RMN Newsletter 7: Limited Sources, Boundless Possibilities 2013

The Retrospective Methods Network

Newsletter

Limited Sources, Boundless Possibilities

Textual Scholarship and the Challenges of Oral and Written Texts

A special issue of RMN Newsletter

Edited by Karina Lukin, Frog and Sakari Katajamäki

№ 7

December 2013

RMN Newsletter is edited by Frog Helen F. Leslie and Joseph S. Hopkins

Published by Folklore Studies / Dept. of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki, Helsinki 1

RMN Newsletter is a medium of contact and communication for members of the Retrospective Methods Network (RMN). The RMN is an open network which can include anyone who wishes to share in its focus. It is united by an interest in the problems, approaches, strategies and limitations related to considering some aspect of culture in one period through evidence from another, later period. Such comparisons range from investigating historical relationships to the utility of analogical parallels, and from comparisons across centuries to developing working models for the more immediate traditions behind limited sources. RMN Newsletter sets out to provide a venue and emergent discourse space in which individual scholars can discuss and engage in vital cross- disciplinary dialogue, present reports and announcements of their own current activities, and where information about events, projects and institutions is made available.

RMN Newsletter is edited by Frog, Helen F. Leslie and Joseph S. Hopkins, published by Folklore Studies / Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies University of Helsinki PO Box 59 (Unioninkatu 38 A) 00014 University of Helsinki Finland

The open-access electronic edition of this publication is available on-line at: http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/

Limited Sources, Boundless Possibilities: Textual Scholarship and the Challenges of Oral and Written Texts is a special thematic issue of the journal edited by Karina Lukin, Frog and Sakari Katajamäki. All contributions to Limited Sources, Boundless Possibilities have been subject to double-blind peer review by two reviewers, with one specialist reviewer selected from the discipline of the contributor, and the second as a specialist in textual studies.

ISSN 2324-0636 (Print)

ISSN 1799-4497 (Online)

All scientific articles in this journal have been subject to peer review.

Contents

Editor’s Note ...... 6

LIMITED SOURCES, BOUNDLESS POSSIBILITIES Textual Scholarship and the Challenges of Oral and Written Texts Textual Trails from Oral to Written Sources: An Introduction ...... 8 Sakari Katajamäki and Karina Lukin Revisiting the Historical-Geographic Method(s) ...... 18 Frog Behind the Text: Reconstructing the Voice of a Singer ...... 34 Jukka Saarinen “Do Not, Folk of the Future, Bring up a Child Crookedly!”: Moral Intervention and Other Textual Practices by Elias Lönnrot ...... 43 Niina Hämäläinen Behind the Texts and Notes and the Edition: M.A. Castrén’s Lectures on Mythology...... 56 Karina Lukin A Possible Source for a Medieval Icelandic Astronomical Manuscript on the Basis of Pictorial Evidence ...... 69 Christian Etheridge Oral Agitation through Written Sources: On the Study of Verbal Performances of the Early 20th Century Finland...... 78 Anna Rajavuori High Dudgeon: Crafting Affective Narratives from (Semi-) Official Texts ...... 85 Aaron Mulvany

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS Events PhD Workshop Announcement – Comparing the Medieval North: Coordinating Methodologies in the Study of Medieval Scandinavia ...... 94 Louisa Taylor, Matilda Watson and Marie Bønløkke Spejlborg Workshop Report – Indigenous Ideas and Foreign Influences: Interactions among Oral and Literary, Latin and Vernacular Cultures in Medieval and Early Modern Northern Europe ...... 95 Karolina Kouvola Projects, Networks and Resources Ísmús (Íslenskur músík- og menningararfur): An Open-Access Database ...... 97 Rósa Þorsteinsdóttir

PEOPLE

Research Reports Frog Continuity through Transformation: Conditions and Consequences of Sustaining Folklore in Changing Contexts ...... 102 Realizing Poetic Structure in Practice: A Perspective on dróttkvætt Poetry ...... 103 Terry Gunnell Magical Mooning and the Goat Skin Twirl: Memories of Old Nordic Magical Practices in the Saga ...... 105 Pantheon? What Pantheon? – Concepts of a Family of Gods in Pre-Christian Nordic Religions ...... 105 Mathias Nordvig A Hot Topic: Volcanoes in Old Norse Mythology ...... 106

Lectures Terry Gunnell The Belief Contexts and Performance of Vǫluspá: Considerations Regarding the Nordic Judgement Day ...... 106 Folk Legends, Folk Traditions and Grave Mounds ...... 107 The Power in the Place: Icelandic Legends Concerning ‘Power Spots’ in a Comparative Context ...... 107

Published Articles Frog Gods, Stories and the sampo: Three Works Approaching Outcomes of Historical Change ...... 108 Terry Gunnell The Drama of the Poetic Edda: Performance as a Means of Transformation ...... 110 Masks and Performance in the Early Nordic World ...... 110 National Folklore, National Drama and the Creation of Visual National Identity: The Case of Jón Árnason, Sigurður Guðmundsson and Indriði Einarsson in Iceland ...... 111 Waking the Dead: Folk Legends Concerning Magicians and Walking Corpses in Iceland ...... 111

Essay Collections Riho Grünthal and Petri Kallio Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe ...... 112 Leszek Słupecki and Rudolf Simek Conversions: Looking for Ideological Change in the Early Middle Ages ...... 112

PhD Projects Sheryl McDonald Werronen Nítíða saga in Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland ...... 113

Master’s Thesis Projects Geoffroy d’Arexy Piracy in Eastern Baltic Sea Region (9th–13th centuries) ...... 116 Gwendolyne Knight Anglo-Saxon Dreaming: Dreams and Attitudes towards Dreaming in Anglo-Latin and Old English Texts ...... 117

SUMMER SCHOOLS Viking Mythology and Religion: Old Norse Summer School at Aarhus University ...... 119

CALLS FOR PAPERS Interdisciplinary Student Symposium on Religion, Ideology and Cultural Practices in the Old Norse World ...... 120

RMN Newsletter is oriented to constructing an informational resource and discourse space for researchers of diverse and intersecting disciplines. It welcomes and encourages its readership to engage in that discourse space and also promotes an awareness that such participation will support, maintain and also shape this emergent venue. For further information on guidelines for submission, please visit http://www.helsinki.fi/folkloristiikka/English/RMN/contributors.htm Please submit contributions to RMN Newsletter electronically in *.doc, *.docx or *.rtf formats to: Frog University of Helsinki [email protected]

Editor’s Note

The present volume is a special issue on the development of methods, research tools and theme of textual scholarship. ‘Texts’ have methodologies relevant to textual studies. provided a central site of interest and attention There is now a burgeoning awareness of the for a remarkable range of scholarship. ‘Texts’ potential for testing and adapting these have also been a nexus in the development methodological resources for research, and use of retrospective methods throughout analysis and interpretation across disciplines the history of disciplinary scholarship. and across corpora. A corresponding Methodological discussions in this area touch awareness has grown around the potential for to the heart of the interests and concerns on studies made in different disciplines to be which RMN Newsletter was founded. We reciprocally informative. Limited Sources, therefore welcomed the proposal by Karina Boundless Possibilities has the potential to Lukin and Sakari Katajamäki that a special stimulate scholarship and discussion in issue be organized on the theme of textual precisely these areas. Individual articles offer scholarship. Limited Sources, Boundless valuable contributions to their own respective Possibilities: Textual Scholarship and the fields of study, but the venue simultaneously Challenges of Oral and Written Texts is the invites and promotes scholars working in fruit of that cooperation. We anticipate that different fields to set the particular studies in this special issue will lay foundations for dialogue with their own work. discussions that will resound through future Methods, approaches and insights issues of this journal. presented in this volume may have potential Across the latter half of the 20th century, to shed light on quite different materials and the dimensions of ‘text’ stretched from the aid in looking at them in different ways. For purely verbal to multimodal and even non- example, Jukka Saarinen’s methodology for verbal ‘texts’ – ‘texts’ understood, for example, reconstructing the ‘voice’ of an oral singer as “any coherent complex of signs” (Bakhtin behind archival transcriptions can be placed 1986: 103). Nevertheless, verbal texts have fruitfully in dialogue with other oral-derived remained a center of textual scholarship in all texts where supporting information is sparse. its breadth, treated with ever-increasing Saarinen’s contribution highlights the sensitivity. General developments in this negotiations between performed and dictated arena have involved, on the one hand, an poetry and between dialects and registers that awareness that every text is a contextual may be involved in these situations but are product of expression with agency behind it, easily overlooked. Niina Hämäläinen and, on the other, that every text is inevitably examines the transposition of oral-poetic received and interpreted in relation to expressions and strategies of different genres (potentially quite different) contexts and for a new, literate environment, conforming perspectives. This is highlighted through the them to a particular individual’s ideological articles in this collection. These diverse aims in a text that would later became iconic contributions are united by an interest in of the tradition itself. The insights enabled by triangulating relationships between texts, the corpus on which Hämäläinen’s study is agents and culture in order to produce based can then be reflected against works and information about the historical social traditions where corpora are more limited. environments and more particular circum- Karina Lukin highlights the significance of stances to which particular texts are related. historical frames and social networks within Today, textual scholarship is a vital which researchers undertake their work and multidisciplinary arena engaged by a wide within which interpretations are both range of disciplines. The range of disciplines produced and continuously renewed. Lukin’s has been complemented by the diversity of exploration of relationships between these and corpora as well as the research questions with the sources or models of different types used which these are interrogated. These factors in research (not all of which had equal status have stimulated a rich and yet disparate or received equal documentation) can be 6 fruitfully considered against both modern discourse otherwise characterized by scholarship as well as in relation to medieval dispassionate formal expression. Mulvany’s authors. Christian Etheridge turns attention contribution offers a useful look at the from verbal to visual ‘texts’, focusing on potential significance of sometimes quite formal continuities in textual transmission in subtle variations that can be brought forward spite of changes in the ideas about the visual and productively analyzed under close representations and their relationships to one reading. Together, the articles in Limited another. Etheridge’s analysis of manuscript Sources, Boundless Possibilities offer a range transmission traditions highlights the of approaches, perspectives and insights, multimodality of text reproduction, especially among which no doubt all readers of RMN in pre-modern cultural arenas. Anna Newsletter will find things of interest and Rajavuori shifts to approaching the structures value. Perhaps you will also find among these and social dynamics of performances through pages sparks of inspiration that incite a different types of texts. Rajavuori’s treatment continuation of discussions into future issues. of politically oriented performance can be readily adapted to approaching ritual, Frog religious or other ideologically and University of Helsinki emotionally charged historical performance traditions. Aaron Mulvany offers an overview Works Cited of the use of rhetoric, phraseology and visual Bakhtin, M.M. 1986. Speech Genres & Other Late accent as emotionally expressive emphasis Essays. Ed. Caryl Emerson & Michael Holquist. Austin: University of Texas Press. and as indicators of emotional investment in a

LIMITED SOURCES, BOUNDLESS POSSIBILITIES Textual Scholarship and the Challenges of Oral and Written Texts

Textual Trails from Oral to Written Sources: An Introduction Sakari Katajamäki, Finnish Literature Society (SKS), and Karina Lukin, University of Helsinki

Regarding almost all cultural phenomena, a traditions, Paleography, which focuses on the fundamental aspect of their transmission material practices of handwriting and the through space and time seems to be variation dating of written documents, Critique not only in content, but also transitions and génétique, which is interested in the genetic variation in the mode or manner through processes that lead to (modern) literary works, which they are transmitted. This is obvious as well as other dynamic fields like with regard to both oral culture and the Bibliography, History of the Book and discourses circulating via digital Scholarly Editing. Some disciplines of textual communication, but materially stable, scholarship focus on certain material sources handwritten and even printed texts are also or text genres, such as Epigraphy, concerned apt to all kinds of intentional and accidental with texts on stone, clay or other hard changes, relative to its preceding versions. materials, Codicology, addressing writings in This transmission of oral or written texts codex form, Diplomatics, handling historical and the variation of these texts form the basis documents, and Analytical Bibliography, with of an interdisciplinary branch of scholarship concentration on the physical characteristics called textual scholarship. Textual of books and bookmaking. As an scholarship, or textual studies, is an umbrella interdisciplinary field of research, textual term for disciplines that deal with describing, scholarship brings together historians, transcribing, editing or annotating texts and folklorists, literary critics, linguists, physical documents. Textual research is musicologists and scholars of Translation mainly historically oriented. Textual scholars Studies who are interested in the genesis, study, for instance, how writing practices and transmission and variation of oral or written printing technology has developed, how a texts. (Greetham 1994: 1–12; 2009; certain writer has written and revised his Katajamäki & Kokko 2010; Hallamaa et al. texts, how literary documents have been 2010.) edited, the history of reading culture, the The historical roots of Textual Criticism relationship of oral and written texts, as well and Bibliography date back to the 3rd century as censorship and the authenticity of texts. BCE, when the scholarly activities of The subjects, methods and theoretical copying, comparing, describing and archiving backgrounds of textual research vary widely, texts became professionalized in the Library but what they have in common is an interest of Alexandria. Many other disciplines of in the genesis and derivation of texts and textual scholarship have also belonged to the textual variation in these practices. humanist research for centuries. However, the Disciplines of textual scholarship include, term textual scholarship was only launched a among others, Textual Criticism, which few of decades ago. A key point in the studies the origins and variation of texts, genesis of this concept was the foundation of Stemmatology, which is concerned with the the Society for Textual Scholarship and its oral or written reproductive transmission of journal Text (now Textual Cultures) at the texts and creates family trees of text dawn of the 1980s, followed a decade later by

8 the first general overview of the discipline in folklore began within the development of David C. Greetham’s Textual Scholarship: An comparative paradigms in linguistics and in Introduction (1992). the study of mythology.2 The early collections Later textual scholars have built research of folklore were made with the aim of centers for the discipline, such as the Centre collecting the cultural heritage of nations in for Textual Studies (De Montfort University) textualized forms, frequently treating epics, and also the Institute for Textual Scholarship legends and even tales as sources for national and Electronic Editing (University of (ethnic) history in a framework that did not Birmingham). In 2001, European textualists always question the truth value of oral founded a society of their own, The European tradition. Especially in the Nordic countries, Society for Textual Scholarship, which the accumulation and uses of these textual organizes annual conferences and publishes materials eventually led to the development of the journal Variants. Nordic scholars now a historically oriented comparative method also have their own network, Nordisk that came to be known as the Historical- Netværk for Editionsfilologer (NNE), which Geographic Method (see Frog, this volume). also organizes conferences and has its own This method or rather methodology was based publication series dedicated to editorial on a vision of different aspects of culture matters. In addition, many other societies and moving across geographical spaces and across networks have been founded on specific different cultures in a way similar to linguistic topics or on a national level, such as the features, such as lexems and syntax – Finnish network Variantti. (Dilts 1997, 76; especially the ‘migration’ of cultural texts Greetham 1994: 1–12, 297–298; Greetham along with images, motifs, beliefs and so forth 2013.) that were associated with them. Historical and comparative studies were From Texts to Performance – and Sites in closely related to Textual Criticism and between especially to Stemmatics. This research came Methodological challenges and scholarly to be known for its reconstructive searches for objectives associated with textual scholarship Urforms and for propagating a method that are shared by different scholars of many was almost too clear, which also served as an disciplines in the Humanities. Further engine to produce uniform studies on all research and collaboration is necessary in different kinds of folklore. The Historical- order to more fully understand these Geographic Method subsequently became methodological challenges, and there is, in ‘demonized’ by later scholars for its overly addition, a growing need for an analytical narrow understanding of folklore as ‘text’ or history of the relations between disciplines in as an objectifiable entity that should be their confrontations with these issues in the studied independent of its context, be that past. A valuable example of the sort of nature context social or performative. As Frog’s that these historical relationships can have is article in this volume shows, the provided by Folklore Studies and Philology, understanding of folklore in the historical and which have a common history that was at comparative method was never as restricted as times nevertheless divergent. has been understood by many critics, nor does Folklore Studies began as an endeavor of it have to be. On the other hand, it is fruitful textual scholarship. All of the basic to view the critique of this historical and procedures of textual scholarship are comparative methodology within its own characteristic of the basic activities in context of a much broader paradigm shift Folklore Studies, from collecting and called, in retrospect, the performative turn – a transcribing textual sources to comparing and paradigm shift that has all the qualities of a publishing these in scholarly editions, Kuhnian scientific revolution. In that context, although these were initially texts borne out it was only to be expected that the of performances, within the contexts of which revolutionary scholars would feel a need to they contained much more than ‘pure’ create a sense of rupture and juxtaposition 1 linguistic text. The systematic collection of between the old, unilateral historical-

9 comparative models and the new performative researchers in Philology turned interest and focus.3 attention from the reconstruction of lost However revolutionary the ‘performative manuscript exemplars to variation in turn’ may have been, the ‘text’ never vanished manuscript transmission – the contexts and from the field. Instead, the relationship co-texts of manuscript production and between texts produced in oral performances reproduction. At the same time that the outcry and the co-texts with all of their diverse con- rose against the inappropriateness of isolating texts came into focus (e.g. Silverstein & folkloric ‘texts’ from their contexts of Urban 1996; Foley 2002). Analysis shifted production and analyzing them as objectified concentration to the meanings conferred on entities, a corresponding outcry rose against performances and the traditions realized by isolating texts from the contexts of other texts the performers themselves and the listeners or with which they were copied into manuscripts participants of those emergent performances. or of analyzing these texts in isolation from The focus shifted from the historically the artifacts of manuscripts in which they are ‘original’ text to the event and the emergent preserved. Attention was given to social and nature of folklore. This shift in focus was economic conditions under which partly due to technological developments that manuscripts were copied or commissioned made it easy and practical to record the audio and even social and personal motivations of and visual aspects of performances without scribes, patrons and associated communities isolating and objectifying the text that was in copying, compiling and varying individual realized in performance. However, the texts. Here, too, the effects on the discipline reactive aspect of the performative turn was were revolutionary, and they were not without not without consequences. On the one hand, it their own consequences.6 However, Classic also produced an exaggerated concentration (or ‘Old’) Philology was extremely well on certain performances over others, and on established as a discipline, and grounded by the other hand, it exaggerated the emphasis on the wide range of historically oriented the importance of first-hand fieldwork disciplines that still relied on it for the critical materials as opposed to archival sources. handling of their sources. Consequently, the Although this turn opened many significant controversies never resulted in the sort of new insights, perspectives and comprehensive transformation seen in understandings, it was simultaneously Folklore Studies.7 characterized by narrowing focus in the Folklore Studies and Philology were opposite direction of historical comparative intimately linked from the outset and the studies, and such narrowing was not changes that occurred in each isolated them necessarily entirely fruitful.4 from one another owing to changes in In parallel with these developments in interests and emphases. Nevertheless, these Folklore Studies, the in many respects similar changes were in many respects remarkably discipline of Philology underwent its own similar. They shared parallel interests and struggles with changes in paradigm that have been ever more inclined to converge as became known as so-called ‘New Philology’, studies of medieval manuscripts become a process realized through debates that were increasingly concerned with the social activity sometimes “heated – and not always civil.”5 of the texts that these contain in relation to Classic Philology had been particularly their producers and users, and even oriented to the historical reconstruction of developing a performance archaeology of texts and recovery of ‘original’ forms and medieval entextualization.8 Correspondingly, meanings of texts and textual products – with methods for the analysis of the contextual and priorities and methods that had been adapted emergent nature of performance in archival quite directly as foundations for the materials have also been developed and development of Folklore Studies as a discussed in Folklore Studies (e.g. Timonen discipline. Whereas emphasis in the latter 2004, Tarkka 2005; Siikala & Siikala 2005). shifted to performance with its contexts and Archival materials have also been used many co-texts of production as practice, together with first hand ethnographic sources

10 in order to deepen the understanding of public performances and their printed forms contemporary practices of homo narrans in newspapers. In their turn, the letters around the world (Siikala & Siikala 2005; discussed by Aaron Mulvany elsewhere in Kaartinen 2010). Meanwhile, the historical this volume show how the dispassionate form and comparative methodology never of a formal letter also leaves space for completely ceased (e.g. Napolskikh 1992; expressions of emotions. Siikala 1992 [2002]; Valk 2000; Stepanova 2011), and as proposed in this issue, it has Tools Old and New also continued its being among the One of the fundamental areas of textual performance scholars. The methods for scholarship has been rendering versions of organizing research materials, for example, text from one or many sources and forms of might still have their legacy in the former representation into publishable form. Perhaps ‘Finnish School’. The tools and perspectives the most widely familiar manifestations of that have been developed in Folklore Studies this are critically edited texts of historical and Philology are complementary and can works ranging from, for example, Homeric produce reciprocal insights when brought epics, the Bible and medieval literature to together. What is more, a thorough works by Shakespeare, Goethe or James understanding of the possibilities of Joyce. However, some of the most vital work comparative studies and of the contextual and in this area has been in Folklore Studies and emergent nature of folklore provides Linguistic Anthropology. The documentation tremendous possibilities for future and publication of texts collected from oral Folkloristics. (See Frog 2012; 2013.) At the traditions has been one of the central spheres same time, Folkloristics has the resources and of activity in Folklore Studies since the early insights into phenomena as cultural practice development of the discipline. Fieldwork and that can provide a frame of reference for transcribed oral texts have provided source exploring the interests and concerns that have material for researching the collective past of gained prominence in Philology. a culture and thereby building that collective Another significant progression that might past, often from national perspectives (cf. be symptomatic of recent convergences in the Lukin, this volume). The editorial goals and interests of these fields has been in the methodologies of documenting and discussions surrounding written texts that publishing folklore have varied greatly. This were produced by the ‘folk’ and became the is especially apparent in, for example, Kinder- objects of research of Folklore Studies. These und Hausmärchen by the Brothers Grimm include among other things so-called ego- (1812–1857) or Srpske narodne pjesme documents – i.e. letters, diaries, auto- [‘Serbian Folk Songs’] by Vuk Stefanović biographies and handwritten newspapers as Karadžić and his colleagues (1841–1862). objects of research (Kuismin & Driscoll 2013; Today, these might be seen less as editing and cf. also Rajavuori, this volume). These more like rewriting and reinventing traditional discussions serve as an important bridge ‘texts’, although these works were produced spanning orality, literacy and textuality that in milieux where critical standards for editing brings us to consider not only the texts but any text were quite different. By the end of th also the circulation of textual styles and the 19 century, Folklore Studies was also genres, their overlaps with oral forms of producing critical editions as basic printed expression and the overall interaction of ‘tools’ for research, such as the Suomen speaking, writing and thinking.9 The Kansan Vanhat Runot I–XV [‘The Ancient interaction of the printed and spoken word is Poems of the Finnish People’] in 34 volumes connected e.g. to the handwritten papers that 1908–1948, 1997). The principles of folklore were printed in form, but were often written editing have been dependent on scholars’ to be read aloud in public meetings (Salmi- current objectives and prevalent paradigms, Niklander 2013).10 Correspondingly, the such as the Historical-Geographic Method agitation reports interpreted by Anna and Oral-Formulaic Theory, which were Rajavuori in this volume move between rooted in Philology from the start. Then, as

11 technologies later enabled the documentation investigations of the later life of various of audio and visual aspects of performance, revised or abbreviated editions of Kalevala, as the change in research emphasis sought to well as its translations and diverse integrate the diversity of relevant information adaptations, extending into the cultural and into representation. This included the political history of Kalevala and its reception development of innovative new strategies for more generally.15 The richness of this material textual representation associated with has also made Kalevala and its creation a ethnolinguistics, ethnopoetics, and the central point of reference in the study of the ethnography of speaking. (Foley 1997a; Foley textualization of other epics, and the insights 1997b; Foley 2004; Anttonen 2012; Niles offered by these more recent phenomena have 2013.)11 However, the pursuit of ever more subsequently been carried back into more accurate and comprehensive representation philologically oriented discussions of was never an exclusive aim in the field. textualizations of vernacular poetry in, for Folklorists have maintained a prominent role example, the medieval period (e.g. Tolley in editing diverse non-scholarly anthologies 2013). of folklore for political or educational Much as the practicability of audio and purposes, as well as modernizing old national video recording revolutionized the ways in epics and in some cases even compiling and which ‘texts’ were documented, represented writing them for large audiences, as was the and imagined especially across the second case with Elias Lönnrot and the Finno- half of the 20th century, technological Karelian epic Kalevala, or more recently Bui developments have again impacted the Viet Hoa and the Vietnamese national epic possibilities of representing and working with Con cháo Mon Mân [‘The Descendant of different forms of texts today. These Mon Man’]. In many ways, these expansions developments are producing resources that are from purely academic editing belong to the being made good use of especially in scholarly history of Folklore Studies and to comparative studies. The nearly 90,000 items Philology more generally.12 of kalevalaic poetry in Suomen Kansan The scholarly and non-scholarly editions of Vanhat Runot was reissued in its open-access folklore and national epics – their genesis, searchable digital edition already in 2002 transmission and cultural history – have (SKVR-tietokanta), and the more recent open- themselves gradually become the objects for access Skaldic Database has rapidly become many kinds of research.13 For instance, the most important resource for the study of researchers have been interested in the Old Norse poetry and continues to rapidly textualization process of Kalevala from oral develop. New technologies are also used to kalevalaic poetry as well as of Suomen develop digital editions of old materials that Kansan Vanhat Runot and other publications. have been otherwise difficult to access, as in There are roughly 150,000 items of kalevalaic Manuscripta Castreniana that aims at poetry preserved in the Folklore Archive of publishing digital scholarly editions of the the Finnish Literature Society (SKS) and folklore and linguistic materials collected by extensive information surrounding both the Matthias Alexander Castrén in Northern historical context in which it was created as Russia and Siberia in the mid-19th century well as concerning Elias Lönnrot who created (Lukin, this volume). To give one example, Kalevala. This has produced a long and rich markup languages enable scholars to enrich discussion concerned with ‘authenticity’ and transcribed oral and written sources with makes a very fruitful area for investigating many textual, contextual and explanatory relationships between printed editions, layers supplied with metadata of the current original manuscripts and oral performances, scholarly activities. TEI (Text Encoding as well as for examining different Initiative), now collectively defines a standard textualization strategies – including critical XML format for the scholarly representation editions – that reciprocally construct images of all kinds of texts in digital form. It also of the traditions which they set out to provides solutions for enriching the represent.14 These issues flow into transcribed text with information on the

Figure 1. Reproduction of a page from M.A. Castrén’s field notes on Nenets epic poetry. The first column represents a Western and Central dialect variants of a Nenets epic poem or syudbabts. The base text is in the Western dialect and the deletions and additions indicate the Central variant. The second column represents the translation in Swedish and includes some clarifications of the text. material and structural features of the sources, Limited Sources? – Boundless Possibilities! as well as for instance on performative, This special issue of RMN Newsletter started genetic, revision-historical, linguistic from the Finnish network Variantti’s annually (phonetic, orthographic, lexical, syntactic), organized colloquium in Helsinki in May editorial and comparative layers of the text. 2012. The seminar concentrated on non- The document as text can then be presented linearity in texts, emerging for example in with metadata and explanatory features, as parallel variants in manuscripts, in well as links to manuscript images (like that emendations open to various interpretations, shown in Figure 1), different manuscript and in gaps in the material – all features quite variants or even audio and visual material for often encountered by textual scholars. more recently recorded examples. Analysis enables possibilities to overcome The new digital technologies are opening these gaps, but as shown in the issue, the gaps possibilities that lead once more toward lie in different places depending on the global visions of oral tradition research, frameworks employed by researchers and the uniting researchers working with oral texts to questions that they pose. The call for papers enthusiastically create new databases and with intrigued scholars working with a growing interest in and attention to interpretations of multiple forms of textual networking those databases in the future. The and visual sources. Limited Sources, discussions about the technical details, such Boundless Possibilities encouraged the as markup languages, are focal for the new contributors to focus on different textual digital era. Nevertheless, understanding the perspectives accessible through their own corpora also as editions, carefully looking at research, and to immerse their attention in the editorial or textual histories behind the exploring and elucidating those perspectives, texts in the new digital corpora, remains opening them to the multidisciplinary arena fundamental. that characterizes textual scholarship.

The present volume affords a broad 7. Already in 1993, Busby observes: “Many scholars spectrum of perspectives on editorial are left, at the moment, with the suspicion – comforting in its way – that the whole polemic may processes, scholarly histories and current have been false, and with the hope that there is no interpretations of texts. Some of the gaps great divide. Upon rereading, many of the articles overcome in the articles are related to in the January, 1990 Speculum do not actually say manuscripts and their elliptic notes as well as what they were perceived to say [at that time] to different versions of texts in different (although some do) and, by the same token, some of the targets they took aim at had long since ceased editions and the possibility of knowing why to exist.” (Busby 1993a: 3.) certain emendations were made, and by 8. E.g. considering marginal speaker notation as an whom, and in which order. However, the gaps indicator of the performative practice of dialogic are also found in the possibilities of poetry (Gunnell 1995), symbolic notations as interpreting performative, social and signifiers of performative actions to accompany text performance (Fisher 2013), changes in transcription psychological dimensions in written texts. In and transposed expressions as potential indicators the praxis of scholarly work, the gaps rarely of disruption in the context of verse documentation remain uncrossed or unfilled. They rather (Frog 2011), and even reflections of verbal seem to serve as possibilities for further elocution in transcription according to metrical questions, methodological puzzles and even rather than lexical units (Frog forthcoming). 9. One of the most interesting disputes concerned with inspiring answers. the orality–literary continuum has been the discussion surrounding fairytales and their early Notes forms. See Apo 2007 & 2012; Bottigheimer 2010; 1. In Peter Shillingsburg’s dichotomy linguistic text Vaz da Silva 2010. versus material text, the former refers to the “words 10. On the other hand, Ülo Valk (2012) has noticed and punctuation in a particular order” whereas the that printed, not only oral, media are and should be latter also contains the material aspects of the text, studied as natural contexts relevant to variation in such as paper and ink quality, typographic design genres that are primarily studied only through and size (Shillingsburg 1991: 53–54). This archival documents owing to their supposed oral dichotomy is useful in Folklore Studies, too, origins. especially when research deals with handwritten 11. On the history of scholarly editing among and printed texts. Consider also Matthew Driscoll’s American folklorists and in the Nordic countries, (2010) distinction between ‘work’, ‘text’ and see Fine 1984; Solberg 2013. ‘artefact’. Regarding oral performances, however, 12. On the political and cultural aspects of editing the concept of ‘oral textuality’ also needs to be literature and folklore, see van Hulle & Leerssen distinguished from the linguistic text (as 2008; Henrikson 2010; Söderlund 2013. Shillingsburg defines it) and strategies of 13. See e.g. Honko 2000; Honko, Handoo & Foley composition of the text in performance (on which 1998. see Honko 1998; Hymes 1981, Tedlock & Tedlock 14. See Saarinen and Hämäläinen in this volume. One 1985; Silverstein & Urban 1996). of the aims of earlier scholars has been to identify 2. For the collection in Europe, see e.g. Briggs and the transcribed or printed text from which every Bauman 2003; Ó Giolláin 2000; Sarajas 1956; line of the Kalevala derives at each stage of its Kuutma & Jaago 2005. development (Borenius & Krohn 1891–1895; 3. On this rupture, see e.g. Bauman 1978; Foley 2002: Niemi 1899; Kaukonen 1939-1945; Kaukonen 60; Lehtipuro 2000; Wolf-Knuts 2013. 1956), but more recently the interest has centered 4. See Dégh 1995. For further discussion, see e.g. on the ideational backgrounds of Lönnrot (see e.g. Briggs 1993. Dundes 1985; Anttonen 2012; Honko 1987; Honko 5. Quotation, with specific reference to Old French 2002; Hämäläinen 2012; Hyvönen 2008a; 2008b; Studies, from Keith Busby’s (1993a: 1) Karkama 2001; Siikala et al. 2004; Apo 2010). introduction to a collection of occasional articles 15. See, for instance, Aarnipuu 2012; Anttonen & that were expressions in this debate (Busby 1993b). Kuusi 1999; Apo forthcoming; Piela et al. 2008; For an accessible overview of the debate, see Siikala et al. 2004; van der Hoeven 2012. Driscoll 2010; see also, for example, the 1990 special issue What Is Philology? in the journal Abbreviations Comparative Literature Studies, and the 1990 SKS = Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. special issue The New Philology of the journal SKST = Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Speculum. Toimituksia. 6. E.g. contesting Classic Philology’s dismissal of copies of otherwise extant exemplars produced a counter-position that every manuscript was or should be recognized as (equally) interesting (cf. Driscoll 2010).

Works Cited New York: The Modern Language Association of Aarnipuu, Petja (ed.). 2012. Kalevala maailmalla: America. Pp. 75–94. Kansalliseepoksen kääntämisen kulttuurihistoriaa. Driscoll, Matthew. 2010. “The Words on the Page: SKST 1379. Helsinki: SKS / Kalevalaseura. Thoughts on Philology, Old and New” In Creating Anttonen, Pertti. 2012. “Oral Traditions and the the Medieval Saga: Versions, Variability, and Making of the Finnish Nation”. In Folklore and Editorial Interpretations of Old Norse Saga Nationalism in Europe During the Long Nineteenth Literature. Ed. Judy Quinn & Emily Lethbridge. Century. Ed. Timothy Baycroft & David Hopkin. Copenhagen: University Press of Southern National Cultivation of Culture 4. Leiden / Boston: Denmark. Pp. 85–102. Also available at: Brill. Pp. 325–350. http://www.driscoll.dk/docs/words.html Anttonen, Pertti. 2013. “The Kalevala Epic in Modern Dundes, Alan. 1985. “Nationalistic Inferiority Finland: An Issue of Textualization and Complexes and the Fabrication of Fakelore: A Representation”. In: Folk Traditions in Modern Reconsideration of Ossian, the Kinder- und Society. Ed. Pekka Hakamies, Vibeke Bordahl & Hausmärchen, the Kalevala, and Paul Bunyan”. In Jian Sun. Shanghai. Journal of Folklore Research 22: 5–18. Anttonen, Pertti, & Matti Kuusi. 1999. Kalevala-lipas: Fine, Elizabeth C. 1984. The Folklore Text: From Uusi laitos. SKST 740. Helsinki: SKS. Performance to Print. Bloomington: Indiana Apo, Satu. 2007. “The Relationship between Oral and University Press. Literary Tradition as a Challenge in Fairy-Tale Fisher, Rebecca M.C. 2013. “The Anglo-Saxon Research: The Case of Finnish Folktales”. Marvels Charms: Texts in Context”. In Approaching nd & Tales 21(1): 19–33. Methodology. 2 rev. edn. Ed. 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Bottigheimer, Ruth B. 2010. “Fairy Godfather, Fairy- Frog. 2011. “Alvíssmál and Orality I: Formula, Tale History, and Fairy-Tale Scholarship: A Alliteration and Categories of Mythic Being”. Arkiv Response to Dan Ben-Amos, Jan M. Ziolkowski, för Nordisk Filologi 126: 17–71. and Francisco Vaz da Silva”. Journal of American Frog. 2012. “Confluence, Continuity and Change in the Folklore 123: 447–496. Evolution of Mythology: The Case of the Finno- Briggs, Charles. 1993. “Metadiscursive Practices and Karelian Sampo-Cycle”. In Mythic Discourses: Scholarly Authority in Folkloristics”. Journal of Studies in Uralic Traditions. Ed. Frog, Anna-Leena Linguistic Anthropology 2(2): 131–172. Siikala & Eila Stepanova. Studia Fennia Busby, Keith. 1993a. “Introduction”. In Towards a Folkloristica 20. Helsinki: SKS. Pp. 205–254. Synthesis? – Essays on the New Philology. Ed. Frog. 2013. “The Parallax Approach: Situating Keith Busby. Amsterdam / Atlanta: Rodopi. Pp. 1–3. Traditions in Long-Term Perspective”. In Busby, Keith (ed.). 1993b. Towards a Synthesis? – Approaching Methodology. Eds. Frog & Pauliina Essays on the New Philology. Amsterdam / Atlanta: Latvala with Helen F. Leslie. Annales Academiae Rodopi. Scientiarum Fennicae Humaniora 368. Helsinki: Dégh, Linda. 1995. Narrative in Society: A Performer- Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Pp. 99–129. Centered Study of Narration. FF Communications Frog. (Forthcoming.) “Is Phil Phol, and Who the Devil 255. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Is He Anyway? – Baldr, the Second Merseburg Dilts, Mervin R. 1997 [1995]. “Greek Literature: From Charm, and Other Perplexing Issues”. In Topics in Antiquity to the Renaissance”. In Scholarly Continental West Germanic. Ed. Tonya Kim Editing: A Guide to Research. Ed. D.C. Greetham. 15

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Press. van der Hoeven, Adriaan. 2012. “The Making of Lehtipuro, Outi. 2000. “Kärpäslätkän opetus – eli mistä Kullervo”. In Finno-Ugric Folklore, Myth and tieteellinen oivallus syntyy”. In Telling, Cultural Identity. Ed. Cornelius Hasselblatt & Remembering, Interpreting, Guessing: A Festschrift Adriaan van der Hoeven. Studia Fenno-Ugrica for Prof. Annikki Kaivola-Bregenhøj on Her 60th Groningana 7. Maastricht: Shaker. Pp. 73–93. Birthday, 1st February 1999. Ed. Maria Vasenkari, Honko, Lauri (ed.). 1987. Kalevala ja maailman Pasi Enges & Anna-Leena Siikala. Joensuu: eepokset. Kalevalaseuran Vuosikirja 65. NIF Suomen Kansantietouden Tutkijain Seura. Pp. 402– Publications 16. Helsinki: SKS. 406. Honko, Lauri. 1998. Textualising the Siri Epic. FF Napolskikh, Vladimir Vladimirovič. 1992. Drevneišie Communications 264. Helsinki: Academia etapy proishoždeniia narodov ural’skoj iazykovoi Scientiarum Fennica. sem’i: Dannye mifologičeskoi rekonstruktcii Honko, Lauri (ed.). 2000. Textualization of Oral Epics. (praural’skii kosmogoničeskii mif). Iževsk: RAN. Trends in linguistics, Studies and Monographs 128. The New Philology. 1990. Speculum 65(1), special Berlin: de Gruyter. issue. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Honko, Lauri (ed.). 2002. The Kalevala and the Niemi, A.R. 1899. Vanhan Kalevalan eepilliset World’s Traditional Epics. Studia Fennica ainekset. Helsinki: SKS. Folkloristica 12. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Niles, John D. 2013. “Orality”. In The Cambridge Society. Companion to Textual Scholarship. Ed. Neil Honko, Lauri, Jawaharlal Handoo & John Miles Foley Fraistat & Julia Flanders. Cambridge: Cambridge (eds.). 1998. The Epic: Oral and Written. Mysore: University Press. Pp. 205–223. Central Institute of Indian Languages. Piela, Ulla, Seppo Knuuttila & Pekka Laaksonen (ed.). van Hulle, Dirk, & Joep Leerssen (eds.). 2008. Editing 2008. Kalevalan kulttuurihistoria. SKST 1179. the Nation’s Memory: Textual Scholarship and Helsinki: SKS. 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Sarajas, Annamari 1956. Suomen kansanrunouden Suomen Kansan Vvanhat Runot I–XV. 1908–1997. tuntemus 1500–1700-lukujen kirjallisuudessa. Helsinki:SKS. Helsinki: WSOY. Tarkka, Lotte. 2005. Rajarahvaan laulu: Tutkimus Shillingsburg, Peter L. 1991. “Text as Matter, Concept, Vuokkiniemen kalevalamittaisesta runokulttuurista and Action”. Studies in Bibliography 44: 31–82. 1821–1921.SKST 1033. Helsinki: SKS. Siikala, Anna-Leena. 1992 [2002]. Suomalainen Tedlock, Barbara, & Dennis Tedlock. 1985. “Text and šamanismi: Mielikuvien historiaa. Helsinki: SKS. Textile: Language and Technology in the Arts of Siikala, Anna-Leena, Lauri Harvilahti & Senni the Quiche Maya”. Journal of Anthropological Timonen (ed.). 2004. Kalevala ja laulettu runo. Research 41(2): 121–146. SKST 958. Helsinki: SKS. Timonen, Senni. 2004. Minä, tila, tunne: Näkökulmia Siikala, Anna-Leena, & Jukka Siikala. 2005. Return to kalevalamittaiseen kansalyriikkaan. SKST 963. Culture. FF Communications 287. Helsinki: Helsinki: SKS. Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Tolley, Clive. 2013. “The Kalevala as a Model for Our Silverstein, Michael & Greg Urban. (eds.). 1996. Understanding of the Composition of the Codex Natural Histories of Discourse. Chicago: Regius of the Poetic Edda”. In Viisas matkassa, University of Chicago Press. vara laukussa: Näkökulmia kansanperinteen Söderlund, Petra. 2013. “Die skandinavischen tutkimukseen. Ed. Tuomas Hovi, Kirsi Hänninen, Literaturgesellschaften: Finanzielle und Merja Leppälahti & Maria Vasenkari. Turun institutionelle Bedingungen für textkritische Yliopiston Folkloristikan Julaisuja 3. Turku: Turun Ausgaben in Skandinavien”. In Geschichte der Yliopisto. Pp. 114–143. Edition in Skandinavien. Ed. Paula Henrikson & Valk, Ülo. 2000. “Ex Ovo Omnia: Where Does the Christian Janss. Bausteine zur Geschichte der Balto-Finnic Cosmogony Originate? – The Etiology Edition 4. Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter. Pp. 125– of an Etiology.” Oral Tradition 15(1): 145–158. 142. Valk, Ülo. 2012. “‘Sad and Evil News…’: On Solberg, Olav. 2013. “Editionen von Balladen und Legendary in Folklore and Early Estonian Volksliedern im Norden”. In Geschichte der Newspapers”. In Finno-Ugric Folklore, Myth and Edition in Skandinavien. Ed. Paula Henrikson & Cultural Identity. Eds. Cornelius Hasselblatt & Christian Janss. Bausteine zur Geschichte der Adriaan van der Hoeven. Studia Fenno-Ugrica Edition 4. Berlin / Boston: de Gruyter. Pp. 97–123. Groningana 7. Maastricht: Shaker. Pp. 241–250. Srpske narodne pjesme. 1891–1902. Ed. Vuk Vaz da Silva, Francisco. 2010. “The Invention of Fairy Stefanović Karadžić. Biograd: Štamparija Krâlevine Tales”. Journal of American Folklore 123: 398– Srbije. 425. Stepanova, Eila. 2011. “Reflections of Belief Systems What Is Philology? 1990. Comparative Literature in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared Studies 27(1), special issue. University Park / Systems of Traditional Referentiality?”. London: University of Pennsylvania Press. Archaelogia Baltica 15 (special issue, Archaelogy, Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika. 2013. “The Omnipresent Method”. Religion, and Folklore in the Baltic Sea Region): In Approaching Methodology. Ed. Frog & Pauliina 128–143. Latvala with Helen F. Leslie. Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Humaniora 368. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Pp. 15–38.

