Greenhouse Gas – Bury It Into Oblivion
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OFFICEOFFICE OFOF TECHNOLOGYTECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENTASSESSMENT ATAT THETHE GERMANGERMAN BUNDESTAGBUNDESTAG Greenhouse gas – bury it into oblivion Reinhard Grünwald Approximately one third of the global CO2 emissions is caused by fossil fuel- fired power plants. Recently, the option of capturing the generated carbon dioxide and of storing it underground is the subject of controversial debates. Appropriate procedures could reach maturity for large-scale technical deployment in about 15 to 20 years. However, there still are considerable gaps of knowledge to be filled before it will Greenhouse gas – be possible to answer the question whether the capture and storage of carbon dioxide bury it into oblivion could really be a sustainable option for climate protection. What are the technologically Reinhard Grünwald most efficient procedures? What are the potential savings regarding CO2? What are the safety risks and environmental impacts arising from the CO storage sites? What are the 2 Options and risks of costs of these technologies? Overall, it has to be questioned whether the concept of CO2 capture and storage can be integrated into the structure of the energy system and whe- CO2 capture and storage ther it can be competitive compared to other options to mitigate CO2 (energy efficiency, renewable energy sources). This book compiles the current state of knowledge and state of discussion and develops options for a social debate (keyword: acceptance) as well as adequate legal framework conditions. BÜRO FÜR TECHNIKFOLGEN-ABSCHÄTZUNG BEIM DEUTSCHEN BUNDESTAG KARLSRUHER INSTITUT FÜR TECHNOLOGIE (KIT) Neue Schönhauser Straße 10 10178 Berlin Fon +49 30 28491-0 Fax +49 30 28491-119 [email protected] www.tab-beim-bundestag.de 2 Technology Assessment Studies Series – 2 Greenhouse gas – bury it into oblivion Technology Assessment Studies Series – 2 The Office of Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag is an independ- ent scientific institution created with the objective of advising the German Bundestag and its Committees on matters relating to research and technology. TAB is operated by the Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analy- sis (ITAS) at the Karlsruhe Research Centre. In executing its working pro- gramme the Karlsruhe Research Centre cooperates with the Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung (ISI), Karlsruhe. TAB’s task is to design and implement technology assessment (TA) projects and to monitor and analyse important scientific and technological trends and the associated social developments (Monitoring, Future- and Innovation Reports, Policy-Benchmarking Reports). Reinhard Grünwald Greenhouse gas – bury it into oblivion Options and risks of CO2 capture and storage Report for the Committee on Education, Research and Technology Assessment OFFICE OF TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT AT THE GERMAN BUNDESTAG Note The orientation and content of this report cannot be taken as indicating the po- sition of the German Bundestag or its Committees. The German Bundestag retains the copyright to this publication. Reproduction is authorised, except for commercial purposes, but full acknowledgement is re- quested. A PDF-Version of the report is currently available on the Internet at the address www.tab-beim-bundestag.de. This title was first published in German language. The bibliographic information of the German title is: Reinhard Grünwald: Treibhausgas – ab in die Versenkung? Möglichkeiten und Risiken der Abscheidung und Lagerung von CO2. Berlin: edi- tion sigma 2008, ISBN 978-3-8360-8125-2. Translation: BEST Translation Ltd. cover photo credit: www.statoilhydro.com Büro für Technikfolgen-Abschätzung beim Deutschen Bundestag (TAB) (Office of Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag) Neue Schönhauser Straße 10 10178 Berlin Germany Fon: +49 30 28491-0 Fax: +49 30 28491-119 [email protected] www.tab-beim-bundestag.de 2009 Herstellung und Verlag: BoD – Books on Demand, Norderstedt ISBN 978-3-7322-8815-1 THE COMMITTEE’ S PREFACE Over 80 % of Germany’s energy supply is based on fossil energy carriers, use of which releases carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. Today, our economy has to import these crucial energy and raw-material sources. Yet, fossil raw ma- terials as resources are finite and their availability is limited. To this must be added the fact that, according to the most recent UN climate study, today’s con- sumption of fossil raw materials is crucially responsible for climate-damaging CO2 emissions. Considered against this backdrop, the question must be asked as to how the capture of CO2 from power plants and industrial facilities and its storage in deep geological layers can help us achieve ambitious climate- protection targets. It was for this reason that the Committee on Education, Research and Technol- ogy Assessment of the Germany Bundestag took a decision in 2006 to instruct the Office of Technology Assessment at the German