Mr. and towards the Dutch.They received Administrator. Guests of such high respect from the Indigenous people position will definitely be called with lower strata status however they “Kanjeng” (Lord). Likewise what tend to look down on them. Ironically, was ordered by such great guests they give exagerated respect toward the must be done as soon as possible. Dutch eventhough they are not having Therefore, it is not surprising that higher rank in the society. Opas Pigi immediately ran away The next event was when a man as if cased by a tiger to tell Mr. named Soeket filed a complaint over the Wedono Assistant while he was disappearance of the buffalo stolen by having breakfast in the dining room. someone. Soeket was accompanied by When Mr. Assistant Wedono heard the Head of the village to the Assistant the news that Mr. Administrator Wedono office. The Assistant Wedono will come, he immediately stopped disrespect his own people because they eating. He took a suit and went are from lower social strata as reflected hurriedly like someone who was in the bellow: about to take the train which ready “Wait for me to eat first”After eating, to leave, and ran to the pavilion he called Soeket who immediately to meet the great Administrator” explained the matter. (Semaoen, 2014: 9-10) “O, Ndoro, servant of the poor. The above quote shows the attitude The servant only has a buffalo, as of the Indigenous people toward a pedestal to earn money and rice. the Dutch in the Dutch East Indies But suddenly, last night the buffalo era. Even though the guest was only was stolen by someone!”

318 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 “You are very careless! Where towards feudalism of the Dutch East did you go all night? Sleep well? Indies over political racisialist. It can be that’s all you can. Imagine that big seen on Hidjo’s arrival in Amsterdam buffalo. Stolen by people and you and staying in a hotel, he was respected don’t know. How lazy you are! Now by the waiters because the Dutch think you ask for my help. Do you really that Indigenous people who come can’t maintain your own buffalo? from the Indies, particularly Java were Idler!”Said Mr. Assistant Wedono considered rich and noble. It shows furiously, Semaoen, (2014; 19). that there is binary opposition in the The quote above shows Priyayi’s paradigm in the Netherlands and in attitude in the context of social life in the Indies regarding hegemony. As far the Dutch East Indies when he received as Hidjo previously understood, the complaints from his own people. Mr. Dutch had a high position and were Assistant Wedono was immediately respected in the Indies. However, based angry to Soeket without consideration on the narration, what happened in just because he is an ordinary inlander the Netherlands was contradictory. who has lower rank in society. Hikayat Every Indigenous who came to the Kadiroen’s as representation of the Netherlands is also highly respected conditions of community life in the by the Dutch people because they Dutch East Indies shows priyayi’s are considered rich as reflected in the inverse attitude as a regentwhen facing following quote. complaints from Dutch officials and “After Hidjo and his leerar got off their own people. the ship, they went straight to the The representation of the Dutch East hotel. Arriving there, Hidjo was well Indies hegemony in the era of Hikayat respected by the waiters. Because Kadireon shows in the realisation of how they think, if new people come the racist political policies implemented from the Indies, they must have a and affected the society from the higest lot of money. Especially if they are levels to the lowest levels of society. The Javanese. Therefore, Hidjo laughed Indigenous shows an inverse attitude silently at the situation. Because he towards Dutch officials by giving title remembers the fate of his people “Kanjeng” as a depiction of high and being humiliated by the Dutch respected position, meanwhile to the “Kartodikromo (2015: 41). indigenous people, they tend to ignore Based on the above quotation, it and degrade them. This difference in can be understood that Mas Marco attitude shows that Indigenous officials, Kartodikromo’s Student Hidjo reflecting commonly referred to as Ambtenaar, are that the Indies people should not afraid to lose their position as Priyayis exagerately glorified the Dutch, because, with all positions they have. They have on the contrary, the Dutch really respect to be good to the Dutch representation and admire the people of the Indies in order to maintain their position and because of the assumption that the Indies power. are a wealthy society, especially those Student Hidjo on the other hand, visiting the Netherlands. Student Hidjo portraying the form of hegemony shows that racist political hegemony