Revisiting the Historical-Geographic Method(s) Frog, University of Helsinki

Up through the first half of the 20th century, as a ‘methodology’ today. It was advocated the study of folklore was dominated by the and circulated as a methodological ‘package’, hegemonic view that it was necessarily inclusive of methods, research tools, theories comparative with a historical orientation. This and quite narrowly prescribed research was formalized by the so-called Historical- questions. The controversy surrounding the Geographic Method (HGM), Geographic- HGM has in general concerned the theoretical Historical Method or Finnish Method, which principles or ‘laws’ with which it was was fundamental to the emergence of employed, or the goal, associated with its use, Folklore Studies as an internationally of (re)constructing the Urform [‘original recognized discipline. At the same time, the form’] of individual traditions – a goal which HGM became emblematic of this orientation often produced idealized heritage-objects that and associated ideologies. In the latter half of could be employed as tools in the service of the 20th century, there was a revolution in the nationalism. ‘Methods’ have tended to be field. In some national scholarships, treated as an integrated part of the package of historically oriented comparative approaches the HGM, which was itself referred to as a were so predominant that rebellion was likely ‘method’. a prerequisite for change. The hegemonic Bundling ‘methods’ with ‘controversy’ is model that was characterized by ‘the’ HGM most evident in extreme cases, where it became marked with a stigma as it was results, for example, in the identification of overthrown and Folklore Studies sought to certain methods as ‘racist’ owing to how they reinvent itself, liberated of such original sin as have been used (Peterson-Lewis 2013). In the had given birth to it. case of the HGM, the bundling with Many scholars today recall encounters with ‘controversy’ can extend to the research this hegemonic model (e.g. Wolf-Knuts 2013: questions of diachronic inquiry more 15). However, the younger generation never generally. Such conflation easily leads to felt the yoke of the HGM’s authority. Biases throwing out the baby with the bathwater. against it now circulate like clichés, yet the However, scholarship has had difficulty controversy is far more complex than that the making a distinction between the methods and HGM simply ‘does not work’. The present the methodology. This was a problem paper turns attention specifically to the common across the 20th century rather than methods in question and the value and uses of being something unique to the HGM. It can these methods as tools in research today. also be seen, for example, in Oral-Formulaic Controversy surrounding the HGM has Theory’s origin as a relatively simple premise remained characterized by bundling the behind using statistical surveys of formulae to methods with theories, research questions and demonstrate the orality of Homeric and how the methods were used by different medieval epics, and the subsequent debate in scholars. The objective here is to untangle which methods, theory and research questions that bundle and situate different aspects of the were bundled (see e.g. Foley 1988). In that controversy in historical perspective. This case, both the theory and methods advanced will include a brief address of ‘folklore’ as the beyond their bundling and have a object of study and outline the central longstanding continuity in the research, even methods of the classic HGM as tools for if their relationships to one another have producing multidimensional imaging of changed and they are applied with different variation in a tradition or across traditions. research questions. In contrast, the controversy surrounding the early HGM as a Separating ‘Methods’ from ‘Methodology’ methodological package had ramifications for The HGM took shape at a time when comparative methods more generally, ‘methods’ were generally considered an especially in the wake of a shift in research integrated aspect of what would be described emphasis from the social to the individual,

18 and from continuity of resources to their method is intended to do. Particular methods variation in unique synchronic contexts. tend to be conventional for accomplishing In the case of the HGM, untangling certain goals in a particular historical and ‘methods’ from ‘methodologies’ will require intellectual environment, and they will prefacing discussion with a technical inevitably be better suited to answering distinction of some terms. The first problem is certain research questions rather than others. that the term ‘Historical-Geographic Method’ The same method may also be employed with is understood and used in different ways. In different research questions or aims. A theory Finnish scholarship, ‘HGM’ is identified is an explicit or implicit set of postulates on specifically with the original methodological which expectations and understandings are package advocated by Kaarle Krohn (esp. based. The implementation of a method is 1918; 1926) as exclusively relevant to inevitably in relation to a theory or theories diachronic study for the single aim of (even if the procedure is executed by e.g. a (re)constructing the Urforms of individual computer). Information is produced in traditions – focusing on the use of methods response to a research question at the rather than on the methods themselves as intersection of theory, research materials and tools.1 This methodological package will be method implementation. HGMs can thus distinguished here as the Classic HGM. In produce different information with current other national scholarships, the term theories than was possible a century ago. A ‘Historical-Geographic Method’ has remained methodology is here considered a practically associated with the methods even when these and intuitively constituted matrix of methods, are applied with different theories (e.g. theories and related resources contextualized Dundes 1982; Goldberg 1997; Mieder 2009; in, and conditioned by, valuations and see also Wolf-Knuts 2000). This not only ideologies. It is a culturally and historically includes later adaptations of these methods in situated framework that interfaces with the the so-called Finnish School; it is even used researcher’s worldview – the ‘box’ in which a with reference to scholars who actively researcher thinks and works, complete with contested the methodological package of the predispositions and prejudices, research Classic HGM but are nevertheless seen as standards, ethics, and so forth. Although a advancing the use of methods in relation to methodology is subjective, it is nevertheless theory and research questions (e.g. Pöge- possible to abstract a socially circulated Alder 2007: 94 on von Sydow 1934 and methodology as a phenomenon (like a Honko 1981; cf. also Noyes 2012: 23 on ‘belief’), much as the Classic HGM was Dégh & Vaszonyi 1975). As the Classic circulated as a methodological package. HGM maintained not one but several methods that can be combined and adapted in different Background on the Historical-Geographic ways, we can shift focus from a monolithic Method th ‘HGM’ to HGMs in the plural, concentrating The Classic HGM emerged in the late 19 attention on the methods. century as an adaptation of philology (a broad In order to break up the bundle of field that combines history, linguistics and methodology, it is necessary to define terms literature) to folklore. The convergence of that will enable the different parts of the several historical and cultural circumstances methodology to be distinguished. A method is in Finland and Karelia were particularly here considered a prescriptive procedure or amenable to its development in Finland (cf. series of procedures for activity or Borenius 1873). Its proto-form was Julius interpretation – i.e. it is a prescriptive model Krohn’s (1883) Geographical Method, later for what you do. Methods may be quite said to be eigentlich eine historisch- complex, but they may be quite simple – e.g. geographische (K.Krohn 1910: 39) [‘really a throwing a dart at a map is a method for historical-geographic’] method, and referred ‘randomly’ selecting a location. Methods are to more generally as die finnische employed to answer research questions or to folkloristische Method [‘the Finnish method achieve research aims – i.e. what a use of the for Folklore Studies’] (K.Krohn 1910). This

19 gave rise to what became known as the Studies as a distinct discipline in relation to ‘Finnish School’ of Folklore Studies, other disciplines, defining ‘folklore’ as an characterized by an international network of object of research (K.Krohn 1926: 16–25). scholars. Kaarle Krohn became in many Rather than a nationalist emphasis, it respects the center of this network, owing not advocates the development of centralized least to his own activities, energy, enthusiasm international infrastructures on a global scale and inspiring personality in the promotion of (K.Krohn 1926: 36). Today, Die folklore research. (See further Hautala 1969: folkloristische Arbeitsmethode may appear 139–171). The Classic HGM was formalized unilateral, dogmatic and even naïve. At the in Kaarle Krohn’s dense, rich and accessible time, it unambiguously outlined the scientific handbook of methods, tools and theory, laws and methods specific to Folklore oriented to students, sometimes referred to as Studies, and this implicitly asserts that his “manifesto” (e.g. Wolf-Knuts 2000: 262): Folklore Studies qualifies as a distinct field of Die folkloristische Arbeitsmethode: Begründet scientific research. However controversial the von Julius Krohn und weitergeführt von Classic HGM, it seems to have been nordischen Forschern (1926) [‘The Working fundamental in the establishment of Folklore Method for Folklore Studies: Founded by Studies as a disciplinary field of study. The Julius Krohn and Further Developed by unilateral diachronic emphasis was partly the Nordic Researchers’]. emerging discipline’s heritage from Born in the aftermath of Romanticism, the philology, but it simultaneously enabled the Classic HGM was bound up with the clear distinction of Folklore Studies from construction of national identities. It was other fields such as Anthropology and nurtured on scientific positivism and Ethnology. Had it not been for the HGM, evolutionism (Hautala 1969: 63), which folklore might have remained a subject and meant that all theories and interpretations object of study within another field or across should be firmly grounded in evidence several fields, such as Philology, (something taken for granted today), while the Anthropology or Ethnography, as remains the historical development of any phenomenon case with ‘mythology’ today. was anticipated to be governed by scientific Folklore traditions were generally laws in relation to the environment. Thus, addressed in terms of textual products. The researchers sought, according to the textual products were conflated with the paradigms of the day, to identify scientific tradition itself while the goal of research was ‘laws’ of folklore that accounted for variation to reconstruct historical aspects of culture as a rule-governed process.2 These idealized conceptualizing traditions as ‘texts’. Folkloric laws were conceptualized as no less texts were viewed as heritage-objects: it was inviolable than any other laws in linguistics or implicitly necessary to recover these from natural sciences (cf. Dundes 1965: 129–130), among das Volk, to restore and polish them and they implicitly assert that folklore is for posterity, and to publicize these relics of governed by a distinct set of scientific laws ethnic identity just as other heritage objects (even if they did not hold up as universal would be displayed in a museum. Variant scientific ‘truths’). Similarly, the direct folklore texts were subjected to a philological applicability of philological methods to comparative method advanced by Karl folklore was rejected: Folklore Studies Lachmann (1793–1851) which has become required distinct methods and could not rely known as ‘stemmatology’ or ‘stemmatics’.4 directly and exclusively on the methods of This method was founded on the hypothesis other disciplines.3 Kaarle Krohn’s research that a copy of any manuscript will (more or was certainly not innocent of nationalist less mechanically) reproduce the mistakes and inclinations (cf. Wilson 1976: 247; variations in the copied exemplar. Žirmunskij 2004; Ahola forthcoming), yet he Manuscripts were grouped into families of does not present Die folkloristische relations (redactions) according to these Arbeitsmethode as a ‘Finnish’ method (cf. variations; comparison sought to identify K.Krohn 1910). This work lays out Folklore these variations, the stages at which they

occurred, and to resolve them for the best A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U possible reconstruction of the earliest ε η exemplar (cf. Figure 1). (See further Maas δ ζ θ 1957.) Combined with attention to dialect and palaeography, this method could be used to identify the date and location of the ultimate β γ exemplar’s original production.5 However, philological stemmatics could not be directly α applied in the comparative analysis of folklore because the transmission process was Figure 1. Illustration of a classic stemma model conditioned by social factors rather than (although the ultimate exemplar α would often be mechanically copying a single exemplar presented at the top, above the attested exemplars, (Anderson 1923: 397–411). hence this stemmatic tree would be inverted): Latin This method took shape in dialogue with letters represent extant texts; Greek letters reflect the conceptualization of ‘folklore’ through the inferred or reconstructed exemplars. kaleidoskopische Veränderlichkeit [‘kaleido- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U scopic variability’] (Anderson 1923: 406) of its textual products. The Classic HGM turned ε ζ η θ δ attention away from the individual to produce ? ? analytical descriptions of local conventional β forms of folklore traditions and these were γ approached in a hierarchy of expanding scope according to a sort of ‘fuzzy stemmatics’ (cf. α Figure 2). Models of a tradition’s localized conventions were compared, grouped and Figure 2. A reimaging of the classic stemma model in analyzed according to a stemma rather than Figure 1 as a fuzzy stemma. Latin letters represent attempting to stemmatize individual variants. extant variants. Rather than textual exemplars, Greek Local omissions, additions, transpositions and letters δ–θ represent abstracted centers of local social alterations were identified and sorted to conventions, here visualized as clouds consistent with reconstruct the ultimate form of the ‘original’ current understandings of variation along continua similar to dialects in language. Greek letters β–γ tradition. The method was, like stemmatics of 6 represent a further abstraction of forms of the tradition that period (but not today!), unilaterally of which δ–θ represent local, conventional variations. oriented to the reconstruction of an original, Letter α identifies the most abstract discernable form of unique and ultimate ‘text’ according to its the tradition from in which all local and regional forms formal elements. Individual sources and of the tradition are ultimately rooted. Clouds α–γ may give an impression of greater uniformity, but the informants were qualitatively assessed degree of variation in the continuum described by δ–θ (K.Krohn 1926: 43–46) but formal continuity can simply no longer be reasonably distinguished at and conservatism were the focus. Local those levels of abstraction – which should not be conventions of variation and variability misconstrued as suggesting that such variation did not initially remained incidental and unexplored. exist. (This illustration does not seek to show factors associated with variation.) Nevertheless, the fuzzy stemmatics model acknowledged that innovations could also and the development of theory were spread laterally across multiple established effectively challenges to that package and its redactions, increasing the need for care, detail definition of the research discipline. Thus and interpretations of data in analysis. from the perspective of today, C.W. von The Classic HGM was presented as a Sydow’s (e.g. 1932; 1934) advance in focus methodological package for Folklore Studies and the biological metaphor in Folklore and research questions were fully integrated Studies remained fundamentally embedded in into that package (which was rather like the theories, methods and ideologies of the defining Linguistics as the study of time (cf. Honko 1985: 57). However, in the etymologies). Consequently, shifts in focus era when Folklore Studies was being defined

21 in terms of a full methodological package, particularly because this is fundamental to advocating the examination of synchronic understanding the development and use of variation as von Sydow did was a challenge to HGMs as tools and it also stands at the the otherwise unilateral identity of the foundation of conceptualizations of folklore discipline and the questions it should try to today. Folklore was defined by Kaarle Krohn answer. Paradigm-shifts carried in the wake (1926: 16–25) as a category of Volkwissen of Post-Modernism (cf. Honko 2000: 7–15) [‘folk-knowledge’]. Translated into today’s eventually led to the reinvention and terms, ‘folklore’ appears as: redefinition of the discipline. This involved an the resources for representational and/or inversion of research orientation that had communicational expression and behaviours characterized the Classic HGM a) from that have been socially shaped by diachronic to synchronic emphasis; b) from ‘imagination’ and have been conveyed and decontextualized formal elements to internalized through social practices of contextualized meanings; c) from continuity tradition. of resources to variation as practice. The Qualifying the definition with the role of result was a fundamental – but unrecognized ‘imagination’ (Phantasie) distinguishes – change in the object of study, so that the ‘folklore’ from more fundamental resources opposite features of any individual text for communication, such as language. This became the focus of research. Following the also distinguishes ‘folklore’ from forms of metaphor from linguistics, the difference can knowledge communicated through cultural be compared to Ferdinand de Saussure’s practices that are not connected with either langue [‘language’], the abstracted and ideal communication or conceptual models (i.e. system, as distinguished from parole ‘beliefs’) that structure behaviours (like how [‘speech’], the forms and variations through to use a hammer or to sheer a sheep as which langue is realized in use – categories opposed to how to avoid being struck by that Saussure asserted were the objects of lightning). ‘Resources for representational research of different disciplines and should and/or communicational expression’ (i.e. never be conflated (Saussure 1916: 36–39). signifiers and constructions) is used here to More than two millennia of language study mark the disciplinary boundary/distinction had laid foundations for Saussure’s between ‘folklore’ and ‘folk music’ as perspective, in comparison to which Folklore different objects of study. These may Studies was scarcely an infant: approaches to intersect, overlap and sometimes converge, the langue of folklore were simply regarded but that does not invalidate a distinction as over-idealized abstractions removed from, between the role of music, melody and and misrepresentative of (the parole of) rhythms in connection with resources for folklore as the authentic object of disciplinary representational and/or communicational research. Acknowledging contextual variation expression on the one hand and the broader produced new understandings of folklore spectrum of resources identifiable as folk transmission that, alongside an associated rise music (i.e. signals and constructions) on the in source-critical standards, pulled the rug out other. ‘Folklore’ thus ranges from textual from under earlier HGM research. The wholes to broad poetic modes of expression controversy resulted in the widespread (including their language), and from cultural abandonment of the Classic HGM and its images and symbols to abstract metaphors stigmatization in many countries (cf. Honko and beliefs. These were centrally addressed in 1986). formal and structural terms – the resources from which ‘texts’ are generated – with focus Folklore as an Object of Research on three, interconnecting areas: a) the first The Classic HGM’s distinction between order of representation, such as language or ‘folklore’ and archival textual products has iconographic systems; b) second order become a site of misunderstanding. How representation, such as motifs, narratives and ‘folklore’ was conceptualized in the Classic so forth that are represented and HGM therefore warrants some clarification, communicated through language or

22 iconography; and c) conceptual models or multiple dimensions (especially geographical ‘beliefs’, which it was considered impossible distribution and diachronic change). The to address separately from traditional continued development of these tools has representations through which these are increased the dimensions along which expressed, reflected and communicated. variation can be imaged, and adaptations of According to Kaarle Krohn, the folklorist’s these tools now extend their applications from job was to identify and sort ‘folklore’ from the langue of folklore to its parole. that which was personal or individual. Contextual variation was not relevant because What is the Value of Historical-Geographic it was not ‘folklore’. International folktales Methods Today? would gradually be stripped down to the HGMs are text-oriented comparative methods ‘folklore’ – the bare bones of the narrative that enable the description or imaging of with no connecting tissue; in lyric poetry, the conventional features and variation of a ‘folklore’ might be only at the surface layers folklore phenomenon of a certain type, or of of representation as poetic formulae, multiple types in tandem. The primary HGM, conventional images and motifs (and today or HGM1, produces a typological mapping of also conventional melodies) used for the data-set(s). This method is a tool for individual expression. Following the organizing the data according to degrees of linguistic metaphor above, ‘folklore’ was a similarity and difference. HGM1 can be langue as an abstract system, yet the criticism applied with concentration on any level of the that the Classic HGM reduced tradition to tradition or its practice, from whole genres or textual products is not invalid per se. mythologies to motifs and idioms, insofar as Technological advances in documentation sufficient data is available. Individual items or were fundamental to transformations in elements called variants are grouped thinking about ‘text’ in relation to ‘tradition’ according to the degree of formal by increasing consciousness of the number of correspondences into redactions. ‘Redaction’ variable factors connected to practice and is a practical term to describe manifestations performance (Katajamäki & Lukin, this of socially established variant or competing volume; cf. Fine 1984), yet it remains important compositional units (whether of a poetic line, to recognize that questions of situational motif or complete text-type). Potential variation attributable to context-dependent redactions are groupings of variants that share usage, meaning-generation and even the in a prominent feature or system of features significance of traditions for their users had characterizing them as associated with one no established place in the discourse of earlier another in contrast to other variants. An research. Those questions can instead be seen as application of the method does not conditional on first developing a disciplinary mechanically produce conclusions about a infrastructure mapping the formal elements of potential relationship between variants or folklore through textual products – i.e. it was redactions, nor about the significance of such necessary to develop perspectives on the a relationship. HGMs only produce signifiers before it was possible to approach information that a researcher can assess and their signifieds and significance. The turn interpret. from the langue of folklore to its parole as Whether further analysis proceeds with a social practice was likewise enabled by the synchronic or a diachronic emphasis, any foundations provided by the earlier research application of HGMs will normally subscribe as a unifying framework and frame of to two basic principles: reference, turning attention from identifying 1. Folklore is communicated interpersonally resources and distinguishing them from through social practices, which are bounded variation to looking at how those resources by space and time, and thus corresponding are used and vary in living social practices. social practices among groups and These are all complementary approaches. The communities without direct interpersonal Classic HGM developed tools for the imaging contact will not be (or remain) identical. of social variation of a tradition along 2. Differences in the social conventions of two or more historically related folklore 23

phenomena are attributable to socio- Mapping Continuity and Variation in a historical processes. Corpus It follows from the first principle that The primary HGM is fundamentally distribution across social groups, communities structuralist. The preliminary step for use of and their networks – ‘geography’ – is always HGM1 is the selection of a corpus as products a factor relevant to the commensurability and of expression that reflect the object of study, interpretation of compared data.7 It follows whether this is a genre, text-type, poetic mode from the second principle that the cultural- of expression, motif, image, conceptual model historical background and context of items (‘belief’) or some other social phenomenon. compared is always a factor relevant to the In some cases, multiple complementary commensurability and interpretation of data, corpora may be used. In modern terminology, even where the focus is synchronic and all relevant elements and structures of each typological. This primary method can be item of the data-set are tagged with a coding applied to organize and image potentially system of types and subtypes (variations on a quite large corpora of data, while a small type). Analysis will normally require multiple corpus may significantly limit the amount of complementary typologies relevant to the information that the method can produce.8 particular object of study and research question. The research question(s) and scope The information produced by HGM1 provides data for further analysis. This data may be of investigation condition the information investigated synchronically or diachronically included in the data-set to which the HGM is and the directions of inquiry may be applied. For example, a study of a kalevalaic historical, dialectal (variation by region or epic poem would begin by identifying the social group) or generic and registral particular epic narrative as a text type among (variation by social practice). These three other types in the construction of a corpus. directions of inquiry are distinguished by The shape of the corpus might vary if the emphasis, not by exclusivity. research question is concerned with a) formal The method is quantitative and should representation of the epic in poetic form at the ideally be applied to as extensive a corpus of verbal level, which is found adapted as a data as possible relevant to the research resource across other epic narratives; with questions (cf. K.Krohn 1926: 33), although b) narrative content of the epic, which may be practicalities of research normally require adapted as a plot-resource across other genres; delimiting the scope of that data (cf. Hall or with c) intersections of form and content. 2013). The method also has a qualitative The particular tradition and research question aspect: every item of data should be assessed will condition how narrowly or flexibly the individually in terms of its value and type is delimited, if multiple types are relevance for the particular study, and not all analyzed in dialogue (e.g. one formal and one items should be assumed to carry equal of content), or if analysis is organized with a weight (cf. K.Krohn 1926: 43–46). core data-set and a secondary data-set of Qualitative assessment should include the supplementary material. Typologies are then degree and type of commensurability for generated for a content hierarchy such as: comparison – i.e. distinguishing what is being a) episode/adventure/act; b) theme/scene; compared (e.g. image, motif, theme, plot, c) motif; d) image/role/character identity (cf. poem) – and comparisons should made Frog 2013b: 107–109). Especially at higher according to consistent criteria. Although the levels of the hierarchy, the internal structure Classic HGM focused centrally on formal of the unit may qualify for a distinct, elements in established combinations, this is complementary typology. Rather than complemented by structurally oriented studies delimited in advance, typologies are (cf. Dundes 1986, adapting a structural developed in a dialectic process with the data as ‘elements’ within the tradition as a approach based on Propp 1958) within which 9 formal elements may vary or through which system. Similar typologies are made for their meaningfulness is informed (cf. Dumézil verbal representation – e.g. for key 1958). vocabulary (e.g. names), formulaic language,

24 lines and/or couplets, and the verbal systems conventional and non-conventional elements, called ‘multiforms’. The information co-occurrence, sites of crystallization and produced by the method follows directly on variation, and so forth. Rather than isolating the data to which it is applied. These elements (e.g. images, motifs), patterns of co- typologies are formal, but additional occurrence with elements at other levels of typologies can be generated for the hierarchy (e.g. theme) allow the interpretations, valuations, contexts of identification of variation by classes of performance, performers, associated beliefs semantic, functional or formal equivalence and taboos, and so forth. Together, the (cf. Dundes 1982). different typologies are compiled, compared and analyzed to produce an image of Historical Investigations continuity, co-occurrence and variation in the HGMs are most commonly associated with corpus (conditioned by the quantity and historical analysis of the information quality of the specific data). produced. This has been much less prominent The research question(s) and scope of across the past half-century. Current investigation condition the hierarchies understandings of folklore transmission and according to which elements are compared. variation have made scholars sceptical of Comparison always begins according to a pursuing investigations into the history of hierarchy, such as geographical distribution, traditions. The term ‘reconstruction’ is now social network or kin group, typology at the generally avoided in Folklore Studies and the level of verbal representation, typology ability to identify a direction of geographical somewhere in the hierarchy of content, spread or cross-cultural exchange is typology of use or interpretation, etc. In considered quite exceptional without practice, the different typologies must be synchronic evidence from earlier periods. placed in dialogue and continuously tested The application of HGMs for the against the corpus and against one another. In comparison of data does not necessarily interpreting compared data, parallels can be presuppose a historical relationship between 10 broadly groups in three categories (following items compared. HGMs provide tools for Witzel 2012: 45): a) accidental and testing the probability of such a relationship independent; b) genetic and historically (cf. Terhani 2013 and Figure 3). According to related; or c) convergent as the result of social the principle that conventionalized synchronic or historical factors that made unrelated variation in historically related traditions is an traditions more alike. Where the distribution outcome of socio-historical processes, HGMs of potential redactions appears to be can be employed as a tool for exploring independent of social networks, causes and significance of synchronic correspondences become more likely variation. attributable to contextual factors or accidental. Historical investigation will normally be Other factors should then be tested in order to concerned with the langue of folklore – the determine where the social tradition centers, abstract system of resources. The Classic or whether it centers in different places in HGM model’s emphasis on geography or different networks. Comparison should also social network (cf. K.Krohn 1926: 47–53) in not be considered in isolation from the dialogue with typological patterns in the data broader networks of traditions (cf. Honko (cf. Kuusi 1976) can, however, be 1985). Different typological elements should, complemented by conventionalized variation insofar as is possible (and reasonable), be according to social practice – i.e. the observed laterally across diverse traditions in structures of the parole of folklore according the culture: as social resources for expression to genre and register (cf. Stepanova 2012; and representation, their occurrence in Frog 2013a). Principles of ‘fuzzy stemmatics’ different contexts can offer insights into their (which might be called HGM2) continue to be patterns of use within the case under used in dialogue with relevant historical data. investigation. At the formal level, relative However, this is now in relation to current frequency enables the distinction between theories of folklore and folklore transmission –

Figure 3. Split graph stemma returned by NeighbourNet analysis from Jamshid J. Tehrani’s (2013) analysis of 58 variants of tale types ATU 333 (Little Red Riding Hood) and ATU 123 (The Wolf and the Kids) from 33 populations of Africa, Europe and Asia analyzed according to 72 plot variables (reproduced with permission from Tehrani 2013: 7). Tehrani applied phylogenetic methods and associated technologies (originally developed to study genetic evolutionary relationships between species of biological organism) in order to test the validity of a distinction between ATU 333 and ATU 123 as distinct international types and whether potentially associated African and East Asian tales should be classified as variants of one or the other of these types. Boxes in the unrooted consensus tree indicate conflicting splits in the data that obscure phylogenetic relationships. theories that have advanced considerably derive from cultural contacts without since the Classic HGM was founded more attempting to determine a chronology or than one hundred years ago. Considerations of direction of influence (e.g. Stepanova 2011). time-depth also incline toward relative rather Continuums of variation across the than absolute chronologies (see Frog 2013b) geographical distribution area of a tradition and most do not extend generalizations were frequently seen in terms of the significantly beyond the recorded data (e.g. progressive diffusion of the tradition in Stepanova 2011). More recent applications of Classic HGM studies (since J.Krohn 1883). the principle HGM with synchronic emphasis However, this may, in many cases, be a will not necessarily acknowledge continuity historical outcome of networks of with the Classic HGM (viewed as a communities in interaction producing a methodological package) but will special type of ‘convergence’ associated with nevertheless concede a historical background long-term contacts (Frog & Stepanova 2011; of variants and redactions (e.g. identified with Frog 2011a; cf. the impact of long-term a kin-group). This relationship can then contacts on language discussed in remain a background when examining Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Wälchli 2001). correspondence and variation in synchronic Attention to synchronic variation in data without being pursued further (e.g. relation to systems of resources current in a Tarkka 2004; 2013). Cross-cultural tradition environment (e.g. von Sydow 1934; comparisons may similarly argue cf. Honko 1981; 1985) led to significant relationships between different traditions that advancement in diachronic applications of

HGMs with the dynamic modelling of whole Stepanova 2011), the historical stratification systems of traditions and their stratified of networks and systems of images across developments according to a long-term genres (e.g. Siikala 2002a) and systems and continuum (esp. Kuusi 1963). On a cycles of narrative motifs as constellations of continuum model, the ‘origin’ of a tradition plot resources (e.g. Witzel 2012; Frog 2013c). occurred in a contemporary tradition The examination of continuity and variation environment, drawing on resources available in systems of elements has proven more in that environment at that time. Later amenable to diachronic analysis because variations and adaptations also occurred in findings concerning a complex system are not relation to the synchronic tradition problematized by the ‘kaleidoscopic environments and these were placed in variation’ of practice (i.e. emphasis is on dialogue with social and historical processes. continuity of co-occurrence rather than on an Rather than a single fuzzy stemma (HGM2), invariable relationship of co-occurring this approach can be described as a matrix of elements), nor are findings dependent on any such stemmas that map text-types of one or single constituent of the system. several genres complemented with the intersections and distributions of their primary Dialectal Investigation constitutive elements at different levels in a Following the metaphor of language, structural hierarchy (images, motifs, themes). variation in a tradition by region, local The continuum model turns attention from a communities or social groups of users can be point of origin to stratification and processes approached according in terms of dialects of a of change, among which discontinuities may tradition (cf. Foley 1990). Dialects may be at be as informative as continuities and new the first order of representation – the language developments (Frog 2013b). Within such a of a tradition or its ‘register’ (Frog 2010b; 11 matrix, patterns of change can then be Stepanova 2012) – or at a higher order of explored laterally across traditions (Frog representation that is communicated through 2011b). language, such as the systems of images, In general, the question of ‘where’ and symbols and narratives forming a mythology 12 ‘when’ a tradition originated have been (Siikala 2012a). As implied by the term displaced by questions of ‘how’ and ‘why’ a ‘dialect’, focus is on traditions which exhibit tradition manifests in attested forms in a probability of a historical relation even if relation to social and historical factors. the different dialects “cannot simply be traced Concern now often focuses on how this back to a single original form” (Siikala 2012a: relates to social meanings, significance and 15). In this case, one outcome of the patterns of use in living and historical application of HGM1 is a descriptive mapping communities (e.g. Goldberg 1997; Frog of dialectal variation. Even investigations 2011a). Emphasis falls on core elements or with a purely typological concern cannot features of the tradition, considering simply ignore factors of cultural context and additional surrounding features (that may vary the socio-historical construction of conventions by e.g. culture) according to degrees of when assessing the commensurability of data probability, but without an assertion that all and its interpretation. Basic concepts and features were necessarily present and in a images may be produced independently in specific constellation in an earlier period. different cultures in response to natural and Increasing attention has also been given to social environments, but ‘multigenesis’ continuities in systems of elements and becomes increasingly improbable in relation features, considering their stratification and to the specificity and complexity of particular history of continuity as a “kaleidoscope, in folklore phenomena (e.g. J.Krohn 1883; 13 perpetual motion” (Siikala 2012b: 19) Witzel 2012). In other words, the associated with their use as practice in examination of typological similarity requires relation to their relevance and significance for some consideration of the socio-historical their users. This has been done for construction of conventions underlying those constitutive features of individual genres (e.g. patterns; if patterns of variation are examined,

27 the possibility must at least be considered that patterns to be approached in terms of, for variations reflect typologically similar but example, the variation and equivalence in unrelated elements which may nevertheless semantics or function of elements (Dundes remain unequivocally distinct for their users 1982; Frog 2010a), their relationships to (like homonyms in language; cf. there, their social practices or interpretations through and they’re in Modern English). different conceptual models (e.g. Siikala In dialectal investigation, emphasis is on 2002a; Frog 2011a), the potential for the variations as synchronic outcomes of individual authorities to impact social diachronic socio-historical processes: a shared tradition (Stepanova 2012) or dialect variation historical background is considered, but the in flexibility in generative use of whole time-depth of that relation is probably not a genres and poetic systems (cf. Siikala 1990; concern, or need not be considered beyond a 2002b; Frog & Stepanova 2011). The depth of more than a few generations. Fuzzy emphasis of investigation will shape the stemmatics may then be reduced to a simple, principles for determining a corpus and three-stage hierarchy: a) discernible evidence hierarchies according to which analysis of immediate interpersonal contact with the begins. These choices by the researcher same or adjacent generation is distinguished determine the factors or phenomena in as direct relationships between variants or relation to which dialectal variation can be possibly as micro-redactions (i.e. assessed, analyzed and interpreted (which distinguishing these relationships from reciprocally condition the information common features of the dialect); b) emergent produced). expressions of a particular dialect with a common historical foundation is distinguished Generic or Registral Investigation from other dialects; c) dialects are The focus on the langue of folklore was acknowledged as socio-historical outcomes of characterized by constructing an image of a common tradition (cf. Figure 2 above). folklore as a homogeneous and monolithic Emphasis may vary considerably in system that is only imperfectly reflected dialectal investigation. Dialectal investigation through countless realizations. The turn from may focus on the langue of folklore or it may the langue to the parole of folklore focus on conventional variations in the parole acknowledged that the monolithic ideal was of folklore by genre or register. It may focus only an abstraction built from social realities on a single element (e.g. a poetic formula, of living variation. A significant consequence motif, tale-type) or systems of elements and of this was the recognition that multiple systems of genres. Application of HGM1 may folklore resources did more than simply co- construct an image of basic dialectal variation exist in interaction at a formal level. On the as a necessary platform for other directions of one hand, they were recognized as diverse study. For example, some degree of dialectal resources for communication and meaning- investigation should be a precondition of any generation. Accordingly, their alternation, study of variability in the parole of folklore juxtaposition and combination, which had according to context or individual users. This previously been ignored, ‘resolved’ or will identify and distinguish social resources corrected, became an object of research and their conventions of use as a precondition interest which could offer information and for approaching their meaningful deployment insight into how folklore resources function and variation as practice within a particular and their relationships to genres. More dialect. The Classic HGM approached recently, there has been a corresponding dialectal variation in formal elements and increase in interest and awareness that genres structures as a point of departure for not only vary according to formal features, investigating the history of traditions (cf. but also that the functions and/or significance K.Krohn 1903–1910; 1918; 1924–1928; of elements may vary across genres. For Anderson 1923; von Sydow 1934). The example, individual terms may be used more changing intersections of method, theory and or less flexibly or in different ways (e.g. research questions now allows the same Siikala 2002a: 158, 162), corresponding

28 images may have alternative functions in may explore interactions between genres (e.g. different conventionalized motifs, or images Siikala 1990; 2002b) or their registers and motifs conventional to different genres (Stepanova 2012) and analyze variation may seem to be contradictory (cf. Stepanova across registers and genres as reflecting 2012). Particularly significant in this patterns of use or conceptual models rooted in development has been the adaptation of the different historical periods (Frog 2012; term and concept register from Linguistics to 2013a). Folklore Studies (esp. Foley 1995; 2002). The In these investigations, a corpus of term ‘register’ was developed as a designation materials will situate genre, register, mode of for a characteristic variation of language expression or social practice at or near the top according to context and situation (Halliday of a hierarchy of typologies in comparison 1978; Agha 2007). ‘Register’ is increasingly when beginning to map variation. Depending used to refer to the conventionalized, on the emphasis, scope and data available, it generative lexicon of signifying elements and may be more practical to map variation of constructions of their use that characterize a specific elements or features within different particular folklore genre (e.g. Foley 1995; genres or registers individually and then to 2002). The investigation of these types of compare those laterally. As in other uses of variation has produced a new type of HGMs, the emphasis of the investigation will synchronic application of HGMs which shape the principles for determining a corpus focuses on socially conventionalized and hierarchies according to which analysis variations according to contexts of use, such begins. These choices determine the factors or as variation between genres and their registers phenomena in relation to which variation can of expressive resources. be assessed, analyzed and interpreted. In generic or registral investigations, ‘geography’ is still an essential factor for Overview consideration, but focus is on variation within HGMs are normally thought of in the narrow a geographical environment or social form outlined by Kaarle Krohn nearly one network, looking at contextual conventions of hundred years ago. This denies HGMs the genres and their registers rather than across better part of their history. Moreover, HGMs the spatial distribution of these networks in continue to be imagined through the Classic terms of dialects. As a consequence, HGM1 HGM’s unilateral research goal of can be adapted to analyze complex synchronic reconstructing Urforms and identifying their variation and interaction of diverse genres and date and place of origin. This is equivalent to modes of expression within an isolated imagining that Oral-Formulaic Theory has a geographical area (e.g. Tarkka 2004; 2013). unilateral application of determining whether This is done quite simply by using genre or Homeric and medieval epics were orally register as a typology for indexing data. It can composed. The Classic HGM formalized by also be used (with less detail) on sources from Kaarle Krohn was, in some sense, a more remote historical environment where fundamental to the establishment of Folklore data may not allow dialects and geographical Studies as a distinct and independent distribution to be distinguished for the scientific discipline. Although this began as a majority of the data (e.g. Frog 2013a). methodological ‘package’, the methods it Analyzing variation by genre/register can be propagated – the HGMs – provided and complemented by geographical distribution remain a foundational framework for the for information on how different registers study of folklore as a social phenomenon. relate or interact in different dialect areas Those methods were designed to generate an (Stepanova 2012). Like dialectal investi- image of the distribution of continuity and gation, generic or registral investigation does variation through a corpus of folklore material not exclude diachronic perspectives: these are (HGM1) and then to extend that image complementary factors that need to be taken through the analysis of the patterns of into consideration when approaching relationships exhibited in the data (HGM2) variation in a corpus. Historical investigations generating a multidimensional picture of

29 variation on synchronic and diachronic axes. presents research completed in the framework of the As the study of folklore has advanced, so Academy of Finland project Oral Poetry, Mythic Knowledge and Vernacular Imagination of Folklore have the theories in relationship to which Studies, University of Helsinki. HGMs are applied. At the same time, the HGMs have themselves been adapted and Notes refined in dialogue with developing theories 1. In Finland, uses of HGMs with updated theories and and new research questions. These research aims are distanced from Krohn’s ‘package’ developments led to flexibility in the by referring to these as different ‘methods’ or as a hierarchies according to which material is broader ‘Finnish Method’ of the ‘Finnish School’ (cf. Harvilahti 2012: 398–402), much as attempts approached and analyzed, as well as to a have sometimes been made to distinguish ‘Oral gradual increase in the dimensions according Theory’ from ‘Oral-Formulaic Theory’ and the to which variation is mapped. The basic controversies surrounding it (cf. Acker 1998: xiv– network of HGMs continue to be applied and xv, who identifies ‘Oral Theory’ with Foley emerge today as a flexible system for although Foley uses the terms interchangeably). However, ‘Finnish Method’ began as a synonym mapping social patterns of continuity and for ‘HGM’ (cf. K.Krohn 1910) and continues to be variation in order to answer a range of used as a synonym for ‘HGM’ internationally (but different research questions. cf. also e.g. Honko 1979: 144), especially in Put in somewhat oversimplified terms, the English (e.g. Wilson 1976; Bendix 1997: 67; Classic HGM constructed an image of Seljamaa 2008: 85; cf. de Blécourt 2008: 262), while the ‘Finnish School’ may even be regarded as variation in a tradition on an axis of space in a subgroup associated with the HGM rather than order to project that image along an axis of vice versa (e.g. Pöge-Alder 2007: 90; cf. Mieder time. Today, criteria of space (or social 2009: 445). network) and time have become so 2. Esp. Olrik 1908; K.Krohn 1918: 52ff.; Anderson elementary to the study of folklore that they 1923; K.Krohn 1926: 59ff. Kaarle Krohn (1891: 67) refers to ‘laws’ already when presenting his easily rest in the background as implicit father’s research in an international arena. conditions of the social and cultural However, Julius Krohn (1883: 584–585) seems environment in which traditions are practiced only to have identified particular processes that he and in which evidence of folklore is referred to as ‘mechanical’ (koneentapainen) and produced. New research questions have both that occurred ‘unconsciously’ (itsetajuttomasti, on which cf. K.Krohn 1926: 24). complemented and refined earlier methods. 3. Anderson 1923: 397–411; K.Krohn 1926: 142–149; Rather than projecting the image of variation cf. K.Krohn 1891: 67; von Sydow 1948a. from the axis of space onto an axis of time, it 4. See e.g. Lachmann’s discussion in “Rechenschaft may be projected onto an axis of meanings, über L. Ausgabe des Neuen Testements” (1930; cf. functions, genres, contexts, users – or all of also Müller-Sievers 2001). Lachmann’s methods were only formalized much later by Paul Maas (e.g. these in dialogue with one another. In each 1957). On the advance from Lachmann’s methods case, corresponding basic methods of to so-called New Stemmatics, see Bordalejo 2003: comparison are applied and tested against the 39–64; on computer-assisted modelling with corpus – ideally in different ways. Projection phylogenetic software (“biological stemmatology”), along different axes engages different aspects see Salemans 2000 (quotation from p. 40) and also Howe et al. 2001. It should be noted that Lachmann of theory or different theories and requires and his work was not removed from studies on adapted or complementary methods. folklore: he was, for example, in direct contact with Nevertheless, these form a system. The Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (see e.g. Leitzmann primary HGM, employed to map synchronic 1927) and Julius Krohn (1883: 575–576) refers to variation, continues to stand at the heart of Lachmann’s work on Germanic epic. For an example of the more or less direct application of this system with the complementary principle Lachmannian stemmatics to folklore texts as of fuzzy stemmatics inevitably, if often tradition, see Bugge & Moe 1897. implicitly, in the background. 5. This sort of textual archaeology could construct a branch of a stemma reflecting complex manuscript Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Karina Lukin transmission through the detailed analysis of a for her valuable comments and discussion that have single manuscript text as the outcome of that greatly strengthened this paper as well as an hypothetical stemma (e.g. Lindblad 1954). anonymous reviewer for several helpful suggestions 6. Lachmann’s method was founded on the premise surrounding the presentation of stemmatics. This paper that all texts were reproduced more or less mechanically by scribes (see e.g. Müller-Sievers 30

2001). Much as in Folklore Studies, manuscript a particular tale (although this hypothesis is philology was inclined to overlook or ignore the complicated by not clarifying the minimum individual agency of people participating in the complexity of a ‘motif’ and leaves it unclear transmission process. Marco Mustert (2013) whether the ultimate origin of such motifs can in recently stressed that the ideal model of stemmatics fact be resolved). This was a premise relevant to the only really works for the Bible, which was subject interpretation of material when analyzing the to quite stringently conservative copying practices, history of individual narrative tale-types and while copying practices of other works and genres mythology. His emphasis on the reconstruction of a could vary considerably. Both the validity and unique and ultimate Urform of each folklore motivations of reconstructing ultimate exemplars of phenomenon has been described by Alan Dundes as manuscripts has come under scrutiny (see e.g. founded on “The Devolutionary Premise of Bordalejo 2003: 39–64). Although distinguishing Folklore Theory” (1969). This view was the types of variation in copying practice can be opposite of that advocated by Kaarle’s father, Julius integrated into stemmatic analyses (e.g. Sävborg Krohn. Julius Krohn (e.g. 1883: 341–350) 2012), stemmatics are now applied with interest in approached developmental processes of narrative and attention to copying and variation as indicators traditions according to models and metaphors of of, for example, the cultural activity of texts in evolution, and his considerations of situational contemporary communities and the networks of (re)production were in some respects closer to which text transmission provides evidence (see e.g. modern approaches today (cf. Anttonen 2005: 48– the comments in Hall 2013; Katajamäki & Lukin 49). William Wilson (1976) has highlighted that and also Etheridge, this volume). Kaarle Krohn followed his father’s approach and 7. The nature of social ‘geography’ has been radically then, in the first year of Finnish independence, revised with the increasingly global networking “dramatically revised the major theoretical enabled by the internet. Electronic technologies can positions that he had spent his life developing” in be seen as transferring the social construction of his initial formalization of the HGM (in Finnish in spaces to virtual environments that complement Kalevalakysymyksiä, 1918), which was notably in physical geography, but the availability of access to the political environment of the First World War the internet should not be confused with the (Willson 1976: 247). Kaarle Krohn’s extreme accessibility of virtual spaces constructed there. position is connected to “a new historical vision 8. This will most likely be on a bell curve in relation to [that] also required a new interpretation of folklore the research question and scope of investigation. transmission” (Wilson 1976: 247). The difference 9. Following Niklas Luhmann, “an element [is] what in approaches thus corresponds to a difference in functions for a system as a unity that cannot be the orientation and interest of research: whereas the further subdivided (even if, viewed micro- mature Kaarle Krohn focused on the historical scopically, it is a highly complex compound)” origins of folklore phenomena, Julius Krohn’s (Luhmann 1995: 22); in other words it is a minimal discussion of these same phenomena was less unit according to the system within which it occurs concerned with resolving ambiguities of their or functions rather than an “ontological concept of origins than developing an approach to their the element as the simplest unit of being (the atom), ultimate products. 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Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2012a. Itämerensuomalaisten 1821–1921. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden mytologia. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Seura. Tarkka, Lotte. 2013 (in press). Songs of the Border Siikala, Anna-Leena. 2012b. “Myths as Multivalent People: Genre, Intertextuality, and Metapoetry in Poetry: Three Complementary Approaches”. In Kalevala Metre Rune-Singing. FF Communications. Frog, Siikala & Stepanova 2012: 17–39. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Stepanova, Eila. 2011. “Reflections of Belief Systems Terhani, Jamshid J. 2013. “The Phylogeny of Little in Karelian and Lithuanian Laments: Shared Red Riding Hood”. PLOS ONE 8(11).e79971: 1– Systems of Traditional Referentiality?”. 11. Available at: http://www.plosone.org/article/ Archaeologia Baltica 15: 128–143. info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0078871. Stepanova, Eila. 2012. “Mythic Elements of Karelian Wilson, William A. 1976. “The Evolutionary Premise Laments: The Case of syndyzet and spuassuzet”. In in Folklore Theory and the ‘Finnish Method’”. Frog, Siikala & Stepanova 2012: 257–287. Western Folklore 35(4): 241–249. von Sydow, C.W. 1932 [1948]. “On the Spread of Witzel, Michael. 2012. The Origin of the World’s Traditions”. In von Sydow 1948b: 11–43. Mythologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. von Sydow, C.W. 1934 [1948]. “Geography and Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika. 2000. “On the History of Folktale Oicotypes”. In von Sydow 1948b: 44–59. Comparison in Folklore Studies”. In Thick Corpus, von Sydow, C.W. 1948a. “Folk-Tale Studies and Organic Variation and Textuality in Oral Tradition. Philology: Some Points of View”. In von Sydow Ed. Lauri Honko. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 7. 1948b: 189–219. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 254–283. von Sydow, C.W. 1948b. Selected Papers on Folklore Wolf-Knuts, Ulrika. 2013. “The Omnipresent Method”. Published on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday. In Frog & Latvala with Leslie 2013: 15–38. Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger. Žirmunskij, V.M. 2004. “«Калевала» и финская Tarkka, Lotte. 2005. Rajarahvaan laulu: Tutkimus школа фольклористики”. In Фольклор запада и Vuokkiniemen kalevalamittaisesta runokulttuurista востока: Сравнительно-исторические очерки. Москва.

Behind the Text: Reconstructing the Voice of a Singer Jukka Saarinen, Finnish Literature Society (SKS)

This paper is connected to ongoing study on background of the ideas and objectives of songs of the famous Karelian singer of collecting, publishing and interpreting kalevalaic poetry, Arhippa Perttunen. The folklore in the period when they were source materials for this study are the texts recorded. To illustrate my case, I will describe collected by Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884) in the possibilities of reconstructing the phonetic 1834 and later by two other collectors: Johan appearance of Lönnrot’s texts with the help of Fredrik Cajan (1815–1887) in 1836 and linguistic data we have from the area, Matthias Alexander Castrén (1813–1852) in combined with collections made by other 1839. They recorded about 85 texts and text- collectors about 40 years after Lönnrot. fragments, 5995 lines of epic, lyric and magic poetry. The present article deals with the The Corpus of Kalevalaic Poetry problem of building a research corpus for my Kalevalaic poetry is named after the Finnish own study, basing it on texts which were national epic, the Kalevala (Lönnrot 1835). It recorded in oral performances nearly 180 is an oral poetic tradition common to most years ago. Balto-Finnic peoples: Finns, Karelians, When studying the poetics, structures and Ingrians, and Votes; and also known to semantics of oral texts, it would be preferable Estonians as regilaul. It is characterized by its to have the transcriptions as accurate as metre, a trochaic tetrametre with some special possible, and for these to be accompanied by characteristics, such as its non-stanzaic a sufficient amount of contextual data. structure, alliteration and extensive use of However, these goals are only rarely parallelism. Poems vary from short poems of achievable with old texts. Transcripts are not only a few lines to long epic poems, some of accurate, there are gaps and the contextual them over 400 lines in length. An extensive data is quite often almost totally lacking. In corpus of these poems has been published in order to be understood correctly, these early Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot [‘The Ancient oral texts should be looked at against the Poems of the Finnish People’], commonly

34 called SKVR. This large anthology of Finnish, bulk of the material is derived from the Karelian and Ingrian folklore contains 89,247 collecting activities that started in the1820s. texts of kalevalaic poetry. Its publication took Only 1% of the texts are from before 1800. In place in 1908–1948 in 33 bound volumes, these activities, the role of Elias Lönnrot, the with an extra volume published in 1997. compiler of Kalevala, is of great importance. Since 2007, the texts have been available There are 2,402 texts in SKVR taken from online on the internet (SKVR-tietokanta).1 The Lönnrot’s collection that is housed in the aim of SKVR was to give researchers of archives of the Finnish Literature Society Finnish folklore easier and more organized (SKS). These texts, mostly collected by access to all known source texts of this Lönnrot himself on his field expeditions traditional form of poetic expression that were between 1822 and 1844, were meant to be otherwise scattered in archives and published used by Lönnrot in his publications on old in books, newspapers and so on over a long Finnish folklore, most notably in the national period of time (see Hautala 1957). Though epic the Kalevala (1835; new edition 1849) these poems were mostly performed by and Kanteletar (1840), which is an anthology singing and the texts could be called ‘songs’ of lyric poetry. However, before the 1870s, as well, their melodies have not been collectors did not normally use phonetic published in SKVR and for the most part the transcription when noting down texts. Some melodies are also missing in the collectors’ collectors, like Cajan, paid more attention to notes. (Kuusi, Bosley & Branch 1977: 21–79; the way the singers uttered the words, but Harvilahti 2012: 392; Honko 2002: 13–16.) their results were mixed even at their best. In With very few exceptions, all of Arhippa’s 1871, Axel August Borenius (1849–1931), a texts have been published in the first four student at Helsinki University, traveled with volumes of SKVR, which comprise the texts two companions, Arvid Genetz (1848–1915) from the Viena Karelia region (SKVR I, and Axel Berner (1843–1892) to Viena 1908–1921). Karelia to collect kalevalaic poetry. Their aim SKVR has been edited for scholarly was, first, to prove the authenticity of the purposes, and the texts were printed as Kalevala, but their findings actually accurately as possible in the form in which contributed crucially to the birth of modern they were found in the sources. The texts are Finnish scholarship of folklore. They were the organized topographically and thematically first to use phonetic transcription to any great and provided with some standard metadata: extent when documenting poems. Genetz later id-number, topographic information, name of wrote one of the first grammars on the the collector, reference to sources and, if Karelian language (1881). (Harvilahti 2012: available, the name of the informant. SKVR 391–397.) has served as a principal source material in studies of kalevalaic poetry for well over Elias Lönnrot and Arhippa Perttunen hundred years now, and its value as a source One of the most important informants or for material has never seriously been ‘singers of poetry’ for Lönnrot was Arhippa questioned. Although at least a few scholars Perttunen from Viena Karelia. Arhippa was have commented on the differences between born, presumably, in 1769 in the village of transcriptions and the expected linguistic Latvajärvi in the Vuokkiniemi parish, where forms (Steinitz 1934: 24; Sadeniemi 1951: he lived until his death in 1841. On his fifth 25–25, 87), in general scholars have been expedition in April 1834, Lönnrot met using texts exactly in the form they can be Arhippa and spent three days with him, noting found in SKVR. down his songs. (SKVR I4: 1154–1155). Writing conventions used by individuals Arhippa impressed Lönnrot with his good who have written these texts down vary memory and his songs which were in good greatly according to the time when they were order. As a rule, names of informants are written, the purposes for writing them down, missing in Lönnrot’s field notes as his aim and the individual skills of the scribes. The was not to study separate singers but to earliest texts are from the 17th century, but the combine their texts into a larger whole.