Bundestag (TAB) to address the subject of »CO2 Capture and Storage at Power Plants«. One aim was to sur- vey the present state of knowledge and to identify critical knowledge gaps – e.g. as regards storage safety, costs, the availability of the technology. Another was to analyse the existing legal framework for CO2 capture and storage (CCS) in order to detect possible deficits and any need for legislative action. The report highlights the fact that, both in the technology for capturing the CO2, and in its transportation to the storage site as well as its injection and permanent deposition in deep rock layers, there is still considerable need for research and development before the process is mature for commercial-scale deployment. Ex- pert circles are agreed that this will take at least another 15 to 20 years. At the same time, the knowledge gaps still existing today, mainly as regards the behav- iour of CO2 below ground, must be closed before any robust assessment of a possible contribution of CCS to climate protection can be made. The demonstra- tion and pilot projects required for this currently lack a legal basis, so that de- velopment of a suitable regulatory framework must be tackled. This is all the more true of any industrial-scale implementation of the technology at a later date. In this report by the TAB, the German Bundestag is being given an updated and comprehensive information basis for further policymaking in shaping the framework conditions for a more sustainable energy supply. Berlin, May 6, 2008 6 THE COMMITTEE’S PREFACE The Committee on Education, Research and Technology Assessment Ulla Burchardt, Member of the German Bundestag Committee Chairwoman Axel E. Fischer, Member of the German Bundestag Rapporteur Swen Schulz, Member of the German Bundestag Rapporteur Uwe Barth, Member of the German Bundestag Rapporteur Dr Petra Sitte, Member of the German Bundestag Rapporteur Hans-Josef Fell, Member of the German Bundestag Rapporteur CONTENTS THE COMMITTEE’ S PREFACE 5 SUMMARY 9 I. INTRODUCTION 19 II. STATE OF THE ART 23 1. CO2 capture 24 1.1 Post-combustion 25 1.2 Pre-combustion 26 1.3 Oxyfuel process 28 1.4 Innovative CO2-separation processes 29 2. Transport 30 3. CO2 storage 33 3.1 Geological storage – mechanisms and options 33 3.2 Other storage options 37 III. POTENTIALS, RISKS, COSTS 39 1. Potentials for geological CO2 storage 39 1.1 Estimated potentials 39 1.2 Constraints, competing usage rights 41 1.3 Research needs 43 2. Risks, environmental impact 43 3. Costs, competitiveness 49 3.1 CO2 capture 49 3.2 CO2 transport 52 3.3 CO2 storage 53 3.4 Costs of monitoring, liability, remediation 55 3.5 Total costs and competitiveness 55 IV. INTEGRATION OF CCS INTO THE ENERGY SYSTEM 59 1. Need for power-plant renewals 59 2. Timeframe for the availability of CCS 60 8 CONTENTS 3. Retrofitting with CO2-capture technologies 62 3.1 Capture-ready 63 3.2 Market diffusion of CCS technologies 66 4. INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 67 V. PUBLIC OPINION AND ACCEPTANCE 71 1. Positions of stakeholders 72 2. Promoting acceptance 78 VI. LEGAL ISSUES 81 1. Tasks and objectives of a legal framework for CCS 81 2. Analysis of the current legal framework 82 2.1 CO2 capture 83 2.2 CO2 transport 85 2.3 CO2 injection and storage 86 2.4 Procedural requirements 90 2.5 Liability for damage associated with capture, transport and storage 90 3. How to make CCS legally admissible? 91 3.1 Interim solution to enable research and trial projects 92 3.2 Fundamentals of a long-term regulatory framework for CCS 96 4. How to make CCS economically attractive? 99 4.1 Framework convention on climate change and Kyoto protocol 100 4.2 Incentive framework in the context of Germany and the EU 102 VII. NEED FOR ACTION 111 VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 117 1. Commissioned expert reports 117 2. Other sources 117 ANNEX 128 1. List of tables 128 2. List of figures 128 3. List of abbreviations 129 4. Glossary 131 SUMMARY Carbon dioxide (CO2) is inevitably produced when fossil fuels are used and is usually released into the atmosphere, where it affects the climate. One option for climate protection is to capture the CO2 and isolate it permanently from the at- mosphere. This is the principle of CO2 capture and storage (CCS), a procedure that is primarily suitable for large, stationary CO2 sources, e.g. electricity- generating power plants or certain industrial processes (e.g. manufacture of ammonia or cement). CCS is being discussed particularly in the context of coal- fired power plants, as these emit the highest amount of CO2 in relation to elec- tricity production. But CCS could in principle be an option for other fossil fuels, too. With the use of biomass, it is even conceivable that the CO2 content in the atmosphere might even be actively reduced. Experts reckon that it takes about 15 to 20 years for CCS technology to reach large-scale maturity. For an overall evaluation of whether CCS technology is compatible with the principle of a sustainable energy supply, the question of reducing greenhouse gases (GHGs) is not the only central topic.