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 319 in the Indies with an excessive attitude homeland. Whilst Student Hidjo and in upholding the dignity of the Dutch Hikajat Kadiroen do not see beyond nation was something that should not the land of Java and they only relate the have happened. He showed that with Dutch East Indies to the land of Java. the many Dutch people who work in This opinion seems to override the spirit the lower sector, especially for those of “keindonesiaan” in the novel Hikayat who live and work in the country. Kadiroen and Student Hidjo which is considered only related to the Dutch Resistance toward canonization of East Indies and Java. It is not entirely Balai Pustaka in the Novel Hikayat true because class representation in Kadireon dan Student Hidjo Semaon and Mas Marco is not only The form of Semaoen’s resistance exemplify resistant toward the colonial as the author against the Dutch government, but it also shows “beyond East Indies government was by not Indonesia” as collective ambition to accomodating the rules set by Balai be free from colonialism and social Pustaka through its Nota Rijnkes. As injustice. On the other hand, the explained earlier, Balai Pustaka with its existence of Balai Pustaka’s works is Nota Rijnkes regulates language issues a reflection of the hegemony of media and content that the author should politics through various ideological and adhere to. Inorder to get their works political aesthetic standards. published by Balai Pustaka as well as to Ulrich Kratz (2000; 7-8) in his book gain popularity and success, the authors Sumber Terpilih Sejarah Sastra Indonesia were forced to use Melayu Tinggi and Abad XX explained that the Nota Rinjkes were not allowed to criticize the Dutch is a set of rules employ by Balai Pustaka East Indies government. Thus, the most in the era of the Dutch East Indiesas an reasonable form of author’s resistance effort of the Dutch Indies Gubermen especially for those who were reluctant who wanted Balai Pustaka to only to support the political concept of the select and publish the literatures and Dutch East Indies government, was books written in Riau Malay language by maintaining to use Melayu Rendah or later known as Melayu Tinggi. The (Low Malay) as their media to write selected literary works then will be their ideas and aspirations both for submitted to the comitee and author’s literary activities and for other writing hearing . “What they investigated was activities. the content and language of the essay: The general view on the history of whether the contents are in accordance Indonesian literature and the majority with Dutch politics and whether the of literary researchers consider language is Riau Malay or not?”. That that Balai Pustaka novels are early statement clearly affirm that Semaoen Indonesian literary works. It was as and other Bumiputra authors, showed stated by Nugraha (2019) who said resistance to the Dutch East Indies that Azab and Sengsara and Siti Nurbaja government, especially in terms of have Indonesian words to help foster media politics by rejecting Nota a new identity among education and Rinjkes. In addition, Sumardjo (2004) help conceptualize the new idea of categorized Semaoen’s Hikayat Kadireon

320 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 as part of Melayu Rendah (Low Malay) very difficult to complain about the Literature which certainly did not use mistakes of the authorities. While Riau Malay. Seeing the contents of the to meet the Assistant Wedono he novel in form of storytelling, Hikayat had to report with the lurah first, let Kadiroen represent Semaoen’s thought alone if he wants to meet with Mr. as a form of criticism to the Dutch Regen or Mr. Controller to report East Indies government, particularly the errors of officials of the Wedono for ambtenaars who provided unfair Assistant”, Semaoen (2014; 12-13) services to the indigenous communities The above quote shows ambtenaars’ and to the Dutch. bad behavior often happen in the era of Hikayat Kadiroen is the evidence the Dutch East Indies. An Assistant of the representation of Semaoen’s Wedono was described being excessively attitude in rejecting the Nota Rinjkes. respectful and obedient to the Dutch His sharp criticism of the Wedono officials. Conversely, they become Assistant’s unfair attitude as well as direspectful, arrogance and ignorance a “bootlicker” of Dutch officials, toward their fellow countrimen’s reflected his resistance to the social complain, especially with people who and political conditions at that time. are from lower socio-economic or rank. Suyatno, (2016, p. 81-82) explained that Semaoen through Hikayat Kadiroen in Hikayat Kadiroen, the class conflict showed a critical attitude and opposed almost occurs in the whole novel. In the existence of class hierarchy in the the begining chapters, the condition of Dutch East Indies on the basis of race colonial birocracy represents capitalism and rank issues. and imperialism that stand for the elite Furthermore, Semaoen described and priyayi rather than to the society are the ambtenaar’s attitude as Assistant presented to the readers. This problem Wedono with the term foul, Dutch’s is reflected in the following sections of bootlicker, and was ruthless towards his the Hikayat Kadiroen novel: own people, as a problem that seemed “That’s the answer to Mr. Assistant common in the Dutch East Indies