However, after the first text he got from forgery and the dispute was still alive and Arhippa, he added in clear Swedish the words known in Lönnrots’s time. Lönnrot wanted to “Af Arhippa i Latvajärvi by” [‘From Arhippa avoid being considered some kind of Finnish in Latvajärvi village’]. Arhippa was also one Macpherson.2 of the only two singers mentioned by name in the preface of the Kalevala. Comparison across Generations th When reading Lönnrot’s transcripts we Later, in the second half of the 19 century, have to bear in mind that Lönnrot made the A.A. Borenius met Arhippa’s son Miihkali, transcriptions for himself only. His purpose known locally as Arhippaini Miihkali was to make old Finnish and Karelian poetry [‘Miihkali (son) of Arhippa’]. Miihkali was a available to a wider Finnish audience, and the singer too, though not as famous as his father transcriptions provided material he used by was in his time, and Borenius recorded 12 adopting plots, motifs and scenes and picking texts from him. In later years (1872 and up lines and expressions to that end (Honko 1877), Borenius managed to record another 2002: 17–18). As a rule, Lönnrot used two 75 texts from him. Miihkali knew most of his columns on every page of his field notes, and father’s songs, though his versions were in after going through a column, he drew a general shorter and differed in many respects. vertical line through it to indicate that he had (Itkonen 1936: 20–21; Saarinen 1994.) taken what he wanted from that column and The comparison of texts written down by there was no need to go back to it. Thus, Lönnrot from Arhippa and by Borenius from Lönnrot had no plans to fill in or refine the Arhippa’s son reveals some striking transcripts of the actual field notes but rather differences. The two texts presented as this was to be accomplished in his example (1) below are the beginning of a publications. He himself knew what there was song describing Lemmin poika [‘the son of behind his abbreviations, and that was Lempi’] or Lemminkäini on a fishing enough. Most of the abbreviations pointed to adventure by the respective singers as these lines and words he already knew. For are found in the SKVR critical edition. The example, the abbreviation “V. v. V.” would poem, commonly known as Vellamon neidon mean “Vaka vanha Väinämöinen” [‘Sturdy onginta [‘Fishing up the Maid of Vellamo’], old Väinämöinen’], pointing to the formula is the opening scene in a longer poem of depicting the most prominent hero in northern Lemmin poika in Arhippa'’s repertoire, and a epic songs. poem of its own by Miihkali. Both singers Although Lönnrot had intended the field perform the opening lines in the same notes for his own use, he donated the manner, except for some minor differences in manuscripts to be saved in the collections of order and wording. the Finnish Literature Society after he no The first thing to be noticed in Lönnrot’s longer had any use for them. The primary transcription from Arhippa is that it contains a reason for this was that he wanted there to be lot of abbreviations, even words written as a proof of the authenticity of the Kalevala in single letter. The editor of SKVR has chosen case anyone had any doubts about it. In 1760, to fill in the gaps by putting the addition the Scottish poet James Macpherson had between square brackets: “s[aaren]” published a number of epic poems which he [‘island’s’] only appears as “s.” in the claimed had originated in oral tradition. The manuscript. This is a standard mark-up for authenticity of these texts was questioned these inserts throughout SKVR. Secondly, quite early, especially in Ireland which shares there are diacritical marks in Borenius’ the same oral traditions with Scotland. Later, transcript on some letters (ń, š, ȟ) giving the it became evident that these poems were not phonetic values more accurately. The third translations of original poems but rather that thing, apparent to those who know the language, they were written by Macpherson himself. is the difference in certain word forms in the Although they were based on a certain transcriptions of Lönnrot and Borenius: tradition of ‘Ossianic’ prose and verse narratives, Macpherson was accused of

(1) The beginning of the same song by Arhippa Perttunen transcribed by Elias Lönnrot in 1834 (left column) and by his son Miihkali transcribed by A.A. Borenius in 1871(middle column) following the SKVR edition, accompanied by an English translation (right column). Oli lieto Lem[minkäinen], Oli lieto Lemminkäińi, There was wanton son of Lempi Oli ongella olova, Oli onkella olija, was fishing Kävyksillä aina käyjä Kälükšillä aina käüjä was always visiting hand-nets(?) Nenässä utus[en] niem[en], Nenäššä utuisen ńiemen, at a misty head-land’s tip Päässä s[aaren] t[erhenisen]; Peäššä šoaren terhentüisen. at a foggy island’s end Vapa vaskinen vap[isi], Hopieińi šiima šiuku, the copper rod trembled Hopieinen s[iima] siuki Voapa vaškińi tärisi, the silver line whined Lemmin pojan onkiessa. Pojan lemmen onkieiśśa. as son of Lempi was angling Jo p[äivänä] muutamena, On one day Huomenna monikahana on some morning Puuttu k[ala] o[nkeensa], Kala puuttu onkeȟeńi, A fish stuck on his (fishing rod’s) hook Taim[en] takla rautaansa, Taimen talka-rautahańi. a trout on his fire steel (lit. ‘tinder iron’) (SKVR I1 251:1–12) (SKVR I1 253:1–10)

(2) onge-lla ~ onke-lla Arhippa’s native language was Karelian, fishing.rod-ADE which is a language closely related especially ‘angling’ (lit. ‘at a fishing rod’) to eastern dialects of Finnish, but which is pää-ssä ~ peä-ššä still distinctive. The same poetic tradition was head-INE living on both sides of the language border ‘at the head’ (which was, and is, almost coincident with the vaskinen ~ vaškińi state border in the northern areas). Although ‘coppery’ the spoken languages were quite distinct from hopieinen ~ hopieińi one another, they shared a common poetic ‘silvery’ language. In poems, both languages share vocabulary and syntax, and they were The second form (by Borenius) in all these mutually comprehensible. Nevertheless, in pairs represents the local Karelian dialect, the phonetics and morphology, texts from the first (by Lönnrot) represent its more or less Karelian area show quite distinctive Karelian Finnish counterpart. The additions in features, as transcripts from Miihkali and brackets, written by the editors of SKVR, are from many others testify (cf. peäššä, vaškińi, more like Lönnrot’s Finnish forms: hopieińi above). It is not at all likely that the Lem[minkäinen] instead of Lem[minkäińi], local language had changed so much during s[aaren] instead of s[oaren]. Actually, the the 40 years between the documentation of form Lem[minkäinen] is wrong anyway, as songs by Lönnrot and by Borenius. It is also Arhippa uses the name Lemmin poika [‘son of very improbable that Arhippa would have Lempi’] for his hero, whereas Lemminkäinen been able to make his texts more Finnish in a or Lemminkäińi is the common form of the collecting situation in order to make it more name throughout Karelia. On the other hand, understandable for his visitors. It is therefore it must be remembered that differences might quite clear that Lönnrot’s texts represent a reflect the variation in local dialect and somewhat ‘Finnishized’ version of the poetical register too: e.g. olova varies with language of the poems as singers performed olija, (be-PTSP or be-AGENT SUFFIX) both them. The same can be said of other early denoting ‘the one who is’, or they might just collectors’ materials as well. be attempts to reproduce some semantically When publishing the poems, Lönnrot unclear words, for example: deliberately rejected certain forms that the (3) Kävyks-i-llä (cf. Miihkali: kälyks-i-llä) singers used. He mentions this very clearly in hand.net[?]-PL.ADE the preface of the Kalevala (Lönnrot 1835: ‘at the hand-net’? xxii). The reason for this was that he preferred (< käjekset[PL]=‘hand-net’; cf. SKVR I1 265.3) to use forms which would be more easily

37 understandable to the Finnish public in the same word in several ways. There is no general. He was well aware of the various correct answer because Lönnrot did not mean forms and their importance for linguistic his notes to be read in a certain way – these studies, but in his opinion, the poems were were raw materials for something else. not meant for linguists only (see Lönnrot’s Lönnrot had also written some words, or parts review of the anthology of ‘old poetry’ by of the words, in a more Finnish way. There Zachris Topelius in 1829;4 also Honko could be a lot of incongruity when some 2002:18–19; Hämäläinen, this volume). words would be in Finnish and others in Lönnrot did not aim to transcribe the words as Karelian, or even words beginning in Finnish the singers had sung them but wrote them and ending in Karelian. down in a more understandable way, or at In many respects, Cajan’s and Castrén’s least part of them. There are many instances collections share the same features, though where Lönnrot wrote down the dialectical there are differences as well. Cajan, who was form in his notes and later changed this for Lönnrot’s companion and assistant on publication. Example (4) illustrates that Lönnrot’s trip in 1836, was more keen on Lönnrot discards the distinctive form of (although not consistent in) representing the Karelian consonant gradation in the Kalevala. pronunciation of the singer, and for that (4) Two examples of Lönnrot’s transcription of reason his notes are very important for Arhippa Perttunen (SKVR I2 759.44–45), reconstructing Arhippa’s voice. For example, followed by a line with the same noun in the he would write consistently ‘oa’ or ‘eä’ corresponding inflection from Lönnrot’s 1849 instead of ‘aa’ or ‘ää’ in words like moassa Kalevala (poem 26.219 and 453). [‘on the ground’] or teällä [‘here’], following Mata-lla-s tulin[en] koski the Karelian idiom. Cajan actually made a way-ADE-2SG.POSS fiery rapids collection of folktales on the same trip, where ‘On your way fiery rapids’ he used words in their dialectic form. Castrén is more problematic, as his original notes are Matka-lla iso-t imehe-t missing and he was in the habit of adding way-ADE big-PL wonder-PL ‘variants’ – versions of lines from other ‘On the way big wonders’ singers – to the text. In Arhippa’s case, the matka : matalla (Ka.) > matkalla (Fi.) ‘variants’ seem to be between brackets or in Kose-ssa t[ul-inen] k[oivu] margins, but of course it leaves us a bit rapids-INE fiery birch uncertain. ‘In the rapids a fiery birch’ From Comparison to Reconstruction Koske-ssa tul-inen luoto In my own study, I have chosen to attempt to rapids-INE fiery islet reconstruct Arhippa’s words in the form he ‘In the rapids a fiery islet’ most probably sang or dictated them to the koski : kosessa (Ka.) > koskessa (Fi.) collector. That means not only filling in the As already mentioned, the editors of SKVR gaps in the linguistic form of Karelian used in filled in the gaps in the case of abbreviations the poems, but also editing letters written by and lines that had only been transcribed in the collectors and preserved in original part. Without filling in these gaps, texts would sources. I also correct some lines where the be almost impossible to understand for collector very obviously has missed the anyone except the experts who know this wording and wrote something incompre- tradition well. Filling in these gaps raises the hensible or incoherent in the context, as basic question of how it should be done. illustrated in example (5) below, where the Should one use the same system or level of transcription in (5a) should be (5b). In this transcription that the collector has used? Or way, I am hoping to better represent the should one fill in the gaps using the local singer’s voice and to make the poetics of his dialectic forms? The difficulty with either of performances more discernible. It also helps these solutions is that Lönnrot was not very in searching, organizing and comparing consistent in his transcriptions: he could write features in the texts.

(5a) Niin män-i mä-i-lle, sano (6) Oli lieto Lem so go-PST.3SG hill-PL.ALL say.PST.3SG Ol-i lieto Lemmi-n poika ‘So she went to the hills, she said’ be-PST.3SG wanton Lempi-GEN son (b) Niin män-I meä-n nisa-lla ‘There was the wanton son of Lempi’ so go-PST.3SG hill-GEN neck-ADE Oli ongella olova ‘So she went on the neck (= top) of the hill’ Ol-i onke-lla olo-va It is clear that this kind of reconstruction will be-PST.3SG fishing.rod-ADE be-PTCP ‘was fishing’ contain errors and it cannot be correct in all instances. Nevertheless, I am convinced that it Kävyksillä aina käyjä is closer to the words that the singer uttered Kävyks-i-llä aina käy-jä almost 180 years ago than the textual hybrids hand.net[?]-PL-ADE always visit-PTCP ‘(was) always visiting the hand-net’ that are published in SKVR. I am in no way trying to dispute SKVR’s value as a source for Nenässä utus niem material because it would be impossible to Nenä-ssä utuise-n nieme-n reconstruct all the texts, as it invariably nose-INE misty-GEN headland-GEN ‘at a misty headland`s tip’ requires a great deal of detailed textual study. I am just going a bit further in the case of this Päässä s t special singer. Reconstruction also requires Peä-ssä soare-n terhen-ise-n that the edition is marked in the corpus in head-INE island-GEN foggy-GEN ‘at a foggy islands end’ some consistent way and that the original forms found in the manuscripts are easily Vapa vaskinen vap accessible. All the changes should be properly Vapa vask-ini vapis-i argued and principles guiding the rod coppery tremble-PST.3SG ‘the copper rod trembled’ reconstruction made available. I have accomplished building this Hopieinen s siuki reconstructed corpus by dividing the lines in Hopie-ini siima siuk-i SKVR into words, and classifying and silvery line whine-PST.3SG ‘the silver line whined’ organizing these morphologically in order to make orthography consistent with the Lemmin pojan onkiessa Karelian language and later phonetic Lemmi-n poija-n onki-je-ssa transcripts from the same area. I have also Lempi-GEN son-GEN angle-INF-INE completed all defectively recorded lines to be ‘as the son of Lempi was angling’ metrically valid. I have utilized especially the Jo p muutamena Dictionary of Karelian Language (Karjalan Jo päivä-nä muutame-na kielen verkkosanakirja), and texts collected by already day-ESS one-ESS Borenius, Genetz and Berner as well as those ‘on one day’ published in SKVR. The result is a corpus of Huomenna monikahana 5,995 poetic lines and 18,923 words. The Huomen-na monikkaha-na texts resemble those recorded by Borenius morning-ESS some-ESS and others, except for the use of diacritical ‘on some morning’ marks. In general, leaving out the diacritics Puuttu k o does not change the meaning at all. In the Puuttu kala onke-hen-sa dialect, ‘soari’ and ‘šoari’ [‘island’] do not stick-PST.3SG fish fishing.rod-ILL-3SG.POSS have different meanings; ‘s’ and ‘š’ are not ‘a fish stuck on his (fishing rod`s) hook’ different phonemes; they are allophones. Taim takla rautaansa There are only few cases where use of the Taimen takla rauta-han-sa diacritical marks makes difference, for trout tinder iron-ILL-3SG.POSS example ‘villa’ [‘wool’] and ‘vil'l'a’ [‘corn ‘a trout on his fire steel’ (lit. ‘tinder iron’) grain, crop’]. For the sake of clarity, I have Example (6) gives the lines presented in (1) chosen to transcribe /l'l'/ with ‘lj’, though this with interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme represents the Finnish orthography and glosses, following loosely the Leipzig pronunciation. Glossing Rules (Leipzig Glossing Rules), for

39 which a list of abbreviations can be found in words “kyyt veestä” (8b), a change that makes the Appendix 1. This presents the exact form the line totally comprehensible (SKVR I2 758: 5 of SKVR I1 251.1–12 found in Lönnrot’s 229): notebook (Lönnrotiana 5:66:1–12) and is (8a) Vesi kyvehe-stä nost-i presented with my reconstruction of the water “kyveh?”-ELA raise-PST.3SG original ‘voice’ of the singer directly below it ‘He raised from water-kyveh’ in italic font, followed by the glosses and the (b) Vesi kyyt veje-stä nost-i translations based on this reconstruction. water adder-PL water-ELA raise-PST.3SG ‘He raised water-adders from the water’ Text Verses and Original Voice Kalevalaic poetry was performed by singing, Although cases like this are not very frequent, except for incantations which could be they show that at least some of the poems performed by recitation. Relevant questions were presented by singing to Lönnrot and also are therefore whether Arhippa sang to to Cajan. In the absence of original field Lönnrot, and whether Lönnrot was able to notes, nothing can be said for certain of transcribe directly from singing. We do not Castrén (cf. Lukin, this volume). Along with know for certain what Lönnrot’s techniques Lauri Honko (2002: 18), I have come to the were when he wrote down the texts. When conclusion that Lönnrot’s technique was a kalevalaic poetry is dictated, texts show combination of writing from singing in very morphological features closer to the spoken abbreviated form and subsequently filling in language and different from those texts those words which were not obvious to him. It transcribed from singing (Itkonen 1936: 63– is impossible to know whether completing 65; Lauerma 2004: 24–32). As these those words happened after the completed differences most often occur at word-endings performance or perhaps partly during the as shown in example (7), they are not performance itself. It is equally impossible to discernible if there are many abbreviations. know whether Lönnrot did this by himself or with the help of the singer, because Lönnrot (7) Dictated — Sung did not describe his technique in detail tulo-u — tulo-uve ~ tulo-opi anywhere. come-PRS.3SG ‘(s)he’ How reliable then are Lönnrot’s texts as source material for the original voice of the mere-h — mere-hen singers? Are we sometimes listening to sea-ILL Lönnrot’s voice when reading the texts, or has ‘into the sea’ he made changes to texts that are irreversible However, there are certain points at which the and that would make reconstruction texts seem to indicate a sung performance. A impossible or at least very uncertain? We sung performance of kalevalaic poetry have some proof that his notes are quite neutralizes syllabic stress and vowel length. reliable. First, the manuscripts by Lönnrot and Rhythmic stress in singing does not Cajan are field notes, containing necessarily follow the stress in spoken abbreviations, lines in margins and quite Karelian or Finnish language, where the stress messy corrections. Secondly, parts of the is always on the first syllable. On the other songs have been transcribed more than twice hand, the meter quite strictly regulates how by different collectors. Although there are the long and short initial syllables can be only seven or eight texts of which we have positioned in the line. Normally, this helps in more or less full forms in more than one recognizing words in the line, but in the variant, the texts are so uniform that we can absence of the regular word-stress, this might rule out any major editing on behalf of the also give rise to misunderstandings. This is collector of the original notes. Only in the illustrated in example (8), where Lönnrot has case of M.A. Castrén, whose field notes are originally written kyveh or kyvehe (8a), which missing, can we see some traces of editing in is a word with no meaning, and then he has his text copies, especially in a manuscript corrected the word by striking it through and which he donated to the Finnish Literature writing above it, dividing the word into two

(9) 1. Kuka lie minu-o luo-nut meaning of this first scene. The emendation is who be-POT.3SG I-PART create-PERF in line 4 (marked with *). ‘Whoever created me’ It seems that Lönnrot tried to make sense out of these first lines as he did not 2. Kuka kurjo-a suven-nut who wretched-PART make-PERF understand the wordplay with the word ‘who made the wretched one’ porras [‘step (on a swamp), duckboard’], which some other singers also used, together 3. Tä-llä inha-lla ijä-llä with the word virsi [‘song’], to designate a this-ADE bad-ADE times-ADE ‘for these bad times’ singer, especially the old Väinämöinen. This song, which begins as a poem and ends as 4. Niin *Ei* luo-nut sana-n sepä-kse prose, was not included in the Kalevala by so *no* create-PERF word-GEN smith-TRANSL ‘so has created *didn’t create* to be a wordsmith’ Lönnrot. However, he was interested in the song and edited five interpretations of it, even 5. Pan-nut virre-n portaha-kse publishing a couple of them. (Tarkka 2004: put-PERF song-GEN step-TRANSL 256.) Exceptionally, Lönnrot seems to have ‘put me as the step of song’ already started editing his field notes 6. Parempi minu-n poloise-n themselves. better I-GEN poor-GEN ‘It would be better for poor me’ Conclusion 7. Sana-n seppä-nä ol-isi Texts collected by Lönnrot and others show word-GEN smith-ESS be-COND.3SG clearly how the aims and ideologies for ‘to be as a wordsmith’ writing down the texts have influenced the 8. Ol-la virre-n portaha-na transcription. Using a text as a representation be-INF song-GEN step-ESS of ‘the singer’s voice’ strictly in the same ‘to be as a step of song’ form as it has been saved in archives and 9. Kuin on suo-lla portaha-na publications can lead to imprecise and even than be-PRS.3SG swamp-ADE step-ESS false conclusions. In this case, we have most ‘than as a step in the swamp’ of the original field notes saved in the 10. El-köäte hyvä suku-ni archives, and we have a great number of texts NEG-IMP.2PL good kindred-POSS.1SG collected in the same area at different times ‘Do not you, my good kindred’ from many singers, by many collectors, that can be used for comparison. In addition, 11. Soi-jo[?] suo-lla portaha-kse Lönnrot himself has in many of his writings wish-IMP.2PL swamp-ADE step-TRANSL ‘wish me to be a step on the swamp’ clearly clarified his ideas on and techniques of editing and publishing folklore. The examples 12. Sillo-i-kse lika sijo-i-lla presented in this article demonstrate how bridge-PL-TRANSL filth spot-PL-ADE ‘a bridge over the filthy spot’ these three things help us in understanding and reconstructing the ‘voice of the singer’ Society in 1840 (SKS KRA. Castrén, M.A. 1: behind the texts. 1–31. 1839). There is only one text in Lönnrot’s notes Appendix 1. List of glossing abbreviations where we can suspect later emendation by ADE adessive (case) Lönnrot. In the opening words, or ‘Singer’s COND conditional (verbal mood) Words’, of a poem entitled Viisaampansa ESS essive (case) GEN genitive (case) vieressä maannut [‘The Wiser One’] ILL illative (case) presented as example (9) (SKVR I3 2008.1– IMP imperative (verbal mood) 14), there are four lines inserted between the INE inessive (case) existing lines (lines 6–9 above). These lines INF infinitive are in better handwriting and contain no NEG negative abbreviations. Together with a small PART partitive (case) correction of one word on a previous line PERF perfect (tense) (“Niin” [‘so’] > “Ei” [‘no’]), they invert the PL plural POSS possessive 41

POT potential (verbal mood) Kirjallisuuden Seuran toimituksia 828. Helsinki: PTCP participle Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. PST past (tense) Itkonen, Erkki. 1936. “A.A. Borenius-Lähteenkorva: SG singular Kansanrunouden kerääjä ja tutkija”. Suomi 18. Karjalan kielen verkkosanakirja. Ed. Marja Torikka. TRANSL translative (case) Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskuksen verkko- julkaisuja 18. Available at: http://kaino.kotus.fi/cgi- Notes bin/kks/kks_etusivu.cgi. 1. For more information on the SKVR-corpus, see Kuusi, Matti, Keith Bosley & Michael Branch. 1977. Saarinen 2001. Finnish Folk Poetry: Epic: An Anthology in Finnish 2. See e.g. Lönnrot's letter (in Swedish) to Léouzon Le and English. Publications of the Finnish Literature Duc 30.3.1851 (Lönnrot 1993: 471–477); on this Society 329. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. topic see further Hautala 1957: 7–8; Mulholland Lauerma, Petri. 2004. “Larin Parasken epiikan 2009; Ó Giolláin 2012: 412–413; Honko & Nyman kielellisestä variaatiosta”. Suomi 189. 2001: 41–42. Leipzig Glossing Rules. Max Planck Institute for 3. The examples are glossed following the general Evolutionary Anthropology. Department of guidelines set out in the Leipzig Glossing Rules, on Linguistics. Available at http://www.eva.mpg.de/ which see http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/ lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php. glossing-rules.php. Lönnrot, Elias. 1835. Kalewala taikka wanhoja 4. “Utan afseende på dialekten skulle Rec. vid sådana Karjalan runoja Suomen kansan muinosista ajoista. ord alltid nyttja det skriftsätt, som lättast förstås af Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 2. de flesta ortens finnar. Filologen, som sysselsätter Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. sig med forskningar om Finska språkets dialekter Lönnrot, Elias. 1840. Kanteletar taikka Suomen kansan torde väl anföra åtskilligt emot ett sådantförfarande, vanhoja lauluja ja virsiä. Suomalaisen men hans ensak äro Runorne visserligen icke.” Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 3. Helsinki: (Lönnrot 1993: 170.) Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. 5. Editors of SKVR have, as a rule, been quite pedantic Lönnrot, Elias. 1849. Kalevala. Suomalaisen and provided footnotes accounting for all of the Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 14. Helsinki: corrections and inserts that are to be found in the Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. original manuscripts, yet, for some reason, this one Lönnrot, Elias. 1993. Valitut teokset 5: is missing! Muinaisrunoutta. Ed. Raija Majamaa. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 580. Helsinki: Glosses and translations by author, Keith Bosley Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. (Kuusi, Bosley & Branch 1977) and Lotte Tarkka Mulholland, James. 2009. “James Macpherson’s (2004). Ossian Poems: Oral Traditions and the Invention of Voice”. Oral Tradition 24(2): 393–414. Available Sources at: http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/24ii/ Manuscripts of Folklore Archives of the Finnish mulholland. Literature Society (SKS KRA): Ó Giolláin, Diarmuid. 2012. “Ireland”. In A Cajan, J. Fr 3:461–489. 1836. Companion to Folklore. Ed. Regina F. Bendix & Cajan, J. Fr. 1:1–38. 1836. Galit Hasan-Rokem. Blackwell Companions to Castrén, M. A. 1: 1–31. 1839. Anthropology. Malden (MA): Wiley-Blackwell. Pp. Castrén, M. A. 2:29, 44–48, 147. 1839. 409–425. Lönnrotiana 5:66–109. 1834. Saarinen, Jukka. 1994. “The Päivölä Song of Miihkali Perttunen”. In Songs beyond the Kalevala. Ed. Works Cited Anna-Leena Siikala and Sinikka Vakimo. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 2. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Genetz, Arvid. 1881. “Tutkimus Venäjän Karjalan Society. Pp. 180–196. kielestä: kielennäytteitä, sanakirja ja kielioppi”. Saarinen, Jukka. 2001. “Kalevalaic Poetry as a Digital Suomi seires 2, 14: 1–248. Corpus”. FF Network 22: 4–9. Available at: Harvilahti, Lauri. 2012. “Finland”. In A Companion to http://www.folklorefellows.fi/wordpress/wpcontent/ Folklore. Ed. Regina F. Bendix & Galit Hasan- networks/FFN22.pdf. Rokem. Blackwell Companions to Anthropology. Sadeniemi, Matti. 1951. Die Metrik des Kalevala- Malden (MA): Wiley-Blackwell. Pp. 391–408. Verses. FF Communications 139. Helsinki: Hautala, Jouko. 1957. Vicissitudes in Publishing the Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Ancient Poetry of the Finnish People. Studia Steinitz, Wolfgang. 1934. Der Parallelismus in der Fennica 7:5. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. finnisch-karelischen Volksdichtung. FF Honko, Lauri. 2002. “The Kalevala as Performance”. Communications 115. Helsinki: Academia In The Kalevala and the World’s Traditional Epics. Scientiarum Fennica. Ed. Lauri Honko. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 12. SKVR I = Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot I –I : Vienan Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 13–25. 1 4 läänin runot. 1908–1921. Ed. A. R. Niemi. Honko, Lauri, & Aarre Nyman. 2001. Eepoksia ja Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia eepostutkimusta Itämereltä Intiaan. Suomalaisen 121. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.

SKVR-tietokanta. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Leena Siikala, Lauri Harvilahti & Senni Timonen. Available at: http://www.finlit.fi/skvr. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran toimituksia 958. Tarkka, Lotte. 2004. “Viisaampansa vieressä Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. maannut”. In Kalevala ja laulettu runo. Ed. Anna- 215–272.

“Do Not, Folk of the Future, Bring up a Child Crookedly!”: Moral Intervention and Other Textual Practices by Elias Lönnrot Niina Hämäläinen, University of Turku

The Folklore Archives of the Finnish of the 19th century, and Lönnrot conceived the Literature Society (SKS) in Helsinki, contain, idea of compiling a Finnish national epic among other archival materials, 150,000 texts based on oral poetry that he himself had in the Kalevala-metre recorded from the 16th collected, and he continued to collect to the 20th century (epic, lyric, charms, material, making a total of eleven journeys wedding songs, proverbs, riddles, tales, songs around Finland and Russian Karelia from of common people). The systematic collection 1828 to 1844. Using the collected folk poetry, of Kalevala-metric poetry began in the early he published different folk poetry collections 19th century and it was widely inspired by comprisied of selected poems and verses that Elias Lönnrot’s journeys in Finnish and were considered in his time to represent the Russian Karelia. Once the so-called Old Finnish oral tradition authentically and Kalevala was published in 1835, the completely. The Kalevala, published in 1849, principles of collecting oral poetry changed. took shape in Lönnrot’s mind across thirty Elias Lönnrot and his collaborators years. Lönnrot made five versions of the epic transcribed oral tradition at a time when there in total, of which the so-called New Kalevala were no established archives or institutions in 1849 received the most respect, best which could preserve the material reception, and status as a national epic. In appropriately. The purpose behind collecting addition to the Kalevala and its different folk songs and their further usage were not versions,1 Lönnrot also published other folk necessarily explicitly described to the persons poem collections based on this material, such singing the songs and most of the collectors as the Kantele Leaflets (1829−1831) and the noted down songs without any contextual Kanteletar (1840), which were anthologies of information regarding the singers. (DuBois folk lyric songs. 1994: 141−142.) A major part of the poetic Lönnrot aimed to present a diverse material that was gathered under these spectrum of folk-poetry in a widely available conditions is published in the volumes of written form. While seemingly loyal to his Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot [‘The Ancient principles and maintaining great fidelity to Poems of the Finnish People’], 1908−1997 oral sources, Lönnrot did more than make oral (SKVR). However, only a narrow portion of tradition readable by modifying different this material has been selected to represent the dialects, as discussed in Jukka Saarinen’s nationally valuable tradition in publications article in this volume. He also amended and such as the Kanteletar (Lönnrot 1840) and the moulded diverse expressions of folk poetry. Kalevala (Lönnrot 1835; 2nd rev. edn 1949). Lönnrot’s fame in Finland was not based on The Kalevala will be at the center of the his faithfulness to the oral material in every present article. detail. It was based on the products of his Elias Lönnrot (1802−1884), who created textualization processes that created distance the national epic Kalevala (1849) for the from the orally performed poetry, its Finns, was a medical doctor and one of very dialectical language and its rural, everyday few native Finnish speakers of his time to be context. Unlike others who produced cultural educated at the university level. At the publications, Lönnrot’s way of representing university and in academic circles in the the oral poetry was highly acclaimed because Grand Duchy of Finland, nationalistic interest he amended oral texts so that they became in oral tradition was growing at the beginning closer to the aesthetic and conventional

43 conceptions of a 19th century readership mainly done within literary research, which (Hämäläinen 2012: 59; see also Anttonen has produced some significant studies on the 2004). epic (Kaukonen 1956; Karkama 2001). The In this sense, Lönnrot’s textualisation work idea of the Kalevala as a piece of literature can be characterized in relation to his has resulted in a situation where, for decades, contemporaries, whose limited knowledge of all of the textual works of Elias Lönnrot have oral tradition he attempted to complement. rather been regarded as an irrelevant and Lönnrot collected, published and redefined uninteresting object of research in Finnish oral poetry in his textual productions and folkloristics. The new wave of research on the discussed it with his contemporaries. He lived Kalevala approaches Lönnrot’s editing work on the boundary between two worlds. He from the perspective of textualization belonged primarily to the Swedish-speaking processes (Anttonen 2004; 2012; Hämäläinen urban culture, but he was Finnish-speaking by 2012; Hyvönen 2008). Within this new birth, the son of a tailor, and grew up in perspective, Lönnrot’s representational work modest circumstances. He gathered, edited on oral folk poetry is studied as an editorial and defined oral tradition by publishing and ideological practice that highlights the various literary collections of poetry for a contextual choices behind selecting, omitting, cultured readership. At the same time, he combining and adapting folk poetry texts in participated in contemporary discussions of the production of national publications like society by publishing articles and educated the Kalevala. Textualization thus is not only tales. (Karkama 2001: 88−100.) an indication of the collection and transfer of In Finland, where both Finnish and oral tradition into a written form, but also of Swedish were spoken, collecting and editing conscious intentions and objectives relating to practices were strongly combined with the the historical and ideological processes of idea of constructing a national unity (see making folk poems into literary products Anttonen 2012: 334−338). Swedish was the (Bauman & Briggs 2003). official language (until 1892) and used by the This article will discuss the textual intelligentsia, while Finnish was widely practices of Elias Lönnrot in compiling his spoken among the common people. Thus, presentations of folk poetry by concentrating textualization practices, collecting, and on the concept of textualization as an editing oral tradition into collections, were ideological aim to make oral texts into a intended to represent a Finnish tradition written form. Lönnrot did not only make which could be shared by all of the people of small and hidden changes, but also added Finland. Despite many other collectors before direct messages to be able to guide the and after him, Lönnrot was the first and only reception of the epic. Regarding Lönnrot’s to receive a respected status for his objective to control interpretations of the publications. As Pertti Karkama (2001) has readers and his aim to manipulate folk poetry, pointed out, Lönnrot was working with a I will examine the explicit negative concern for the whole Finnish nation. Even expressions in the poems about Aino and though Lönnrot’s work also received criticism Kullervo in his master work, the New and stimulated discussion, his editorial Kalevala (1849). The poems of Aino and choices were at the same time dismissed in Kullervo are mainly developed through the light of national-romantic purposes Lönnrot’s composition and there are neither (Hautala 1954). poems nor characters identical to Aino or The documentation of oral poetry and Kullervo as such in the folk poetry tradition. analogies between oral material and the Behind these characters are several epic- Kalevala have been studied in Finland since mythic oral poems which tell above all about the late 19th century. Affected by the a giant boy of Kaleva and about a young Historical-Geographic Method (see Frog, this maiden, Anni, who meets a mythical wooer volume), the tendency was to identify which and hangs herself. The Kullervo poems in the oral verse was found behind the Kalevala. In Kalevala have been regarded as concerned the 20th century, Kalevala research was with certain tendencies; poems in which

Lönnrot emphasized the destiny of a Maidens’ Mood”) that start with a negative mistreated child and the role of parents as line. These songs, called songs of sorrow, educators. The Aino poems describe a deal mostly with worry, sorrow and relationship between a daughter and her frustration. Negative formulae, such as En mother underlined by customs of marriage minä ilolla laula, / enkä suurella surulla [‘I agreements. Both of these cycles of poems am not singing with joy / nor with great have been regarded as having a pedagogical sorrow either’] (SKVR XIII1 1793) or tendency (Kaukonen 1956: 461, 492). negative instructions such as Älköön minun The point of departure for this article is a emoini / Älköön emo kuluni [‘Let my mother consciousness of modernity embedded in the not / Let my poor mother not] (SKVR VI1 textualization practices that gave rise to these 102) are different, yet representative stylistic stories. Textualized collections of oral poetry devices which emphasize a message of the were, at the time of their publication, often poem. thought to be based on oral sources, ancient Negative expression belongs to the culture and tradition, even though they imagery devices of lyric songs. Usually, the received their written form in discussions and negative is presented as a different kind of discourses of the 19th century. In Finland, antithesis. Because of its concrete poetic written representations of oral poetry were style, lyric song communicates clearly by made in ways that were adequate for the 19th- using an antithetical style regarding what is century modern public in order to create a lacking and what is present. (Relander 1894: nationally shared knowledge of the historical 283−284.) Negative expressions in lyric past for an educated elite and largely poems are often personal, expressed by a first Swedish-speaking audience who had a weak person pronoun, whereas in short-style genres understanding of the oral culture of Finnish- such as riddles and proverbs, the negative is speaking rural commoners. This article will expressed from a distance. investigate the kinds of limitations and Ei ne muut muretta tunne, changes to which oral poetic material was Kanna karvasta syäntä, subjected when it received its written Mie musta murehen tunnen, presentation, and also the extent to which Kannan karvaha[n] syämen. these changes might still affect our (SKVR VII2 1780, recorded by Lönnrot.) apprehension of the oral tradition of No others know my grief, kalevalaic poetry. Carry a bitter heart, I am black to know the sorrow, Negative Expression in Lyric Songs Worried to carry the bitter heart. Negative expressions and advice or warnings are commonly and intertextually used stylistic Besides message of the poem (here: sorrow), devices in the kalevalaic poetry tradition. negative formulae emphasize a great Some of the genres, such as proverbs, that (emotional) difference between the sorrowful concisely describe some specific guideline or singer, the ‘I’ or ‘self’, and others. Folk lyric point of wisdom, abound with negative style is concrete and explanatory. It does not expressions. In this type of proverbial maxim, carry unclear meanings or ambiguity, which is the negative can describe something essential again typical in literary poetry (see about the moral views of common people. Katajamäki 2002). It is neither unclear who is (Kuusi 1963; Stark 2011: 49−53.) sorrowful (‘I’) nor who is opposite to the Lyric poetry, the discourse of emotions, unhappy one (others). includes many negative devices. The richness Sometimes, a negative expression is used of the negative formulae and phrases is visible for repetition and the rhythm of a song. This when looking at a table of contents of Suomen appears especially in songs that consist of Kansan Vanhat Runot. For example, in the some kind of comparison. The pattern is the volume of songs from Northern Karelia same: the worried one is approaching relatives and asking whether they mourn and (SKVR VII2), there are 50 songs (under the titles “Worry”, “Disappointment” and “Young whether they care about her/him (Kuusi 1963: 344).

