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ABSTRACT BECOMING WHO WE ARE: INFORMAL LEARNING AND IDENTITY FORMATION AMONG THE GARINAGU OF WESTERN BELIZE Harold Anthony Lopez, Ed.D. Department of Counseling, Adult, and Higher Education Northern Illinois University, 2014 Gene Roth and Jorge Jeria, Co-Directors This ethnography explores the wholesome contexts of informal learning and identity formation among an ethnic minority group in Belize. The central research question of the study was: How is informal learning manifested among the Garinagu of Western Belize. Snowball sampling technique was used to recruit 20 participants aged between 36 and 82 years. The group’s ways of learning were examined through the lens of Sociocultural learning theory. In the conduct of the maintenance of culture, learning is centered on their resiliency as examined through the various experiences that they acquired as a result of their movements, disruption and setbacks, the concept of Garifunaduaü, the meet and greet process, and the roles of rituals and ancestry. The Garinagu display remarkable resiliency in their quest to maintain their cultural identity. Their resiliency is demonstrated through the ways in which they navigate their world that constantly changes through the many moves, disruptions and setbacks that they experience and share. Garifunaduaü pays homage to the principles of caring, daring, sharing and family. Rituals and ancestry provides for connection and continuity. Connection with traditional Garifuna communities as maintained through regular or extended visits to traditional communities helped participants retain key cultural habits and artifacts including fluency in the Garifuna language, participation in the rituals, and regular preparation of traditional foods. Smaller family sizes and a shrinking of the extended family are threatening cultural practice. The rapidly increasing costs of rituals represent an existential threat to Garifuna practices. Structure within an established zone is required for minority cultures to fend off the dominance of larger cultures. Language learning at more advanced ages is more challenging than learning in early life. Understanding how they learn provides an avenue to reach them especially where there is a desire to address pressing social and health issues. Implications pertain to how minority groups in a shared area build relations and learn from each other. NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY DEKALB, ILLINOIS DECEMBER, 2014 BECOMING WHO WE ARE: INFORMAL LEARNING AND IDENTITY FORMATION AMONG THE GARINAGU OF WESTERN BELIZE BY HAROLD ANTHONY LOPEZ A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING ADULT AND HIGHER EDUCATION Doctoral Directors: Gene Roth Jorge Jeria ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my most sincere appreciation to Dr. Brad Pietens. You were the first person to encourage me to pursue this degree. Thank you Dr. Laurel Jeris. You opened my eyes to scholarly ways of writing. To my brothers, Sneferu (Wayne), Kenrick and Lloyd, thank you for the many discussions we had over the years especially the weekend gatherings in which we challenged each other. I owe greater gratitude to Kenrick for your great intuition. You sensed and anticipated many of my logistical needs and often provided them before I needed to ask. Thank you to Haley, Adrian, Alexis, and Kenya for providing the inspiration at a time when I had no idea in which direction I would proceed. Thank you especially Mrs. Ethel Ellis; the entire Garifuna community reveres, respects and appreciates you. This was evidenced throughout my research process. Thank you to Bocho Agotay, Sylvia Alvarez, Gloria and Kenneth Augustine, Hermia Arzu, Bernadine Avila, Bernard Cayetano, Editha Ciego, Beresford Diego, Cynthia Ellis, Lucia Ellis, Bernadine Martinez, Eric Nunez, Doreen Nunez, Henry Nunez, Mary Nunez, Herman Pastor Jr., Herman Pastor Sr., Alberto Roches, Maurice Rodriguez, Carl Valentine, Wellington Valentine, and the Garifuna community for embracing my return and for ingratiating me with your time and attention. Without your input, none of this would have been possible. I respect you, I appreciate you, and I am indebted to you. I extend a special thank you to the John A, Niemi Memorial Scholarship Fund for its financial support. Thank you also to Edith Dorita Armstrong, Cancy Ramclam, the owners of iii Trugueño’s in Barranco, Dr. Carlson Tuttle, Dr. Joseph Palacio, Egbert Valencio, the late Glendora Chavez and Godsman Ellis, Roy Cayetano, and my father Dudley Lopez. I appreciate the insights and assistance that each of you provided. Thank you to the staff at Tradewinds Internet café, and my longtime friend Luis Morey at the San Ignacio Post office. You saved me from numerous heartaches. Finally, thank you to my committee. Dr. Jeria provided the early encouragement and stood by me throughout the process. Dr. Laura Johnson, you helped me to discover and realize my passion for research, and the joy that comes from conducting fieldwork. And finally to Dr. Roth. Your guidance, encouragement and support made all the difference. Your words of support and encouragement often came when my journey felt lonesome and isolated. Together, you guided me into realizing the potential that Dr. Pietens had recognized earlier. I could not have asked for a better group of people both individually and collectively. Thank you for your patience, your commitment, and your unyielding support. DEDICATION To Andrea Arzu-Lopez, Pearl “Auntie Pearl” Arzu-Vasquez, and Ricardo “Mr. Cado” Vasquez: you are the three parents who guided me and instilled in me at an early age, the value of learning and of an education. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. x LIST OF APPENDICES ...................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1 Background of the Study .................................................................................. 8 Problem Statement .......................................................................................... 10 Purpose Statement .......................................................................................... 12 Research Question .......................................................................................... 13 Significance .................................................................................................... 14 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................... 16 Definitions ...................................................................................................... 18 Summary ........................................................................................................ 19 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GARIFUNA ......................................................... 20 Summary ........................................................................................................ 32 3. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................... 33 Educational Contribution ................................................................................ 34 Types of Learning ........................................................................................... 38 vi Chapter Page Formal Learning ....................................................................................... 38 Nonformal Learning ................................................................................. 40 Informal Learning ..................................................................................... 42 Validation and Informal Learning ................................................................... 46 Anthropological Contribution ......................................................................... 48 Culture ........................................................................................................... 51 Social Learning ......................................................................................... 59 Oral History .................................................................................................... 63 Stories ....................................................................................................... 67 Summary ........................................................................................................ 68 4. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 70 Entering the Site ............................................................................................. 71 Participants ..................................................................................................... 72 Data Collection, Management, and Recording ................................................ 76 Sampling Method ...................................................................................... 76 The Interview Process ............................................................................... 80 Field Management and Processes .............................................................. 87 Data Analysis ................................................................................................