at Wedono. He was very rushed and that time. very fast when managing the matter “That is the character of Mr. of the administrator, but he ignored Assistant Wedono who is rotten Soeket’s problem. Even he was told when he responses to the small to wait first. This kind of action people’s complaint. This kind of is not surprising because a social Wedono assistant doesn’t want to class administrator is the same know that he is paid by Gubermen as an official such as a Resident, to serve the needs of small people Controller, Regen, Patih, and so on. too. He felt himself as a king in front Such great people are very easy to of small people so that the people relate to the big gentlemen above will constantly afraid of him. By and it is easy to complain about the means of this kind of oppression, he actions of the ambtenars like the tried to make the small people not Assistant Wedono to the superiors. easily complain about the case they Conversely, a villager like Soeket, is faced. If it happened, that would

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 321 make him do so many works and politics in the Dutch East Indies, he has to finish many affairs and including Java. that certainly would make Assistant Similarly, Student Hidjo also raised Wedono can not eat well and sleep criticism of racial issues in the Dutch well. By suppressing the feelings of East Indies. It was narrated when Hidjo the people who dare to claim their and the owner of the house discussed rights, their orders are easily obeyed about the issue of skin color and racism by their people. On the contrary, as in the following quote: the people became very frightened, “Nee, Mevrouw7! If my skin can turn and their independence became white like a Dutchman, I really like completely lost, hence people’s being Dutch, “Hidjo said bravely to desire to build up their own destiny the hostess. “But because my skin is became increasingly forgotten. bruin (dark red), all right, I’l just be Finally, the people became patient an Indies.” Kartodikromo, (2013; in all things and sothey would 48). continue to be poor “, Semaoen Based on the above quotation, (2014; 20-21) it can be understood that Hidjo is Thus, it can be seen that an not questioning whether he is Dutch ambtenaar or Dutch official taken from or Indian. In this context, Hidjo a native, acts like a king and is arbitrary presumptuously conveyed his idea that towards his people. Complicated the difference between the Dutch and bureaucratic system providing safe the Indies was merely the different conditions when they do not carry in skin color. Thus, apart from these out their duties properly in serving the problems, both the Netherlands and the community. In some parts of his novel, Indies were same and equal without the Semaon as the author has contrast existence of other hierarchies including ideology with the Dutch East Indies social strata or racism which were the government. He is not only resistence products of colonialism. to Nota Rijnkes and Balai Pustaka, but Mas Marco Kartodikromo through also reject the ideology that human his novel wanted to convey the idea can be differenciated according to their that the problem of racial hegemony social strata. established by the Dutch in the Indies Furthermore, Mas Marco should be eliminated, because basically Kartodikromo’s racial based resistance all are human beings who should be was previously discussed by Tickell able to have equal position despite being (2006; 73), particularly Matahariah. different in skin color. That naration Tickell pointed out that the novels was can also be seen as Mas Marco’s discussing a good Javanese Assistant criticism form of the class hierarchy on Wedono who always defending the racial basis. In the context of the Dutch local farmers from arbitrary and racist East Indies, Natives such as Marco are violence of the Dutch plantation humiliated. foremen. It can be understood that In addition, Mas Marco Mas Marco Kartodikromo conveyed Kartodikromo was an ISDV figure, the criticism of the arbitrariness of ethical forerunner of socialist ideology in the

322 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 Dutch East Indies. In the ideological the opportunity to go to school up to context, ISDV tends to reject the the middle level and even to the tertiary conception of degrading human dignity level. based on class hierarchy and racism. Another factor for the development Thus, Mas Marco Kartodikromo’s of nationalism spirit and movement in works such as Student Hidjo and the Dutch East Indies was explained Matahariah, were used as media of by Sulistyo (2018) stating that it began political propaganda against the with a large number of readings on the racialist principle of class hierarchy in interests of the European market and the Dutch East Indies. the establishment of indigenous schools for administrative staff as the result of Socio-Political Context of the Novels the changes of centralized government Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo system towards decentralization. Many in the Dutch East Indies people in the Dutch