Ei itke iso minua, While the negative voices suspicion and Eikä veikko vierettele, worry in lyric songs, it can also be utilized Ei emo pane pahaksi, directly as advice or warning. The imperative Ei kastu sisaren kasvot. here is not necessarily direct or strict, but (SKVR VII2 1773.4–7 recorded by Lönnrot.) more often implicit, gentle and Father will not weep for me, conversational: Elkä te hyvät imeiset, / Elkä Nor my brother be sad, ouoksi oteltko [‘Do not, dear ones / Do not Mother will not take it ill, find me strange’] (SKVR XIII1 1914), or Ei Sister’s face will not be wet. vainen, emo, minua, / Toru toista tyttöäsi! The negative is also about denying an [‘Do not, mother, scold me / Do not scold alternative choice or, in some cases, it is a your other daughter’] (SKVR VII2 2549.) A dynamic way to show social injustice as well negative device frames the mother’s songs of (Kuusi 1963: 263, 361). In the example instruction to her daughter. In these songs, the above, emphasis is created by repeating a mother prepares and instructs her daughter for feeling of worry and abandonment: no one is marriage. The negative is an apparent method crying for the worried one. The negative in songs of instruction because of the agrarian device also refers to unspoken knowledge. customs and rules for getting married. In the What is unsaid raises an idea of what is not agrarian world, the aim of young girls was to present. Negative expression thus requires a get married. Young girls started to be contextual background of audience/readers for prepared for the role of bride early, and their an interpretation of (unspoken) content. mothers sang songs of instruction about how (Katajamäki 2000: 140−141.) A negative to prepare for the role and how to get the right 2 device can also be seen in the inclusion of a groom (Timonen 2004: 46). positive emphasis: an idea of utopia. In such cases, the negative device can consist of a Negative Expressions in Textual conditional clause or various verbal claims Representations of Elias Lönnrot (Timonen 2004: 377), even confrontation, as Presenting folk poetry as authentically and in this folk song example: Ei itke iso minua / exhaustively as possible, Lönnrot also aimed vaikka joutuisin jokeen [‘Father will not weep at offering the poetry in an aesthetically or for me / even if I were taken by the river’] morally correct way. Lönnrot was primarily (SKVR XIII1 2108). driven by the idea that the presentations of Negative expression is also present in oral poetry should be shared by all the people many other lyric songs, such as songs of in Finland. He had a two-dimensional task to instruction, lullabies, and wedding songs. In educate, seeking to present folk poetry in a lullabies, it expresses an uncertainty about the way that it would be understandable to future, about a child’s destiny. A mother rocks middle-class readers and also to present texts the cradle and sings about her uncertainty, not that could instruct common folk with moral knowing what life will bring for her child or advice. what kind of fortune the child will have: Lönnrot had a moral purpose not only in editing and publishing folk songs, but also in Ei tiiä emo tekiä other writings as well. He wrote educational Eikä kantaja katala, tales for the common folk and took part in Mihin tuutiipi tytärtä, Kuhun lasta liekuttaapi. contemporary discussions about the role of Tuutiiko tuvalliselle, the family, emotions and religion (see Vai tuutii tuvattomalle. Hämäläinen 2012: 100−104). Lönnrot’s (SKVR VI1 560.1–6, recorded by Lönnrot.) morality was affected by his Lutheran faith, which strengthened in his later life. As many Mother, maker, does not know scholars have observed, Lönnrot was greatly nor the mean one who bore me, to where she rocks her daughter, influenced by different ideological and swings the child to sleep. cultural tendencies of his time (Karkama Does she rock the child to one with house, 2001; Hyvönen 2008; Anttonen 2012). The or to one houseless. bourgeois’ aims of enlightenment were

46 targeted to construct distance between his work on the epic, an interlevened copy of themselves and the aristocratic class with the Old Kalevala was printed and Lönnrot their flighty ways of living. They also sought gradually added lyric poems to the blank to see rural folk people as having decent pages in the 1840s, at which time he also habits in daily life. Several attempts to published the lyric anthology Kanteletar, and educate and instruct the common people were articulated the value and essence of oral lyric required. Lönnrot emphasized the control of in his writings (Borenius & Krohn 1895). the body and the avoidance of all extreme While the presence of the negative is typical feelings, while he criticized alcohol of lyric poetry and presented in the anthology consumption among the common people and Kanteletar, it can be asked why there are their strong religious habits (Pietism) (VT 2: negative expressions visible in the Kalevala, 207). In these other writings, he used the as well. negative in advice and warnings in order to A textual analysis of different versions of direct his readers as well. The negative was the Kalevala reveals that negative expressions mainly used as explicit advice and proverbial are more present in the New Kalevala than in maxims, such as Tehkäät hyvää ja elkäät the other versions. Textual analysis also suuttuko (VT 4: 418) [‘Do good and don’t get shows that Lönnrot added content, messages, angry’]. These expressions often had a stylistic and linguistic features of oral poems religious accent for of the public, common for publishing purposes – i.e. to present folk people – e.g. Hän elköön itseänsä murheilla poetry to wider audiences and, at the same vaivako, vaan luottakoon ja toivokoon kaikki time, to guide his readers aesthetically and Jumalan sallimisesta hänelle hyväksi olevan morally. The analysis of these developments (VT 4: 132) [‘He should not let himself be is based on the idea of metadiscoursive troubled by sorrows, but trust and wish that practices discussed by Richard Bauman and all God’s favour do him good’]. (See further Charles L. Briggs in Voices of Modernity: in VT 4: 402, 418, 426, 429.) Language Ideologies and the Politics of The Kalevala also includes a remarkable Inequality (2003). In this context, the term number of various negative expressions: in ‘metadiscoursive practices’ refers to diverse addition to negative formulae and phrases, it meta-textual usages that enable oral text to also has quite a few pieces of advice and become readable and comprehensible to its warnings formulated with negative readers, who have limited knowledge of the expressions. These are presented either in oral tradition. These practices are often monologue or dialogue, by a narrator or a morally coded and can consist of direct protagonist, such as when these are placed in discourse and quotation or the use of other the mouth of the great sage of the epic, genres within the edited oral-based text. Väinämöinen, or in the mouth of a mother (Bauman & Briggs 2003: 208−210.) Within (usually of a male hero). All of the pieces of that frame, attention can be turned to negative advice in the Kalevala are stated at a distance devices and warnings appearing in the from the narrative voice by attributing them to Kalevala, using these to elucidating Lönnrot’s a different speaker or situating them on a way of operating with folk lyric material. different narrative stage (DuBois 2000: 136−137). Negative expressions, representative Negative Formulae of folk lyric songs, are often included in lyric The cycle of Kullervo poems is a synthesis of lines, but Lönnrot also added negative phrases different traits and characters of the epic and advice to poem sections where they did poems about Kaleva’s son, or about not traditionally belong. Tuurikkainen or about the hero The oral material accumulated across Lemminkäinen in the northern singing regions several collecting journeys and the idea of the (Viena Karelia). The poems of the Kalevala Kalevala developed in Lönnrot’s mind. One describe how Kullervo set off for war, and of of the genres that played an increasingly the quarrel between Untamo and Kalervo, significant role in compiling the epic was oral elements typical in the southern region of the lyric poetry. To facilitate the development of poetry tradition. The Kullervo poems also

47 draw on elements of the narrative tradition Below, Lönnrot’s version of the song about the giants of Kalevala (Lönnrot’s name published in the New Kalevala can be seen. It for the land of heroes, from which the epic follows the folk song example with some receives its name) and a strong boy who is changes in dialect and meter. There is one described as a hybrid between an animal and a notable change by Lönnrot: he removed the human being. Lönnrot humanized different word “emottomalle” [‘motherless’] and poetic traits and deeds behind this character replaced it with a word “milloinkana” by using lyric descriptions inside the epic [‘never’] that makes the words of Kullervo story and by creating a strong relationship more fatal than in the lyric example. between Kullervo and his mother (Lönnrot’s changes in italic). (Hämäläinen 2012: 258−259, 263−264). In Päivä pääskyille tulevi, the Kalevala, Kullervo is described as an varpusille valkenevi, orphan who fails in his tasks and who has a ilo ilman lintusille; tragic destiny that ends in his suicide. ei minulle milloinkana, The Kullervo cycle (New Kalevala, poems tule ei päivä polvenansa, 31−36) includes several negative expressions. ei ilo sinä ikänä! Expressions and formulae are presented either (New Kalevala, poem 34: 65–70.) in lyrical monologues in which Kullervo Day comes to swallows describes his sorrowful mind, or, similarly, whitens for sparrows the negative expressions or formulae can be joy for the birds of the air; related to his dialogue with his mother. As in but never for me folk lyric poetry generally, the negative does day come in a lifetime expression, here an antithesis, tells what is nor joy ever in this world! missing: happiness in life. One of the lyric (The Kalevala trans. 1999: 469–470.) songs that Lönnrot added to the Kullervo In the context of the Kalevala, the poems, Päivä pääskylle tulevi [‘Day Comes to unhappiness is connected to a specific person, Swallows’], describes one’s sorrow by Kullervo. In the broader context of the comparing it to the birds’ joy. Usually the Kullervo poems, Kullervo misses many song depicts an orphan’s feelings: day comes fundamental elements in his life. An image of to swallows, but not to me who is motherless, his life is related to home and to a lack of fatherless. caring parents. In the Kalevala, Kullervo is Päivä pääskyille tuloo, homeless and an orphan. In this contextual Varpusille valkenoo, frame, the antithesis clarifies the meaning. Ilo ilman lintusille, Furthermore, it relates allusions and messages Ei minulle emottomalle about Kullervo’s mood and wishes (see Tule päivä polvenaan Katajamäki 2000: 141). By replacing the Eikä valkia valosta, word emoton with the word ikänä followed by Ei ilo sinä ikänä. an extra negative tule ei päivä polvenansa (SKVR XIII1 2102.9–15, recorded by Lönnrot.) [‘does day come in a lifetime’], Lönnrot Day comes to swallows, requires a contextual background for the whitens for sparrows, poem, but also addresses the destiny of joy for the birds of the air, Kullervo (he will not become happy). The but not for me motherless lyric song of the Kalevala represents not only does day come in a lifetime a collective knowledge of unhappiness, but nor white from the daylight, connects the lyric motif to Kullervo as an nor joy ever in this world. orphan and the parents’ role in his life. A lyric song of sorrow, Päivä pääskylle tulevi Negative formulae further describe describes one’s unhappy feelings, but more uncertainty about Kullervo’s background. He precisely it depicts the feeling of unhappiness does not know from where or with whom he generally. The song provided one possibility originates: En tieä tekijätäni / enkä tunne to express unhappiness and sorrow in a tuojoani [‘I don’t know who made me / nor conventional way (Virtanen 1985). who brought me here’] (New Kalevala, poem

34: 71−72). It is also used for underlining Ellöspä, hyvä Jumala, proximity to or distance between Kullervo elkösi sinä ikänä, and others by Lönnrot (see the section on luoko lasta luonnotonta Negative Dialogue, below) or a deviance of eikä aivan armotointa, Kullervo: isotointa alle ilman, emotointa ensinkänä, vaan en nyt iällä tällä, niinkuin loit minun, Jumala, en mä vielä jouakana, minun kurjaisen kuvasit, soille sotkuportahiksi. loit kuin lokkien sekahan, (New Kalevala, poem 34: 87−89.) karille meren kajavan! But I shall not in this world (New Kalevala, poem 34: 55–64.) I shall not yet come to be Do not, oh good God, a causeway on swamps. do not ever in this world, Negative formulae within lyric lines indicate create an unlucky child nor one quite unloved, Kullervo’s position as an orphan and as one fartherless under the sky, who is homeless. This is stated over the motherless – that least of all– original shape of Kaleva’s son, who is as you created me, God, described as an extremely strong, mythical shaped wretched me, created, hero, even a giant in some oral poems (SKVR like one of a flock of gulls, I2 936; XII1 120–122). Lönnrot explained his like a sea-mew on a reef! views on Kullervo’s mourning in a letter to an Lönnrot possessed a folk lyric example of this Estonian contemporary, Emil Sachsendahl, at text (SKVR XIII1 2102), which provided the the turn of 1850 and 1851: basis for versions of the poem he published in Kullervo wandered alone for days and the Kanteletar (II: 110) and in the New moaned his fate for having lost both father Kalevala. Lönnrot followed the folk poem and mother right after birth and for drifting text without making major changes to it. as an abandoned and homeless one in the Nevertheless, he changed an allusion in the forest. (VT 5: 467.) content for the Kalevala. In the context of the With his textual changes and the explanation Kalevala, ‘unnatural’, ‘unlucky’, and of the poem, Lönnrot highlighted a more ‘unloved’ indicate an orphan, a child without understandable interpretation for readers: parents, or without family (see also charms Kullervo’s sorrow results from his family SKVR VII4 1605, 2164). However, in oral background. tradition, on the contrary, it can also be related to temper – Karelian luonnotoin Negative Dialogue [‘unnatural’] is defined “lauhkea, arka” Negative expressions in the New Kalevala are [‘tame, timid’] (KKSK: s.v. ‘luonnotoin’); cf. employed to elucidate dialogues in which also the parallel expression luonnoton Kullervo engages. Negative expressions do pakana, hävytön koira (SKVR VII4 1710.15– not necessarily mean something negative or 16) [‘unnatural ill-bred one, shameless dog’]. bad, but rather they are used by Lönnrot to Negative dialogue is frequently expressed emphasize Kullervo’s status as an orphan or, between Kullervo and his mother. These are more commonly, his close relationship to his usually warnings or refusals, or they can mother. describe something lacking in their For example, before Kullervo meets his relationship. In the example below, the mother again, he is wandering in a forest and negative expression is included in an epic begins mourning his sorrowful destiny (i.e. passage and it is also present in the illustrative being without family). Kullervo wonders poems. The mother advises Kullervo to go about his birth and homelessness as in lyric into hiding after a seductive relationship with poetry that concentrates on describing his sister. Kullervo refuses by saying: Enkä emotions. Then he directs his words to God, lähe piilemähän, / en, paha, pakenemahan! complaining about God’s creation of an [‘I’ll not go into hiding, / this evil one will not orphan child. flee!’] (New Kalevala poem 35: 361−362).

When preparing himself for war, the mother Negative Advice forbids Kullervo to go into war: Ellös, The poems of Aino (New Kalevala, poems 3– poikani, poloinen, / saako suurehen sotahan 5) describe Aino’s sorrowful state of mind [‘Don’t, my luckless boy / get into a great and her relationship with her mother. Unlike war’] (New Kalevala poem 36: 8−9). The the Kullervo poems, this cycle does not difference between the Kalevala and the folk include so many negative expressions, but epic poems lies in their context. Whereas the rather negative advice given by the mother. oral poem focuses on a specific act and an Aino’s mourning is not expressed to explain explanation for it (the mother advises her son that something is missing (home, parents, not to go to war because the war will separate joy). Rather, the poem depicts how unhappy them), in the context of the Kullervo poems, Aino is. Her sorrow is buried, and her heart is going to war indicates more precisely going to hurting. war against Untamo, who took care of The poems of Aino tell the story of a Kullervo badly when Kullervo was a child. young girl Aino, whom her brother Thus, Kullervo also refuses to go into hiding (Joukahainen) marries off to the old man after the incestuous relationship with his sister Väinämöinen against her will. Moreover, because he is on his way to take revenge on Aino’s mother is happy to get Väinämöinen Untamo for those particular bad deeds. as a splendid son-in-law. Aino reacts to her The strong relationship between Kullervo sadness by crying and weeping and, like and his mother can be read from negative Kullervo, she commits suicide in the end. expressions connected to the lines of the Aino’s mother consoles her once: Elä itke poem that indicate closeness in how different tyttäreni, / nuorna saamani, nureksi! [‘Don’t characters listen to one another or by their weep, my daughter, / fruit of my youth, don’t inclination to weep for one another. For lament!’] (New Kalevala poem 4: 119–120). example, Kullervo asks his family members, However, her dialogue with Aino is usually Itketkö sinä minua, / koskas kuulet kuolleheksi imperative and presented in negative terms or [‘Would you weep for me / when you hear I as prohibitions. There are negative pieces of am dead’], and everyone except his mother advice in lyric poems as well, but in contrast gives the same, negative answer: En itke minä to the Kalevala, these are usually comforting sinua [‘I’ll not weep for you’]. In contrast, his or potentially negative: Älköön itkekö emoini / mother says: Kantajaini kaihoelko [‘Do not, my mother, weep for me / Do not long, my dear carrier’] Et älyä äitin mieltä, 4 arvoa emon syäntä, (SKVR V1 825.8–9). In the Kalevala, when Itkenpä minä sinua. Aino is weeping because she is supposed to (New Kalevala, poem 36: 135−137.) marry Väinämöinen, her mother cries out: You can’t grasp how a mother Mene, huima, huolinesi, feels, nor guess the mother’s heart. epäkelpo, itkuinesi! Yes, I’ll weep for you. Ei ole syytä synkistyä, aihetta apeutua. In the folk poem, the expression ‘would you (New Kalevala, poem 3: 567–570.) weep for me’ normally occurs in the context of the singer weeping for a romantic partner, Be gone, madcap, with you cares, not for his or her mother (Kuusi 1963: 344, good-for-nothing, with your weeping! 346). Lönnrot does not emphasize the There is no cause to be glum, relationship between Kullervo and his mother no reason to be downcast. exclusively through negative expressions. He Despite the mother being described by also brings forward the positive importance of Lönnrot as, in some sense, a caring parent, mother’s role in the family by highlighting she still asks why Aino is sad, and she does her importance in relation to the other 3 not understand her daughter until Aino is members of family. dead. Aino’s mother does not understand why her daughter is not willing to marry Väinämöinen, who is a great man and a seer.

On the contrary, one may say that the mother importance in lyric songs, and also in the rather understands the life of the young girl Aino poem. It is considered possible to very well, because she tries constantly to predict the number of years a maiden has to convince Aino to accept the proposal (see wait before marriage on the basis of a Kupiainen 2004). Without the status of a cuckoo’s call (KKSK: s.v. ‘käki’). The song of married woman, young girls had no respected a cuckoo is also used when addressing a long future in the agrarian world. The problems of wait for marriage or a great sorrow. In the misunderstanding and unwillingness to follow Aino poems, Lönnrot underlined the cuckoo’s conventional rules are also stated in the folk singing in contrast to the loss of Aino and the poem models such as Hirttäytynyt neito [‘The weeping of her mother. (See Järvinen 2010: Hanged Maiden’], but on different occasions. 11−12.) Her mother’s crying after Aino’s The unwilling relationship is also present in death creates the cuckoo’s singing: one sang the other poem behind Lönnrot’s compilation, to the loveless girl, another one to the The Hanged Maiden. The poem tells about a comfortless bridegroom and the last one to the strange, mythic wooer, whom a young maiden mother without joy (see New Kalevala, poem meets in the forest, but the maiden gets 4: 495, 499, 503). Lönnrot himself explained: frightened and runs home weeping, where no “käen kukkuessa nousi lemmen, sulhon ja one understands her and the she hangs herself onnellisuuden ajatuksia mieleen, mutta nyt at the conclusion of the poem. ainoastaan suuremmaksi rasitukseksi” [‘as the The folk poems can be regarded as telling cuckoo was cuckooing, thoughts about love, a about the unwillingness of a girl to get suitor and happiness came to mind, but here married and about her sexuality (Kupiainen they only brought greater strain.’] (Lna 121, 2004: 259, 264). In addition, they depict an 4: 12.) Therefore at the end of the cycle, unknown, suspicious wooer and a young Aion’s mother warns: Elköhön emo poloinen, maiden whose sexuality is at the focus of the / kauan kuunnelko käkeä! [‘Let a luckless poem. Lönnrot preferred to emphasize the mother not, / listen long to the cuckoo!’] (New status of Väinämöinen as a great sage and Kalevala, poem 4: 507−508). wise man in the Kalevala as opposed to the problems of marriage and its requirements. Parental Warning This was all combined with representations of Both the Aino and Kullervo poems of the the role of the mother within a family. Even New Kalevala contain educational though the folk poems also deal with social instructions for parents. They are told to and moral requirements and individual needs, declaim what should not be done. Wise they do not elevate the individual over social Väinämöinen is attributed with words of rules. Thus, Kilpalaulanta [‘The Singing warning after Kullervo has committed Match’] describes a contest between the suicide. The words are targeted at all parents young Joukahainen and old Väinämöinen. At so that they will know how to raise and care the outcome of this conflict, Joukahainen for their children. In this passage, the negative promises his sister to Väinämöinen in order to piece of advice ‘do not bring up a child save his own life. Joukahainen’s mother crookedly’ is set in relation to the explanation cheers at the news, but his sister remains that otherwise ‘a child won’t come to grasp outside of consideration. In contrast, the things’. Kalevala identifies this sister as Aino in order Elkötte, etinen kansa, to represent a modern contradiction between lasta kaltoin kasvatelko the young maiden and the social (family) luona tuhman tuuittelijan, expectations (Hämäläinen 2012: 205−210). vierahan väsyttelijän! In the Kalevala, Lönnrot aimed to create a Lapsi kaltoin kasvattama, strong image of the mother and her moral poika tuhmin tuuittama status regarding her children. This is ei tule älyämähän, underlined in a contrast between the mother’s miehen mieltä ottamahan, great sorrow and cuckoos singing following vaikka vanhaksi eläisi, varreltansa vahvistuisi. Aino’s death. The cuckoo has a special (New Kalevala, poem 36: 351−360.)

Do not, folk of the future, certain way, like laughing at other people. It bring up a child crookedly is not only parents who give advice to with someone stupid lulling, children, but a singer also guides an audience, a stranger sending to sleep! a child its mother, a young maiden other A child brought up crookedly, maidens. The imperative in folk songs is not or a son lulled stupidly necessarily direct or strict, but more often won’t come to grasp things, have a man’s understanding, implicit, gentle and conversational: though he should live to be old, Elkä te hyvät imeiset, or should grow strong in body. Elkä ouoksi otelko In the Aino poems, after Aino’s death, Aino’s Minun lapsen lauluani, Pienen pilpatuksiani. mother finally understands her own flawed (SKVR XIII 1914.1–4.) reaction and attitude toward her daughter’s 1 grief and consequently articulates a warning Do not dear ones to all mothers. Here, Lönnrot uses an Do not find me strange antithetic device typical of folk lyric, but Little songs of mine My small singing connects it to the mother’s role to instruct her daughter and understand her. According to Väinö Kaukonen, who carefully studied all the referential lines and songs Elkätte, emot poloiset, sinä ilmoisna ikänä Lönnrot used in compiling the Kalevala, the tuuitelko tyttäriä, song example behind the warnings goes back lapsianne liekutelko, to the script of a lullaby from Lönnrot’s first vastoin mieltä miehelähän collecting journey in 1828 that he transcribed niinkuin mie, emo poloinen, in Kerimäki, in Eastern Finland (Kaukonen tuuittelin tyttöjäni, 1956: 41; see also Kanteletar II: 187). This kasvatin kanasiani! was the example from a mother singing to her (New Kalevala, poem 4: 439−446.) child, uncertain about her child’s future, which was already quoted above as the Don’t, luckless mothers, passage beginning Ei tiiä emo tekiä / Eikä ever in this world kantaja katala [‘Mother, maker, does not / nor don’t lull your daughters, the mean one who bore me’] (SKVR VI1 560). or rock your children, In lullabies, the negative device and advice is to marry against their will usually combined with different wishes of the as I, a luckless mother, mother: the mother hopes that her child can have lulled my daughters, support her in her old age or that her daughter reared my little hens. will have a good man as a husband, or that a These kinds of warnings are not common in son will become successful. The advice in folk poetry, although warnings do exist there, lullabies can also express desperate wishes, too. More commonly, there are folk songs in such as wishing for the child’s death, but they which negative formulae are attributed to a are always sung in a gentle way, emotionally mother instructing her daughter, or to parents and metaphorically (Timonen 2013). In this instructing their children. A mother may even particular case, the last lines of the lullaby be attributed with such a formula to instruct that Lönnrot records continue from the idea herself, such as: Älköön emo tytärtä / that the mother should not care for the child Turvikseen tuuitelko! [‘Do not, mother, your ‘for her security’ to the assertion that from daughter, / lull her for your security’] (SKVR this child Ei tule emän tukia, / Eikä VI1 560.14–15) It is also, for example, vanhemman varoa (SKVR VI1 560.17–18) prohibited to visit other villages or to laugh at [‘Will not come a mother’s support, / nor another person’s partner or child. The safety for a parent’]. The song expresses a negative is attached to a metaphoric, indirect hesitation that it is not worth hoping that her comparison: Parents never forbade singing or daughter will take care of her later in life, being happy, but rather they forbade doing because the girl will get married and have a certain things or conducting oneself in a husband and family of her own.

When compiling the Kalevala, Lönnrot did Väinämöinen as a moral messenger. The not use this particular lullaby as such. (In fact, warning in the Kullervo poem increases in there are no lullabies at all in the Kalevala.) value as it is pronounced by the great leader However, he exploited the idea in the advice of the Kalevala, Väinämöinen. His words also in the lullaby, but he set at a distance the carry substantial significance because they are close, intimate relationship between the articulated from a distance. Väinämöinen is a mother and the child that characterizes powerful sage and singer of kalevalaic poetry lullabies. Lönnrot did not utilize traditional and he gives advice and warnings in the folk wishes, worries or fears of a mother expressed poems as well. Usually, his proverbial words, in the lullabies, nor the mother’s emotionally expressed as general lessons, are located in touching relationship to the child. Instead, different speech acts inside the songs. As there is a direct, clinical (emotionless) lesson pointed out by Lotte Tarkka (2013: 121−123), in both warnings of the Kalevala: Do not raise the words attributed to Väinämöinen are your children as I have done (the luller); this representative of a traditional and collective is what happens if (your) child is brought up authority, and this makes his negative crookedly. Both warnings indicate − by using expressions and warnings a collective norm the expressions of lullabies − that the mother, (see also Kuusi 1963: 371). Lönnrot did not the one lulling children to sleep, has done present a moral lesson through Kullervo’s something wrong. A difference between the mother, but through ‘sturdy old Kalevala and the lyric note is incorporated Väinämöinen’, whose distant words give a here: Lönnrot did not describe the mother as collective and authoritative frame for the the one who is nursing and looking after advice. In this sense, it is not the message children, but presented her as an educator and directed to the mother that indicates that she director of children who makes them become went astray in caring for her son, but instead good citizens. Lönnrot’s way of addressing an it refers to the general morality of society, and image of a strong mother is also present in the the educative role of parents generally. figure of Lemminkäinen’s mother in the In Lönnrot’s version, the words of Kalevala. By using lyric songs to deepen the Väinämöinen are presented as an authoritative relationship between the mother and her son maxim: he is speaking for everybody. In the Lemminkäinen, Lönnrot moulded the context of the Kalevala, that refers to the mother’s uncertain feelings about her child’s whole nation. In contrast, the words destiny found in the folk songs into a more associated with Aino are personified in her neutral shape (Timonen 2002). mother; they are not necessarily referring to a If we take a comparative look at these two collective feeling or attitude. Despite the warnings in the Kalevala, the difference in articulation of the words directed to all the their stylistic devices reveals the difference in mothers (Elkätte emot poloiset [‘Don’t, the messages as well. Denying something can luckless mothers’]), the expression of the be more revealing than something that is message in the first person and a general unsaid, and as such, it emphasizes the problem bound up with the particular mother message itself (see Katajamäki 2000: who is speaking make this a personal issue. It 139−140), as is the case in the Kalevala. An implies that the warning of the mother has − important matter is not the prohibition, but the without authoritative distance − a more object that is prohibited. Thus, in the poems serious consequence than in the case of about Kullervo, the crucial object is the Kullervo. Lönnrot not only tells about the Kullervo-child who is brought up badly by his mother’s misunderstanding of her daughter, parents, whereas in the case of Aino, the but also points out her failure as a mother to central object of the poem is the mother and his contemporary, modern readership her unwise actions towards her daughter as (Hämäläinen 2012: 263−264). underlined in the warning. The role of the parents and the mother as Attributing the warnings to a different an educator is present in all modes of the speaker makes an allusion to a specific negative expressions in both the Kullervo and interpretation as well. Lönnrot exploited Aino poems. The parental warnings can be

53 defined as a poetic strategy Lönnrot used in idea of a family as a moral and emotionally- handling the cautionary messages of these bounded unit of parents and children took poems. Moreover, these two warnings do not shape among the bourgeois class during the connote an equal importance of Väinämöinen 19th century in Europe. Lönnrot reflected and the two mothers concerned, not only in contemporary ideas of family in his the context of the poems, but also at the level compilation, aiming to bring a mythical epic of the composition and in a wider perspective, world and its archaic language closer to the in the society. Through the lines selected from readers of the Kalevala. This was folk songs, Lönnrot indicates an educative implemented through metadiscoursive role of the mother. Despite their traditional practices of inserting emotional passages of language and expressions, the warnings and lyric into the epic narrative, giving mythical other negative expressions are more filtered characters to a more neutral, realistic shape, through the ideals of the 19th century family – and loosening requirements of the traditional i.e. the importance of parent–child relation- society in order to emphasize the roles in a ships and the pragmatic role of the mother – modern family and the wishes of the than through the ideals of the folk songs. individual. Different details and explanations given to the readers also aided their ability to Modern Practices comprehend the poetry Lönnrot represented. What is regarded as the Finnish folk poetry As an editor of the oral tradition for the tradition is mainly based on a production of written publications, Lönnrot multidimensional background of texts which amended and removed traditional language, are collected, selected and interpreted contents and contexts of the oral poetry in presentations of folk poetry sources. The oral order to follow his textualizing principles. material is publicly accessible in the archives, Negative devices and their usage by Lönnrot but it has received its historical and as discussed in this article made both the ideological meaning and value as the Finnish kalevalaic language and its messages more tradition through its publication and comprehensible. Traditional negative presentation (Anttonen 2012), in spite of the expressions were combined with modern fact that the most esteemed material was by questions adapted to the comprehension of the and large collected outside of Finland from cultured readership. Thus Lönnrot Karelians (cf. Saarinen, this volume). The emphasized that Kullervo was an orphan over textualization process that allows oral his mythical status as a strong giant, he made tradition to come into the larger awareness of a problem of marriage into a more individual a society does not only reflect the collection issue in the Aino poems, and made the mother and preservation of the oral poetry, but also of both these characters into an important the contextualization of the oral tradition for moral figure. different audiences and diverse publishing As Lönnrot followed examples from the purposes. Lönnrot aimed at making oral folk songs carefully, he used traditional poetry more understandable to his bourgeois expressions and phrases, such as negative readers, who often had poor knowledge not devices, to be able to present folk song only of the kalevalaic language and its material as authentically as possible. metonyms, but also of the singing practices However, diverse negative devices of oral and of rural culture. tradition augmented and proceeded to be a Lönnrot inserted modern messages and part of the specific epic story and its details into his epic in order to reduce the characters through his textual choices. distance between the rural culture from which Lönnrot reduced multifaceted contextual and the poetry derived and his modern readership. implicative meanings of negative expressions As I have analyzed in an earlier study (2012), to one particular theme of a child and a Lönnrot took part in the contemporary parent. Through the negative expressions, discussions of family in his time and Lönnrot was able to broaden emotional and contextualized the oral poems and their moral messages of the poems for his readers. allusions in relation to that discussion. The Although negative expressions of the folk

54 songs might also, but not necessarily, express Borenius, Aksel & Julius Krohn. 1895. Elias Lönnrot, moral values, they were regularly used in Kalevalan esityöt III: Lisiä Vanhaan Kalevalaan. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. addressing the relationship between a parent DuBois, Thomas A. 1994. “An Ethnopoetic Approach and a child in the Kalevala. More precisely, to Finnish Folk Poetry: Arhippa Perttunen’s Lönnrot made an articulate connection Nativity”. In Songs Beyond the Kalevala: between different negative expressions and Transfromations of Oral Poetry. Ed. Anna-Leena moral allusions in the Kalevala. Siikala & Sinikka Vakimo. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 2. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 138−179. Notes DuBois, Thomas A. 2000. “The Narrator’s Voice in 1. “Lemminkäinen”, “Väinämöinen” and “Wedding Kalevala and Kalevipoeg”. Oral Tradition 15(1): Songs” (1833), the Proto-Kalevala (1833), the Old 126−144. Kalevala (1835), the New Kalevala (1849) and the Hautala, Jouko. 1954. Suomalainen Abridged Kalevala (also called the School kansanrunoudentutkimus. Suomalaisen Kalevala) (1862). Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 244. Helsinki: 2. There are also some songs of negative instruction to Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. boys in the folk lyric tradition, such as älä kihlo Hyvönen, Jouni. 2008. “Kalevala Elias Lönnrotin kirkkotiellä [‘do not marry on the way to church’] tieteellisenä projektina”. In Kalevalan (Timonen 2004: 46−47). kulttuurihistoria. Ed. Ulla Piela, Seppo Knuuttila & 3. The moral and pragmatic role of parents as Pekka Laaksonen. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden interpreted by Lönnrot is also exhibited in lullabies Seuran Toimituksia 1179, Tiede. Helsinki: of the Kanteletar. As shown by Senni Timonen Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 330−359. (2013: 8), Lönnrot combined the negative device of Hämäläinen, Niina. 2012. Yhteinen perhe, jaetut lullabies with warnings not generally familiar in tunteet: Lyyrisen kansanrunon tekstualisoinnin ja lullabies to be able to emphasize a relationship artikuloinnin tapoja Kalevalassa. Annales between a mother and her child. Universitas Turkuensis, Scripta Lingua Fennica 4. On the negotiable or conversational way of Edita series C 349. Turku: Turun yliopisto. expressing negative phases in proverbs Järvinen, Irma-Riitta. 2010. “Herkällä korvalla Aino- (kieltosutkaus), see also Knuuttila 2013: 21; on runoista”. Pirta 4: 10−12. lyric songs and utopic negative expressions, see Karjalan kielen sanakirja. Kotimaisten kielten Timonen 2004. tutkimuskeskus verkkojulkaisut. Available at: http://kaino.kotus.fi/cgi-bin/kks/karjala.cgi. Abbreviations Karkama, Pertti. 2001. Kansakunnan asialla: Elias KKSK = Karjalan kielen sanakirja. Lönnrot ja ajan aatteet. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Lna = Lönnrotiana Seuran Toimituksia 843. Helsinki: Suomalaisen SKVR = Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot Kirjallisuuden Seura. VT 2 = Lönnrot 1990 (Valitut teokset II) Katajamäki, Sakari. 2000. “Runouden kieltoilmaukset VT 4 = Lönnrot 1992 (Valitut teokset IV) ja kuvallisuuden paradoksi”. In Kirjallisuus, kieli, VT 5 = Lönnrot 1993 (Valitut teokset V) kognitio. Kognitiivisesta kirjallisuuden ja kielentutkimuksesta. Ed. Katriina Kajannes and Archival Sources Leena Kristinä. Helsinki: Helsinki University Press. Lönnrotiana. Literature Archives of the Finnish Pp. 133−158. Literature Society (SKS). Katajamäki, Sakari. 2002. “‘Puuttuu metsä, puuttuu pelto...’: Kieltoilmausten epämääräisyydestä, Works Cited monitulkintaisuudesta ja epäsuoruudesta”. In Kielen Anttonen, Pertti. 2004. “Kalevala etnopoeettisesta ja kirjallisuuden hämärä. Ed. Päivi Mehtonen. näkökulmasta”. In Kalevala ja laulettu runo. Ed. Tampere: Tampereen Yliopistopaino Oy. Pp. Anna-Leena Siikala, Lauri Harvilahti & Senni 244−266. Timonen. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Kaukonen, Väinö. 1956. Elias Lönnrotin Kalevalan Toimituksia 958. Helsinki: Suomalaisen toinen painos. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 375−394. Toimituksia 247. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Anttonen, Pertti. 2012. “Oral Traditions and Making of Kirjallisuuden Seura. the Finnish Nation”. In Folklore and Nationalism in Knuuttila, Seppo. 2013. “Älähän hättäile: Kiire vanhan Europe during the Long Nineteenth Century. Ed. kansan käsityksissä”. In Viisas matkassa, vara Timothy Baycroft & David Hopkin. Leiden / laukussa: Näkökulmia kansanperinteen Boston: Brill. Pp. 325−350. tutkimukseen. Ed. Tuomas Hovi et al. Bauman, Richard & Charles L. Briggs. 2003. Voices of Folkloristiikan julkaisuja 3. Turku: Turun yliopisto. Modernity: Language Ideologies and the Politics of Pp. 19−32. Inequality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Kupiainen, Tarja. 2004. Kertovan kansanrunouden Press. nuori nainen ja nuori mies. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 996. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.

Kuusi, Matti. 1963. “Sydänkalevalainen epiikka ja Relander, O. 1894. Kuvakielestä vanhemmassa lyriikka: Keskiajan kalevalainen runous”. In suomalaisessa lyyrillisessä kansanrunoudessa. Suomen kirjallisuus I: Kirjoittamaton kirjallisuus. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Ed. Matti Kuusi. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Stark, Eija. 2011. Köyhyyden perintö: Tutkimus Kirjallisuuden Seura & Otava. kulttuurisen tiedon sisällöistä ja jatkuvuuksista Lönnrot, Elias. 1829−1831. Kantele taikka Suomen suomalaisissa elämäkerta- ja sananlasku- kansan sekä vanhoja että nykysempiä runoja ja aineistoissa. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran lauluja. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Toimituksia 1320. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Seura. Kirjallisuuden Seura. Lönnrot, Elias. 1835. Kalevala, taikka vanhoja Suomen Kansan Vanhat Runot I–XV. 1908−1997. Karjalan runoja Suomen kansan muinosista ajoista. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Tarkka, Lotte. 2013. “Sanan polvia. Lainaamisen Lönnrot, Elias. 1840. Kanteletar. Helsinki: poetiikka kalevalamittaisessa runossa”. In Viisas Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. matkassa, vara laukussa: Näkökulmia Lönnrot, Elias. [1849] 1985. Kalevala. 27th edn. kansanperinteen tutkimukseen. Ed. Tuomas Hovi et Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. al. Folkloristiikan julkaisuja 3. Turku: Turun Lönnrot, Elias. 1862. Kalevala: Lyhennetty laitos. yliopisto. Pp. 97−129. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Timonen, Senni. 2002. “Lemminkäinen’s Mother: Lönnrot, Elias. 1990. Valitut teokset II: Mehiläinen. Some Aspects of Lönnrot’s Interpretation”. In The Ed. Raija Majamaa. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Kalevala and the World’s Traditional Epics. Ed. Seuran Toimituksia 531. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Lauri Honko. Studia Fennica Folkloristica 12. Kirjallisuuden Seura. Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society. Pp. 342−363. Lönnrot, Elias. 1992. Valitut teokset IV: Ohjeita ja Timonen, Senni. 2004. Minä, tila, tunne: Näkökulmia runoelmia. Ed. Raija Majamaa. Suomalaisen kalevalamittaiseen kansanlyriikkaan. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 566. Helsinki: Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 963. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Lönnrot, Elias. 1993. Valitut teokset V: Timonen, Senni. (Forthcoming). “Elias Lönnrot ja Muinaisrunoutta. Ed. Raija Majamaa. Suomalaisen kehtolaulut”. Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 580. Helsinki: Virtanen, Leea. 1985. “Naiset kalevalaisen lyriikan Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. esittäjinä”. Kotiseutu 3: 124−130. Lönnrot, Elias. 1999. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem after Oral Tradition by Elias Lönnrot. Trans. Keith Bosley. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Behind the Texts and Notes and the Edition: M.A. Castrén’s Lectures on Mythology Karina Lukin, University of Helsinki

The Finnish linguist and mythologist Matthias nor is about making hasty or intuitive Alexander Castrén (1813–1852) concludes his interpretations, but has from the beginning posthumously published lectures by been based on growing methodological reminding his audience of the limitations that understandings of the history, culture and historical and comparative studies on psychology of mankind. mythology had in his time, the first half of the The two central keywords in these 19th century. According to Castrén, Old Norse discussions, ‘historical’ and ‘comparative’, mythology was still too little studied, whereas point to diachronic and synchronic levels and the materials for Finnish mythology were not create the fundamental tensions of the studies even sufficiently collected, which together on mythology. The idea of history as readable would make comparisons between Finnish in monuments both material and immaterial – and Old Norse mythology “a slippery road monuments that should be collected, leading too easily to delusions.” (Castrén preserved, studied and represented – was 1853a: 324.) The limited materials and the advanced in early 19th century Europe, ambiguities opening them to interpretations especially in Germany. This idea was closely have provided rudimentary starting points, coupled with the idea of individual cultures or problems, but also a mine of inspiration for languages that should be studied mythologists. Yet, the historical and synchronically. (Bunzl 1996; Crane 2000.) comparative study of mythology has not been Most scholars emphasize either the diachronic 56 or synchronic levels in their studies. Castrén exactly he collected it. Nevertheless, the represents an exception in this respect. His present article sets out to critically assess the lectures include both historical interpretations nature of the Tundra Nenets materials that he of the mythologies of peoples speaking used in his lectures. Uralic, Altaic and Paleo-Asiatic languages, and comparative observations about their The Relationship of Texts religion both in the past but also in Castrén’s Castrén’s texts and manuscripts have been own time. published posthumously in multiple forms Castrén’s mythological lectures should be and multiple languages. The Swedish and read alongside Lönnrot’s Kalevala. Lönnrot’s German editions will only briefly be touched epic was both the ideational and scholarly on here, and focus will be on the Tundra point of departure for Castrén’s career. In the Nenets folklore and ethnographic materials. lectures, Castrén makes both interpretations The six Swedish (Nordiska resor och about the Kalevala as a mythology and builds forskningar) and twelve German (Nordische a new, wider mythology alongside the Finnish Reisen und Forschungen) editions of one. This could not have been done before, as Castrén’s works were published quite soon there were not enough materials and the after his death. Five volumes of the German methodologies were not sufficiently edition are based on the Swedish volumes. developed. Notably, much of the later These consist of travelogues, letters and fieldwork and scholarly work, especially Castrén’s texts that had already been within folklore and religious studies in published in various Finnish or Russian Finland, has been based on Castrén’s lectures papers and journals, and also include the about mythology. lectures on Finnish mythology and on the Castrén’s work has been evaluated both ethnology of the Altaic peoples. In addition to from linguistic and folkloristic perspectives these, Anton Schiefner edited and translated (e.g. Korhonen 1986; Hautala 1954). into German the linguistic materials of However, textual studies of Castrén’s work Khanty (Ostiak) (Castrén 1858a), Tundra have not been made. This article will Nenets (Samoyed) (1854; 1855b), Evenk investigate how Castrén himself created his (Tungus) (1856), Buryat (1857b), Kamas and lectures on mythology. The investigation Mator (Koibal and Karagas) (1857c), Kot and inevitably leads to Castrén’s fieldwork in Ket (1858b). Later, Toivo Lehtisalo edited Siberia and its background because Finnish and published Castrén’s notes on Tundra mythology was one of the inspirations for Nenets and Selkup folklore (Castrén 1940). Castrén to do fieldwork in the first place. It Many of Castrén’s manuscripts, covering will look at Castrén’s lectures on Finnish folklore, archeological data and grammars in mythology and consider the international and their initial state, still remain unpublished, but domestic (Finnish and Russian) models and they are available in the Finnish National scholarly discussions that may have guided Library. Moreover, while some of Castrén’s Castrén and also those that he developed field diaries and notes remain in the National within his own studies. Castrén’s work is Library, the fate of some of them is uncertain: endlessly permeated by notions of limited according to Timo Salminen, the sources, fading or changing traditions and the historiographer of the Finno-Ugric Society, compulsion to collect more in order to break some unpublished field diaries were found in down the boundaries of the fragmentary and the 1951, but Gunnar Castrén, a professor of degenerated nature of his materials. Because literature and M. A. Castrén’s grandson, did of his premature death in 1852, most of his not consider them worth publishing at the extensive projects, especially within time (Salminen 2008: 159). The story does ethnographic fields, remained unfinished. As not tell where the diaries were archived. Some his original field notes or diaries are not documents in the National Library collection, available to later generations (on which, see (i.e. a calendar with interleaves and field below), it is impossible to estimate precisely notes from 1846) suggest that there might be what kinds of data he collected and where more of these notes that would shed more

light onto the working methods and places compiled the second volume of the Swedish where the linguistic and ethnographic edition, Nordsika resor och forskningar: materials were collected (MAC XXVI: varia Reseberättelser och bref åren 1845–1849 I; varia V: varia VI).1 (1855a). This volume is also based on the The relationship between Castrén’s travelogues and letters Castrén sent during his manuscripts, published texts and later editions second Siberian expedition. The travelogues is generally clear, but there is still much work and also some letters were published in to be done on them. The manuscript materials Bulletin de la classe historico-philologique de consists of 34 volumes, of which two l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.- volumes, comprising materials for Tungus Petersbourg in German, and in Swedish (Evenk) and Buryat, were left in St. mainly in the paper Morgonbladet and the Petersburg in the late 19th century and are journal Suomi.2 In the editions, the now missing. The 32 remaining volumes travelogues and letters are only lightly edited: comprise of 16,282 manuscript pages. (For only clear misspellings have been corrected. details, see Mäkelä-Henriksson 1964.) Of the What is significant is that much of the posthumously published materials, only one, correspondence is not published at all, the travelogue of 1838–1844 (Reseminnen) although it will now be published within the was written by Castrén and it is based both on Manuscripta Castreniana project.1 Moreover, his published travelogues in Finnish papers the editions omit the numerous asides and and on the correspondence between Castrén notations made by Castrén. Thus it is safe to and his colleagues. The Swedish Reseminnen say that quite a range of material remains was edited by B.O. Schaumann, who also outside of these editions.

The mythological lectures, which are a shamanism. It also comes forward in the central concern of the present article, were chapters “Jumala” and “Ukko”, where many compiled by Carl Gustav Borg. Borg used of the clarifications and additions made by Castrén’s thorough notes as a structural Castrén were not added by Borg, who instead starting point and wrote in the preface of the followed the published form of the article as it edition that only light emendations were appeared in Suomi. made. The chapters “Jumala” [Fi. ‘God’] and The Tundra Nenets folklore notes, “Ukko” [Fi. ‘Old man’] are an exact copy of consisting of 19 texts, were published in their the article “Hvad beteckna i den Finska entirety by Toivo Lehtisalo (Castrén 1940). mythologien orden jumala och ukko?” [‘What Before that, Schiefner had published two of Do the Words jumala and ukko Mean in the Nenets epic syudbabts texts in the eighth Finnish Mythology’], published in journal volume of Nordische Reisen (Castrén 1855b: Suomi (1/1851) and later in Melanges Russes 311–338). Whereas Schiefner has been tires du Bulletin Historico-Philologique generally criticized for making too many (1855c). The last chapter of the lectures, emendations, eradicating Castrén’s system of “Heroer” [‘Heroes’], was written by Castrén marking phonetics and simplifying it (e.g. last, at the time when he was already so weak Aalto 1971: 86), Lehtisalo has been quite that he was not able to write with ink, but faithful to Castrén’s system. Nevertheless, he instead used a pencil. The rest of the chapters has also systematically replaced some signs in the lectures are edited from Castrén’s with others. What all editions of Castrén’s notes. As Borg tells us, Castrén read his folklore notes omit are the translations – lectures straight from the notes and the notes either in Russian or Swedish – and the fairly seem to be written for publication. Castrén large number of clarifications and comments himself states: Castrén had provided in his manuscript. It is Jag läser neml. en timme i veckan reasonable to assume that the folklore notes mythologie, och anställer dervid jemförande are direct field notes: they are full of betraktelser både öfver Finnarnes och andra corrections and explanations and translations beslägtade folkslags religiösa forestall- into Russian and sometimes into Swedish (see ningar. Hvad jad hittils nedskrifvit, är i det Katajamäki & Lukin, this volume: p. 13, närmaste tryckfärdigt, och jag har ärnat låta Figure 1). Moreover, the dialect variants are öfversätta deraf ett och annat för bulletinen. written one above the other so that Under loppet af denna termin ärnar jag hinna substitutive sign(s) are written above the gudaläran till ända och i nästa vår vore sign(s) that have been crossed out. There are meningen att få hela mythologien ur also clear mistakes in the first folklore texts, händerna. (Sjögren 1854: 277.) due to Castrén’s lack of knowledge of Tundra I am lecturing on mythology an hour a week Nenets at the beginning of his expedition. If and giving comparative considerations about the notes had been made for publication, he the religious ideas of both Finnish and other probably would have corrected these kindred peoples. What I have written so far mistakes. is almost ready for publication, and I intend a thing or two to be translated for the Devotion to Studying Finns and Their bulletin. I am going to complete the Relatives in Russia mythology (gudalärä) this season, and my intention is to get the whole mythology out Castrén’s work has been both glorified within of my hands next spring. strong romantic rhetoric (e.g. Sihvo 2003: 103–106; Topelius in Sihvo 2003: 106–110) Borg has been very faithful to Castrén’s and also interpreted in romantic and intentions: he has left out all the points that nationalistic frameworks (e.g. Korhonen Castrén has crossed out. On the other hand, he 1986: 50; Aalto 1971: 88). As Pertti Karkama omitted the small additions which Castrén had (2001: 20–21), who argues for neohumanistic carefully written in the margins. This is well interpretations of Elias Lönnrot’s work, has illustrated by the foreword, from which Borg observed, we should not dispel the romantic has omitted a passage that was four pages streams of the early 19th century Finnish long, in which Castrén ponders the nature of

59 thinking too much. The present article will interest was both in the antiquarian search for emphasize and focus on the neohumanistic the history of the Swedish empire (that was tones that run through Castrén’s scholarly thought to be found through Finnish) and in activities and that are also clearly readable in the rational interest of developing the country his lectures on Finnish mythology, although economically. Castrén’s fieldwork was a type these lectures in particular have been of continuation of the systematic and holistic evaluated as romantic (Haavio 1952; Stipa frame of these Swedish programmes, that had 1990: 311). been partly applied to the conditions of Neohumanism refers to a cultural Finland and eventually to Russia. (Sarajas movement that was born in the late 18th 1956; Adolfsson 2000; Legnér 2004.) century to oppose the extreme rationalism and Porthan’s vision of a series of Finnish utilitarism of the Enlightenment. Opposed to expeditions was finally started by Anders Romantic thinkers, the neohumanists did not Johan Sjögren in the early 1800s (Branch emphasize the meaning of emotions or oppose 1973). At the same time, expeditions were rationality. Language was conceived as a made in Finland and Russian Karelia, mainly natural ability through which human beings by Elias Lönnrot, in order to collect and later realize themselves as both individuals and to publish the scattered items of Finnish collective beings. Folklore was seen to reflect folklore and mythology in the national epic of how a nation or an ethnic group had engaged Finland, the Kalevala, and other works. All in the development of humanity and each these were inspiring to Castrén, who made his nation had its own, as such, valuable place in first field expeditions in Finnish Lapland in this development. The older and more original 1838 and in the Finnish Savo region and the language or folklore is, the more it was Russian Karelia in 1839. Whereas in Lapland, thought to express the innate unity of the Castrén was able to collect material on Sámi senses. (Karkama 2001: 15–17, 152–159.) languages and mythology, in Karelia, he These thoughts found an appreciative concentrated mainly on collecting folklore. audience in Finland at the turn of the 18th and Collecting the Karelian epic tradition ensured 19th centuries, as the emphasis of linguists and Castrén’s abilities to translate the Kalevala historians turned from the imaginary theories into Swedish (Lönnrot 1841), a work that of the history of Finns towards the theories made him one of the early experts in the based on Finno-Ugric affinity (Häkkinen Kalevala and Finno-Karelian mythology. 2006: 293–296). However, the new theories Castrén undertook his main fieldwork in also required new materials that would reveal Northern Russia and Siberia during two wide the histories of the Finno-Ugrians scattered ranging expeditions. The first (1841–1844) around the Russian empire. covered Eastern Sámi areas with Lönnrot, and The Finnish audience was not thankful Nenets tundra and Western Siberia taiga areas only because of the needs of a young in the European and Asian parts of Russia autonomous nation and an evolving sense of alone. The second expedition (1845–1849), nationalism. Herderian thoughts and the strict mostly with the assistant Johan Reinhold methodological requirements set by many 19th Bergstadi (1820–1850), extended to the century European scientists also fit quite Western Siberian taiga and tundra and also to nicely into Finnish academic traditions. wide areas east of the River Yenisei and Lake Professor and historian Henrik Gabriel Baikal. Porthan (1739–1804), who pioneered many All of these journeys aimed at collecting fields in the humanities in Finland, proposed material about: that extensive fieldwork should be done in den Finska och andra dermed beslägtade Russia in order to map out the Finno-Ugric folkstammars språk, religion, seder, languages, their speakers and traditions. lefnadssätt och öfriga ethno-graphiska (Sarajas 1956: 268–273.) In Porthan’s time, förhållanden. (Castrén1852: 3.) some expeditions were made in Finland, but the languages, religion, manners and other none in Russia. Expeditions were made in ethnographic matters of the Finnish tribe and part by Swedish administrators and their tribes related to it.

In addition to this personal devotion The early 18th century Russian resembling Porthan’s research call (Porthan ethnographic expeditions were based on the 1782, in Legnér 2004), Castrén’s Russian ideas of the Enlightenment and the need to fieldwork had its background especially in the “know every edge of the fatherland” in order need of the Russian Empire to know more to gain economic profit and to govern about the land and its inhabitants. The trips efficiently. Still, most of the scholars were were organized and orchestrated from St. devoted scientists, cleverly combining the Petersburg within the Russian Academy of practical and scholarly purposes of their trips. Sciences, which at the time had, in addition to Messerschmidt was followed by several Russian scholars, several German intellectuals Siberian expeditions, led for example by Peter working with geographic and ethnographic Simon Pallas, Vasilij Fedorovich Zuyev and matters (Tokarev 1966: 220–221; Branch Ivan Ivanovich Lepehin, who all were travelling 1999). Moreover, it was the Finnish linguist partly in the same regions with Castrén. Apart and later academic Anders Johan Sjögren from the works published on these expeditions, whose persistence in the matter enabled both the four volume work of Johann Gottlieb the financial and scholarly support for the Georgi (1776–1780) came to be read and undertaking. Altogether, Castrén’s fieldwork appreciated widely both in Russia and Central was planned, organized and realized within Europe. The purpose of Georgi was to collect what was, at the time, a modern, international in one work all the results of the expeditions intellectual atmosphere that formed the basis of the early 18th century and present them for the emergence of several new disciplines. systematically and in a uniform manner (Sjögren 1955; Stipa 1990: 299–311.) according to, for example, the name of the Sjögren wrote the instructions for group, its areas of residence, language, laws, Castrén’s second wide expedition. Sjögren way of life, housing, clothing, food, customs, had himself already made extensive field trips beliefs, and so forth. (Tokarev 1966: 78–109.) amongst the speakers of Finno-Ugric languages in European Russia. (Branch 1973: Collecting Data 256–257.) Sjögren’s instructions comprise a Reading Castrén, one can sense this linguistic-ethnographic programme and a systematic ethos that has been interpreted as a guide for holistic fieldwork that was clearly continuation of Porthan’s thinking in Finland. influenced by Franz Bopp and Rasmus Rask’s This will not be argued against here, but it is ideas on historical and comparative nevertheless worth drawing attention to the linguistics, further developed by Sjögren Russian ethnographic sources that both himself (Sjögren 1844). As Günter Johannes Sjögren and Castrén knew quite well as a Stipa (1990: 310) notes, Sjögren’s reasonably possible model for Castrén’s instructions are also clearly following the work. All in all, one can also read other routes (1720–1728) taken by Daniel Gottlieb international influences in Castrén’s texts, Messerschmidt, a German geographer who such as from the Brothers Grimm and the worked for Peter the Great and ‘opened’ Humboldt brothers, all of which have their Siberia for travellers. This hints at the long- basis in the Herderian way of thinking lasting Russian ethnographic traditions that (Kamenetsky 1992: 58–76, 99–110; Bunzl framed both Sjögren’s and Castrén’s 1996). These ideas put novel emphasis on fieldwork and scholarly activities. It is fieldwork methods and requirements for the important to notice that, whereas in other data that should be collected. In his countries in Europe, ethnography and instructions, Sjögren emphasized the fieldwork methodology began to develop in importance of collecting vernacular, spoken the 1800s and mostly within colonialism, the language, not scattered lists of words, and need for gathering knowledge about manifold taking these from as many individuals as ethnic groups was born in the beginning of possible in the areas where they lived. The the 18th century in the Russian Empire. fieldworker could not content himself with (Stocking 1992: 19–32; Hymes 1983: 29–30; only one language or dialect, but he should Knight 2000.) collect material on a language and also its

61 neighboring languages. Thus, the fieldwork languages were related, and was after more should cover wide areas: Castrén was sent to extensive linguistic affinities extending into study Western and Northwestern Siberia, to Indo-European languages (Korhonen 1986: “open the Samoyedic world” (Vasilyev 1982). 54–61). In his influential article “Hvar låg det In addition to the spoken language, the Finska folkets vagga?” [‘Where Was the materials should be made up of folk songs, Cradle of the Finnish People?’] (1849a), proverbs, historical traditions, archaeological Castrén situated the roots of the speakers of sites and ethnographic data (e.g. the way of Finno-Ugric, Samoyed and Altaic speaking life, clothing, religious concepts, shamanism, peoples around the Altai and Sayan Christianity, mythology). (Sjögren 1844.) Mountains – a theory that not only garnered Many of the wordings in Sjögren’s wide international attention, but was later instructions come directly from the Central passed on in nationalistic and religious styles European discussions about fieldwork, such in 19th and early 20th century Finland (Sihvo as the phrase an Ort und Stelle [‘in situ’; lit. 2003: 109). These theories were based on ‘in place and location’]: Bopp’s, Rask’s and Sjögren’s theories and Deshalb müssen denn auch die Angaben und methods of historical and comparative Nachrichten, welche Herr Castrén an Ort linguistics. Most of Castrén’s work can be und Stell durch Kundige Personen und situated within this field of linguistics. vorzüglich durch Individuen aus jenen (Korhonen 1986: 59–61; Stipa 1990: 311.) Völkerschaften selbst über bedeutende As mentioned by Michael Branch (1973: Dialekt-Verschiedenheiten bei den benach- 16), at the time of Castrén’s expeditions and barten Stämmen erhält, in Vereinigung mit scientific work, linguistics, ethnography and anderen Lokal- und Zeitumständen, vor historiography or geography were about to Allem dazu dienen seine Reisetouren zu develop into separate disciplines. The bestimme, und die Wahl seiner Haupt- interests in historical detail served the will to stationen zu leiten.(Sjögren 1844: 326.) understand the history of humankind or Since Mister Castrén should collect the nations and ethnic groups, whereas the more information and data on significant contemporary details were studied and differences in dialect within the neigh- collected under geography. Both directions boring tribes and in association with other had their political implications as well. At the local and temporal contexts on-site and from beginning of the 19th century there was capable persons, and especially from individuals from the nations themselves, he especially an urge to get new materials both should decide and determine his route and for the Russian empire and the developing its main stations himself. historical and comparative methods that guided Castrén to carry on fieldwork amongst What makes Sjögren’s programme different th the non-Russian natives of the Russian North from the 18 century collections is the and Siberia. linguistic interest, but also the comparative concerns. The fieldwork was not done to Sources of Nenets Mythology build a Russian history or to enhance the Tundra Nenets is a Uralic language spoken on Russian economy, but to construct a history both sides of the Urals by the Nenets who, at of mankind through meaningful and justified the time of Castén’s expeditions, were mainly comparisons between peoples, their nomadic reindeer herders, hunters and languages, modes of expressions and material fishermen. They represent the largest group of cultures. One can still observe that the speakers of the so-called Samoyedic interests of the Russian Empire are brought languages that were one of the central out in Sjögren’s instructions, but the emphasis research subjects of Castrén’s expeditions. is on the new methodological concerns of While he collected material among all the historical and comparative linguistics. Samoyedic groups in Western Siberia, most During the Russian and Siberian field of the Samoyedic materials are comprised of a expeditions, Castrén collected valuable and Tundra Nenets lexicon, grammar and folklore. exact materials on Northern languages. He The evidence of Nenets folklore in Castrén’s also proved that Finno-Ugric and Samoyed 62 notes is interesting, because the folklore notes händerna” [Castrén 1855a: 66]). It is also very seem to contain hardly any of the elements clear that throughout his journeys among the mentioned in the mythological lectures that peoples of the Russian and Siberian North, he Castrén held at the university. The initial was very keen on meeting shamans and interpretations that Castrén made concerning attended shamanistic séances when possible. the Nenets epic texts were historical in the (E.g. Castrén 1855a: 66; 150; 162–167; cf. same manner as his historical interpretations Castrén 1852: 89–90.) It is, however, very of the Kalevala. Moreover, he thought that the probable that Castrén did not note down the heroic cycles of the Kalevala and Nenets epic prose narratives about the spirits word for singing both “ursprungligen härflutit ur word and that the data that he did put down is samma grumliga källa” [‘have origins in the not available to us. same murky spring’]. (Castrén 1855a: 168). Herder and his influential ideas placed When looking at the comparisons that emphasis on epic singing and poetry, and on Castrén made in his lectures addressing so-called heroic songs. It may therefore be Tundra Nenets mythology or shamanism, it revealing that the only original Nenets cannot be said for certain exactly what kind of materials in the archives seem to consist of material stands behind it. It is only very rarely notes on Nenets epic songs.3 The Brothers that he refers directly to his fieldwork Grimm were the first to comprehend the value material as such. For example, when of prose texts and Castrén also held fairy-tales discussing the spirits known among to be a possible supplement for Finnish Samoyedic speaking peoples, Castrén names mythology (Castrén 1904: 3–4). Still, he did tadebtsjo (a shaman’s spirit helpers), loh (a not consider it worthwhile to write down prose guardian spirit), los (a guardian spirit), koika texts when among the Nenets and concentrated (a shaman’s spirit helper), itarma (spirits that on poetry. The prose offered possible contents are the souls of dead shamans) and Siirtje for the mythology, but was not structurally or (spirits living underground) (Castrén 1853a: poetically important when creating sources 191–192). Referring to the last of these, for comparative mythology or linguistics. Castrén notes: The most plausible reason for this might be Hos Jurak-Samojederna har jag hört talrika limited time, but the reasons for the choices traditioner om ett i jordens sköte lefvande can also be traced back to the currents of slägte, som benämnes Siirtje. (Castrén thought presented above and to the tensions 1853a: 192.) between diachronic and synchronic perspectives. The epic texts were thought to Among the Jurak-Samoyeds [the speakers of Tundra Nenets] I have heard numerous represent older and more original expressions traditions about a tribe living underground, of human kinship and thus were to be called Siirtje. collected word by word, as exactly as possible. The ideas connected to the deities None of the notes on these traditions are, for and spirits were certainly representative of the example, available to us today in Castrén’s same kind of original thinking of the Nenets materials. In other words, Castrén has not or human kin, but their form of presentation used his preserved notes on Nenets folklore as did not conform to the idea of poetry. Thus, it comparative material in his mythological was enough to put down the idea of these lectures. The comparative material is based on beliefs that represented more or less the life of his fieldwork observations and other materials the mythology at a contemporary level. that are not documented in the archived materials of Castrén. This is not to deny the Historical and Comparative Interpretations legitimacy of Castrén’s interpretations or his of Mythology fieldwork. One can read from his official Castrén’s ideas concerning the history and travelogues and published letters that, on his comparison of mythology are observable in expeditions, he sought the common people three patterns of interpretation apparent in his and took a lot of pleasure in ‘getting his hands lectures. In the autumn term of 1851, as on one of them’ (cf. “Då en lycklig newly appointed professor of Finnish, Castrén tillfällighet nu fört mig en Samojed i 63 began to give lectures on Finnish mythology [..] my plan [for the fieldwork in Russian (Föreläsningar i Finsk Mytologi).4 The three Karelia] had been primarily to collect patterns can be characterized as: supplements to Finnish mythology. I thought that Doctor Lönnrot had already collected 1. The historical-comparative interpretations almost all of the mythic story materials that of the names and different details related to had been preserved in the memory of the gods and other spirits among the so-called folk with the help of song. But it was Altaic peoples. probable that within oral narratives still 2. Ethnographic information and comparisons more mythic stories had been preserved. between idols, their names and characters among the Altaic peoples. During this expedition, Castrén (1904: 11) 3. The historical-comparative interpretations concluded that, with the exception of of the Kalevala. incantations, Lönnrot had inclusively These patterns are overlapping and relate both collected the mythic materials still surviving. to the materials Castrén uses and to the Later, he proposed that the actual data behind methods he applies and develops. The lectures the Kalevala should be published by the on Finnish mythology are based firstly on Finnish Literature Society, which clearly Elias Lönnrot’s Kalevala and secondly on the indicates that he understood the difference extensive materials related to the so-called between actual texts collected and the Altaic peoples. In addition to the Kalevala, compilation created by Lönnrot. Nonetheless, Castrén uses the earlier works on mythologies Castrén treats the Kalevala as a representation of the Finns, written by Kristian Erik of Finnish mythology, and treats his fieldwork Lencqvist (1782) and Christfried Ganander materials and ethnographic texts as (1984 [1789]) as source material. Lencqvist’s supplements to the Kalevala. work is a dissertation about the superstitions The historical-comparative interpretations of ancient Finns and Ganander’s mythology is (pattern 1) are mostly represented in the first a supplement to his Finnish dictionary and chapter of the lectures, titled “Gudar” thus was presented in an encyclopaedic form. [‘Gods’]. Contrary to Ganander’s Consequently, the earlier mythologies are not encyclopaedic form, Castrén presents the presented in an epic form and contain less spirits thematically, beginning with the spirits information about the actual form and of weather and the sky to spirits of water and wording of the mythology. The Kalevala, on earth, and finishing with the underground the other hand, was compiled by Lönnrot, spirits and finally also offering notes about who made several editorial changes and “Särskilda slag af Andeväsenden” [‘Different emendations to the texts that he collected (see Kinds of Spirits’]. The points of comparison e.g. Hämäläinen and also Saarinen, this are found among the speakers of Altaic volume). We do not know why Castrén used languages, but when appropriate, Castrén also makes comparisons to Scandinavian the Kalevala as his starting point, although he understood that it did not consist of exact mythology, mainly through Jacob Grimm’s pieces of texts written down by Lönnrot – a Deutsche Mythologie [‘Teutonic Mythology’] fact bemoaned by many later scholars (Siikala (1835). His Altaic comparisons are based both 2012: 43; Hautala 1954: 152–156; Haavio on his own fieldwork materials but also 1952). In 1839, Castrén had written for his especially on J.G. Georgi’s and other Russian report for the Finnish Literature Society: ethnographic works. The model and methods for the [...] suunnitelmaani kuului etupäässä lisien comparative mythology have clearly come kokoominen Suomalaista Mytologiaa varten. from historical and comparative studies of T:ri Lönnrotin runonkeräysten kautta luulin Indo-European mythology. This is not only kaikki ne jumalaistarulliset ainekset, jotka observable in the comparisons between Altaic laulun avulla ovat kansan muistossa säily- neet, melkein kokonaan talteen korjatuksi. and Germanic mythologies. It is also readable Mutta oli luultavaa, että suusanallisen kerto- in the overall framework and starting point of muksen kautta vielä moni jumalaistaru oli the analysis. Castrén is not after a history of säilynyt jälkimaailmalle. (Castrén 1904: 3.) Finnish mythology in any narrow sense, for example being nationalistic or patriotic; he is 64 more concerned about a common history of mythology is built both on historical- poetry and thinking identifiable with earlier comparative and realistic-ethnographic times (forntid), Old Finns (Fornfinnar), the perspectives (Siikala 2012: 43). ‘man of nature’ (naturmenniska), and the Castrén’s contemporary ethnographic childhood of the nation (folkslag i sin comparisons (pattern 2) are based on his barndom) that are represented in folk poetry. knowledge of the ethnographic literature of For example, when shifting to the chapter the 18th and early 19th century, but once again “Jordens Gudomligheter” [‘The Deities of the also on his own fieldwork. Also, these Earth’], Castrén explains: analyses cover the wide field of Altaic ethnic Ganska många folkslag hafva i sin barndom groups and go beyond them to the plägat betrakta jorden såsom ett gudomligt Scandinavian sources. The results of the väsen och dyrkat den under bilden af en analysis constantly tend to point out the huldrik moder, som förlänar föda och näring differences and variations between regions både åt menniskor och djur. Det är and ethnic groups. The differences become tvifvelsutan just för denna sin närande, manifest in the long passages that deal only uppehållande, eller så till sägandes with images of one linguistic group – e.g. the moderliga egenskap, som jorden äfven hos Sámi (Castrén 1853a: 207–215) or the Khanty flera bland våra stamförvandter, såsom (Castrén 1853a: 221–228). In these analyses, Tunguser, Mongoler, Turkar o.s.v. åtnjutit Castrén describes the sacred places and, to a en gudomlig kult. (Castrén 1853a: 87.) lesser extent, also rituals held in them. Quite many nations have, in their childhood, Although indicating a connection between thought of the earth as a godlike being and myth and ritual, Castrén does not discuss it worshipped it through the image of a explicitly in his lectures. Writing about his fairylike mother that gives food and own times in chapters II and III, Castrén often sustenance for both human beings and returns to changes caused by Christianity. animals. The nourishing and maintaining features are beyond doubt the reasons for the Here, the Kalevala is no longer the starting fact that there is also a cult of the earth point, although Castrén mentions it here and among many of our kinsmen, e.g. the there, for example when discussing the Tungus, Mongols and the Turks. godlike pictures attached to animals (Castrén 1853a: 205–206.). In the extract above, we can read how the Although Castrén’s framework in chapter Herderian ideas of Naturpoesie as a strong II on “Gudabilder” [‘Images of Gods’] is not and dynamic reflection of the purity and explicitly historical, it is still built on the naiveté of a nation – and basically of the understanding firstly of the environment’s whole of humankind – had an influence on impact on mythology and religion, and Castrén through the Finnish intellectual secondly on the stratification of the images of climate, through Sjögren’s programs and the gods over time. Thus, he begins the discussions of the Russian Academy of chapter by explaining: Sciences, and naturally also through the Central European studies that Castrén knew Hos de altaiska folken ega gudabilderna ej well. (Karkama 2007: 417–483; Branch 1999: denna formela betydelse, utan de flesta bland 130–134.) dem föreställa sig, att gudomen är i bilden In the chapters I–III of his lectures, inneboende eller så till sägandes inkarnerad. Gudabilderna äro således enligt deras åsigt although based on the Kalevala, Castrén is verkliga gudar, och man hyser om dem fullt not simply presenting historical interpret- och fast den öfvertygelse, att de äro i stånd ations of the epics. Here, he is giving a att förläna menniskan helsa, välstånd och historical and comparative study of the andra lifvets förmåner. (Castrén 1853a: 197.) mythology of not only the Finns, but also of The images of gods do not have this formal the speakers of Finno-Ugric and Altaic meaning [that ‘we’ share] among the Altaic languages, as well as making comparisons to peoples, but most of them think that the god Germanic mythology. In addition, chapters II lives in the image or is, so to say, incarnated. and III are primarily concerned with a The images of the gods are thus from their contemporary plane. Hence, the picture of the perspective real gods and one houses them 65

and holds the conviction that they give men own day. The materials from his fieldwork health, well-being and other benefits in life. enabled both levels of analysis. In the lectures, the explicit interpretations of the Kalevala only (pattern 3) are presented in Satisfying the Appetite The enthusiastic spirit in the humanities of the the fourth chapter entitled ‘Heroes’. This th chapter, written on his deathbed, consists of early 19 century surrounded Castrén both in interpretations that have been categorized as the Grand Duchy of Finland and at the historical (as opposed to mythological ones), Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. They and he is indeed analyzing more or less both acquired their central ideas of Central Lönnrot’s ideas, not Finnish mythology (e.g. European Herderian-based neohumanistic Siikala 2012: 43; Hautala 1954: 152–156; tones that emphasized the importance of Haavio 1952). It still has to be noted that he collecting exact linguistic materials among does not completely oppose symbolic- the speakers of the languages. Moreover, the mythological interpretations either (e.g. systematic nature of collection and the value of oral poetry were constantly repeated in the Castrén 1852: 271–277; 295). th All in all, in the mythological lectures, the methodological writings of early 19 century different kinds of interpretive models are scholars. The tension between diachronic and constantly overlapping and interacting with synchronic perspectives lay in the fast-paced the volumes of sources that Castrén is development of the methodology. The new working with. In the first chapter, Castrén kind of gaze on the past required more gives historical depth to the images of gods systematic new materials in the present. Field and spirits in the Kalevala, and at the same expeditions naturally pointed toward the need time develops a perspective and to concentrate more thoroughly on separate methodologies for historical and comparative languages and cultures. These tensions found mythology from the points of departure of their place in Castrén’s lectures, which historical and comparative linguistics. In the connect both perspectives, creating a both chapters dealing with ‘Different Kinds of historical and ethnographic description of the Spirits’ and ‘Images of Gods and Sacred mythology and religions of the so-called Natural Objects’, Castrén is widening the Finno-Ugric and Altaic peoples. geographical coverage of the ethnographic Although Castrén’s motives for doing knowledge about mythology and ritual. The fieldwork can be described as National- historical interpretations made in chapter IV Romantic, in his mythology, he was not after are focused on the actors of the Kalevala, the some history of the mythology of an ethnic heroes, who, according to Castrén, were at the group or nation. The scope of his comparisons beginning gods and spirits, but were later was much wider and his phraseology points to conceptualized as human beings in the epic scholarly models adopted from contemporary poems. In these historical interpretations, German researchers. Thus, it is not enough to Castrén is making use of the developing field interpret Castrén’s work in nationalistic or of comparative mythology and the sources Romantic terms. A more plausible context can that had been established at the time. be found in the neohumanistic frames used in The different levels of time and cultural this article. representations are mainly complementary to These tones are especially clear in the each other in Castrén’s endeavor to discuss fieldwork methods that emphasized the value the mythology and shamanism found among of speech material collected among the the Altaic peoples. A web of speakers and within multiple, neighboring interrelationships is created from the both dialects and languages. From the point of diachronically and synchronically fragmented view of mythology, the value given to epic pieces of knowledge. While the diachronic texts was also typical for the neohumanistic analysis is oriented deep into the history of circles. While Castrén builds a historical mankind, the synchronic analysis does not go interpretation of Kalevala in his lectures, he further than a hundred years beyond Castrén’s also describes a wider system of shamanistic and mythological conceptions that appear

66 amongst the speakers of the related languages Notes and their Eastern and Western neighbors. This 1. This article is related to a project called Manuscripta system was constructed around the Castreniana, which aims at publishing scholarly editions of all the manuscript materials in the understanding that the history of mankind can National Library and some unpublished letters. The be found in language and poetic forms of writer of this article works with Castrén’s expression. The focus on kindred languages ethnographic and folkloristic materials on Tundra and their speakers’ conceptions was a direct Nenets. These and the linguistic materials on consequence of the new methodological Tundra Nenets will be published online as a database. currents and findings of historical and 2. Texts in German, e.g. Castrén 1845; 1847a; 1847b; comparative linguistics and mythology. It was 1847c; 1847d; 1847e; 1848a; 1848b; texts in especially the Siberian languages and their Swedish, e.g. Castrén 1844a; 1844b; 1846a; 1846b; speakers that were poorly known in the 1847f; 1849b. The original Swedish manuscripts of beginning of 19th century. Castrén set out to the travelogues can be found both in the National Library and in the archives of the Swedish fill this gap. He collected an enormous Literature Society in Finland (SLSA 1185). amount of source material for the mythology, 3. Interestingly, Castrén has also noted down four but unfortunately some of his notes are individual songs. missing, preventing later scholars from 4. Castrén also gave ethnological lectures on “the evaluating the relationship between his Altaic peoples”, but I will not touch them in this fieldwork and his interpretations. article (Castrén 1857a). If we consider the Kalevala as an edition Archival Sources of Finnish folklore and mythology, Castrén’s Manuscript Archives of the National Library of Finland lectures should be interpreted as a further (MAC): endeavor to edit a mythology of Finno-Ugric XXVI Biographica &Varia I. and Altaic peoples based both on the XXVI Varia V. Kalevala, previous mythologies, field XXVI Varia VI. Svenska Litteratur Sällskapets Arkiv (SLSA): expeditions and his own notes. Castrén’s 1185. Gunnar Castrén’s släktarkiv. sources were dispersed and fragmented, but they were also multifaceted in a way that Works Cited prevented him from compiling a united Aalto, Pentti. 1971. Oriental Studies in Finland 1828– mythology – a sin of which Castrén accused 1918. Helsinki: Societas Scientiarum Fennica. Lönnrot’s Kalevala. Adolfsson, Maria. 2000. Fäderneslandets kännedom: Om svenska ortsbeskrivningsprojekt och The limited sources and Castrén’s limited ämbetsmäns folklivsskildringar under 1700- och time were, in part, a happy coincidence in the 1800-talet. Stockholm: Etnologiska institutionen. history of Finnish mythography. Castrén and Branch, Michael. 1973. A. J. Sjögren. Studies of the Lönnrot’s work inspired generations of North. Helsinki: Société Finno-Ougrienne. Finnish students to collect further materials Branch, Michael. 1999. “The Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg as a Centre for the Study of on oral poetry, and already in 1914, Kaarle Nationalities in the North-East Baltic”. In National Krohn complained that: History and Identity: Approaches to the Writing of National History in the North-East Baltic Region considering the volume and disparity of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Ed. Michael sources already collected and still to be Branch. Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden collected, it would be an overwhelming task Seura. Pp. 122–137. to properly finish the work [of writing the Bunzl, Matti. 1996. “Franz Boas and the Humboldtian Finnish mythology] and thus it requires the Tradition: From Volksgeist and Nationalcharakter cooperation of several specialists. (Krohn to an Anthropological Concept of Culture”. In 1914: iv.) Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological The idea for the publication series Tradition. Ed. George W. Stocking. Madison: Suomensuvun uskonnot [‘The Religions of the University of Wisconsin Press. Pp. 17–78. Finnish Kin’] had been born, but even the Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1844a. “Underrättelse om series could not satisfy the appetite of the M. A. Castréns resor.” Helsingfors Morgonblad 18.01.1844. mythographers. Each generation creates its Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1844b. “Helsingfors. own mythology. (Underrättelser om M. A. Castrén och hans resor.)” Helsingfors Morgonblad 29.02.1844.

Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1845. “Lettre à M. Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1854. Grammatik der Sjögren”. Bulletin de la Classe Historico- samojedischen Sprachen. M. Alexander Castrén’s Philologique de l’ Académie des Sciences de nordische Reisen und Forschungen 7. St. St.Petersbourg 2: 376–380. Petersburg: Kaiserlichen Akademie der Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1846. “Bref ifrån dr M.A. Wissenschaften Castrén, Narym, den 18 Nov. 1845.” Morgonbladet Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1855a. Reseberättelser 19.01.1846. och bref åren 1845–1849. Helsingfors: Finska Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1846. “Utdrag ur Bref Literatur-Sällskapet. från dr M.A. Castren till Statsrådet dr Sjögren. Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1855b. Turuchansk, den 17-29 Juli 1846”. Morgonbladet Wörterverzeichnisse aus den samojedischen 05.10.1846. Sprachen. M. Alexander Castrén’s nordische Castrén, Matthias Alexander. 1847a. “Rapports de M. Reisen und Forschungen 8. St. Petersburg: Castrén”. 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A Possible Source for a Medieval Icelandic Astronomical Manuscript on the Basis of Pictorial Evidence Christian Etheridge, Aarhus University, Copenhagen University

The stars and heavenly bodies were of great treatises. These anonymous treatises feature interest for Icelandic writers in the Middle in about 23 different medieval Icelandic Ages. In addition to their use in numerous manuscripts that focus on aspects of the allegories in the Prose Edda and hagiographic quadrivium. The quadrivium was the works, they appear in a series of astronomical collective name for the four subjects of

69 arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music, written by Natanael Beckman and Kristian of which the last of these subjects is not Kålund in 1916. In this work, Beckman represented in these Icelandic texts. These analysed GKS 1812, along with several other treatises were aimed at a mainly clerical Icelandic manuscripts containing audience but were also accessible to laymen. astronomical material, to draw conclusions This can be seen from the early 14th century about the source material used in their manuscript Hauksbók (AM 544 4to), owned compilation. Beckman came to the realisation by a layman, Haukr Erlendsson, but that medieval Icelandic scribes had access to containing early scientific treatises alongside an extensive collection of scientific works saga material. The origin of these Icelandic ranging in scope from the works on time by astronomical treatises is only dimly the Venerable Bede (ca. 672–735), compiled understood. In this paper, I work within the in the 8th century, to the 13th century theme of limited sources to work out possible textbooks on astronomy by Johannes de source material and dating for one of these Sacrobosco (ca. 1195 – ca. 1256). Icelandic treatises through pictorial Since Alfræði Íslenzk II: Rímtol, the major comparison with similar insular and studies done on the sources of the continental treatises. Most comparative work astronomical material contained within GKS so far in this field has been textual. By also 1812 have been those by Margaret Clunies working with pictorial sources, I aim to use Ross (1987), Rudolf Simek (1990, 2009), and the limited sources available to expand the Clunies Ross & Simek (1993). These studies understanding of these works. mainly focus on the influence of medieval One of the most important sources is the encyclopaedias on this manuscript. My own compilation manuscript GKS 1812 4to, research on GKS 1812 has led me to detect composed by four different scribes writing other possible sources of the material from the 12th to the 14th centuries. The contained within. I have been particularly manuscript consists of thirty-six 210mm x interested in the illuminations on folios 3r–4r 140mm folio pages divided into four unequal and 7v that depict fifteen of the constellations parts. It is unknown when the four parts of the in pictorial form. Simek (1990, 2009) and manuscript were compiled together. The Clunies Ross & Simek (1993) have manuscript eventually went into the previously noted these constellation images, possession of Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson but did not reach any firm conclusions as to (1605–1675), who sent it, along with other their origins. manuscripts, to Copenhagen and into the These constellation images represent a collection of King Frederick III (1609–1670) fragment of a treatise known as an Aratea. in the year 1662. It was here that the These were a popular illustrated medieval text manuscript obtained its shelf mark ‘GKS based on Latin translations of the astronomical 1812 4to’ as it now resided in the Gammel poem Phaenomena [‘Appearances’], written Kongelige Samling [‘Old Royal Collection’] by the Greek poet Aratus of Soli (315–240 of the Royal Library in Copenhagen (Larsson BCE). The poem describes and names the 1883: III). It was eventually returned to constellations that can be seen in the night sky Iceland in 1984 and is now kept in the Stofnun as well as telling some of the mythological Árna Magnússonar [‘The Árni Magnússon stories that accompany the constellation Institute for Icelandic Studies’] in Reykjavík. image. The poem’s popularity lay in its use as The GKS 1812 manuscript has been the a mnemonic device to interpret the night sky subject of scholarly interest since the 19th rather than for any technical value that it century. There has, however, been little contained. systematic work done on the manuscript and The popularity of the Phaenomena spread it has never been edited in its entirety. The over the Roman Empire and it was eventually manuscript and its component parts therefore translated into Latin by a number of remain poorly understood with the only major translators. The two most significant of these work of analysis and partial editing of the were made by the Roman orator Marcus manuscript being Alfræði Íslenzk II: Rímtol Tullius Cicero (106–43 BCE) and the

Table 1. Scribes and contents of GKS 1812 I 4to . Author Date Folios Brief description of contents Scribe I 14th century 1r–4v Aratea, Computus, Divisio scientiarum Scribe III 13th century 5r–6v Computus, Mappa Mundi Scribe I 14th century 7r–13r Aratea, Planetary diagrams Scribe II 14th century 13v–23v Algorismus Scribe IV 12th century 24r–34v Computus, glossary Scribe III 13th century 35r–36v Computus

Imperial general Germanicus Caesar (15 BCE these scribes has been allocated a Roman – 19 CE). At some point in antiquity, the numeral to represent them (Kålund 1900). poem started to become accompanied by Confusingly, the scribes that wrote these illustrations of the constellation images. None different parts are not allocated a number in of these survive and the earliest extant either chronological order or in order of manuscripts of the Phaenomena with images appearance in the manuscript. are from the Carolingian period. By this time, Scribe I wrote folios 1r–4v and 7r–13r in the Aratea manuscripts typically contained Old Icelandic in the 14th century, and this part one of the Latin translations of the of the manuscript is allocated the shelf mark Phaenomena, illustrations of the constel- GKS 1812 I 4to. Scribe II wrote folios 13v– lations with accompanying descriptions of 23v in Old Norwegian in the 14th century, and how to locate individual stars, astronomical this part of the manuscript is allocated the diagrams, and parts of other scientific shelf mark GKS 1812 II 4to. Scribe III wrote treatises. These Aratea treatises have been folios 5r–6v and 35r–36v in Old Icelandic in divided by scholarship into a series of related the first half of the 13th century, and this part family types. The popularity of the Aratea of the manuscript is allocated the shelf mark treatises peaked between the mid-9th and mid- GKS 1812 III 4to. Scribe IV wrote folios 24r– 12th centuries, and their decline was connected 34v in Old Icelandic at the end of the 12th to the influx of translations of technically century, and this part of the manuscript is more advanced Arabic astronomical works. given the shelf mark GKS 1812 IV 4to. Table 1 The Arateas enjoyed a revival in the (above) shows the order of the scribes within Renaissance, although more for their the manuscript as well as a broad description antiquarian value and their link with classical of the content contained within. All four mythology than for their technical usefulness. scribes cover the science of the calculation of Even today, the types of illustrations of the the calendar known as ‘computus’. constellations that accompany books or Scribe I writes on a broad variety of other computer programmes on star gazing have scientific ideas mostly focused on astronomy their roots in these Aratea treatises. including the Aratea and includes a series of In making comparisons between the astronomical diagrams. The first diagram Icelandic Aratea contained within GKS 1812 drawn by Scribe I can be found on folio 4v and other Aratea manuscripts, I have been and is a Divisio scientiarum [‘Division of able to draw new conclusions about its source Sciences’ or ‘Division of Knowledge’], a and date. Below, I will describe the GKS medieval schematic diagram that divides up 1812 manuscript in more depth with special knowledge into different categories, including focus on its Aratea section. This will be the seven liberal arts. Folio 7r contains a followed by an explanation of what family the wheel of the year diagram showing planetary GKS 1812 Aratea belongs to, and detailed orbits that is credited by Scribe I to the late comparison with a possible exemplar. Roman author Macrobius (5th century CE). Folio 10v shows the heliocentric orbits of The Manuscript GKS 1812 4to: History and Venus and Mercury. Folio 11v shows the Provenance geocentric orbits, epicycles and deferent of The GKS 1812 manuscript is a compilation of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Finally, folio 11v the works of four different scribes who wrote shows a zone map with incomplete phases of th th from the 12 to the 14 centuries. Each of the Moon and folio 12v shows a diagram of

71 lunar eclipses. The constellation illustrations lasciva puella” [‘Galatea throws an apple at drawn by Scribe I on folios 3r–4r and 7v are me, the sexy girl’]. The quote is from the parts of an Aratea treatise. The Aratea treatise Roman poet Virgil’s series of rustic poems differs from the other parts of the manuscript known as the Eclogues (3, ll. 64–65), and as it is written in Latin. shows that Scribe I had both a knowledge of The GKS 1812 Aratea is a small part of the classical literature and a racy sense of evidence that we have for Icelandic works on humour. the quadrivium and have been largely The third part of the Aratea is an Old overlooked by scholarship. There also Icelandic version of the text Excerptum de remains a strong possibility that the Viðey Astrologia Arati [‘Excerpts from the monastery may have been one of the major Astronomy of Aratus’] that is found on folios centres for the production of astronomical 8v–9v of 1812. This has previously been literature in medieval Iceland and this is recognised by Carlo Santini (1987) as a where the Aratea could have been produced translation of this Carolingian text that is (See Lönnroth 1968; Kristín Bjarnadóttir based on the Phaenomena of Aratus. The 2006: 41–51). The quantity of Latin texts and Excerptum was glossed and used extensively Latin language capability in medieval Iceland throughout the Middle Ages. The Old was also much greater than is normally Icelandic version of the Excerptum has been realised due to the general focus of research established by Beckman & Kålund (1916: on Old Icelandic texts (see especially 249–250) as being influenced by a version of Gottskálk Þ. Jensson 2003; 2009; Raschellà the Poeticon astronomicon [‘Poetical 2007). This would allow for a learned astronomy’] of the Roman author Hyginus environment where astronomical texts such as (64 BCE – CE 17). The Old Icelandic 1812 could be used, translated and Excerptum has been edited previously by understood. Konráð Gíslason (1860), Beckman and Kålund (1916) and translated into Italian by The Aratea of GKS 1812 I 4to: A Physical Santini (1987). The text has hitherto never Description been linked with the Aratea images that There are three main parts that make up the precede it in GKS 1812 and this present paper GKS 1812 Aratea. The first part, on folios 3r seeks to shed further light onto this part of the to 4r, consists of a series of coloured drawings manuscript. The Latin text accompanying the of nine constellations, each one contained Aratea images has not been edited until now. within its own roundel. There are three roundels per page, one above another. Latin De ordine ac positione stellarum in signis text is placed on both sides of each roundel. The Latin text accompanying the constellation In the roundels of Libra and Scorpio, there are images are scholia from the Aratea family computistical notes inserted by a 15th century known as De ordine ac positione stellarum in Icelandic hand, these bear no relevance to the signis [‘On the Order and Position of the Stars images (Beckman & Kålund 1916: 247–248). in the Signs’]. The De ordine is a catalogue of Each of the constellations represented on forty-two constellations. Each entry consists these pages is one of the zodiac signs (Cancer, of the name of the constellation and Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, sometimes its variants. This is followed by a Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces), with Aries, description of the stars (these are occasionally Taurus and Gemini missing. named) which are described in terms of their The second part of the Aratea is on folio position within the body of the constellation 7v. This is a drawing of six constellations itself and sometimes in terms of visibility together in one image (Centaurus, Lupus, (Lippincott 2011: 2). Studies on the De ordine Orion, Cetus, Canis Major and Canis Minor), family have been on-going since the mid-19th with Latin texts accompanying each one. century and it has been edited several times, Along the side of the Orion image, the scribe most recently by Arno Borst (2006). Kristen has written the following probatio pennae Lippincott (2011) has identified fourteen [‘pen test’] that says: “Malo me Galatea petit illustrated versions of the text. Of these, eight

72 are from the 9th century and three from the ordine (see also Etheridge 2012). The 11th century with the majority originating translation of the GKS 1812 passage follows from French scriptoria. The manuscript MS that of the Ramirez-Weaver 2008 edition of Ludwig XII differs since it originates from Madrid 3307, except with regard to where the England in the early 13th century. (Lippincott GKS 1812 De ordine text differs. 2011: 4.) Scorpius habet stellas in singulis cornibus The Excerptum and De ordine texts form vel potius labiis binas, ex quibus priores chapters 1 and 2 of Book V of the Seven clarae sunt in fronte tres, quarum media Book Computus (Borst 2006: 1243–1260). In clarior est, in dorso tres claras, in ventre 809, Charlemagne (742–814) summoned a duas, in cauda quinque, in aculeo duas, number of scholars to Aachen to compile a summa septendecim. (Lib. Comp. V 2 treatise on the computus. Carolingian p.1253.) monastic and cathedral schools required a Scorpius habet stellas in singulis cornibus handbook that would enable students and vel potius labiis binas ex quibus priores teachers to understand astronomical concepts clarae sunt in fronte tres quarum media (Ramirez-Weaver 2008: 9). The Aachen clarior est In dorso iii claras. In ventre duas. compilation of 809 contains 150 chapters In cauda v. In aculeo duas summa xxii. divided into seven books, and therefore it is (GKS 1812 4to fol. 3v) known as the Seven Book Computus Scorpio has a star on each claw [or, if you (Lippincott 2011:7). The Seven Book prefer, in both lips] before which there are Computus was completed in 812 and three bright ones, of which the one in the provided the foundation for many of the middle is brighter; there are three bright astronomical works that were to follow in the stars on the back, two in the stomach, five in Latin West during the next few centuries. the tail, and two more stars in the spine. Books I–IV detailed computus, Book VI They total twenty-two. concerned itself with weights and measures Ex his priores quattor, quae in cornibus vel and Book VII was Bede’s early scientific labiis, quae Chelae appellantur, positae sunt work De natura rerum. Of all the books in the Librae adsignantur. Hic autem ob Seven Book Computus, Book V was most magnitudinem in duo domicilia, id est in concerned with astronomy; other chapters in spatium duorum signorum partitur. ( Lib. this book detailed the movement of the Comp. V 2 p.1253.) planets and the moon and contained many Scorpio habet stellas. Ex his priores iiii quae excerpts from the Naturalis Historia [‘Natural in cornibus vel labiis quae chele appellantur History’] of the Roman scholar Pliny the positae sunt librae adsignantur hic autem ob Elder (23 CE–79 CE). Most of the material of magnitudinem in duo domicilia id est in chapter 2 in Book V was taken from one of spatium duorum signorum partitur. (GKS the earliest sets of scholia to the Germanicus 1812 I 4to fol. 3v.) translation of the Phaenomena of Aratus, the Scorpio has stars. Before these stars four so-called Scholia Basileensia. more stars were placed, whether in the lips Early versions of the Seven Book or the claws, which are called the ‘Chelae Computus have survived, such as the [of Scorpio]’ that were assigned under the manuscript Madrid Biblioteca Nacional MS circumstances to Libra. On account of its 3307. Later versions of the Seven Book size it [Scorpio] was in two houses of the Computus branch off into a variety of families zodiac. So, it [Scorpio] was divided into the that are still unclear to scholarship (Lippincott space appropriate for two zodiac signs. 2011: 4). To determine possible origins of the The major difference between the two texts Icelandic Aratea, I have included two here is that normally in De ordine passages from the De ordine text, manuscripts such as Madrid 3307, the texts of representing the constellations Scorpio and Libra and Scorpio are combined into one text. Libra. The first passage is as it appears in the The Scorpio text comes first and that is the edited version of Borst (2006) and the second only image that is represented in these is my edited version of the GKS 1812 De manuscripts. In contrast, and following later

73 practice, the Icelandic scribe has split the text in two and assigned each half to its respective constellation. The Icelandic scribe has also duplicated the first few words of the Scorpio text and added it to the Libra text to show where it originally came from. Libra was located in the claws of Scorpio in the time of the ancient Greek astronomers and it only started to be depicted as a separate sign from around the 1st century BCE onwards. The text of Madrid 3307 folio 55v, for example, describes Scorpio and Libra in one continuous piece and is placed next to the illustration of Scorpio with no separate image of Libra. Apart from the separation of the Scorpio Figure 2. Manuscript image from GKS 1812 4to and Libra texts, there is little difference Libra folio 3r, reproduced with kind permission of between the GKS 1812 De ordine text and Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, Reykjavik.