East Indies were Ideological and national movement becoming more literate in reading and in the Dutch East Indies, especially writing. It introduced Latin scripts in in the establishment of Balai Pustaka the Dutch East Indies due to the large era, were indeed quite massive. The number of works written by the Dutch, establishment of Indische Partij which Indo Dutch, and several Indigenous was founded by some Indo figures such writers on the Dutch East Indies using as Edward Douwes Dekker (1912); Dutch. In addition, many translated Budi Utomo (1908); Sarekat Islam works from western literature was (1912); Muhammadiyah (1912) and published in the Dutch East Indies. others. Thus, the spirit of movement Specifically, literary works written influenced the conditions developed in by the Dutch, Indo-Europeans, and the Dutch East Indies at least beginning Indigenous people use Dutch about the in the early 1900s. Those socio-political Indies, referred to as Indies literature. context was narated clearly in Student The massive impact of the movement Hidjo. The novel describes the congress was to voice political aspirations of Sarekat Islam (SI) in Solo. The history and oppose the Dutch East Indies of the national movement was discussed government in various fields. The large by Imsawati (2017) who explained that number of newspapers and magazines the national movement in Indonesia as media aspirations for voicing people’s was peoneered by an educated group thoughts made the Dutch East Indies marked by the establishment of the government exercise strict control. No Budi Utomo organization on May 20, exception in terms of language and 1908. The national movement could content issues as reflected in the Nota not be separated from ethical political Rijnkes, as well as giving legal sanctions policies and the implementation of for the people who are considered colonial education by the Netherlands insluting and doing propaganda against in Indonesia. Schools founded by the the government. For instance, Mas Dutch colonial government contributed Marco Kartodikromo and Semaoen, to the fulfillment of education in both had been imprisoned by the Dutch Indonesia. Indonesian children have East Indies government. Their critical

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 323 attitude through their writings which action. The essay was considered oppose published in the newspapers caused and contradict to the Dutch ideology legal case called persdeclit and they were and thus endanger their power in the jailed because of that. The problems Indies. The government was anxious faced by Mas Marco Kartodikromo that such essay would influenced people and Semaoen were also reflected in resistance toward government and Hikayat Kadiroen as a form of reality lead to uprising movement. Semaoen’s representation in the literary works Hikayat Kadiroen is the evdience of era as well as a form of criticism and his resistance toward Dutch political resistance to the government in the ideology by portraying anti-attitude following quote: towards humiliation of human dignity “Persdelict. This is the day we due to social differences. have Hoofd-Redacteur called by the The Dutch East Indies government attorney in his office and was told domination attitude, as reflected in the that the Assistant Resident told him, quotation above, is the efforts to uphold the prosecutor, to ask questions their hegemony to strengthen the about Sinar Ra’jat on the 12th day of integral state as in Gramsci’s perspective May, especially about the articles relevant to the context of the Dutch contained in the day entitled: East Indies. The efforts of hegemony “Requested a little quickly”, and and exemplary were strengthened marked by Pentjari. Mr. Prosecutor through Nota Rijnkes. Authors affiliated in addition asked questions about with these institutions will publish the contents and purpose of the and distribute their works, especially essay, also asked to know the actual for schools, so that they can gain author’s name, because Pentjari is recognition, legitimation and economic a fake name. Of course we have benefits. Hoofd-Redacteur not like to explain The existence of authors who are the real name of the requested one not affiliated with Balai Pustaka with and answer that he will bear the their various works and medias will essay himself before the court judge encounter logical consequences of their if it becomes a claim. According to political attitude. Many Indigenous the prosecutor, the essay must be writers who choose not to follow the a legal case, because Mr. Assistant rules of Balai Pustaka will be imprisoned Resident in the city of G, was firm and encounter legal action for their to punish the one who spread the works. As an example, Semaoen has to essay. Already the fate of Hoofd- be imprisoned for his writing published Redacteur has been hit by a “delict”, in one of the newspapers. His novel Semaoen (2014; 155). protrayed the legal issues used by The above quote represents the the government to regulate author’s conditions occurred and developed resistance. in the Indies. It shows how Dutch The Dutch East Indies Government hegemony employed to regulate content was aware of potential hazards in the of an essay or literary works circulated dynamics of the community. The in the society through the force of legal canonization of Balai Pustaka was

324 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 adopted from the regulation employed language activities cannot be separated in India as one of British colonial from communication activities. The territories. Reading skills possessed writing of literary works is sometimes by the people, high reading interest, intended to instill the influence as the and the absence of strict supervision, author wishes. Such activities can be became a serious issue threatening the said as propaganda media. government in India. Furthermore, Hikayat Kadiroen and Student Hidjo the Dutch East Indies government portay resistance attitude to the colonial responded to this and made a set of government as well as proposing rule known as Memorie van Toelichting ideological concept of good governance (Certificate)8. for the progress of conditions in the The rapid growth and development Indies. The main problems raised by of social and political conditions in the Semaoen in the novel Hikayat Kadiroen Indies changed the government system relate to the concept of leadership and from centralized to desentralized. In efforts to alleviate poverty. Leadership order to realized that, the Dutch need is described through the potrayal of Indigenous people as government Kadiroen in pursuing career from a representative in the regions. The Police Mantri to finally become Wedono government, thus, inisiating the and Patih. It shows that Kadiroen had establishment of Dutch schools for strong character as a leader. Pujiharto Indigenous people with an initial (2014) explains that this is one of orientation; creating literate society. the characteristics of pre-Indonesian Schools were specifically intended for (beyond Indonesia) literary works which upper class society as candidates for shows that pre-Indonesian identity has government employees. In actually, a relationship with author resistance. provides more opportunities for The relevance of Antonio Gramsci’s Indigenous people to create other theory to this research is in the context activities in the form of critical thinking of the Dutch East Indies, the colonial and against the government. government applied the rules in the The correlation between literature Nota Rinkes which could be interpreted and politics or what is known as as state hegemony towards the writers. political literature portrayed strong The moral attitude shows that only in both novels. Specifically in Student works published by Balai Pustaka can Hidjo’s novel, propaganda were narrated be said to be quality works. This attitude to increase the spirit of nationalism is intended to suppress the spirit of the on the basis of humanity. The role of Indigenous people, especially Bumiputra literature in the era when the novel authors who keep writing their works was published has significant impact in Melayu Rendah (Low Malay) and on the national movement particularly still raised the issue of nationalism in gaining public sympathy. Moreover, and resistance to the government. ideologically Mas Marco is an ISDV Domination and consensus were seen in figure who is certainly contradicting the attitude of the Colonial government with the colonialism principles. Anhari in labeling readable works as well as the (2016) in his research explained that distribution of works published in Balai

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 325 Pustaka and initiated by consensus by hierarchy based on racial aspects selection process in terms of language and political dynamics in the context and content. Negotiation efforts in this of the movement, specifically the policy is mean to achieve the concept representation of the Syarikat Islam of integral state by uniting every class. congress in Solo. Authors and literary works at that The Dutch East Indies literature as time had an important role particularly part of Indonesia’s past is an interesting because literary works can be seen representation seen from the textual as propaganda media. Hence, Balai problems and representations of real life Pustaka realized the need for policies that can be taken as exemplary wisdom. that benefited the Dutch East Indies Literary works are reflection of the government. The author as traditional identity and cultural representation of intellectual must be directed as not to the Indonesian people as an affirmation create uproar and spirit of resistance of a national identity. Pre-Indonesian which further will complicate the literature, particularly Bumiputera can hegemony of the Dutch East Indies be seen as representation of “beyond government. Resistance showed by Indonesia” today. It is certainly different writers and society in general must be from the general view that modern balanced with policies to regulate inter- Indonesian literature begins with the class relations. publication of Balai Pustaka’s works.