Figure 1. Manuscript image from Bodley 614 Scorpio Figure 3. Manuscript image from GKS 1812 4to folio 20r, reproduced with kind permission of the Scorpio folio 3r, reproduced with kind permission of Bodleian Library, Oxford. Stofnun Árna Magnússonar, Reykjavik. others of this family. Scribe I has made a in GKS 1812 and that in Madrid 3307. I scribal error in the final number of stars in would instead suggest that it was another Scorpio writing xxii instead of xvii. All the exemplar that was involved. After the close texts accompanying the other constellations in examination and research of many diverse GKS 1812 have this close relationship to their Aratea manuscripts, it would seem that the related texts in Madrid 3307 and other De closest resemblance to the image from 1812 Ordine manuscripts. There is however no comes from images in two English similar relation between the image of Scorpio manuscripts from the mid 12th century: 74

Figure 4. Manuscript stemma for GKS 1812 I 4to. Oxford Bodleian Library MS Bodley 614 poem of Aratus), it completes the folio 20r and Oxford Bodleian Library MS constellations of the Zodiac. The GKS 1812 Digby 83 folio 56r (see Figure 1). manuscript follows this arrangement with the Zodiac constellations first and the other The Image of Scorpio constellations later. In GKS 1812, the image of Scorpio is shown In Bodley 614 and Digby 83, the as a twisted humanoid figure with a curved outstretched hands of the Scorpio figures hold tail. Its two outstretched hands reach up as if the scales of the constellation Libra with the to grasp the top of the blue roundel that accompanying text describing both surrounds it (Figures 3; cf. Libra illuminated constellations. In contrast, and following later separately in Figure 2). Illustrations of Scorpio practice as explained above, the Icelandic varied throughout the Middle Ages and scribe has split the text in two and assigned depended on whether or not the artist had the each half to its respective constellation. The opportunity to be able to draw a scorpion GKS 1812 Scorpio has been illustrated as from life or from another accurate drawing. according to its exemplar images but its The Scorpio image that adorns folio 5v of the empty hands now grasp towards its roundel Old Icelandic calendar AM 249b folio from where the constellation of Libra once was (see ca. 1200 is not represented as a scorpion, but as Figure 2–3). a dragon with another dragon’s head located at the end of its tail. The Old Icelandic word The English Aratea Manuscript Tradition for a scorpion is sporðdreki [lit. ‘tail dragon’] In ca. 985, Abbo of Fleury (ca. 945–1004), (see Cleasby-Vigfusson 1957: 583). It was not one of the leading scholars in Europe at this unknown for other northern artists to depict time, went to England for two years and Scorpio as a dragon (Fishof 2001: 127). taught at Ramsey Abbey. Abbo was one of The twisted humanoid Scorpio with the the leading mathematicians and astronomers outstretched hands is unusual and seems to be of his day. It was about this time that the first related only to the two Scorpio images in the two Aratea manuscripts arrived in England, Oxford Bodleian Library manuscripts. This these being London British Library MS strange version of Scorpio has been noted Harley 647 from Fleury, dating ca. 830, and before by Marion Dolan (2007: 235) in London British Library MS Harley 2506, relation to Bodley 614 and Digby 83, but the written in Fleury and illustrated in Ramsey GKS 1812 manuscript was unknown to her. Abbey by an English artist ca. 1000 and Dolan also points out that the constellation containing some of the astronomical works of images in Bodley 614 begin with Aries, and Abbo himself. These manuscripts contain instead of following the normal order of the constellation images, excerpts from Pliny, Aratea manuscripts (following the original Macrobius, Martianus Capella (5th century

CE), Hyginus and the Cicero translation of Icelandic manuscript AM 732 a VII 4to, from Aratus. These in turn inspired the early 11th around 1130, is a table used to date Easter. century English Aratea manuscripts This calculation of Easter relied on the Cambridge Trinity College R.15.32 and combination of calculation and astronomical London British Library Cotton Tiberius B.V. observation that is called computus or rím in Tiberius B.V. is considered the exemplar for Old Icelandic. This was the same term as used the two related manuscripts from the 12th in Old English and is itself derived from Old century, Bodley 614 and Digby 83 (see Figure Irish rím or ‘calculation’, stemming from Old 4). The production of Aratea manuscripts in Irish rima [‘number’] and rimarius England appears to terminate in the 12th [‘calculator’], and used specifically in Irish century (Dolan 2007: 282–283). computistical manuals (Ó Cróinín & Walsh 1988). The late 12th century Old Icelandic The Oxford Bodleian Arateas Physiologus, a treatise related to the Marvels The Bodley 614 manuscript dates to around of the East, has also been seen as stemming ca. 1120–1140. It contains framed from insular sources (Corazza 2005). descriptions of the constellations, De rebus in It seems likely that either the exemplar oriente mirabilibus [‘The Marvels of the manuscript of the GKS 1812 Aratea was taken East’] and computistical works (Saxl & Meier to Iceland from England or was copied in 1953: 313–316). The combination of The England and then taken to Iceland sometime Marvels of the East with astronomy is in the in the 12th or 13th century. There was an early tradition of Tiberius B.V., and according to connection between the English and Icelandic Kaufmann (1975: 77), the illustrations must Churches as is evidenced by English descend from the same archetype. The artist churchmen being recorded as active in Iceland of Bodley 614 often combines three, four or in the 11th century. In the 12th century, more constellations crowded onto one page Icelandic priests were chronicled as travelling (Dolan 2007: 236). The Cicero text has been and studying at English seats of learning. supplemented by material taken from From the 11th century and the foundation of Hyginus. Bergen, English merchandise regularly found The Digby 83 manuscript contains its way to Iceland from Norway. Documents geometrical diagrams of the world, seasons of the 12th and 13th century show that direct and elements, drawings of constellations and trade between England and Iceland in falcons excerpts from Aratus and Hyginus (Saxl & and wool was not uncommon, and English Meier 1953: 345–346). The compilation part psalters and mass books are mentioned in of the manuscript is different from Bodley Icelandic booklists from the 13th century. The 614 but much of the text and all but a few of translations of Ælfric of Eynsham (ca. 955 – the astronomical illustrations are identical in ca. 1010), De falsis deis and De auguriis the two manuscripts. The illustrations go back preserved in the 14th century Hauksbók show to a model similar to that of Tiberius B.V. that English vernacular manuscripts were also which in turn was derived from Harley 647. available in Iceland. (McDougall 1989: 189– Judging from the style of the illustrations, 190.) Kaufmann dated Digby 83 to the middle of the 12th century, perhaps a decade or two after Conclusion Bodley 614 (Kaufmann 1976: 103). It is the Using the limited sources available, and last of the known English Arateas to descend especially visual sources, I have attempted to from Harley 647 (Saxl 1957: 108). explain the existence of an Aratea manuscript in Iceland and to give some idea both of its How English Aratea Manuscripts Came to date and composition. The comparison of Iceland manuscript images has been instrumental in The early Icelandic Church had need of establishing another likely connection computistical and astronomical material since between Iceland and England in the 12th this was needed to celebrate Easter and the century. The Aratea as it stands is incomplete other sacred feasts of the Christian year on the and it is probable that the manuscript was appropriate dates. Indeed, the very earliest 76 damaged and the fragments were recopied by their kind permissions to reproduce the manuscript Scribe I in the 14th century along with other images above. The Saxl Project is an on-going project to enable complete digital access to over 250 medieval material. The Aratea illustrations, descriptions and Renaissance illustrated astronomical and and the curious probatio pennae show a astrological manuscripts. All medieval astronomical familiarity with Latin classical culture and manuscripts described in this paper can be viewed mythology on the part of this scribe. there. The Icelandic Aratea found in the GKS 1812 4to manuscript is another addition to the Internet Resources Aratea family of manuscripts. Dolan Saxl Project. Available at: http://www.kristenlippincott .com/the-saxl-project/. mentioned that areas such as Eastern Europe have yet to be thoroughly scrutinized for Works Cited possible survivals of Aratea manuscripts, so Beckman, Natanael, & Kristian K. Kålund. 1916. the family may yet be extended further (Dolan Alfræði Íslenzk II: Rímtol. Copenhagen: S.L. 2007: 254). There is still much work to be Møllers Bogtrykkeri. done on the manuscripts that are known to Bischoff, Bernhard. 1987. Aratea: Sternenhimmel in Antike und Mittelalter: Kommentar zum Aratus des scholarship since relationships between the Germanicus MS. Voss. Lat. Q. 79. Luzern: texts remain far from clear. Of great Faksimile-Verlag Luzern. importance to the growing field of Aratea Borst, Arno. 2006. Schriften zur Komputistik im studies is The Saxl Project led by Kristen Frankenreich von 721 bis 818. Hannover: Hansche Lippincott and run jointly with The Warburg Buchandling. Cleasby, Richard, & Guðbrandur Vigfússon. 1957. An Institute. This is a continuation and updating Icelandic-English Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon of the art historian Fritz Saxl’s pioneering Press. work on the comparison of medieval Clunies Ross, Margaret. 1987. Skáldskaparmál: Snorri astronomical images and is a useful database Sturluson’s ars poetica and Medieval Theories of of Aratea manuscripts. So far, facsimiles have Language. Odense: University Press. Clunies Ross, Margaret, & Rudolf Simek. 1993. been published for three of the most “Encyclopaedic Literature”. Medieval Scandinavia: outstanding Aratea: Leiden Voss Lat. Q.79 An Encyclopedia. Ed. Phillip Pulsiano & Kirsten (Bischoff 1987); Madrid 3307 (Ramirez- Wolf. New York / London: Garland Publishing. Pp. Weaver 2008); and Tiberius B.V (McGurk 164–166. 1983). Only a select few other Aratea Corazza, Vittoria Dolcetti. 2005. “Crossing Paths in the Middle Ages: The Physiologus in Iceland”. In The manuscripts have been studied in any detail Garden of Crossing Paths: The Manipulation and (Dolan 2007: 171–172). The Saxl database is Rewriting of Medieval Texts. Venice, October 28– a huge step forward in this field and it is an 30, 2004. Ed. Marina Buzzoni & Massimiliano essential tool for future comparative Aratea Bampi. Venezia: Università Ca’ Foscari. Pp. 225– studies. 248. Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, & Maura Walsh. 1988. Cummian’s Finally the composition of the GKS 1812 Letter, De Controversia Paschali and the De Aratea raises many fundamental questions. Ratione Conputandi. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of One of these is how the illustrations derive Medieval Studies. from one exemplar connected to the Cicero Dolan, Marion. 2007. The Role of Illustrated Aratea Aratea Bodley 614 and how the Latin text Manuscripts in the Transmission of Astronomical Knowledge in the Middle Ages. Pittsburgh: stems from a different De ordine textual Proquest. exemplar. Further work must be done on Etheridge, Christian. 2012. De ordine ac positione comparisons of all the GKS 1812 Aratea stellarum in signis. Available at: illustrations as well as on the accompanying http://www.kristenlippincott.com/assets/Uploads/D Excerptum text to place it in context with e-ordine-Reyjavik-1812-CE-kl-edit-8-Jan-2012- 3.pdf. other Aratea manuscripts, especially with Fishof, Iris. 2001. Written in the Stars: Art and Ludwig XII. In the near future, I aim to Symbolism of the Zodiac. Jerusalem: The Israel publish the fully edited GKS 1812 De ordine Museum. text to help enhance academic understanding Gottskálk Þ. Jensson. 2003. “The Latin Fragments of of this most interesting document. Þorláks saga helga and Their Classical Context”. In Scandinavia and Christian Europe in the Middle Ages: Papers of the 12th International Saga Acknowledgements: I would like to thank the Bodleian Conference Bonn/Germany, 28 July – 2 August Library, Oxford, and Stofnun Árna Magnússonar for

2003. Ed. Rudolf Simek & Judith Meurer. Bonn: McGurk, Patrick. 1983. An Eleventh-Century Anglo- Hausdruckerei der Universität Bonn. Pp. 257–267. Saxon Illustrated Miscellany: British Library Gottskálk Þ. Jensson. 2009. “Were the Earliest Cotton Tiberius B. V, part I, together with Leaves fornaldarsögur Written in Latin?”. In from British Library Cotton Nero D. II. Fornaldarsagaerne Myter og Virkelighed: Studier i Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger. de oldislandkse fornaldarsögur Norðurlanda. Ed. Ramirez-Weaver, Eric M. 2008. Carolingian Agneta Ney, Ármann Jakobsson & Annette Lassen. Innovation and Observation in the Paintings and København: Museum Tusculanums Forlag. Pp. 79– Star Catalogues of Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, 91. Ms. 3307. Ann Arbor: ProQuest LLC. Kaufmann, C.M. 1975. Romanesque Manuscripts Raschellà, Fabrizio D. 2007. “Old Icelandic 1066–1190. London: Harvey Miller. Grammatical Literature: The Last Two Decades of Kålund, Kristian. 1900. Katalog over de oldnorsk- Research (1983–2005)”. In Learning and islandske håndskrifter i Det store kongelige Understanding in the Old Norse World: Essays in Bibliotek og. i Universitetsbiblioteket. København: Honour of Margaret Clunies Ross. Ed. Judy Quinn, Gyldendal. Kate Heslop & Tarrin Wills. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. Konráð Gíslason. 1860. Fire og fyrretyve for en stor 341–372 deel forhen utrykte prøver af oldnordisk sprog og Santini, Carlo. 1987. La Versione in Antico Islandese literatur. København: Gyldendal. dell’Excerptum de Astrologia Arati. Rome: Herder Kristín Bjarnadóttir. 2006. Mathematical Education in Editrice E Libreria. Iceland in Historical Context: Socio-Economic Saxl, Fritz. 1957. Lectures. London: The Warburg Demands and Influences. Roskilde: University of Institute. Roskilde. Saxl, Fritz, & Harry Meier. 1953. Catalogue of Larsson, Ludwig. 1883. Äldsta Delen af Cod. 1812 4to Astrological and Mythological Illuminated Gml. Kgl. Samling. København: S.L. Möllers Manuscripts of the Latin Middle Ages III: Bogtryckeri. Manuscripts in English Libraries. London: The Lippincott, Kristen. 2011. De ordine ac positione Warburg Institute. stellarum in signis: The Textual Tradition. Simek, Rudolf. 1990. Altnordische Kosmographie: Available at: http://www.kristenlippincott.com/ Studien und Quellen zu Weltbild und assets/Uploads/De-ordine-full-text-June-2011.pdf. Weltbeschreibung in Norwegen und Island vom 12. Lönnroth, Lars. 1968. “Styrmir’s Hand in the Obituary bis zum 14. Jahrhundert. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. of Viðey”. Medieval Scandinavia 1: 85–100. Simek, Rudolf. 2009. “The Medieval Icelandic World McDougall, Ian. 1989. “Foreigners and Foreign View and the Theory of the Two Cultures.” Gripla Languages in Medieval Iceland”. Saga Book 22: 20: 183–197. 180–233.

Oral Agitation through Written Sources: On the Study of Verbal Performances of the Early 20th Century Finland Anna Rajavuori, University of Helsinki / Finnish Literature Society (SKS)

In Finland, the progressive civil society 1905 and the parliament reform in 1906, formed during the 19th century. Popular socialism spread rapidly among the rural movements, organizations and political people. The Social Democratic Party had parties considered themselves to be advocates dozens of speakers traveling around the of the Finnish people and of societal progress. country. The invocation of the people and a belief in Studies on verbal agitation nevertheless progress were shared ambitions of many remain few, probably because of the lack of movements, which also led to rivalry between recordings of such speeches and of speech them. (Bergholm 2002: 184–185.) An manuscripts. This article discusses how to important means to reach the people was examine verbal agitation on the basis of the through the organization of speech evenings limited and fragmented source material for various causes. Oral agitation was a available. It is based on an ongoing doctoral powerful way to influence people’s opinions study of contemporary history, which and also to reach those who did not read examines socialist agitators and agitation newspapers. The workers’ movement in events in early 20th century Finland. The Finland utilized oral agitation widely as a article presents the possibilities opened by means of propagating socialist ideology in the utilizing a methodology of performance early 20th century. After the general strike in studies when researching verbal performances

78 of the past. Focus here will be on the social advisors. Some traveling agitators also had a roles of a socialist agitator in rural Finland. double role as folklore collectors. One The source materials consist of local correspondent of the newspaper Suomalainen newspapers, travel stories by the agitators and [‘The Finn’] complained that there had been a also oral history. In this case, oral history surge of speakers in the village of Keisala in refers to written memoirs, life-history Soini. There were 4–5 speech evenings every writings and questionnaires collected by The week and these always had a full house. This Finnish Literature Society (SKS) and The was a large number in a village consisting of Commission of the Finnish Labour Tradition around 20 houses (Suomalainen 21.3.1906). (TMT) (Fingerroos & Haanpää 2006: 27). The socialist agitator Onni Tuomi described a situation in which two additional speech Traveling Agitators evenings had been organized in the same Oral agitation organized by yhe Social village at the same time and competed with Democratic Party was at its height in 1908, his own (SV 11.10.1907). during which there were over 10,000 agitation Agitators usually performed their speeches evenings in total (Ehrnrooth 1992: 302). in private houses, but also in the houses of Agitation was primarily organized by district associations, or the speeches could even be organizations, which usually had a few paid organized in an elementary school. If a room agitators whose job it was to travel around the was not available in which to speak, the district, spreading the word of socialism and agitation speech could also be performed establishing workers’ associations. The Social outside in a yard or on a road. It was common Democratic Party had adopted the socialist for people from all social classes to take part view on how the development of capitalism in in agitation evenings, so agitators could also a society would gradually increase the expect people from the upper classes to number of the poor, who would inevitably participate in a speech event. (Laina Peijari, become class-conscious and eventually unite Kuorevesi, SKS.) Non-socialists often also to claim political and economic power. engaged in argument. Speakers expected a Within this view, it was seen as a normal and heated debate and were also willing to incite inevitable development in a capitalist society it. (SV 23.9.1907.) The agitator actively that the workers and the poor would become asserted prestige and control over his self-aware socialists. However, this audience. This rhetorical power of development was only a theory in the Central performance and its potential for social Finnish countryside, because the control has been widely documented (Bauman ‘development of capitalist society’ had by no 1977: 44). means yet reached those traditional and agrarian communities. Furthermore, political Textual Sources, Oral Performances identities were nowhere near stable in the During the last decades a ‘performative turn’ countryside at the beginning of the 20th has spread among various disciplines of century on any side of the political sphere. cultural studies. Based on linguistics, The political views of the people could shift sociology and anthropology, the performative rapidly with a good speaker (e.g. Ilkka trend has also become visible in historical 14.3.1907). studies. The concept of performance has been In the early 20th century, socialist speakers used in recent historical studies of ritual, were not the only ones traveling around rural festivals, gender and emotions. Focus is Finland. When studying socialist agitation, it shifting from the assumption of social or must be kept in mind that Finland was cultural fixity to that of fluidity and from swarming with speakers advocating various scripts to improvisation. Traditional historical causes: different political parties had agitators explanatory models have assumed of their own; various religious speakers, such consistency in the behavior of individuals. as revivalist preachers, were also active, as Performance-centered approaches encourage were speakers for popular enlightenment, emphasizing occasional factors in the such as temperance speakers and farming explanation of human action. (Burke 2005:

35–36, 47.) The importance of occasions is a text of the performances, this study focuses starting point of my study on socialist on co-texts – i.e. descriptions of the agitation agitation. The focus of my study is in the written by speakers and people in the occasions – the agitation events – which were audience – with emphasis on cultural, realized through the interaction between the political and social contexts. This approach performer, audience and local context. allows many types of materials to be utilized. The power inherent in performance is able The source material of this study to transform social structures. This notion characteristically consists of descriptions of opens questions and considerations and opinions about the events in writings or concerning the role of the performer in reminiscences of the agitators or people who society (Bauman 1977: 45). Utilizing participated in the event, especially found in performance methodology can open some newspapers, local histories and archival interesting perspectives from which socialist materials of Social Democratic Party agitation and modernization in rural Finland organizations, as well as oral history source can be considered. The important questions material including written memoirs, life will concern, on the one hand, how the writings or interviews made by folklore common rural people witnessed the socialist collectors. The text of the speech act itself agitation and had an influence upon it, and on thus becomes a relatively small proportion of the other hand, whether it is possible to reach the material analyzed as compared to many back to the interaction inherent in an oral folkloristic studies on performance. Whereas performance in the past. performance studies on the basis of archival Richard Bauman’s (1977) basic analytical folklore texts often suffer from lack of scheme for the study of cultural performances contextual information, the situation is the includes four essential situational factors that opposite in research on agitation. must be taken into consideration. These are: The source material tends to consist more a) the participants’ identities and roles; b) the of texts about performances and texts that performance text and its meaning; c) the genre describe the whole event and its attendees. of the performance; and d) the structure of the Attributes of the performance text can be event. As Bauman states, these factors are accessed mainly via direct citations and mutually interactive and interdependent, and dialogues that appear in narratives. Written any of them may be used as a point of descriptions were produced for different departure in the analysis of the performance purposes and are therefore multifaceted in in a community. However, in order to make terms of genre (e.g. newspaper articles and ultimate statements about the social other publications, reminiscences, documents performance as a part of social life, it is of the district organization of the Social necessary to address all of these in the study Democratic Party). It is important to take the (Bauman 1977: 31). context of the production of this material into There are a lot of literary sources available account (see Mikkola 2009). All categories or from early 20th century Finland. However, the source varieties have their own limitations sources tend to be fragmented and occasional and special features which have to be when the subject of research is oral acknowledged. On the other hand, gaps, performance among rural common people. limitations and defects of source materials can There are no audio recordings of these also be regarded as resource, not as problem. agitation speeches available and only a few The researcher’s task is to ask why sources speech manuscripts have been archived. The tell different stories. (Heimo 2010: 58.) lack of written texts of speeches appears The method of combining various, largely attributable to the fact that speakers dissimilar and fragmented source materials did not write their speeches down, mainly has been called ‘source pluralism’ by because a speaker who read his speech from historian Janken Myrdal. Especially when paper was considered a bad speaker and the studying common people and everyday life, effect of the performance was weaker (SV source materials tend to be infrequent and 30.8.1907). Rather than concentrating on the random. Source pluralism relies on the

80 principle that the credibility of information is Method strengthened when disparate sources agree, My method of studying performance in the while credibility is weakened if the sources past can be described as scanning through contradict each other. (Myrdal 2012: 157.) In fragmented and plural sources on oral my study, this means that in order to make agitation through the lens of the cultural interpretations of oral agitation as events in performance framework outlined by Bauman. the past, fragmented sources have to be In relation to newspapers, this is made discussed in relation to each other. Source possible in practice by using the National materials will vary in significance in Library of Finland’s Historical Newspaper answering the research questions. The Library with its searchable digital database of significance of a particular source will likely Finnish newspapers. I have used such terms become more apparent during the research such as agitaattori [‘agitator’] and process, a process that can lead into fields of työväenpuhuja [‘labour-movement speaker’] other disciplines (Myrdal 2012: 160). as well as the names of the speakers and There is obviously an ideological factor in villages in order to track the speakers’ political agitation performances. This makes movements and actions. After collecting these the purpose of the sources particularly writings, reports and descriptions related to important to take into account. For example, oral agitation, I have divided them on the an eminent source category of the study is strength of how they answer questions travel stories written by the agitators concerning performance. Oral history themselves. Travel stories were published in materials of the study have been collected by the local workers’ newspaper Sorretun Voima the Finnish Literature Society (SKS) and the [‘The Power of the Oppressed’]. These travel Commission of Finnish Labour Tradition stories have to be considered in terms of both (TMT). For example, an enquiry into genre and narration. The genre of these stories modernization and new ways of life in mainly follows the genre that Kirsti Salmi- Finland was conducted by SKS in 1939 and Niklander has called the “local event includes sections that deal with forms of narrative”. This genre is characterized as a political and party life in the late 19th and description of an event in a local community early 20th centuries. Sections of this material (Salmi-Niklander 2004). Although the topics have been selected, organized and outlined of local event narratives are simple, the both regionally and temporally according to writers utilize various literary methods – my research subject. narration, metaphors and literary citations – in order to fictionalize their own experiences Roles of the Agitator (Salmi-Niklander 2006: 113). In this material, Although all four of Bauman’s essential however, the description of local events is situational factors for performance have been occasionally replaced by a passage of direct taken into consideration, discussion will address to the reader with the rhetoric of an concentrate here on the participants’ identities agitation speech. Narrative analysis of the and roles and how these strategically structure written sources is also an important tool. In the relationships between participants in the this study, the research subject is beyond the event as well as structure the event itself. narrative, not the narrative itself. This Social roles are a part of the social structure emphasizes the importance of narrative or social context of a performance. They are analysis as a method. These sources cannot be not simply a contextual factor because they read as simply describing what has been said are also in ongoing interaction with the and what has happened. It is important to ask performance itself. This is significant the sources how and why these things are because, as Bauman observes, “performance narrated and to whom the texts are addressed. carries the potential to rearrange the structure Instead of seeing sources simply as evidence, of social relations within the performance they must also be examined as traces of the event and perhaps beyond it” (Bauman 1986: performances under investigation (Kalela 4). Social roles tell about the social structure 1999: 144). which is as important in examination as the

81 structure of the event and the structure of the role-taking and role-making (Rosaldo 1973; text (Bauman 1977: 42). The social roles of Bauman 1977: 43). One of these intentional the socialist agitator and social structure are and strategic role-takings of agitators was relatively undemanding to examine in performing as a troublemaker who was able to descriptions and narratives of an event. Roles challenge the authorities. A notable part of the and identities are continuously discussed and agitation narratives published in the formulated in the pages of the local workers’ newspaper Sorretun Voima includes a newspaper Sorretun Voima, but also in fiction description of verbal conflicts between the and oral history. The roles of a performer tell agitator and local bourgeoisie. Prestige and about the expectations the audience had for control was narrated in the newspaper by the the performance. Competence for performing agitator Onni Tuomi. a social role is evaluated consciously and Ensimmäisen puheeni pidin avarassa unconsciously by the participants. The kunnantuvassa, johon porvarillisiin competence of a performer is linked to puolueisiin kuuluvia henkilöitäkin oli various culture-specific and situation-specific saapunut. Pitelin kovakouraisesti heidän factors such as experience, gender, age and maatalousohjelmiansa ja ihmettelin suuresti, social status (Bauman 1977: 38). The kun ei ne hyvät herraskaiset esitelmäni competence of the socialist speaker was johdosta ryhtyneetkään tavanmukaiseen evaluated in relation to other speakers as well väittelyyn, niin hartaasti kun olisin sitä as in relation to the performance compared toivonutkin. Koska tovereilta kuulin, että with other local performances. porvarilliset puuhailevat vaivastalon perustamishommissa, niin esitin tätä Political speeches were often only one kysymystä keskustelunalaiseksi. Tulin relatively small part of the program of a social valituksi kokouksen puheenjohtajaksi ja evening, which was where the public 1 aloin alustamaan tuota taloasiata. Mutta activities of agitators was centered. Speakers tämä oli jo liikaa porvarillisten mielestä, se performed different acts in the evening’s oli kerrassaan ‘hävitöntä’ että program. Entertainment was often needed to sosialistiagitaattori uskaltaa arvostella get people to attend the agitation evenings. hallitusherrain toimia ja vastustaa kunnan The speech was only a complimentary part of isien hyviä ja rakkauteen perustuvia the evening for some listeners and the main ehdotuksia. Vähemmästäkin sitä jo purpose was to attend dancing (TMT 119:164 tuskaantuu ja käy kärsimättömäksi. Asiasta Kuoppala). Agitation evenings were syntyi kiihkeä keskustelu. Sormikoukkua vedettiin. Porvarit puolustivat, sosialistit significant as social events and the speakers vastustivat, osa vastustajista poistui ennen were often versatile performers. Agitator Onni keskustelun loppumista ja joku sivistyneistä Tuomi writes in his travel story about a menetti mielenmalttinsakin. (SV 23.9.1907.) workers’ autumn festival in Viitasaari. There were five agitators present and only two of I gave my first speech in a roomy town hall, them gave speeches. One of the agitators won where persons belonging to the bourgeois parties also arrived. I roughed up their fame by reciting poetry and another by programs for agriculture and wondered a lot singing couplets. Singing was not only because they did not start arguing with me entertainment; an important educational task as usual and as much as I wished them to. I of the agitators was to teach people labour- had heard from my comrades that these movement songs. Tuomi’s own part was bourgeoisie are establishing an almshouse storytelling. (SV 15.11.1907.) An agitators’ and I proposed this for discussion. I came to entertainment repertoire may be associated be chosen as the chairman of the meeting with competition for popularity between and began introducing the almshouse matter. performers. Increased political agitation and But this was already too much according to the high quantity of social evenings caused the bourgeoisie; it was completely competition not only between parties but also ‘shameless’ that a socialist agitator dare to criticize the acts of the government and to between individuals. oppose good suggestions of the town In the consideration of the performance of officials that were based on love. One gets an agitator, there is a question of strategic frustrated and impatient even with less

serious claims. The matter was fiercely symbiosis. Agitators caused friction in the discussed. There was a tug of war. The village: bourgeoisie were for it and the socialists were against; some of those who were Puolue-elämä pani pilalle ja särki kokonaan against left before the discussion was over hyvän sovun ja kylärauhan. Näyttää siltä että and some of those civilized ones even lost paras ja kalliin on ijäksi menetetty, ehjä their patience. Isänmaan rakkaus ja tyyni sopu ihmisten kesken, muistan niin hyvin kun alkoi The passage above is from a travel story in kasvattaa ukkospilviä valtiolliselle taivaalle. ten parts by Tuomi. The stories were ennen ensimmäisiä vaaleja jo salamoi ja published as his three-month long agitation räiskyi. Kaiken kasvanet akitaattorit pauhas journey proceeded. The narrative resembles suu vaahossa kulkien kylästä kylään the genre of 19th century bourgeois travel haukkuen ja sättien toisiaan pannen stories. The focus is on the events, but Tuomi pataluhaksi sen joka uskalti vähänkin also reflects on his work, describes the vastustaa, he rikkoivat maalaisrauhan – (Anna Oikari, Ähtäri, SKS). surroundings and reviews the pursuits of local workers’ associations. The narrative includes Party life spoiled and shattered the good dialogues with local people and descriptions harmony and peace in the village. It seems of their behavior along with information that the best and most precious has been about the writer himself. Social roles are forever lost, namely the unbroken love of one’s country and calm harmony between embedded in the description of interaction people; I remember so well as the between the actors. In the passage above, thunderclouds began to develop over the sky Tuomi explains his strategy to invoke verbal of the country. It was flashing and rattling conflict explicitly. Because the non-socialists already before the first elections. All sorts of in the audience did not initiate any argument agitators were travelling from village to during his speech, Tuomi deliberately brought village, frothing, bashing and trashing each up the controversial local project of building other, badly criticizing those who dared to an almshouse. The topic caused a shouting oppose a little; they shattered the agrarian match which Tuomi, in his own opinion, won. peace – Afterwards, Tuomi considered his agitation to On the other hand, this rather romantic picture have been truly successful because of the of rural life before the arrival of socialism is conflict he was able to rouse. (SV 23.9.1907) disputed by other reminiscences (Vilho Mäilä, It is notable that bourgeois newspaper articles Suolahti; Elli Kyttälä, Laukaa, SKS; Mikkola on the same event present a parallel reading. 2009: 275–277). The non-socialists became resentful over the The positioning of the agitators can be agitator’s rhetoric and verbal conflict examined in the narratives of the speakers. (Suomalainen 13.9.1907). Conflict between Positioning is done mainly at the textual level, the socialist agitator and local non-socialists but some cases show positioning in the was an important element in the rhetoric. In agitation event. It seems that agitators some cases, the structure of the agitation positioned themselves apart from their performance seems to have been based on audiences. For example, the twenty-year-old debate and juxtaposition. Often, there were no Oskari Suutala contented himself with current topics about local class distinction in standing by when young people started the central Finnish countryside that could dancing and playing party games after the have been easily used as an example in this agitation speech: sort of rhetoric. Speakers used the controversy and debate in the event intentionally as a Nuoriso alkaa tehdä levottomia liikkeitä, vihdoin alkaa kuulua pussipelin ääntä, pojat rhetorical means. hakevat neitosiaan tanssiin. Istuin The role of the socialist speakers as local katselemaan nuorisoa, joka tanssii silloin peace-breakers is also shown in kun suurin osa kansastamme kamppailee reminiscences. According to oral history, nälkäkuoleman kanssa. Näyttää koko some people regarded socialist agitators as matkan siltä, että nuoriso ei vielä ole troublemakers who ruined the peaceful rural herännyt täyteen itsetietoisuuteen. Iltamien ohjelmat ovat peräti kuivia. Ainoastaan 83

tanssi vetää enempi huomiota puoleensa. Beginning from Bauman’s (1977) basic (SV 9.12.1907.) analytical scheme, I have aimed to The youths began to be restless, at last they concentrate on social roles and their hear the sound of the accordion and the lads importance in the context of performance by ask the maidens to dance. I sat to watch examining the ways that social roles are these youths who were dancing at the same described and commented on in the material. time that a large part of our nation was Social roles are an important part of the starving to death. For the whole evening, it context of performance and socialist agitators seems that the youths have not yet strove to shake up the social structure through completely awakened to self-awareness. The their performances. This was done by programs of the soirée are absolutely boring. challenging the local bourgeoisie to debate Only the dance gains more attention. and by performing the role of the In Suutala’s opinion, it was not appropriate to troublemaker. Agitators’ positioning was dance and frolic when “a large part of our dependent on the occasion and audience. nation was starving” (SV 9.12.1907). The advantages of a performance-centered Agitators may identify themselves even more approach to agitation begin with phrasing the clearly as outsiders in their narratives. They research question. Within more a traditional want to identify themselves with the working- historical methodology, answering questions class and local comrades, yet when the concerning interaction between agitators and speakers encountered unwanted attitudes and audiences or oral agitation in general would behavior, they would take a moral, have been very challenging with such limited intellectual or emotional distance from the sources. The performance-centered approach locals in their narrative. They have a tendency to agitation events has also opened to maintain a distance from the ignorant perspectives and questions during the process people of the countryside. From the agitators’ of study that it would not previously have perspective, the people were seen as been possible able to ask. As far as historical subservient, faint-hearted and generally research is considered, utilizing methods of passive (SV 4.3.1908). On the other hand, the performance studies widens its sphere and listeners also called for a social distance opportunities. It is evident that some between themselves and the agitator. The modifications have to be made and the most desired speakers were out-of-town analytical schemes cannot be followed agitators. They were more interesting than strictly. Source materials and methodology local people, either because they were also force the researcher to trace the temporal unfamiliar or because some of them had and regional outlines of the subject. Because gained some fame as good speakers. This of the lack of texts, it is difficult to find kind of distinction between agitators and the sources on communicative means of audience also shows itself in the appearance performance. Sources about such means are of the speakers’. From the rural people’s few and scattered and in relation to several perspective, agitators dressed like speeches with different contexts. However, townspeople and their appearance could be other aspects of the performance, such as the seen as a sign of social ascent (Vilho Mäilä, roles of the performer and other contexts can Suolahti, SKS). be discussed. These contexts can reveal a useful outlook on broader questions of power Conclusion relations and views on truth and morality. In this article, some fragmented and limited sources of oral agitation have been read Notes through “the lens of performance”. I have 1. Agitators were also needed for practical tasks such studied the roles of an agitator with research as for the establishment of associations and to materials that consist of newspaper reports, provide guidance on how to run them (SV 17.10.1906). travel stories and oral history. All the sources were produced for different purposes and all have special characteristics in terms of narrative, political endeavors and purposes. 84

Sources tutkimus: Metodologisia kysymyksiä. Ed. Outi Finnish Literature Society (SKS): Uudet Fingerroos et al. Helsinki: Suomalaisen elämänmuodot 1939 Kirjallisuuden Seura. Pp. 25–48. Finnish Labour Archives: Commission of Finnish Heimo, Anne. 2010. Kapina Sammatissa. Vuoden 1918 Labour Tradition (TMT) paikalliset tulkinnat osana historian yhteis- kunnallisen rakentamisen prosessia. Helsinki: Newspapers Suomlalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura. Kalela, Jorma. 1999. “The Challenge of Oral History – Ilkka The Need to Rethink Source Criticism”. In Sorretun Voima (SV) Historical Perspectives on Memory. Ed. Anne Suomalainen Ollila. Helsinki: Suomen Historiallinen Seura. Mikkola, Kati. 2009. Tulevaisuutta vastaan: Internet Resources Uutuuksien vastustus, kansantiedon keruu ja Historical Newspaper Library of the National Library kansakunnan rakentaminen. Helsinki: Suomalaisen of Finland. Available at: http://digi.lib.helsinki.fi/ Kirjallisuuden Seura. sanomalehti/secure/main.html?language=en Myrdal, Janken. 2012. “Source Pluralism as a Method of Historical Research”. In Historical Knowledge: Works cited In Quest of Theory, Method and Evidence. Ed. Bauman, Richard. 1977. Verbal Art as Performance. Susanna Fellman & Marjatta Rahikainen. Illinois: Waveland Press, Inc. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Bauman, Richard. 1986. Story, Performance, and Publishing. Event. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rosaldo, Michelle Z. 1973. “I have Nothing to Hide: Bergholm, Tapio. 2002. “Edistysusko ja puolueviha”. The Language of Ilongot Oratory”. Language in In Työväki ja tunteet. Ed. Elina Katainen & Pirkko Society 2: 193-223. Kotila. Helsinki: Työväen Historian ja Perinteen Salmi-Niklander, Kirsti. 2004. Itsekasvatusta ja Tutkimuksen Seura. Pp. 181–196. kapinaa. Tutkimus Karkkilan työläisnuorison Burke, Peter. 2005. “Performing History: The kirjoittavasta keskuteluyhteisöstä 1910- ja 1920- Importance of Occasions”. Rethinking History 9(1): luvuilla Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden 35–52. Seura. Ehrnrooth, Jari. 1992. Sanan vallassa, vihan voimalla: Salmi-Niklander, Kirsti. 2006. “Manuscripts and Sosialistiset vallankumousopit ja niiden vaikutus Broadsheets. Narrative genres and the Suomen työväenliikkeessä 1905–1914. Helsinki: Communication Circuit among Working-Class Suomen Historiallinen Seura. Youth in Early 20th-century Finland”. Folklore 33: Fingerroos, Outi, & Riina Haanpää. 2006. “Muistitieto- 109–126. Available at: http://www.folklore.ee/ tutkimuksen ydinkysymyksiä”. In Muistitieto- folklore/vol33/.

High Dudgeon: Crafting Affective Narratives from (Semi-) Official Texts Aaron Mulvany, Habib University

As casual readers, we rarely question the regarding emotions, both our subjects’ and emotional character of literary, folkloric, or our own. other fictive subjects. Within these textual Within the literature on bureaucracy, this is realms there are accepted conventions in place an easy position to take because, as Max meant to replicate ‘real’ emotion and Weber argued: willingness by the audience to accept their Bureaucracy develops the more perfectly, temporary, fabricated reality. Yet when the more it is ‘dehumanized’, the more dealing with historical subjects – particularly completely it succeeds in eliminating from the unremarkable, everyday characters most official business love, hatred, and all purely instrumental in the creation of the ‘dry personal, irrational, and emotional elements discourse’ of the official records relied upon which escape calculation. (Weber 1978: 975.) by so many disciplines – as academic readers, Bureaucratic documents disappear from the we often balk at ascribing feeling. Rather than scholarly gaze precisely because they appear risking unverifiable (which is not to say to give immediate access to the things they untrue) claims about the affective realities of mediate, the things in which the scholar is our subjects, realities rarely directly supposed to be interested. The emotionally recoverable through textual evidence alone, flattened register of bureaucratic discourse – we too often assume a Rankean neutrality meant to be not just legible and efficient but 85 also transparent – forecloses easy access to of work examining the intersection of the emotional conditions under which bureaucratic documents and affect focus more documents might have been produced. on those documented than on those doing the In this article, I will examine a dossier of documenting (e.g. Gupta 2012; Hull 2012b; collected letters, memoranda, notes, and other Tarlo 2003). files that document a rather lengthy debate Teasing emotion out of texts produced that took place between the administration of within the oeuvre of bureaucratic discourse, the recently decolonized territories of French which is specifically designed to operate India and the central Government of India in above the humanizing influence of emotion, New Delhi. The papers within this dossier goes against the presumed impartiality of detail a debate that was ancillary to the most academic discourse. The two registers are pressing concerns facing the new Union commensurable in the ways that they eschew Territory of Pondicherry, but they emotion, but what happens when we are nevertheless reveal profound ruptures in the confronted with sources that seemingly fabric of the bureaucracy and give insight into violate the dictum of bureaucratic discourse? the very real challenges attending the political How do we fairly interpret records with which marriage of two very different post-colonial we can personally empathize without unfairly states. And while it is easy to read their attributing to them our own feelings? Through contents as profoundly personal, deeply an examination of the documents found in affective texts, we must nevertheless remain dossier № F 5-36-/57-CS-3,1 we can explore cognizant of the danger in inscribing them the ways in which legitimate affect can be with emotion. Indeed, as Cynthia Ozick gleaned from bureaucratic files by (1996: 313) reminds us, such letters “are not highlighting the intersection of ethnography necessarily less fraudulent than works of with textual analysis, of lived experience with fiction.” material production. I submit, following Chartier (1994), that the affective An Ethnographic Archaeology of Emotion significations of a text can be made explicit, Temma Berg has argued that “communication in part, by understanding the material becomes fabrication as discourse constructs conditions of its production. the world it presumes to describe” (Berg 2006: 19). As institutional history becomes An Argument in Amber more and more commonplace – for example, Dossier F 5-36-/57-CS-3 itself is an interesting Bruce Weindruch’s ‘heritage management’ “graphic artifact” (Hull 2003). Found misfiled company, The History Factory, or Abdel Aziz in a satellite office of the National Archives of Ezzel Arab’s efforts to collect institutional India – which itself is concealed at the far end oral histories in Egypt through the Economics of a dead-end alley in Lawspet, Pondicherry and Business History Research Center – the District – the dossier contains a mix of semi- construction of institutional narratives does, personal letters addressed to territorial indeed, begin to construct the worlds in which officials, official internal memoranda, such narratives are meant to operate. The correspondence written between officials in growing body of ethnographic literature on Pondicherry and Delhi, and handwritten notes white-collar work offers some correctives to and marginalia noting opinions and the flattening register of bureaucratic interpretations of policy. Describing the discourse (e.g. Ho 2009; Kondo 1990; various contents of the file, the memoranda – McCabe 2007), but often does not go far both within the territorial offices and between enough in granting the same human feelings Pondicherry and Delhi – are written in a to administrators and invisible bureaucrats distinctly bureaucratic register. The that are granted to more ‘traditional’ marginalia are decidedly more intimate in ethnographic subjects. Parallel scholarship on nature, written as internal correspondence the “ethnography of documents” (Harper between colleagues. It is the letters written by 1998) makes several moves in this direction district administrators in Karaikal, Mahe and but, as Hull notes (2012a), the vast majority Yanam that most blend bureaucratic and more

86 personal language. These last documents, in Administrator A.V. Loganathan to Kewal particular, were never meant to see public Singh, then Chief Commissioner of light, and so it seems that their writers felt Pondicherry. In the letter, Loganathan more free to reveal personal details about complained about a bill he had received from private lives lived, significantly, in public the Pay and Accounts Officer demanding accommodations. repayment of ‘frais de representation’ The insight these letters give into the allowance given to cover the costs of (semi-)private lives of public officials is entertaining at the official residence. He fascinating. The 1950s was a tumultuous wrote: period for the French colonies of India. In A special allowance has [always] been early 1948, the French People’s Convention granted to that effect to my predecessors in had passed a resolution expressing the conformity with the order no. 1913 of the determination to join with the newly 30th December 1948. That order is still in independent Republic of India, which was force, as it has not been repealed by any followed by an agreement between the two rule.2 countries granting the French territories the Loganathan lent support to his claim by democratic right to self-determination. By the noting that the same allowance had been end of the year, Chandernagore had elected to given to Antoine Veda upon his appointment join India, while the other four French as Administrator of Yanam the prior territories – Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe, and November, the grant of which had been Yanam – under the control of the French- published in the 16th November 1954 issue of India Socialist Party, remained colonies. La Gazette de l’Etat. “You will agree,” Regardless of pro-colonial sentiment in 1948, Loganathan concluded, “that such an by 1954, France had ceded de facto control of allowance is also necessary for Karaikal the remaining French colonies to India. A which is more important than Yanam” (Ref. Traité de Cession was signed two years later, No. 1753/54). Despite the emotionally in May 1956, but de jure control was not flattened language used in the letter, this granted until the French parliament ratified concluding line suggests the layer of emotion the treaty eight years later, in 1962. underpinning his grievance: anger, insult, Unsurprisingly, this period was a dudgeon. bureaucratically tumultuous one. As the Pinned to Loganathan’s original letter was central government in Delhi tried to establish a memorandum that detailed an internal centralized control over the territorial debate among administrators back in administration in Pondicherry, Pondicherry Pondicherry. In an almost clinical brief, Chief asserted its right under the Traité de Cession Commissioner Singh detailed the various to continue administering the new Union regulations pertaining to the complaint and Territory under existing (French) bureaucratic registered a broader question regarding protocols. But while the political uproar of the compensation for municipal administrators period has been documented (e.g. Miles 1995; like Loganathan. Singh noted a second letter Neogy 1997; Subbiah 1990), it is more written by the District Administrator of Mahe difficult to capture the quotidian anxieties of that had requested a similar allowance and a the administrators caught in the middle. continuance of a free housing provision that The documents held within dossier № F 5- had been granted under the French 36-/57-CS-3 do just that. They stand as administration. As Singh’s memo moved evidence of the profound unease of public through the administration – traceable by the officials caught in the tide of sweeping addition of dated, handwritten comments – a historic change as they attempted to navigate consensus arose that district administrators between French and British bureaucratic were due both free accommodation and the regimes. entertainment provision. This conclusion was When I first opened the file in November th then forwarded to the central government in 2008, I discovered a letter dated 15 January Delhi for approval by the Office of External 1955 and written by Karaikal District Affairs (Ref. No. AD.1(31)/55).3

On 9th May 1955, Delhi denied the request, French rules that had been used in the request prompting a shocked response from the office sent to Delhi following Loganathan’s of Pondicherry’s Finance Secretary: complaint. Veda wrote: We are greatly surprised to see that the This is a serious blow to me and my wife. I Government of India have not accepted our never expected this painful measure. The proposals [...] the fact remains that the Government of Pondicherry assured me on Administrators have to do quite a lot of sending me here that I would receive all the entertaining in their official capacity. The advantages of an officer under the old deputation allowance sanctioned [by our administration. Now I perceive that I receive office...] is not intended to and cannot cover less than my predecessors. (Ref. No. the extra expenditure which the 88/Conf., dt. 25 Aug 1955.) Administrators, unlike others on deputation, Unlike the two earlier claims which had must incur, very often unavoidably, on entertainment in their official capacity. If prompted Delhi to rescind all frais de they were appointed at headquarters they representation, Veda’s compensation was would not have to incur any such extra regulated entirely by the old French rules expenditure. It cannot be the intention of the rather than new IAS rules. Together with his Government of India that these officers who appointment as administrator, he had also are posted as Administrators should be at a been named district judge, a cost-saving disadvantage vis-à-vis their colleagues at decision made by Chief Commissioner Singh headquarters. (Ref. No. AD.1(31)/55-/32ff.) and permissible under the French regulations The response, penned by V.S. Matthews, operating in the Union Territory. A detailed the various expenses required to magistrate’s salary was set, according to maintain the official residences and concluded: Veda, at Rs. 500 per month. Once appointed district magistrate, Veda agreed to undertake they will not only not be able to maintain the the additional duties of the district standard of living which they should do in the interest of the prestige of the State administrator, for which he said he had Government, but will be monetarily worse expected nothing more than a sumptuary off than other officers of the same grade. allowance of Rs. 150 per month. Instead, he (Emphasis added.) complained, he was receiving a mere Rs. 250 in total, four hundred rupees less than he was Delhi cited two of their own directives in due under French regulations. response, No. F.8-3/EI/54(i) and (ii), which Veda cited an order signed 22nd September outlined that Indian Administrative Service 1937 (Journal Officiel [J.O.] 1938: 72) to (IAS) or Madras State civil servants bolster his claim that “[a]ll heads of territorial temporarily deputized to Pondicherry were circles such as Administrators, Chiefs of a not subject to the terms of the French-Indian Settlement, whatever be the cadre to which treaty (Ref. No. F.12-19/EI-55). The two they belong” were to be given free lodging. claims referenced in Commissioner Singh’s Veda anticipated possible counter-arguments original memorandum and the subsequent rd by citing a second order dated 3 June 1948 request to Delhi, were dismissed because both (J.O. 1948: 75) that repealed part of the earlier Loganathan and the second claimant, decree but specifically left in place the Administrator Seshadri of Mahe, had been provision granting free accommodation to deputized to Pondicherry from Madras and municipal administrators. But despite building Mysore IAS cadre, respectively. Delhi’s his argument on a foundation of bureaucratic entirely legal refusal, however, poisoned the protocol, citing established rules by date and well for Antoine Veda, then the Yanam even quoting the relevant lines, Veda’s District Administrator whom Loganathan had language is emotional. He described Delhi’s cited as precedent in his own grievance, decision as “a serious blow” that was whose rightful claim to the same allowances “painful” to both “me and my wife.” By was rescinded by Delhi. inserting his private life into what was Veda responded to this with a letter ostensibly official correspondence, Veda was addressed to the Deputy Secretary in making a meaningful connection between Pondicherry in which he cited the same 88 public policy and its effects on private life. justice alone, but the feeling he put into his His language throughout was chosen letter is literally inscribed into the page. purposefully to evoke sympathy in his Rhetorically, he relies on two devices to write readers, but even so, he could not break affect into the fabric of his letter. In his entirely from the rational, emotionally description of the duties and responsibilities flattened bureaucratic discourse. “Je ne suis required of district administrators, the phrase pas un fonctionnaire regi par decret” [‘I am “il etait obligé” is used to begin four not an officer regulated by [this] order’], he independent clauses in series. To underscore wrote in closing. the vehemence implied by his anaphora, each The following month, the head of the repetition of the word obligé is underlined. It Finance Bureau, E. Tetta, sent a letter to is easy now to forget how pointed and Finance Secretary V.S. Doraiswamy. As a purposeful this act would have been in a former Administrator of Yanam himself, document produced nearly sixty years ago, Tetta was intimately familiar with the duties but in this act – the act of typing each word, of the position. He argued that the District of manually reversing the typewriter carriage, Administrator, in his role as the direct of then underscoring each word with six representative of the government, regardless additional keystrokes – the emotional of his official rank and pay grade: conditions of its production become evident. etait obligé d’habiter l’hotel du Even had he hand-drafted the text before a Gouvernement. Il etait obligé d’y recevoir secretary typed it, even had he dictated it, the les Chefs du Service ou les hauts underscoring in the typed record not only fonctionnaires venant en mission, donc de indicates significant emotive effort, but even disposer d’une ou plusiers chambres d’hotes suggests sustained emotional investment. The meublées. It etait obligé de les nourrir et de ease with which modern computing mediates leur assurer toutes les facilites dont ils written communication has disembodied us avaient besoin. Il etait obligé d’avoir de la from many of the physical manipulations lingerie, de la vaisselle ... etc. et même un required to simulate affect through the personnel domestique. (Avis du Bureau des conventions of text (see e.g. Chartier 1994; Finances, 13th September 1955, underlining Danet 1997). Forgetting this quickly original.) disappearing reality of material production was obliged to live in the Government will, in time, obscure the implicit ability of House. He was obliged to receive graphic artifact conventions to capture affect, department heads and other officials but in recovering/remembering them, we open conducting missions, for which he must up avenues for the emotional interpretation of have one or more guest rooms prepared. He was obliged to provide all food and facilities texts. they might need. He was obliged to provide In response to Tetta’s letter, Secretary linens, dishes ... etc., and even a domestic Doraiswamy issued an undated memorandum, staff. most likely written in November 1955, in which a condescending and dismissive tone is Without these obligations, argued Tetta, the easy to detect. The memo begins by administrator could take a small apartment dismissing Veda’s claim that his salary was according to his family budget without limited to Rs. 250. Doraiswamy calculated concerning himself with the presumed Veda’s total pay to be Rs. 768, including base prestige of his position. But with these pay plus separate allowances for acting as obligations, he concluded: judge and administrator. “I do not consider It is hard for me to conceive the hardship of that Shri Veda has been treated unfairly,” he the current administrator who must pay wrote, “as it is not the practice of the these expenses out of his own pocket. It is government of India to give dual postings.” unjust [...] and M. Veda should receive This is itself a dubious claim, since dual- satisfaction. postings had long been permitted by French As a material instrument expressing affect, regulations under well-defined circumstances, Tetta’s letter would be notable for its call to regulations Doraiswamy had been made