CONCLUSION REFERENCES Semaoen and Mas Marco Anhari, A. F. (2016). Teknik Propaganda Kartodikromo are Bumiputra authors dalam Novel Student Hidjo Karya who chose to be resistant to the Dutch Mas Marco Kartodikromo. Skripsi. East Indies government. Their works Kediri: Universitas Nusantara can be seen as the representation of PGRI. literary politics towards colonialism, Anom, E. (2013). Regulasi dan particularly rejecting the political Kebijakan Media Cetak di hegemony at that era and the Indonesia Masa Zaman Penjajah. canonization of Balai Pustaka to Jurnal Komunikologi, 10(2), https:// suppress the freedom of expression and ejurnal.esaunggul.ac.id/index. resistance on media. php/Kom/article/view/1063. Semaoen’s Hikayat Kadiroen Farida, N. & Andalas, E. F. (2019). resistance toward the Dutch hegemony Representasi Kesenjangan Sosial- can be seen from the Dutch attitude Ekonomi Masyarakat Pesisir dengan who degrading the Indigenous Perkotaan dalam Novel Gadis Pantai people, bureaucratic corruption, and Karya Pramodya Ananta Toer. the incompetence of Indigenous Kembara: Jurnal Keilmuwan Bahasa, officials. Through the novel, Semaoen Sastra, dan Pengajarannya. 5(1), 74- exemplifies that a good leader should 90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22219/ observe the people dirrectly to ensure kembara.v5i1.7447. their conditions. Mas Marco’s Student Faruk. (2010). Pengantar Sosiologi Sastra. Hidjo resistance toward the class Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

326 | LITERA, Volume 19, Nomor 2, Juli 2020 Kratz, U. (2000). Sumber Terpilih Sejarah Patria, N & Arif, A. (2015). Antonio Sastra Indonesia. Jakarta: KPG. Gramsci Negara & Hegemoni. Hermawati, M. (2013). Tanam Paksa Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar. sebagai Tindakan Eksploitasi. Pujiharto., U, Wening., & Amini, M. Avatara, e-Journal Pendidikan (2014). Identitas Pra-Indonesia Sejarah. 1(1), 64-70. https:// dalam Cerita- Cerita Pra-Indonesia. jurnalmahasiswa.unesa.ac.id/ Litera, Jurnal Penelitian Bahasa, Sastra, index.php/avatara/article/ dan Pengajarannya. 13(2), 277-292. view/1123/82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/ltr. Indah, W., Maskun., M, Syaiful. (2013). v13i2.2581 Kebijakan Pemerintah Hindia Rosidi, A. (1986). Ikhtisar Sejarah Sastra Belanda Mengenai Indonesia. Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya. Pendidikan bagi Kaum Bangsawan di Salmon, C. (1985). Sastra Cina Peranakan Indonesia Tahun 1900-1920. Pesagi, dalam Bahasa Melayu. Jakarta: PN Jurnal Pendidikan dan Penelitian Balai Pustaka. Sejarah. 1(2). http://jurnal.fkip. Sastrowardoyo, S. (1983). Sastra Hindia unila.ac.id/index.php/PES/ Belanda dan Kita. Jakarta: PN Balai article/view/476/310. Pustaka. Ismawati, D. N., Handayani, S., Semaoen. (2014). Hikayat Kadiroen. Sumardi. (2017). “The Intelectual’s Bandung: Sega Arsy Khazanah Constribution In The National Pemikiran Progresif. Movement Of In Indonesian 1908- Sondarika, W. (2015). Dampak 1928”. Jurnal Historica. 1(2), Cultuurstelsel (Tanam Paksa) bagi 2252-4673. https://jurnal.unej. Masyarakat Indonesia dari Tahun ac.id/index.php/JHIS/article/ 1830-1870. Jurnal Artefak, 3(1). view/6440. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.25157/ Kartodiromo, M. M. (2013). Student ja.v3i1.337. Hidjo. Yogyakarta: Narasi. Sudibyo. (2017). Stereotipe dan Kurniawan, H. (2014). Dampak Sistem Ambivalensi Sosok Bumiputra Tanam Paksa terhadap Dinamika dalam Novel Kolonial Belanda. Perekonomian Petani Jawa 1830- Dalam Mencari Formula Baru 1970. Socia, Jurnal Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial. Kritik Sastra Indonesia. Yogyakarta: 1(2), 163-172. DOI: https://doi. Interlude & YASAYO. org/10.21831/socia.v11i2.5301. Sudibyo (2017). Uncany dan Bayang- Mujiyanto, Y & Fuadi, A. (2014). Kitab Bayang Koloni dalam Novel Sejarah Sastra Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Poskolonial Hindia Belanda. Litera, Penerbit Ombak. Jurnal Penelitian Bahasa, Sastra, Nugraha, D & Suyitno. (2019). On the dan Pengajarannya, 16(2), 217-227. Biginning of Modern Indonesian DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/ltr. Literature. Humanities & Social v16i2.15587. Sciences Reviews. 7(6), 604-616. Sulistyo, H. (2018). Kondisi Bahasa dan DOI: 10.18510/hssr.2019.7691 Sastra di Era Penjajahan sebagai Refleksi Implementasi Undang- Undang Kebahasaan Republik

Bumiputra Author’s Resistance Toward Political Hegemony and Canonization ... | 327 Indonesia. Prosiding Seminar dan Zulkarnain. (2011). Dampak Lokakarya Pengutamaan Bahasa Penerapan Sistem Tanam Paksa Negara Lanskap Bahasa Ruang bagi Masyarakat. Informasi, Kajian Publik: Dimensi Bahasa, Sejarah, Masalah Pendidikan dan Ilmu Sosial, dan Hukum. 37(1), No 1, 57-71. DOI: https:// Sumardjo, J. (1992). Lintasan Sastra doi.org/10.21831/informasi. Indonesia Modern Jilid I. Bandung: v1i1.4463. PT. Citra Aditya Bakti. Sumardjo, J. (2004). Kesusastraan Melayu Website Rendah Masa Awal. Yogyakarta: In Historia magazine, ed 26 Agustus 2017, Galang Press. explained that Semaun was born in Suyatno. (2016). Corak Realisme 1899 in Curahmalang, Mojokerto, Sosialis dalam Hikayat Kadiroen Jawa Timur https://historia.id/ Karya Semaoen. Jurnal Avatisme. persona/articles/semaun-dan- 19(1), 75-87. DOI: https:// sneevliet-kisah- persahabatan-dua- doi.org/10.24257/atavisme. orang-revolusioner-P9jY v19i1.175.75-87. Tempo in the National Press Day Tickell, P. (2006). Cinta di Zaman edition on February 9, 2017, Kolonial Ras dan Roman dalam raised the profile of Mas Marco sebuah Novel Awal Indonesia. Kartodikromo as a press figure in the Dalam Clearing A Space Kritik Pasca colonial era https://nasional.tempo. Kolonial tentang Sastra Indonesia co/read/845647/profil- marco- Modern. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor kartodikromo-jurnalis-pergerakan- Indonesia KITLV- Jakarta. era-kolonial/full&view=ok Wiyatmi. (2003). Nasionalisme According to Wikipedia, in a nationally Prakemerdekaan dalam Novel agreed size, one bahu is 500 tiles Student Hidjo Karya Mas https://www.google.com/search?q Marcokartodikromo (Kajian =tanah+1+bahu+berapa+hektar& Sosiologi Sastra). Litera, Jurnal oq=tanah+1+bahu+berapa+h ekta Penelitian Bahasa, Sastra, dan r&aqs=chrome..69i57.5100j0j7&so Pengajarannya, 2(1), 31-42. urceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21831/ltr. v2i1.6782. Yuliati, D. (2018). Pers, Peraturan Negara, dan Nasionalisme Indonesia. Jurnal ANUVA, 2(3), 253- 272. DOI: 10.14710/anuva.2.3.253- 272.

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