89 aware of during the course of this incident Administrator, Yanam, Mr. Veda has been (X.N. Ref. 102/55). denied any of his entitlements under the More insultingly, Doraiswamy denied various rules and regulations in force, outright that Veda had any out of pocket including the Indo-French Agreement. Even expenses for official entertaining. Such applying the criterion on fairness, can it be contended that Mr. Veda has been treated expenses were, to his knowledge, paid by the badly when compared to the treatment that Government of India. He went on to claim might have been meted out to him if he had that dual appointments were not, in fact, been appointed as Administrator under the permissible. Veda’s position, he argued, was French regime? (No file number.) subject to Government of India regulations rather than regulated by the Indo-French Under-Secretary Mathur responded less than a transfer agreement. He closed his litany of week later: counter-claims, ironically, by referencing the As we appointed him judge for our own same 1937 French rule cited by Veda, a rule convenience, it cannot be stated that we to which he had just claimed Veda was not treated Mr. Veda very liberally. If we subject. But rather than noting the later economized our interests by offering a small paragraph cited by Veda, the one that sum of rs.110 to act as judge, we should not confirmed that “all heads of territorial circles” deprive him of free accommodation, to which he is automatically entitled as were to be granted free lodging, Doraiswamy employee governed by French-Indian Rules instead emphasized earlier sections of the as Administrator of Yanam. (Under Sec. order that defined new accommodation (G.A.), 8-12-55.) benefits due to various ranks concluding that “l’attibution de logement qui ne constitue It seems reasonable to grant that Doraiswamy jamais un droit” (ibid., underline original) was neither a fool nor entirely incompetent; [‘the granting of lodging never constituted a he had, after all, risen to through the ranks of right’]. Doraiswamy closed, almost sullenly, the colonial civil service, ultimately to the “Shri Veda might seek redress through the position of Finance Secretary of the former Court as he had done on an earlier occasion.” French colonies. Nevertheless, his It is easy to read emotion into correspondence on this matter contains many Doraiswamy’s sharp language. His own of the hallmarks consistent with high emotion Under-Secretary, G.P. Mathur, most certainly – sharp language, veiled insults, and irrational did. He responded to his superior’s claims at argumentation – characteristics which are the end of November 1955 by pointing out typically stripped from the flattened register that Veda had been appointed judge as a of bureaucratic discourse. His letters are convenience to the administration and further riddled with factual errors and suggested that that fact in itself should not be inconsistencies. He argues, on the one hand, used as an argument against his claim. Pinned that Veda’s position should not be regulated to Mathur’s letter were four handwritten notes by the Indo-French treaty, then he uses agreeing with his assessment against French regulations to support his position Doraiswamy’s position, including both against Veda’s claims. His letters conflate two G.A.O. Secretary Sampath, who wrote the separate issues, ‘fairness’ and ‘recorded original letter to Delhi in support of facts’, neither of which he seems willing to Loganathan’s claim, and Chief Commissioner address. The facts by law – as first laid out by Singh, who had personally promised rent-free Veda, corroborated by both G.A.O. Secretary accommodation to at least one district Sampath and Under-Secretary Mathur, and administrator. then further supported by Finance Bureau Doraiswamy responded the following head Tetta – clearly defined free week, on December 3rd, by turning the accommodation as partial compensation for argument on its head. “I go by recorded territorial circle administrators subject to the facts,” he wrote: de facto transfer agreement. As for questions of fairness, as had been pointed out by his The simple question for decision now is partisans, Veda had never asked for judicial whether, on his appointment as duties upon his appointment to Yanam. Those 90 additional duties had been requested of him, With reference to your letters, I am directed subject to the regulations defined under the to state that as already intimated in this Government’s letter No. AD.1(31)/55-5455 Indo-French Agreement under which he was th regulated, and he had been personally dated 20 August 1955 [sic] the Government promised fair remuneration by the Chief of India have not agreed to the grant of rent free accommodation to the Administrators of Commissioner himself. The consensus Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam. (Ref. No. F.5- beyond Doraiswamy’s door was that if those 36/57-CS.) rules had been breached, then they had been breached by the administration giving the It was not until October 1958 that appointment, not by the officer accepting. Soundiramurthy conceded his claim, but even Following Mathur’s letter, the record, and in concession, he requested that the rent be presumably the debate, went silent for over a lowered. Like Veda three years earlier, he year. Then, in May 1957, a handwritten note couched his request in highly personal terms, was added to the file noting the transfer of even while maintaining, partially at least, a Veda from Yanam to Karaikal, where he had register appropriate to his medium. “At all been appointed magistrate, a position that did times,” he wrote: not include any in-kind compensation. That Administrators of the various settlements of this note was even included in the record Pondicherry, formerly called French India, suggests that Veda had ultimately been were given the benefit of free lodging. [...] granted the accommodation allowance in Contrary to this practice, I was compelled to Yanam, or at the very least refused to concede pay rent for the portion of the building his claim, and it was perhaps meant to occupied by me as it may be fixed by PWD underscore that he was no longer entitled it. [Public Works Department]. (Ref. No.65/7, Even so, the debate did not end with emphasis added.) Veda’s new appointment. That same month, a Interpreting Affect in Bounded Possibilities newly appointed dual judge-cum- Weber saw files as an expression of administrator named Soundiramurthy filed a institutional norms, and he argued that files claim for in-kind and frais compensation, helped to maintain stability within writing: bureaucratic systems even as these systems As an officer recruited before 1 November can undergo radical administrative changes. 1954, I cannot be subject, for any reason, to And, indeed, documents are used in a variety pay in my capacity of Administrator, any of ways, not just to constitute governable sum of rent. (Ref. No. 58 Cf.) realities but, through their movement, to A curt rejection came in only four days (Ref. “reconstitute the relations of influence No. PS.III/GAII/16). Soundiramurthy normatively established by the organizational reiterated his claim in July, writing: hierarchy” (Hull 2003). The 1950s represented as radical a bureaucratic shift as I should be entitled to free accommodation might be possible barring the extremities of like my predecessors. I am not being treated on the same footing as my predecessors war or natural calamity. It was through regarding compensation, and the payment of documentation that Delhi asserted its control rent would prove a heavy burden. (Ref. No. over Pondicherry, and it was through 318/Y-1.) documentation that Pondicherry tried to stake out the limits of Delhi’s control. Through Soundiramurthy continued to press his claim these machinations, the private lives of public with increasing pathos for over a year, even as officials were affected to various degrees and, the territorial administration in Pondicherry given little other recourse for remedy, their seemed content to let the matter rest.4 A private concerns were necessarily given voice business-like communiqué written by K.S. within the register of bureaucratic discourse. Seshan in Delhi summarized the central I have sketched out some of the ways in government’s position while attempting to which legitimate affect can be inscribed into reframe the issue within the register of what strives to be an emotionally vacant bureaucratic discourse: discourse, and I have shown how these

91 implicit boundaries can nevertheless burst Doraiswamy, V.S. “Response to Avis du Bureau des when ‘private’ emotions overwhelm the limits Finances”. X.N. Ref. 102/55. Doraiswamy, V.S. “Response to G.P. Mathur”. of accepted discourse conventions. It is Doraiswamy, V.S. “Letter to Soundiramurthy from Pay important to recognize that, whatever and Accounts Office”. Ref. No. PS.III/GAII/16. pretentions of unemotional neutrality with Loganathan, A.V. “Letter to Pondicherry Pay and which bureaucratic discourse may be marked, Accounts Office, dated 15 January 1955”. Ref. No. bureaucrats themselves are only human. I am 1753/54. Majumdar, M. “Proposal to grant rent-free not suggesting, and cannot suggest, that affect accommodation and frais de representation”. Ref. is written into the majority of bureaucratic No. F.12-19/EI-55. documents, but when evidence of affect does Mathur, G.P. “Letter to Doraiswamy”. dt. 8 December exist, as it does is these files, there is insight 1955. to be gleaned by examining the production of Matthews, V.S. “Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ response to Sampath”. A.D.1(31)/55-/32ff. the documents themselves as well as the Sampath, S.M. “Memorandum in support of A.V. social surrounding in which they were Loganathan”. Ref. No. A.D.1(31)/55. produced. The object is to resist closing to the Seshan, K.S. “Refusal of Soundiramurthy’s Claim”. possibility of affect in entire classes of Ref. No. F.5-36/57-CS. graphic artifacts based solely on their Soundiramurthy. “Residence of the Administrator – Collection of Rent”. Ref. No. 57 Cf. presumed transparency or beliefs about the Soundiramurthy. “Letter to Chief Commissioner”. Ref. immediacy with which they mediate their No. 58 Cf.. subjects. Soundiramurthy. “Free Accommodation for Administrators”. Ref. No. 318/Y-1. Notes Soundiramurthy. “Acceptance of Government of India 1. The documents kept in this dossier are maintained decision”. Ref. No. 65/7. by the National Archive of India, Puducherry Tetta, E. “Avis du Bureau des Finances”. dt. 13 Office. Their accession number locates them in a September 1955. binder MISC V/4, but they were found kept in Veda, A. “Letter to Office of Deputy Secretary, binder MISC III/V. Pondicherry, dated 25 August 1955”. Ref. No. 2. Correspondence originating in the French colonies is 88/Conf.. translated from the French, unless otherwise noted. In the interest of space, the original French is only Works Cited provided when necessary to illustrate a specific “Arrête, 22 septembre 1937”. 1938. Journal Officiel de point. Letters between Pondicherry and Delhi were la République Française. Paris: Government of written in English. France. 3. As they had not yet been formally joined to India, “Arrête, 3 juin 1948”. 1948. Journal Officiel de la the French territories were still considered ‘foreign’ République Française. Paris: Government of and thus fell under the control of the Ministry of France. External Affairs. Berg, Temma. 2006. The Lives and Letters of an 4. And even as a fifth claimant, Abraham Mouttou – Eighteenth-Century Circle of Acquaintance. appointed to replace Loganathan in Karaikal – Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. lodged a similar request for an entertainment Chartier, Roger. 1994. The Order of Books. Trans. L.G. allowance. Mouttou based his claim on the Cochrane. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University conditions of Antoine Veda’s and Mohammed Press. Amir’s prior appointments in Yanam (Ref. No. Danet, Brenda. 1997. “Books, Letters, Documents: the 4956/57-C). A handwritten note dated 5th January Changing Aesthetics of Texts in Late Print 1959 at the end of the dossier mentions a sixth, Culture”. Journal of Material Culture 2(1): 5–38. unnamed claimant for the same benefit. Since this Gupta, Akhil. 2012. Red Tape: Bureaucracy, penultimate document and the response to it – the Structural Violence, and Poverty in India. Durham: final document in the dossier – are both handwritten Duke University Press. and neither is given a reference number, it can be Harper, R. 1998. Inside the IMF: An Ethnography of assumed that this claim under the old administrative Documents, Technology and Organisational Action. rules was never officially registered. New York: Academic. Ho, Karen. 2009. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Sources Street. Durham: Duke University Press. The following archival sources are all items in dossier Hull, Matthew S. 2003. “The File: Agency, Authority, F 5-36-/57-CS-3, binder MISC V/4 [MISC III/V], and Autography in a Pakistan Bureaucracy”. National Archives of India, Pondicherry Office. Language and Communication 23: 287–314. Hull, Matthew S. 2012a. “Documents and Bureaucracy”. Annual Review of Anthropology 41:251–267. 92

Hull, Matthew S. 2012b. Government of Paper: The Ozick, Cynthia. 1996. “Portrait of the Artist as a Bad Materiality of Bureaucracy in Urban Pakistan. Character”. In The Cynthia Ozick Reader. Ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. Elaine M. Kauvar. Indianapolis: Indiana University Kondo, Dorinne K. 1990. Crafting Selves: Power, Press. Gender, and Discourses of Identity in a Japanese Partner, Nancy F. 1998. “Making Up Lost Time: Workplace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Writing on the Writing of History”. In History and LaCapra, Dominick. 2001. Writing Trauma, Writing Theory: Contemporary Readings. Ed. Brian Fay, History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Philip Pomper, & Richard T. Vann. London: Press. Blackwell. Pp. 69–89. McCabe, Darren. 2007. Power at Work: How Subbiah, V. 1990. Saga of Freedom of French India: Employees Reproduce the Corporate Machine. Testament of My Life. Madras: New Century Bok Abingdon: Routledge. House. Miles, William F.S. 1995. Imperial Burdens: Tarlo, Emma. 2003. Unsettling Memories: Narratives Countercolonialism in Former French India. of the Emergency in Delhi. Berkeley: University of Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. California Press. Neogy, Ajit K. 1997. Decolonization of French India: Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and Society. Berkeley: Liberation and Indo-French Relations, 1947-1954. University of California Press. Pondichéry: Institut français de Pondichéry.

COMMENTS AND COMMUNICATIONS Events

PhD Workshop Announcement – Comparing the Medieval North: Coordinating Methodologies in the Study of Medieval Scandinavia 3rd April 2014, Aarhus, Denmark Louisa Taylor, Univeristy College London, Matilda Watson, Kings College London, and Marie Bønløkke Spejlborg, Aarhus University

We are pleased to announce Comparing the and early career researchers interested in these Medieval North, an interdisciplinary PhD issues are invited to attend and engage in the workshop taking place at Aarhus University dialogues that we will enable. We are hoping on 3rd April 2014. This workshop will provide to have a lively audience to contribute a a forum for discussion of how medievalists diversity of perspectives to our roundtable use different and potentially conflicting discussions. concepts and methodologies in their work, Papers and discussions on the day will and hopefully lead to new ideas about how to cover a wide range of issues: tackle some of the challenges of  Combining archaeological and textual interdisciplinary and comparative work. evidence At the workshop, a cross-disciplinary panel  Comparing and using evidence from of three experts in the medieval period will different genres provide feedback on papers given by  Comparing evidence and developments participants. We are pleased that the across borders and periods following experts have kindly agreed to join  Negotiating terms and concepts across time our panel: and space  Comparing vernacular and Latin texts  Michael Gelting (University of Aberdeen/ Danish National Archives)  Combining the sacred and the secular  Sæbjørg Walaker Nordeide (University of  Cultural exchange, transfer and Bergen) transformation  Agnes Arnórsdóttir (Aarhus University) If you are interested in participating in this Prior to the workshop each participant will event or if you would like further information, circulate a paper (max. 2,500 words) outlining please contact the organizers by e-mail at: their main ideas and or problems. Each paper comparingmedievalnorth@ gmail.com. will be read by one formal ‘respondent’, who The multidisciplinary PhD workshop will be another postgraduate, as well as at Comparing the Medieval North is organised least one expert from our panel. On the day of through Aarhus University, Denmark, and the workshop, each participant will give a ten University College London, United Kingdom. minute presentation summarising their ideas The event is funded by the UCL Faculty to kick-off a round table discussion. We hope Institute of Graduate Studies and by Aarhus this format will facilitate some helpful and University. The organizing committee stimulating feedback for everyone involved. consists of Louisa Taylor (University College Whilst we have a limited number of places London), Matilda Watson (King’s College for ‘active’ participants, who will provide the London) and Marie Bønløkke Spejlborg extracts we will discuss at the event, doctoral (Aarhus University).

Workshop Report – Indigenous Ideas and Foreign Influences: Interactions among Oral and Literary, Latin and Vernacular Cultures in Medieval and Early Modern Northern Europe 26th–27th September 2013, Helsinki Karolina Kouvola, University of Helsinki

The international workshop Indigenous Ideas þat er sagt [‘it is told that’] suggest that an and Foreign Influences took place 26th–27th of oral tradition outside of the saga was known September in Helsinki, Finland, at the House among the saga’s audience and that the saga of Science and Letters. Scholars from the author, Oddr Snorrason, was well aware of fields of linguistics, folklore, history and this. Tatjana Jackson (Russian Academy of theology gathered to discuss interaction Sciences, Moscow) discussed the útferðar between oral and literate cultures as well as saga fragment and its related oral tradition. Latin and vernacular influences in Medieval As mentioned in Morkinskinna, it is possible and Early Modern literature, with particular that, skilled in the art of poetry, Haraldr focus on Northern Europe. The workshop was himself composed stories of his exploits held in honor of the Jarl Gallén Prize which which later became known as the útferðar was awarded to Lars Boje Mortensen saga. Catalin Taranu (University of Leeds) (University of Southern Denmark). The examined Germanic heroic poetry, workshop was organized by Glossa, the concentrating on the role of the dragon-slayer. Society for Medieval Studies in Finland in Taranu focused on the change in Germanic collaboration with Centre for Nordic Studies heroic poetry and the core of the narratives (CENS) at the University of Helsinki and the that remained unchanged through time, even Historiska Föreningen i Finland and was though these narratives underwent funded by Thure Gallén stiftelse. transformations through time as well as Chair of the Historiska Föreningen i geographic space. Finland, Peter Stadius (University of At the same time, in the parallel session Helsinki) opened the event with a warm “Language and Writing Conventions in welcome speech. The opening keynote lecture Medieval Scandinavian Law”, Ditlev Tamm was given by Mara Grudule (University of (University of Copenhagen) and Merike Latvia). Grudule introduced the Latvian Ristikivi (University of Tartu) gave a paper hymns as meeting points of Christian and together concerning Archbishop Anders vernacular cultures in a Latvian context. The Sunesen and the Law of Scania, Maria Kallio Reformation had a considerable influence on (University of Turku) discussed writing Latvian folksongs and hymns when the conventions in Late Medieval Swedish wills translations of the Latin hymns were arranged and Lina Breisch (Uppsala University) according to the speech used by the populace. concentrated on oral and literary rhetoric in Alongside hymns, Latvian lullabies contain Swedish Medieval territorial law. allusions to Christian and folklore themes. Thereafter, in the session “Indigenous The 24 papers were divided into four parallel Ideas and Foreign Influences in Scandinavian sessions, each session containing three papers. Literature”, Päivi Salmesvuori (University of As I could only participate in half of the Helsinki) elaborated on the concept of the workshop sessions, the following report shadow in Saint Brigitta of Sweden’s centers on those sessions that I attended. writings. After the monk Gerekinus criticized In the first session, “Oral Tradition and Birgitta, Birgitta wrote that the shadow of the History”, Galina Glazyrina (Russian monk would remain after his death. Saint Academy of Sciences, Moscow) examined Birgitta often used colorful language in her references to oral tradition in Saga Óláfs writings, but her use of shadow imagery is Tryggvasonar. Standard repeated phrases rare. Ásdís Egilsdóttir (University of Iceland) such as svá er sagt [Old Norse ‘it is said’] and presented a paper focusing on Icelandic

95 hagiographic literature. Three Icelandic an audience and the verbal composition of the saints’ lives were composed in the 13th poem echoes the events pictured in it. century in Latin. These bishops were almost After the keynote lectures, the workshop contemporary to the audience and the need for continued with two parallel sessions. Helen F. Icelandic saints was great. Hagiographers Leslie (University of Bergen) opened the relied on oral tradition, letters and other session “Multilingualism in Sources” with a authentic documents. Icelandic hagiographers paper on mise-en-page in Old Norse also translated the lives of other, foreign Manuscripts. Leslie applied the theory of saints for their Icelandic audience. Kirsi Katherine O’Brien O’Keefee concerning the Kanerva (University of Turku) discussed eye influence of oral language to the manuscript pain in medieval Icelandic sagas and layout in Old Norse manuscripts. Leslie hagiographical literature. In Icelandic sagas, concluded that, although the theory is eye pain is caused by another character with applicable, conclusions that are too broadly magical powers, while in hagiographical applied, such as to an entire culture, should be literature, eye pain is punishment from God avoided. Leena Enqvist (University of for skeptical people. Helsinki) gave a paper on literacy, illiteracy, Parallel to this was the session “Language and book culture among Birgittine nuns. The and Communication”, in which Inka terms literate and illiterate are difficult to Moilanen (University of Stockholm) define. Birgittine reading also included examined Latin and vernacular homilies from bilingual books and reading aids such as Anglo-Saxon England. After Moilanen’s explanations and guidelines. Alpo presentation, Ilkka Leskelä (University of Honkapohja (University of Zurich) examined Helsinki) presented a paper on the praxis of multilingualism in the Sloane group of interregional trade and cultural flow between Middle English manuscripts. Although the the German Hansa and the Swedish realm. Middle English text seems to be nearly Gleb Kazakov finished the session with a equivalent to the Latin, the manuscript reader paper on the term used for ‘king’s men’ or had to acquire enough skill in Latin to ‘retinue’ in Medieval Denmark in Latin and comprehend the manuscript details. vernacular language sources. In the parallel session “Interaction of Oral Friday morning began with three keynote and Literary Cultures”, Linda Kaljundi lectures. The first keynote lecture was given (Finnish Literature Society) discussed oral by Marco Mostert (Utrecht University) on the and written influences in Estonian cultural influence of writing on learned and vernacular memory. Marek Tamm (Tallinn University / languages. German functioned as a lingua Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies) franca for Medieval Central and Northern focused on medieval sermon stories and Europe. This resulted in interaction between Estonian folktales. Irma-Riitta Järvinen local, vernacular languages and the learned, (Finnish Literature Society) discussed the German language. In the second keynote cults of St Katherine of Alexandria and St Anne lecture, Tuomas Heikkilä (Institutum in a Finnish vernacular context. Romanum Finlandiae) discussed the arrival of In the session “Echoes of the Past in book culture to Medieval Finland. Written Icelandic Saga Literature”, Kendra Willson culture arrived in Finland with (Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies) Christianization, for which the most important observed the question of parody in sagas of instrument was written Latin culture. No Icelanders. The evaluation of the concept of written culture existed in the region prior, and parody in Icelandic sagas can be difficult thus writing was a tool of the new-comer. because of cultural differences between today Later on, books in the Finnish language may and the 14th century, but nevertheless some have existed but most written material was in sagas seem to contain elements of pastiches or Swedish. Terry Gunnell (University of parodies of other, well-known sagas. Frog Iceland) held the final keynote lecture on the (University of Helsinki) presented a paper on performance of the Old Norse poem Vǫluspá. the meaning of the Old English word bealdor The poem was intended to be read aloud for and its use in Old English poetry, a cognate of

96 the Old Norse term baldr that became the Olesen (University of Copenhagen) discussed name of the dying god Baldr. Use of the Old runic Latin and foreign influence on the English term is highly formulaic and seems to vernacular epigraphic tradition in Denmark. have developed the ability to refer to any The workshop’s sessions were filled with positive god, saint or hero about to suffer an lively discussion on the use and influence of untimely death Latin and vernacular tradition in medieval At the same time, in the session Europe. It gathered different scholars from “Interaction of Indigenous and Foreign around the world to discuss matters and Traditions”, Kati Kallio (Finnish Literary exchange ideas. The winner of the Jarl Gallén Society) surveyed the makings of a good prize, Lars Boje Mortensen will teach an poem and shifts in poetics, music and international course, directed toward students ideologies. Tuomas M. S. Lehtonen (Finnish from MA levels onwards, in May 2014 in Literature Society) focused on the tradition of Helsinki. More information will be made King David, St. Augustine, Luther and available on Glossa Ry.’s webpage Väinämöinen in cultural context. Rikke S. (http://www.glossa.fi/).

Projects, Networks and Resources

Ísmús (Íslenskur músík- og menningararfur): An Open-Access Database Rósa Þorsteinsdóttir, Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies

Ísmús – Icelandic Music and Cultural www.ismus.is, where one can learn about Heritage – is a database that preserves and Icelandic music from all periods and listen to makes accessible on the internet material that people communicate learned and descriptive concerns Icelandic culture in past times and material, tell stories and perform verses, today: audio files, photographs, film, hymns and poems. manuscripts and texts. The project is run by The story of Ísmús as a project goes back the Tónlistarsafn Íslands or Tónlistarsafnið to 1995 when Bjarki Sveinbjörnsson, (The Music Museum of Iceland) and the currently the Director of the Tónlistarsafn Stofnun Árna Magnússonar í íslenskum Íslands, began to put together photographs of fræðum or Árnastofnun (The Árni Magnússon manuscripts containing music for publication Institute for Icelandic Studies). Bjarki on the internet. The inspiration here was an Sveinbjörnsson (Tónlistarsafnið), Jón Hrólfur idea expressed in the preface to the book Sigurjónsson (Tónlistarsafnið) and Rósa Íslensk þjóðlag [‘Icelandic Folksongs’] Þorsteinsdóttir (folklorist at the Stofnun Árna (1906–1909) by the Rev. Bjarni Þorsteinsson Magnússonar) have worked on this project. that the best way to show old musical In practice, the project falls into three manuscripts would be in a facsimile edition parts, though each part uses a common with transcriptions in modern musical framework so that certain information is notation. For a number of reasons, such a shared across the different parts (e.g. about publication was not feasible around 1900. It people, places and poetry). The three parts are seemed clear to Bjarki, however, that concerned, respectively, with music in computers and internet technology could now manuscripts, church organs and organists, and make this idea a reality. Moreover, this way last but not least, the collection of audio of presenting material could be built upon and recordings preserved for the most part in the expanded later, for example, by linking audio Árnastofnun folklore department. Access to recordings to manuscripts or particular all of the data is via the website at melodies.

At around the same time, work also began every year. For example, students of Folklore on the digital cataloguing of the Árni Studies at the University of Iceland add Magnússon Institute’s folklore collection material about contemporary culture in the since, under the auspices of the Institute, a form of interviews conducted as part of their great amount of material had been recorded studies. In addition to this, the Institute itself on tape. These recordings were made in still actively collects new material. Since particular by the married couple Helga 2000, video has also been used as a recording Jóhannsdóttir (1935–2006) and Jón medium. The aim of the digital cataloguing of Samsonarson (1932–2010) from 1963–1973, the collection is to organise the material by and Hallfreður Örn Eiríksson (1932–2005), subject-matter and catalogue it so that it is who was appointed in 1965 to work at the accessible in a number of ways. In the digital Institute in the area of folkloristics. Hallfreður catalogue, the date and place of the recorded in fact began to work as a collector in the material is listed, together with who made the summer of 1958 and recorded material for recording. Then, the informant’s name, date over 40 years; his last recording was made in of birth, address and place of origin are listed. 1999. Helga, Jón and Hallfreður travelled The subject material is then defined, widely around the country, visited farms, among other things, by: talked to people and recorded all kinds of  Genres: verse material is divided into material (legends and fairy tales, descriptions poems, rímur, nursery rhymes (þulur), of beliefs and customs, poems, hymns, hymns etc.; prose into fairytales, legends, nursery rhymes, rímur, occasional verses and personal experiences narratives, descriptions much more), variously spoken, sung or etc. chanted. Visits were also made to old people  Mode of performance: here, it is noted in Reykjavík, both to their homes and to whether material in verse form is sung, retirement homes. Folklore material has thus chanted or spoken. been collected in all parts of the country, and  Key words: these are taken from a also in the Icelandic settlements in North descriptive list of subject matter, which has America. for the most part evolved alongside the The collection also contains smaller sub- cataloguing. collections made by other scholars and  Content: a short summary of each story or account, and the title or opening of each amateurs, as well as copies of folklore poetic piece. material made by the National Broadcasting  Tale-types and motifs: folktale types Service, copies of original recordings in the following Aarne & Thompson’s The Types possession of the National Museum of of the Folktale (1961); legend types Iceland, and the recordings of the following Christiansen’s Migratory Legends Kvæðamannafélagið Iðunn society. The (1958), Jauhainen’s The Type and Motif oldest sound recordings in the collection are Index of Finnish Belief Legends and folk songs, which were recorded on wax Memorates (1998), MacDonald’s cylinders in 1903–1912. A number of wax “Migratory Legends of the Supernatural in cylinder collections have been preserved from Scotland” (1994–1995) and Almqvist’s the first decades of the 20th century, all of “Crossing the Border” (1991); and motif- which are accessible in the Árnastofnun numbers following Thompson’s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature (1961). collection, whether the original recordings are kept there or are part of other collections. The In 2001, collaborative work on Ísmús began Árnastofnun folklore collection is an with the process of making the Árnastofnun extremely rich resource documenting aspects collection’s audio recordings digital, and of Icelandic life and culture in previous times. linking the collection catalogue to Ísmús. A great proportion of the informants were In addition to granting access to audio born before or around the turn of the century recordings, Ísmús makes accessible in 1900; the oldest was born in 1827. The photographs of nearly all manuscripts that collecting of folkloristic material never ends contain music of various descriptions and that and the collection is constantly expanding are preserved in Icelandic collections, as well

98 as images of musical notation in older printed that the user can find comparable data in all books. Musical notation is found both in categories with a single search. If one wishes, parchment manuscripts and manuscript for example, to find a melody for the text of a fragments containing Catholic Church music particular poem, the opening line of that poem until around 1550, and in paper manuscripts can be used as the search term; the results will from the 16th to 19th centuries, which turn up a list of pages in manuscripts that principally contain Lutheran church music. contain music to the poem, and a second list Images have been provided by the National of recordings of the song either sung or and University Library of Iceland, National chanted. Similarly, it is possible to search for Museum of Iceland, National Archives of a particular person to see whether she or he Iceland, and the manuscript sections of the was an organist (and where). Many organists Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic around the country were also folklore Studies and the Department of Scandinavian collection informants and the same search Research in Copenhagen. The oldest printed will reveal whether recordings exist of this Icelandic books with musical notation are the organist performing other material (e.g. songs so-called Hólabók – a hymnbook printed in or narratives). Where possible, links to 1589, and the Graduale (Grallari) – a mass material in other collections are included, for songbook which was first printed in 1594. example to obituaries and interviews on Ísmús contains images of the sixth edition of Timarit.is and to information about poems the Grallari from 1691 and from the second and verses on the Bragi website’s text edition of the Hólabók from 1619. In addition, database at www.bragi.arnastofnun.is. it is possible to look at digital images of the The launch of Ísmús has enabled the books Leiðarvísir til að leika á langspil by general public to gain direct access to Ari Sæmundsen from 1855, and Íslensk information about Icelandic musical heritage þjóðlög by Bjarni Þorsteinsson, which was for the first time, both music that is found in published 1906–1909. The aim is also to manuscripts and many kinds of unpublished publish images from Bjarni Þorsteinsson’s recordings, from the earliest of wax cylinders folk-song manuscripts. These manuscripts, up to recordings from the present day. In which preserve folksongs collected by Bjarni addition, little by little, the great variety of and others from oral sources, are kept at the sources and knowledge which is preserved in Árnastofnun and contain around 950 songs. the Árnastofnun’s folklore collection is From 2006 onwards, Bjarki Sveinbjörnsson becoming more accessible. These sources and Jón Hrólfur Sigurjónsson have been have inexhaustible potential to shed light on collecting sources about the church organ in Icelandic culture. By making such material Iceland. Nearly all churches in Iceland have accessible, not only are new opportunities for been visited, photographed both inside and home-entertainment and learning created, but outside, and the playing of one hymn on each also diverse possibilities for teaching and for church organ has been recorded. These use in the arts. resources are all available on Ísmús. As far as When the project began, the main objective possible in the future, more information will was to publish sources about Icelandic music be added about each church and its musical on the website. Over time, the emphasis has traditions. Included will be images of older changed and now Ísmús offers broader access instruments and information about them, to different manifestations of musical and records about cantors, organists and priests, narrative culture and to various sources about information about choirs, and links to Iceland’s cultural history. Ísmús therefore published material that is already available offers new possibilities for research and through the digital library of Timarit.is at engagement with sources of different types by www.timarit.is. the general public, specialists, students and The Ísmús project aims, amongst other teachers. Much has changed and developed things, to coordinate resources of this kind compared with the original concept, both with and make them accessible via various regard to the presentation of the material and pathways. There is a uniform catalogue so the technologies available to utilise it. This

99 development will continue as technology in the collection have been released and advances. musicians have used the material in various Access to Ísmús is open to all and the ways. Mention might be made here of the CD material published on Ísmús may be put to Raddir þjóðar (2002), in which jazz personal use, communicated to friends and musicians Pétur Grétarsson and Sigurður relations, used in presentations and for Flosason weave their music together with teaching and research. It is possible to listen recordings from the collection, and also the to material on the website and users are also CD Heyrðu nú hjartans málið mitt (2007), in permitted to download audio material for which composer Snorri Sigfús Birgisson plays personal use. his own piano arrangements of songs that he It is possible to use Ísmús without being a found on Ísmús. registered user but those who do register will The first version of Ísmús was opened on gain better access to the material in certain the 28th of June, 2001. Pictures of manuscripts ways, for example with regard to searches, were put online then, and recordings made by information returned, and being able to save Jón Pálsson and Jón Leifs on wax cylinders. material for future use. On the 1st of May, 2004, over 2000 recordings In addition to individual users, other from the Árnastofnun’s folklore collection collections can use Ísmús to catalogue their were formally added. After technical redesign audio archives and make them accessible. The and expansion, the new website was opened audio material recorded by the Fræðafélag with a ceremony on the 8th June 2012. Vestur-Húnvetninga in Northern Iceland is It is clear that a great deal of work remains already available on Ísmús though the original to be done with regard to the cataloguing of recordings are kept in the District Archives at the material on the Ísmús website. There are Hvammtangi. The uploading of this material inevitably various errors, for example, which to Ísmús was the result of a collaborative are corrected as they become apparent. A effort coordinated by the Fræðasetur Háskóla considerable amount of material and Íslands at Skagaströnd, and part of this photographs are lacking, too, which would process involved developing the best practices supplement search results. It is hoped that with regard to making such audio material users of Ísmús – both those who are registered accessible so that other local archives around and those who are not – will help with this the country can follow the same procedure in work by sending in comments and the future. This kind of audio material suggestions as to what might be improved. requires different treatment than the written There is still material that has not been documents that archive collections usually catalogued at all, in addition to material work with. which has been catalogued but not yet linked It quickly became clear that as the material to other resources, e.g. the audio recordings that comprises the Árnastofnun folklore themselves. Work on this depends, of course, collection is made more accessible, use made on funding for the project being forthcoming of it increases. It is common that having come in future years. With the Ísmús project’s across interviews with relations (often from standardisation and co-ordination of the earlier generations), people contact us and material, new ideas have emerged concerning communicate their approval. Teachers in both collaboration with other organisations, who secondary and primary schools have used have built databases with material relevant to material from particular areas or districts in that which comprises the Ísmús database. their classes to supplement learning about Collaboration would involve harmonising the local surroundings, both physical and social. data and linking the databases so that the Material in the collection has been used in same work is not done twice. Scholars in museums and in exhibitions, and students and many fields have established databases, which specialist researchers, mostly in the fields of contain material about people (scribes, folklore, Icelandic culture and history, have informants, poets, musicians, interviewees, made use of material in their projects. A and many more) that could be relevant. number of publications that draw on material

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There are also databases containing Catalogue of the Norwegian Variants. FF folklore material comparable to that in the Communications 175. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Árnastofnun’s folklore collection, as well as Jauhiainen, Marjatta. 1998. The Type and Motif Index poetry databases and other resources that of Finnish Belief Legends and Memorates. Revised present material about the same churches as and enlarged edition of Lauri Simonsuuri’s Typen- those catalogued in Ísmús. In many cases, und Motivverzeichnis der finnischen mythischen scholars waste a great deal of time looking up Sagen (FF Communications 182). FF Communications 267. Helsinki: Academia and cataloguing material without being aware Scientiarum Fennica. of overlap with other projects. By linking MacDonald, Donald Archie. 1994–1995. “Migratory research databases, so that all participants can Legends of the Supernatural in Scotland: A General catalogue material in a uniform, centralised Survey”. Béaloideas 62–63: 29–78. catalogue, it ought to be possible to avoid Thompson, Stith. 1955–1958. Motif-Index of Folk- Literature: A Classification of Narrative Elements this. Instead of doing the same work twice, in Folktales, Ballads, Myths, Fables, Mediaeval people could concentrate on expanding and Romances, Exempla, Fabliaux, Jest-Books and correcting already-existing material, and Local Legends I–VI. Revised and expanded edition. could work together with others to find ways Copenhagen: Rosenkilde & Bagger. of co-ordinating material. Work with projects Thompson, Stith. 1961. The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography. Second revision of such as Ísmús never ends. It is constantly Antti Aarne’s Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (FF evolving in the search to develop ways of Communications 3) translated and enlarged. FF making this material as accessible as possible. Communications 184 (first revision no. 74). Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Translated by Emily Lethbridge. Internet resources Works Cited Ísmús: www.ismus.is Aarne & Thompson 1961 – see Thompson 1961. Timarit.is: www.timarit.is Almqvist, Bo. 1991. “Crossing the Border: A Sampler Bragi – óðfræðivefur: www.bragi.arnastofnun.is of Irish Migratory Legends about the Supernatural”. Béaloideas 59: 209–278. CDs Ari Sæmundsen. 1855. Leiðarvísir til að leika á Pétur Grétarsson & Sigurður Flosason. 2002. Raddir langspil. Akureyri: H. Helgason. þjóðar. Dimma. Bjarni Þorsteinsson. 1906–1909. Íslensk þjóðlög. Snorri Sigfús Birgisson. 2007. Heyrðu nú hjartans Kaupmannahöfn: S.L. Møller. málið mitt. Steinabær. Christiansen, Reidar Th. 1958. The Migratory Legends: A Proposed List of Types with a Systematic

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PEOPLE Research Reports

Continuity through Transformation: Conditions and Consequences of Sustaining Folklore in Changing Contexts Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the 125th annual meeting of the American Folklore Society: “Cultural Sustainability” held 16th–19th October 2013 in Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A. The American Folklore Society’s theme of by e.g. industrialization, urbanization and ‘cultural sustainability’ was targeted at institutionalized education, which had been ‘applied folklore’.1 The term ‘sustainable’ in preceded by medieval state formation and the terms like ‘sustainable resources’ or Christianization of Europe, to name just a few ‘sustainable research’ implies that the object in 35,000 years of observable cultural history. is threatened: resources may run out; research Indo-European languages and cultures spread may not continue. The theme of ‘cultural from Ireland to India in a few thousand years, sustainability’ thus raises the question: is eclipsing unnumbered cultures of Europe. The ‘culture’ threatened? In “a discipline colonial expansion extended further them predicated on a vanishing subject” across the majority of the world today. The (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett 1996: 249), targeting spread of these languages is symptomatic of this theme for applied folklore warrants cultural transformations associated with critical interrogation. technologies and social structures carried with Historically, Folklore Studies emerged them, and this process is still advancing, now with the documentation of ‘culture’ that was with English as a language of entertainment proving unsustainable, but which was seen as on the global market and of the internet: no valuable by academics, artists, enthusiasts, culture can remain isolated from the internet etc. from outside the traditions. ‘Text’ tended any longer, nor can the internet be introduced to be conflated with ‘tradition’ at that time, independent of its virtual environments. leading to the documentation of ‘texts’ as Those environments in turn are not opened as heritage-objects for preservation in archive a void but instead are assimilated with an text-museums. That text-oriented approach equipage of literally thousands of cultural collapsed in the wake of the performance practices, from ‘smilies’ to genres of web- oriented turn, as ‘tradition’ became seen in design. And then the culture changes. This terms of ‘practice’. Countering threats to phenomenon is different today not so much in sustainability by enabling preservation scale, but in the degrees of connectivity and through ‘practice’ – keeping traditions or mass production that enable greater heritage ‘alive’ rather than removing it to a uniformity and evenness in its progression. museum – can be viewed as an adaptation of The sustainability of folklore or other the earlier pattern to the new paradigm. cultural resources is dependent on willing and This is not to devalue threats to active practice, which is itself dependent on sustainability: traditions, languages and whole the (perceived) relevance of those resources. cultures are disappearing in relation to Culture is a historically contextualized reality changing societal structures, new technologies and changes in culture affect changes in the and globalization, that impact community (perceived) relevance of traditions that can formation and the cultural resources available threaten their ‘sustainability’. ‘Whole’ to individuals. Nevertheless, this is not new: cultures are imagined through central or 19th century peasant culture was transformed characteristic features (e.g. language,

102 particular practices) and discourses on folklorists – the educated outsiders – collected cultural sustainability target – selectively – certain types of folklore and not others. As particular features for sustainability actions. with applied folklore, they were mediators of When a technology such as the internet can the new cultural environment: they took enable a generational gap to constitute a threatened cultural resources from the comprehensive cultural discontinuity (in spite unassimilated and transformed them into e.g. of continuity in language and genetics), it the Märchen of the Brothers Grimm, Kalevala becomes necessary to consider ‘whose’ and Kalevipoeg, which then ‘became’ the culture is being sustained (our forebears?), heritage resources for the descendents of that and for whom (our contemporaries?). If peasant culture – following the discontinuity sustainability means making the unsustainable of their assimilation. Selection was not only sustainable, this inevitably requires adaptation choosing what to collect, but also how to to the new environment making the targeted represent ‘culture’ as heritage. If the traditions practicable (e.g. performed in two engagement of applied folklore with ‘cultural hours rather than for two days) and also sustainability’ today is now seeking to making them interesting, meaningful and/or preserve ‘practices’ rather than ‘texts’, it useful to people. But then, of course, the raises the question of whether we are, in fact, tradition is not the same: formal continuity of elevating ourselves to be shepherds of culture the tradition may require the loss of the – Preserve this, but don’t worry about that... contextual meaningfulness that made it the Change it like this, but perhaps not like that... target of a sustainability action in the first – and if so, whether we run the risk of place, and turn it instead into an icon of working to construct culture in our own image heritage. no less than the Brothers Grimm or Elias Paradoxically, drawing attention to the Lönnrot. target will affect how the tradition is perceived and practiced. Most likely, this will Notes reconstruct it into something new, symbolic, 1. http://www.afsnet.org/?2013AMTheme. and formalized – much as we formalize a language with grammars and schoolbooks to Works Cited Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Barbara. 1996. “Topic Drift: provide it with a distinctive symbolic identity. Negotiating the Gap between the Field and Our The selection of resources means someone Name”. Journal of Folklore Research 33(3): 245– (with preferences and prejudices) chooses 254. what should survive much as 19th century

Realizing Poetic Structure in Practice: A Perspective on dróttkvætt Poetry Frog, University of Helsinki

Paper presented at the conference Song and Emergent Poetics: Oral Traditions in Performance organized by the Runosong Academy, the Academy of Finland project Song and Singing as Cultural Communication of the University of Tampere, the Folk Music Department of the Sibelius Academy and the Academy of Finland Project Oral Poetry, Mythic Knowledge and Vernacular Imagination of University of Helsinki, held 21st–24th November 2013 in Kuhmo, Finland. Old Norse skaldic poetry tends to be imagined their stable reproduction as verbal ‘texts’ does as composed more or less like modern not mean that composition was divorced from literature – i.e. poets pieced verses together traditional strategies for realizing meters word by word rather than drawing on through language. Poetry in the complex formulaic strategies as those familiar from dróttkvætt meter in particular has potential to Oral-Formulaic Theory or other conventional reveal information about aspects of oral- resources. The relationship between language poetic language not readily observable in and meter in skaldic poetry is quite different other poetries. from flexibly reproduced poetries such as Register is a term for variation in language South Slavic epic. Nevertheless, the as it is realized in a particular communicative uniqueness of each skaldic composition and context; in this case, language as used in an

103 oral-poetic tradition can be referred to as a preceding syllable; those in the last three register. An oral-poetic register evolves in positions of a line were ordered NP1 + relation to the metrical environment(s) in NP2.GEN and in odd lines alliteration always which it is realized. The dróttkvætt meter was fell NP1 and NP2. In some formulae, metrical (ideally) characterized by six-syllable lines entanglement advanced to certain verbal joined in couplets by alliteration with two elements on a continuum of fixity, from a alternating types of rhyme (not to mention the general preference in word-choice to one or rules governing syllabic ‘weight’). To even to both elements realizing the kenning. accommodate this, the register developed Complementary to semantic formulae are great flexibility in word order, a rich preferred rhyme-pairs or rhyme sets. Certain vocabulary of semantically equivalent terms metrically entangled battle formulae were (heiti) and the use of the rhetorical figure realized with particular rhyme-pairs. In some called a kenning: a noun complemented by a cases, the rhyme-pair appeared specific to the second noun (in the genitive case or forming a particular metrically entangled formula. The compound) that refers to a third nominal (i.e. rhymed words could be distributed across NP2.GEN + NP1 or NP2-NP1 = NP3). Interest different sentences that met in a line. These here is in how the meter was realized through were therefore technically neither formulae the register in social practice. nor constructions but can be approached in Metrical entanglement describes elements terms of ‘multiforms’ (Frog 2009). of language becoming bound up with certain The skaldic corpus provides a laboratory metrical positions or parameters. Linguistic for examining different varieties and degrees constructions exist on a continuum from of metrical entanglement from abstract abstract grammar to verbally fixed idioms. constructions to highly crystallized The metrical entanglement of grammatical expressions. Whereas Oral-Formulaic Theory constructions (including so-called ‘syntactic began with central concentration on the formulae’) and rhetorical figures like metrical entanglement of specific verbal kennings produce conventions of grammar elements, skaldic dróttkvætt enables the and syntax of the poetic tradition. On the one observation of conventions of formulaic hand, great flexibility in word order does not strategies beneath a surface of lexical mean that syntax was completely free. On the variation. The conventional co-occurrence of other hand, a kenning could, in theory, be verbal elements for producing metrically distributed across almost any positions in a well-formed lines without communicating half-stanza, yet their frequency in certain consistent propositional meanings can also be metrical positions rather than others is also an observed. This poetry presents new aspect of metrical entanglement (two-syllable possibilities for exploring verbal variation NP2-NP1 constructions at the onset of a line; within the conventional resources available in completing the last four positions of a line an oral-poetic tradition. It highlights the with an NP2.GEN + NP1 construction). necessity of considering variation in A formula is a type of construction conventionalized expressions on a continuum distinguished by forming a unit of meaning. A rather than regarding fixity and variation as pilot study of more than 300 metrically being mutually exclusive and in binary situated battle-kennings revealed that the opposition. majority realize particular metrically entangled semantic formulae – e.g. two- Works Cited Frog. 2009 “Speech-Acts in Skaldic Verse: Genre, syllable NP2-NP1 battle-kennings occurred at the onset of even lines but not odd-lines; Formula and Improvisation”. In Versatility in Versification: Multidisciplinary Approaches to those in the last four positions of a line were Metrics. Ed. Tonya Kim Dewey & Frog. Berkeley ordered NP2.GEN + NP1 and in odd lines Insights in Linguistics and Semiotics 74. New alliteration fell on NP2 normally with a York: Peter Lang. Pp. 223–246.

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Magical Mooning and the Goat Skin Twirl: Memories of Old Nordic Magical Practices in the Saga Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper presented at Nordic Mythologies: Interpretations, Intersections and Institutions organized by the Centre for Medieval Studies, UCLA, 27th–28th April 2012, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A. This paper contained a brief examination of their legs. The second was another practice the two rather odd magical practices whereby changes in the weather (and other described, but ever explained, in the Icelandic effects) are brought about by magicians sagas. The first was ‘magical mooning’ (my waving a (goat) skin around their heads. In description), whereby females with magical addition to describing and listing the various abilities threaten their enemies by raising their examples of these phenomena, an attempt was skirts and walking backwards towards the made to explain them, using comparative enemies in question with their heads between material from the Middle Ages and folklore.

Pantheon? What Pantheon? – Concepts of a Family of Gods in Pre-Christian Nordic Religions Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper presented at the 15th International Saga Conference: “Sagas and the Use of the Past”organized at Aarhus University, 5th–11th August 2012, Aarhus, Denmark. Largely on the basis of the evidence of to apply in Iceland and large parts of Norway, Grímnismál, Vafþrúðnismál, Vǫluspá and where Þórr seems to have had a more central Snorra Edda (and the classical models of role. In this paper, I take this question further, Greek and Roman religion), it has generally questioning whether the idea of a pantheon been accepted that ‘Old Nordic Religion’, involving a range of gods living together often depicted as a set body of beliefs and under Óðinn’s rule was another late rituals over a wide area of space and time, development, and whether the same might not involved a pantheon of gods who lived in the apply to the other generally accepted same space (Ásgarðr) under the rulership (and (Dumezilian) idea that people chose their fatherhood) of Óðinn. In recent years, gods according to their class. Indeed, it however, an increasing number of scholars appears that gods like Freyr (the ‘Lord’), Þórr have started to question this understanding of (centre at Uppsala) with their ‘other halves’ Old Nordic religion, suggesting that its forms, were actually comparatively all-purpose gods and emphases changed by time and space, perfectly capable of assisting all classes ruling depending on social, geographical, political, as solo-gods without any need of a pantheon economic and environmental conditions at of ‘equals’ alongside them. The pantheon any given time. It also seems clear that in might be viewed as a practical Odinic way of many places, and at many times during the taking over other previous religions without period under discussion, Óðinn was not seen wiping them out. as being the chief god. This certainly appears

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A Hot Topic: Volcanoes in Old Norse Mythology Mathias Nordvig, Aarhus University

Paper abstract given at the Aarhus Old Norse Mythology Conference at Harvard: “Old Norse Mythology in Comparative Contexts”, 1st November 2013. This paper explores a possible mythic motif of Surtr are put together by Eyvindr related to the description of volcanism in skáldaspillir in Háleygjatal 1–2. various medieval Icelandic sources. There are With this array of different sources, all only very few textual examples of the partaking in what seems to be a mythic motif medieval period that can be related to forms of volcanism, I argue that Snorri’s version of of indigenous conceptions of volcanism in the myth of the Mead of Poetry makes use of Iceland. this motif in the construction of an Icelandic The skaldic poem Hallmundarkviða in the version of that myth, which is entirely late Bergbúa þáttr is in fact the only poem different from the one found in Hávamál 104– known to undoubtedly describe volcanism. 110. Snorri’s myth involves noisy giants in Fortunately, the account of an eruption in that sailing boats (Gillingr); noisy dwarves poem, related by a bergbúi in a cave, makes (Galarr); a mountain called Hnitbjǫrg use of a mythic motif that can be found (clashing rocks); the eagle and an explosion elsewhere. The motif involves a stone boat of golden liquid. Contrary to the myth in that is iron-braced; eagles/birds/flying; noisy Hávamál it takes place outside, all over the giants and other supernatural creatures; the cosmos, and it involves several deaths: mead of poetry; and the volcano-god Surtr. Kvasir; the giant Gillingr and his wife; and Elements of this motif appear in other nine slaves. The reason for this reformulation sources: in Landnámabók the eruption that of the Hávamál myth of the Mead of Poetry, I created the Borgarhraun is caused by a giant argue, is that the mead and other alcoholic sailing in an iron boat; in the annals of Flatey beverages were early on associated with a men report to have seen birds in an eruption chthonic existence and the acquisition and in Hekla in 1341; both Konungs skuggsjá and remembering of important cultural Saxo tell of volcanic waters that taste like knowledge. beer; in Vǫluspá the stanzas 47–52 combine By the use of a mythic motif of volcanism the images of the noisy giants and dwarves, in the construction of a tale of the Mead of the eagle, a boat made of nails (Naglfar) and Poetry, Snorri or his source has successfully Surtr to describe Ragnarǫkr in volcano- secured knowledge about volcanic eruptions mythic terms. And most curiously, the images for posterity, thereby aiding the perseverance of the noisy giant, a flying god and the origins of culture in the mixing of lava with mead. of the Mead of Poetry in the sinking valleys

Lectures

The Belief Contexts and Performance of Vǫluspá: Considerations Regarding the Nordic Judgement Day Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Lecture presented for Religionsvidenskablig forening, University of Aarhus, 21st February 2012, Aarhus, Denmark. We tend to encounter Vǫluspá first in the book, often in a library or a learning form of written symbols printed on paper in a institution. As a result we often forget the fact

106 that in all likelihood this work was never rhythm and tone and their potential for conceived as being received in this fashion. It stirring an audience, much like a composer of is generally agreed that prior to its being music. Furthermore, when Vǫluspá was recorded on pergament, the work had not only performed, audiences did not only listen, but been passed on in oral form for several also observed the work (and its performer) in centuries, but also been composed (in some living context (the hall?). This would form) for a listening and – equally important naturally have added yet another layer of – a watching audience. This means that in semiotics. This brief talk sought to introduce addition to considering the textual form, and some of these ideas concerning the original the use of oral formulæ, we should also performances of Vǫluspá, how the work consider the fact that the composer- might have been received; and what culture performer(s) was/were considering sound, might have given birth to it.

Folk Legends, Folk Traditions and Grave Mounds Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Lecture presented at the half-day seminar Ancestor Worship, organized by the Centre for Scandinavian Studies, University of Aberdeen, 8th March 2012, Aberdeen, U.K. As is well known, the Grimm brothers and deeply-rooted folklore – both traditions and others directly inspired by them, such as legends – can survive for a very long time Wilhelm Mannhardt, saw folklore as indeed. One of the questions is how we decide something that often contained ‘survivals’ of the age and origin of such traditions that have pagan mythology and pagan rituals. With the only been recorded in potentially recent times. growth of understanding of field of This paper follows up on earlier work carried folkloristics over the two centuries that out by Håkon Schetelig, Axel Olrik and Atle followed, scholars have come to be more Omland. It examines those legends and wary of blindly accepting such approaches. traditions concerning grave mounds from later This especially applies to literary scholars and times, and especially traditions concerning historians who have questioned the possibility offerings of ale and bread made to grave that pagan material could survive so long in a mounds on holy days (something that Christian world. The latter approach continued until comparatively recently), and nonetheless also has its drawbacks, not least legends which deal with the sacrality of grave because it contains a comparatively mounds and bad luck that can befall anyone superficial understanding of the time it takes who does not respect them. If nothing else, for Christian attitudes to take root, and of how this material provides us with a useful insight commonly Christianity has tended to blend into the way the construction of grave mounds with existing mindsets, rather than replace changed the local landscape and the way it them. Furthermore, it is clear that some was understood by people.

The Power in the Place: Icelandic Legends Concerning ‘Power Spots’ in a Comparative Context Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Plenary lecture presented at the 6th Nordic-Celtic-Baltic Folklore Symposium: “Supernatural Places”, organized by the Department of Estonian and Comparative Folklore and the Department of Scandinavian Studies of the University of Tartu, and the Tartu NEFA Group in cooperation with the Centre of Excellence in Cultural Theory, 4th–7th June 2012, Tartu, Estonia. On a large number of farms in Iceland, one not be tampered with in any way, for fear of finds so-called álagablettir [lit. ‘enchanted dire consequences that could befall the farm spots’] in the surrounding nature which must and those who live on it. Most of these spots

107 are accompanied by legends which underline evolved in a place like Iceland which does not the potential consequences. There are obvious have the same ancient history in its parallels between these legends and those environment as Norway and Ireland. Are related to ancient grave mounds in Norway, these spots in Iceland related to early religious Shetland and Orkney, and the so-called ‘fairy activities or more recent activities (such as the forts’ or raths in the west of Ireland. These burial of diseased animals), or some inner legends thus have taken on international need to keep parts of the environment in their migratory forms, but are all linked to specific original form? These questions were local spots. There is nonetheless a question discussed in this lecture. why and how such stories should have

Published Articles

Gods, Stories and the sampo: Three Works Approaching Outcomes of Historical Change Frog, University of Helsinki

The paper “Evolution, Revolution and Ethnocultural Substrata: From Finno-Ugric Sky-God to the God-Smith Ilmarinen” published in Finno-Ugric Folklore, Myth and Cultural Identity: Proceedings from the Fifth International Symposium on Finno-Ugric Languages in Groningen, University of Groningen, June 7–9, 2011, edited by Adriaan van der Hoeven & Cornelius Hasselblatt, Studia Fenno-Ugrica Groningana 7, Maastricht: Shaker, 2012, pp. 25–43. The paper “Confluence, Continuity and Change in the Evolution of Myth: Cultural Activity and the Finno-Karelian Sampo-Cycle”, published in Mythic Discourses: Studies in Uralic Traditions, edited by Frog, Anna-Leena Siikala & Eila Stepanova, Studia Fennica Folkloristica 20, Helsinki: Finnish Literature Society, 2002, pp. 205–254. The paper “Shamans, Christians, and Things in between: From Finnic–Germanic Contacts to the Conversion of Karelia”, published in Conversions: Looking for Ideological Change in the Early Middle Ages, edited by Leszek Słupecki & Rudolf Simek, Studia Mediaevalia Septentrionalia 23, Vienna: Fassbaender, 2013, pp. 53–98. These three articles represent outcomes of the Most information in the conference paper research project “The Generation of Myth in a “Evolution, Revolution and Ethnocultural Confluence of Cultures: Perspectives on the Substrata” is also present in the two longer Cycle of the Sampo in Kalevalaic Poetry” articles. This paper focuses on the mythic (2009–2012, 2014–2015) employing the smith Ilmarinen and his relationship to sky- Parallax Approach (Frog 2012) to distinguish gods of other Finno-Ugric cultures bearing and investigate different ethnocultural cognate names. It emphasizes a) the early substrata (Frog 2011) in the evidence of North semantic correlation of the god with the Finnic mythology, magic and ritual practices. phenomenon of the sky at the level of the Each article focuses on a different aspect of lexicon in Uralic cultures; b) the semantic the broad phenomena of transformation that disambiguation of the god from the sky in gave rise to documented North Finnic Finnic languages; c) complementing of traditions. The articles were for quite different Ilmari(nen)’s identity with an identity of the audiences and venues: proceedings for a smith of heaven; and d) displacement from conference on Finno-Ugric languages, a the role of central sky-god. A ‘hypothesis of volume on Uralic mythology, and semantic correlation’ associated with proceedings for a conference on conversions theonyms within Uralic mythologies is with strong connections to Old Norse introduced: i.e. the assimilation of a god (or scholarship. They were not written to be read theonym) identified with the sky-god leads in a sequence and overlap. the new theonym to function as a common noun for the phenomenon of the sky owing to

108 a semantic correlation between them. In other Christianity and the question of whether the words, the god was not named ‘Sky’; the spread of kalevalaic mythology may have, in phenomenon of the sky was referred to by the fact, ‘become’ a spread of Christianity – name of the god. Consequently, it is more Christiantiy as seen through the eyes of the probable that Proto-Finno-Ugric *ilma [‘sky, ritual specialists using it. weather’] derives from a theonym *Ilma or “Confluence, Continuity and Change in the *Il-ma rather than the theonym having first Evolution of Myth” concentrates on narrative been a common noun. This hypothesis can be material in the Sampo-Cycle. It addresses the transferred to other environments such as diverse and stratified history of narratives and variation in theonyms for the thunder-god motifs and their variation in the kalevalaic meaning ‘thunder’ in Indo-European poetry tradition. The history of narrative languages, which can then reciprocally be material is distinguished from the formation viewed as a context in which the Norse of the cycle as a whole. Germanic models are theonym Þórr has been disambiguated from argued to have been central in the formation ‘thunder’ alongside Sámi languages in which of the cycle as a narrative whole although the maintenance of semantic correlation of individual images, gods, motifs and whole theonyms for the thunder-god with ‘thunder’ episodes may have had much longer and is found at a geographical remove from dynamic histories. Comparative evidence of Germanic contacts. inherited Finno-Ugric mythology is placed in “Shamans, Christians, and Things in dialogue with the attested traditions in order between” focuses on a transformative process to illuminate discontinuities as well as that moved through Finno-Karelian cultures continuities. Attention is given to the role of that produced a radical and aggressive break narrative material and its adaptations for the from form(s) of shamanism that would have construction of the identities of gods or been associated with the Finno-Ugric mythic identities and their relationships to one linguistic-cultural heritage. This process is another. This is related to social roles and identified with the language-based technology identities in society with especial of incantations (associated with Iron Age consideration of ritual specialists as Germanic contacts) as an alternative means authorities in the use and communication of for interacting with the unseen world. Like these traditions. The article argues that the technologies of modern medicine, this Sampo-Cycle took shape as part of the technology was bound up with conceptual discourse of competing institutions of ritual models of health and the body, which in this specialist in conjunction with the emergence case excluded models of a separable soul. of vernacular specialists applying and This model of the soul made it incompatible developing the language-based technology of with inherited forms of shamanism. This incantations. model was also incompatible with Sámi shamanism, which was completely displaced Works Cited by this tradition when the indigenous Sámi Frog. 2011. “Ethnocultural Substratum: Its Potential as populations of Finland and Karelia underwent a Tool for Lateral Approaches to Tradition History”. RMN Newsletter 3: 23–37. a language shift in the spread of North Finnic Frog. 2012. “The Parallax Approach: Situating languages. This shift language shift was also a Traditions in Long-Term Perspective”. RMN shift of culture and mythology that can be Newsletter 4: 40–59. 2nd edn 2013 in press. In nd described as ‘conversion’. This paper includes Approaching Methodology. 2 edn. Ed. Frog & discussions of the role of ritual specialists and Pauliina Latvala with Helen F. Leslie. Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae Humaniora 368. variation in mythology according to cultural Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica. Pp. 101– practices and its functions for users. It also 131. addresses how this tradition interfaced with

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The Drama of the Poetic Edda: Performance as a Means of Transformation Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Progranicza teatralności: Poezja, poetyka, praktyka, edited by Andrzeja Dąbrówki, in the series Studia Staropolskie, Series Nova, Warsaw: Instytut adań Literackich Pan Wydawnictwo 2012, pp. 13–40. This article contains a review of the author’s hall (associated often with the warrior considerations of the performance aspects of culture), have the potential to transform the eddic poetry from 1991 to 2011, ranging from space from a daily setting into one closely the arguments suggested for potential associated with the mythological, imbued connections to ritual drama activities (built on with ritual meaning and power; and of the the ideas of Bertha Phillpotts and noted in The ways in which monologues might work in Origins of Drama in Scandinavia) to more association with masks and helmets. The recent considerations of the way in which paper also raises the importance of some poems suggest movement in time and considering these originally oral works as oral space between the male hall and the female works that were received in space in the form periphery (Skírnismál, Fáfnismál, Sigrdrifu- of sound, vision, music and movement rather mál) while others, set in the essentially male than as symbols on a page.

Masks and Performance in the Early Nordic World Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Masken der Vorzeit in Europa (II): International Tagung vom 19. bis. 21. November in Halle (Saale), edited by Harald Meller and Regine Maraszek, Halle (Saale): Landesamt fur Denkmalpflege und Archaologie Sachsen-Analt 2012, pp. 183–196. The article starts by reviewing the extant other relevant sources). Here the author archaeological material from the Nordic begins by examining what the finding of a countries which suggests that masks were mask ‘means’, considering the ways masks used (for shamanic purposes initially) as far were perceived by performers and audiences back as the late Stone Age, and then on until in earlier times, and how, when worn, they the Iron Age, when historical records come to created a performance space and a liminal join visual images, and even a number of meeting of worlds which changed the objects which appear to be masks. After this, perceptions of the space and the performer it enters into the question of what the author over a longer period. The discussion then has started referring to as ‘performance moves out from this, employing, among other archaeology’, that is the use of manuscripts, things, the Performance Studies approaches and archaeological finds and relevant advocated by scholars such as Richard comparative materials to attempt a Schechner. In short, a mask is very much reconstruction of what early performances more than an object. It is the core of the might have been like (as a number of scholars dramatic art, with all that that entails for a have done using Shakespeare’s texts, and society.

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National Folklore, National Drama and the Creation of Visual National Identity: The Case of Jón Árnason, Sigurður Guðmundsson and Indriði Einarsson in Iceland Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in Folklore and Nationalism in Europe During the Long Nineteenth Century, edited by Timothy Baycroft and David Hopkin in the series National Cultivation of Culture volume 4, Leiden / Boston: Brill 2012, pp. 301–323. As is well known, National Romanticism in simultaneously moving them from the many countries in northern Europe did not performance field of the oral/aural/ only involve the collection of folklore and the imaginative to the visual and active. The writing (rewriting) of national history, but examples of Ibsen’s early works in Norway also the establishment of ‘national literature’. (such as Vikingene på Helgeland and Per This applied in particular to the emphasis that Gynt) and those of Yeats and Lady Gregory in was placed on establishing ‘national theatres’ Ireland are well known. This article examines that presented ‘national’ works for the new the case of how the artist Sigurður nations, works that not only attracted a wide Guðmundsson (the ‘guru’ of national image (ideally popular) audience but also worked on and national culture in Iceland) actively various semiotic levels, from text to encouraged Iceland’s first playwrights to use backdrops, costumes, songs and the creation the new folklore collections to create a new of national types. In many countries, budding national drama – and how the young authors in this new field were actively playwright Indriði Einarsson took up the encouraged to use not only Shakespeare and challenge with a highly popular work called Schiller as models, but also to take the most Nýársnótt [‘New Year’s Night’]. As will be ‘national’ material as sources – i.e. the new shown, this work not only reinvented the folk tales and legends, which were image of Icelandic elves, but also brought reinterpreted for their new audiences, about a whole range of new national festivals.

Waking the Dead: Folk Legends Concerning Magicians and Walking Corpses in Iceland Terry Gunnell, University of Iceland

Paper published in News from other Worlds: Studies in Nordic Folklore, Mythology and Culture (In Honour of John Lindow), edited by Merrill Kaplan and Timothy R. Tangherlini in the Wildcat Canyon Advanced Seminars, Occasional Monograph Series, volume 1, Berkeley Los Angeles: North Pinehurst Press, 2012, pages 235–266. This article is based a paper earlier given as international context, noting that such rituals the Alan Bruford lecture at the University of are not known in Scotland, Ireland or the Edinburgh. It examines all the various Icelandic southern parts of Nordic countries – but seem folk legends concerning the phenomenon of to have become widespread in Iceland. The raising dead bodies and sending them to carry closest similarities are found in amongst the out various tasks, including attacking the Sámi. A brief examination is given of the enemies of the magician or potential magician relevant Sámi traditions and the few saga who has carried out the raising. It notes the accounts of raising the dead, raising the distribution of these accounts, and various question of whether these beliefs might go features of the beliefs involved (who should back to the time of the settlement, have come be raised, when and how), including the from the Sámi areas, and then develop dangers of raising dead foreigners who cannot essentially in the isolated western fjords in the understand the instructions given them. It then context of the beliefs that people in this area places these legends and beliefs in an had closer associations with the dark arts.

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Essay Collections

Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe Riho Grünthal, University of Helsinki, and Petri Kallio, University of Helsinki

A collection of scientific articles edited by Riho Grünthal and Petri Kallio in the series Mémoires de la Société Finno- Ougrienne volume 266, Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura 2012. What do we know about the prehistory of northern Baltic Sea area. The rise of languages and cultures in areas, such as agriculture, identification of new cultural Northern Europe that do not have written waves in terms of language are topics that documents or large extinct cities? For outline the early prehistory in the North. The decades, archaeology and linguistics, two book contains twelve articles by linguists and disciplines weaving together multiple archaeologists, evidence drawn from various interdisciplinary aspects have fostered a Finno-Ugric and Indo-European languages, dialogue focusing on cultural and linguistic and up-to-date insights into the research of networks, mobility and contacts between prehistoric North Europe. For more people. This book sheds new light on cultural information, see further: http://www.sgr.fi/ diffusion and language change in prehistoric sust/sust266/sust266.html. Northern Europe with special emphasis on the

Conversions: Looking for Ideological Change in the Early Middle Ages Leszek Słupecki, University of Rzeszow, and Rudolf Simek, University of Bonn

A collection of scientific articles edited by Leszek Słupecki and Rudolf Simek in the series Studia Medievalia Septentrionalia volume 23, Vienna: Fassbaender 2013. This volume contains eighteen of the papers Jakobsson, “The Hermit and the Milkmaid: held at two conferences dedicated to the The Tale of Ásólfr in Landnámabók and Ólafs comparative study of conversion, both under saga Tryggvasonar en mesta” by Ásdís the overall title of Conversion and Ideological Egilsdóttir, “Some Social Aspects of the Changes in Medieval Scandinavia in Christianization of Ireland” by Wojciech Comparative Perspective, in 2010 in Rzeszow Bedyński, “The Choice of Faith in Eastern and 2011 in Zakopane. The topic of European Folklore” by Olga Belova, conversion from various forms of pre- “Shamans, Christians, and Things in Christian polytheistic systems to one or the Between: From Finnic-Germanic Contacts to other of the three large monotheistic religions the Conversion of Karelia” by Frog, “The plays a major role in all discussions of the Dangerous Dead? – Rethinking Viking-Age literature and cultural life of the Early Middle Deviant Burials” by Leszek Gardeła, “Laws Ages not only in Northern and Western, but of Pagans and their Conversion in the Works also in Central and Eastern Europe. The of Paweł Włodkowic” by Remigiusz Gogosz, papers in this volume thus not only “From One High-One to Another: The encompass the conversion of Scandinavia or Acceptance of Óðinn as Preparation for the Ireland, but also deal with similar phenomena Acceptance of God” by Terry Gunnell, “What in Finland, Baltic Pruthenia, and even touch Was he Looking for and What did he Find? – upon the conversion of the Khasars to Eiríks saga víðfọrla as a fornaldarsaga” by Judaism. Anna Kaiper, “St Bruno of Querfurt and His The contents of the volume include: Account of a Mission to the Pechenegs” by “Conversion and Sacrifice in the Þiðrandi Karol Kollinger, “Heathen Gods and Episode in Flateyjarbók” by Ármann Christian Kings” by John McKinnell, “‘Von

112 ihrem irtumb und seltzam wan noch heutt in the North: A New Kind of Religiosity” by tagk’: The Role of Real Life Experience in the Jens Peter Schjødt, “Álfar and Demons, or: Records of the Prussians Made by Szymon What in Germanic Religion Caused the Grunau (Mid-15th Century-1529/30)” by Julia Medieval Christian Belief in Demons?” by Możdżeń, “Medieval Conversion Narratives Rudolf Simek, “Where Did St Adalbert from East Central Europe and Central Asia: A (Wojciech) Go to Preach the Gospel and Case Study on the Arpads and the Where Did He Die?” by Leszek Paweł Qarakhanids” by Undine Ott, “Sacral Słupecki, and “From Pagan Vikings to milites Kingship and the Judaism of the Khazars” by Christi” by Szymon Wierzbiński. Vladimir Petrukhin, “The Christianisation of

PhD Projects

Nítíða saga in Late Medieval and Early Modern Iceland Sheryl McDonald Werronen, University of Leeds

Thesis defended for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English at the University of Leeds (UK), 18th April 2013. Supervisors: Alaric Hall and Catherine Batt. Examiners: Matthew Driscoll (University of Copenhagen) and Alan Murray (University of Leeds). My doctoral thesis focused on Icelandic Organized in two parts, my thesis literature and society from c. 1400–1700, discussed aspects of the saga text such as its including the reception and reinterpretation of composition, reception, and reconfiguration medieval Icelandic popular texts after the across time and space in medieval and early Icelandic Reformation in 1550. My thesis modern Iceland. In Part One I discussed discussed in detail Nítíða saga, a late Nítíða saga’s internal and external contexts, medieval Icelandic romance that was arguably looking at the saga as a physical and cultural very popular in post-Reformation Iceland, artefact, as well as its setting and worldview. considering that it survives in sixty-five Most significantly, I mapped the relationships manuscripts (Kalinke & Mitchell 1985). Until among the majority of surviving manuscript recently a little studied romance (cf. Ármann witnesses and proposed different groups of Jakobsson 2009; Barnes 2006; Driscoll 1993; manuscripts based on the different versions of Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir 2013; Guðbjörg the text they contain. In Part Two I discussed, Aðalbergsdóttir 1993; McDonald 2009; through analysis of characterization, how the 2012a; 2012b; 2013), Nítíða saga is text might be seen as challenging the popular concerned with important issues that offer romance genres of late medieval Iceland, i.e. insights into medieval Icelandic worldviews, maiden-king and bridal-quest (Kalinke 1990; ideas about what it means to be a romance Wahlgren 1938). Overall, I showed how hero, and the significance of romance as a factors such as the text’s portrayal of an genre in Iceland. Metatextual aspects of the unconventional female hero, alongside its saga are likewise significant, namely the relationships with other romances, may have physical manuscripts through which the helped this story endure generation after medieval text is preserved down to the present generation among a society whose place in day, the different textual versions of the saga, the world was often questioned and lacked and the intertextual connections that it stability under the rule of others during the demonstrates with other medieval Icelandic Middle Ages, the Reformation, and later. literature.

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Methodology from which, but rather to propose broader In Part One of the thesis my analyses are trends. After dividing the manuscripts into mainly literary-historical and material- groups, I then discussed three post-medieval philological. In my consideration of the manuscript versions of Nítíða saga as case manuscripts and different versions of Nítíða studies from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. saga, it was important to me to study the This first chapter demonstrated both the physical manuscripts in person, especially fragility of any given version of medieval considering that only a few of them had texts, as they are reworked and rewritten previously been digitized. I photographed and many times over (see also McDonald 2012b), transcribed a number of small samples from and also the text’s implications for medieval the vast majority of the surviving manuscript Icelandic society and literature, including the witnesses (cf. Hall n.d.), during visits to the role of literature in family and other social Arnamagnæan Institutes in Reykjavík and contexts. Copenhagen, as well as the British Library in In Chapter Two I considered some of the London. Throughout Part Two of my thesis I intertextual relationships evident in Nítíða primarily employed literary-critical methods. saga through the analysis of a prominent In my consideration of the saga as literature, motif concerning náttúrusteinar [Old Norse my analyses always stemmed from close ‘supernatural stones’] and through two case readings of the single textual version on studies that highlight the saga’s relationships which I decided to base my study – that which with two other Icelandic romances: Clári is most familiar among scholars of Old Norse- saga (Cederschiöld 1907), which shares Icelandic literature (Loth 1965). When important themes and motifs with Nítíða saga appropriate, I compared and contrasted that and which likely influenced Nítíða saga’s version with other manuscript versions from author; and Nikulás saga leikara (Wick later centuries. 1996), which appears alongside Nítíða saga in manuscript more than any other text and Part One whose author was very likely influenced by Chapter One delved into the saga’s Nítíða saga. This chapter demonstrated how manuscript context and the transmission of Nítíða saga relates to these and other texts (cf. the text. It provided an overview of the six Glauser 1983; Kalinke 1990) – both secular different groups (A, B, C, D, E, F) into which romances and religious works like saints’ I determined the surviving manuscript lives – in the Christian literary-cultural milieu witnesses of Nítíða saga can be placed. I in which the saga was produced and from based these groups mainly on textual which its author drew inspiration. variation, but also considered codicology, In Chapter Three I discussed the saga’s provenance, and information about scribes setting and the worldviews it exhibits – what I (cf. Cerquiglini 1989; Driscoll 2010). The termed the saga’s “internal contexts”, as chapter also comprised a discussion of the opposed to the “external contexts” covered in medieval text’s post-Reformation reception the first two chapters. Chapter Three showed and transformation through three case studies. how Nítíða saga’s unusual depiction of global Nítíða saga’s six textual versions highlight geography significantly shifts the world’s the value of textual variation in manuscripts centre towards Iceland. I demonstrated how across not only time, but also space. I Nítíða saga engages with the broader discovered that some groups could be European cultural community from which it localized in different parts of Iceland – and other Icelandic romances emerged, and notably the case for Group A manuscripts, how the saga does so by situating medieval primarily from Western Iceland, and Group E Iceland in relation to medieval Europe and the manuscripts, which can be traced to the wider world (cf. Barnes 2006; 2007). I also Eastfjords (cf. Davíð Ólafsson 2009; discussed how the appropriation of a Springborg 1977). In classifying textual European identity for Iceland, through what versions my aim was not to make definitive could be called the cultural colonization of claims about which manuscripts were copied European romance (cf. Sif Rikhardsdottir

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2012), is hinted at in Nítíða saga through its Conclusion reinvention of European romance from a Over the course of my thesis I considered uniquely Nordic perspective. The chapter also medieval Icelandic romance from a variety of discussed the saga’s presentation of space on viewpoints, both generally, and in focussing a smaller scale, looking at the differentiation on a single saga. I discussed how Nítíða saga, between the public and private spaces that the from its unconventional portrayal of characters inhabit, anticipating the discussions geography to its strong female hero, of characters and their relationships in the approaches romance from a unique point of second part of the thesis. view and asks its audiences to reconsider not only what it means to be a romance in Iceland Part Two but also what it means to be an Icelander in In the remaining three chapters of the thesis, I Scandinavia and Europe in the later Middle considered Nítíða saga’s characters and how Ages and into the years after the Reformation. they interact with and influence one another. Further, my research has uncovered In Chapter Four I discussed the detailed and previously unnoticed relationships among careful portrayal of the saga’s strong female manuscripts and texts, and shed light on hero, whose negotiations and manoeuvres Icelandic attitudes towards literature and through the world of bridal-quest allow her to literacy. The value of Nítíða’s story spoke to emerge in marriage as an equal with her Icelanders long after its medieval husband. Building on this, I showed in composition, and with each reworking of the Chapter Five how the depiction of the saga’s text – from the subtle shifts in perspective and supporting characters, many of whom are focus evident in some versions to the radical female, reinforces Nítíða’s position as the rewritings of the youngest surviving hero. Women and their relationships are a manuscripts – appreciation of this saga central concern in Nítíða saga, not only arguably grew and inspired further because the story is named after its meykóngr reworkings, many of which (particularly the [Old Norse ‘maiden-king’] (cf. Guðbjörg poetic rímur versions of the saga) I was Aðalbergsdóttir 1993; Sif Ríkharðsdóttir unfortunately unable to consider in my 2010), but also because of the many other doctoral research. I anticipate much more female characters and their relationships, fruitful research will result from further in- represented throughout the text (cf. Jóhanna depth studies of the story in its different Katrín Friðriksdóttir 2013). I argued that the versions, the many manuscripts, and the saga thus questions conventional medieval diverse contexts of Nítíða saga. Icelandic romance norms, which regularly The aforementioned doctoral thesis is involve a male hero, his companions, and his currently being revised for future publication. quest for a bride (Kalinke 1990). To round out the literary analysis of the text, I looked in Works Cited Chapter Six at the narrator’s role in the saga. I Ármann Jakobsson. 2009. Illa fenginn mjöður: lesið í understood the anonymous narrator as an miðaldatexta. Reykjavík: Háskólaútgáfan. Barnes, Geraldine. 2007. “Travel and translatio studii important character who guides the audience in the Icelandic riddarasögur”. In Übersetzen im through the story (cf. O’Connor 2005), and skandinavischen Mittelalter. Ed. Vera who likewise, and especially, reinforces the Johanterwage & Stephanie Würth. Vienna: presentation of Nítíða as the saga’s hero. Fassbaender. Pp. 123–139. Furthermore, throughout the second part of Barnes, Geraldine. 2006. “Margin vs. Centre: Geopolitics in Nitida saga (A Cosmographical the thesis I compared characterization in the Comedy?)”. In The Fantastic in Old familiar base text (Loth 1965), with the Norse/Icelandic Literature: Sagas and the British characters’ portrayal, development, or even Isles, Preprint Papers of the Thirteenth International omission in a selection of other textual Saga Conference, Durham and York, 6–12 August versions, in order to consider how examples 2006. Ed. John McKinnell, David Ashurst & Donata Kick. Durham: Centre for Medieval and of how the saga changed – in perspective, Renaissance Studies. Pp. 104–112. plot, and audience – over time. Bibire, Paul. 1985. “From riddarasaga to lygisaga: The Norse Response to Romance”. In Les Sagas des Chevaliers (Riddarasögur): Actes de la 5ième 115

conférence internationale sur les sagas (Toulon, McDonald, Sheryl. 2012a. “Some Nitida saga Juillet 1982). Ed. Régis Boyer. Paris: Presses de Manuscript Groupings”. In The 15th International l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne. Pp. 55–74. Saga Conference: Sagas and the Use of the Past, Cederschiöld, Gustaf (ed.). 1907. Clári saga. Halle 5th–11th August 2012, Aarhus University: Preprint a.S.: Niemeyer. of Abstracts. Ed. A. Mathias Valentin Nordvig et al. Cerquiglini, Bernard. 1989. Éloge de la variante: Aarhus: Faculty of Arts. Pp. 227–228. Histoire critique de la philologie. Paris: Seuil. McDonald, Sheryl. 2012b. “Variance Uncovered and Davíð Ólafsson. 2009. “Wordmongers: Post-Medieval Errors Explained: Nítíða saga in the Seventeenth- Scribal Culture and the Case of Sighvatur Century Manuscript JS 166 fol”. Digital Philology Grímsson”. Unpublished PhD thesis. St Andrews 1: 303–318. University. Available at: hdl.handle.net/10023/770. McDonald, Sheryl. 2009. “Nítíða saga: A Normalised Driscoll, Matthew. 2010. “The Words on the Page: Icelandic Text and Translation”. Leeds Studies in Thoughts on Philology, Old and New”. In Creating English 40: 119–144. the Medieval Saga: Versions, Variability, and McDonald Werronen, Sheryl Elizabeth. 2013. Editorial Interpretations of Old Norse Saga “Transforming Popular Romance on the Edge of Literature. Ed. Judy Quinn & Emily Lethbridge. the World: Nítíða saga in Late Medieval and Early Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag. Pp. 85–102. Modern Iceland”. Unpublished PhD thesis. Driscoll, Matthew. 1993. “Nitida saga”. In Medieval University of Leeds. Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Phillip Pulsiano O’Connor, Ralph. 2005. “History or Fiction? Truth- et al. New York: Garland, 1993. P. 432. Claims and Defensive Narrators in Icelandic Glauser, Jürg. 1983. Isländische Märchensagas: Romance-Sagas”. Mediaeval Scandinavia 15: 101– Studien zur Prosaliteratur im spätmitterlalterlichen 169. Island. Basel: Helbing und Lichtenhahn. Sif Rikhardsdottir. 2012. Medieval Translations and Guðbjörg Aðalbergsdóttir. 1993. “Nítíða og aðrir Cultural Discourse: The Movement of Texts in meykóngar”. Mímir 32–33: 49–55. England, France, and Scandinavia. Woodbridge: Hall, Alaric. n.d. “Making Stemmas with Small Brewer. Samples: Testing the Stemma of Konráðs saga Sif Ríkharðsdóttir. 2010. “Meykóngahefðin í keisarasonar, and New Media Approaches to riddarasögum: Hugmyndafræðileg átök um Publishing Stemmas”. Working paper available at: kynhlutverk og þjóðfélagsstöðu”. Skírnir 184: 410– www.alarichall.org.uk/working_paper_on_stemmas 433. _from_small_samples/. Springborg, Peter. 1977. “Antiqvæ historiæ lepores: Jóhanna Katrín Friðriksdóttir. 2013. Women in Old Om renæssancen i den islandske Norse Literature: Bodies, Words, and Power. New håndskriftproduktion i 1600-tallet”. Gardar 8: 53– York: Palgrave Macmillan. 89. Kalinke, Marianne E. 1990. Bridal-Quest Romance in Wahlgren, Erik. 1938. “The Maiden King in Iceland”. Medieval Iceland. London: Cornell University Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Chicago. Press. Wick, Keren H. 1996. An Edition and Study of Nikulás Kalinke, Marianne E., & P.M. Mitchell. 1985. saga Leikara. Unpublished PhD thesis. University Bibliography of Old Norse-Icelandic Romances. of Leeds. Available at: London: Cornell University Press. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/1632. Loth, Agnete, ed. 1965. “Nitida saga”. In Late Medieval Icelandic Romances. 5 vols. Copenhagen: Editiones Arnamagnæana. v: 1–37.

Master’s Thesis Projects

Piracy in Eastern Baltic Sea Region (9th–13th centuries) Geoffroy d’Arexy, University of Oslo

Master’s thesis in Medieval Studies, defended on the 3rd May, 2013, University of Bordeaux Supervisors: Céline Martin and Isabelle Cartron. This following master’s thesis sets out to to the 13th centuries. The research is based study the ‘non-Scandinavian’ piracy primarily on written material, especially on expeditions in the Baltic Sea area from the 9th Latin sources, which are the Rimbert’s Vita

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Anskarii, Adam of Bremen’s Gesta island of Gotland, which still retained Hammaburgensis, Helmold of Bosau’s important relationships with the Baltic). Chronica Slavorum, Saxo Grammaticus Gesta Under these circumstances, wealth had to be Danorum, and Henri of Livonia’s Chronicon acquired by means other than trade. Slave Livoniae. Archeological data are also trade also appears also to be a motivation for analyzed, especially the Baltic Sea’s ports of these expeditions. Some of these expeditions trade. This data reveals a rather important could also be mercenary work, or undertaken Scandinavian presence from the second half by ancient mercenaries. Due to the greater of the 7th century. inequality in social structures, some raids The investigation of the sources reveals could also be at the initiative of the younger deep transformations during the period under sons of a family or other people consideration in the eastern Baltic societies, disadvantaged by the system as an alternative leading to a more hierarchical social means of acquiring riches and thereby a more organization with more social inequality, and prestigious social status, a local chief’s a culture more inclined to war. These position and perhaps wives. The Rani of transformations could be the consequences of coastal Pomerania seem to also collect tribute a defensive reaction towards aggressive for the worship of the god Svetovid. When the Scandinavian policy, but they could also eastern Baltic region was invaded by the happen under more peaceful circumstances, in Livonian Brothers of the Sword at the a slow acculturation process under the beginning of 13th century, the coastal Baltic influence of a Scandinavian elite. Indeed, tribes invent original naval siege tactics in before the second half of the 9th century, the order to defend themselves. Scandinavian presence seems rather peaceful This study shows that the Viking Age and oriented to trade, but after the second half could be prolonged until the first half of the of the 9th century, it seems that the 13th century for the Baltic region, as there are Scandinavians have more aggressive goals. still plundering sea expeditions organized by The Scandinavians influence is also visible pagan tribes, and these expeditions are through their ship-building techniques, even if intimately connected with the value systems it seems that at some point the eastern Baltic of these societies. This proves that the term societies begin to develop their own ship- ‘Viking’ should not be regard as an ethnic building techniques. designation because people other than These expeditions could be motivated by Scandinavians could be engaged in ‘Viking’ several purposes, and their frequencies seem activities. This is particularly well reflected to increase between the second half of the 10th by a passage found in chapter 5 of Oláfs Saga century and the second half of the 11th Tryggvassonar, in which Queen Astrid is century, with the lowering of the trade captured by víkingar, þat váru Eistr [‘Vikings relationships between the Scandinavian world that were Eistr’]. and the middle/lower Volga region, as well as the eastern Baltic Region (except for the

Anglo-Saxon Dreaming: Dreams and Attitudes towards Dreaming in Anglo- Latin and Old English Texts Gwendolyne Knight, Stockholm University

Thesis submitted for a Master of Arts in Medieval Studies at Stockholm University in September 2013. Supervisor: Olle Ferm. This thesis undertakes a study of dream phenomenological aspects brought to light narratives and attitudes to dreaming among during the course of the analysis. By the Anglo-Saxons by analysing both Anglo- exploring Anglo-Saxon perceptions of dreams Latin and Old English texts, then discussing and dreaming, it studies the possibilities for their context on the basis of drawing conclusions about Anglo-Saxon

117 models of mind. A comparison between psychological constant, representations and Anglo-Latin and Old English dream texts also interpretations of dreams and dreaming forms an important part of this study, as most become the variables which have the potential previous research has concentrated on only to allow an observer to infer what models of one of the two languages. mind lay behind them. Sources were selected The phenomenological research from a variety of genres, and provide a broad undertaken in this study is based upon the perspective over the range of texts being methodological principles set out by the produced and consumed among the Anglo- psychological school of Interpretative Saxons. Because true dreams could Phenomenological Analysis. The study sometimes be described as ‘visions’, texts concerns itself with how particular elements were selected on the basis of whether they that constitute dream experiences have been occurred at night, during sleep. understood, exploited, ignored or engaged Through a thorough examination and with, and how people made sense of these description of dream narratives and texts experiences. The investigation in the thesis of about dreams, several persistent themes Anglo-Saxon models of mind builds emerge. The most ubiquitous theme furthermore upon the concept of theory of throughout texts of both languages is that of mind within cognitive psychology. With the dreamer and the dream, but perceptions ‘theory of mind’ is meant the mechanism and meanings ascribed to the act of whereby a person recognizes a distinction interpretation as well as themes of religion between their mind and the outside world. and holiness also became points of This is seen as a fundamental development in negotiating aspects of both mind and power. human psychology, as it allows a person to While theological matters form the basis of predict someone else’s behaviour based on nearly all dream texts, one finds in Old what one suspects they think or believe, rather English texts clearer references to emotional than on the basis of actual events. However, and psychological capacities of dreamers, and recent anthropological research has also more of a sense of dreaming as a basic demonstrated that cultural settings can have human act. Overall it appears that Anglo- profound consequences for models of mind Saxon minds could become connected to present in any given culture. certain influences only through dreaming, Consequently, this thesis hypothesises that without the oversight of the self. This division culturally specific theories of mind will enter was found to correspond loosely with the text as culturally specific representations of subconscious/conscious division of today. mind. By accepting dreaming as a

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SUMMER SCHOOLS

Viking Mythology and Religion: Old Norse Summer School at Aarhus University 16th–31st July 2014, Aarhus, Denmark

The imaginary world of the Vikings is a vast and amazing landscape that continues to puzzle us. Their myths abound with powerful, tricky and enigmatic gods, forceful giants and an array of supernatural beings, large and small, which seem hard for the modern mind to grasp. This course in Viking mythology and religion focuses on the myths and legends, histories and tales of the Viking world. We will investigate the great variety of textual and archaeological sources for the Viking Age and explore the worldview, beliefs and ethics of the Vikings. We will treat difficult issues of the source material; the originally oral mythology and legends of the Vikings are mainly preserved in medieval literature. We will investigate the relationship between archaeological finds from the Viking Photo by Annie Cúglas Humphrey. Age and the medieval sources, and by employing a wide range of disciplines, such The course takes place at Aarhus University from 16th July (arrival on 15th July) as history of religion, folklore, history, st archaeology and literary analysis, we will to 31 July 2014. The course is open to both BA and MA level students and is for provide a critical overview of the field of st th Viking mythology and religion, as well as the application from 1 December to 15 March. necessary analytic tools for any student The organizers are Mathias Nordvig and Rolf interested in this field. Stavnem. For more information, visit Lecturers at the course will be Margaret www.vikingoldnorse.au.dk or e-mail to Clunies Ross, Judith Jesch, Steven Mitchell, Mathias Nordvig at [email protected] or Jens Peter Schjødt, Jiri Stáry, Luke John Rolf Stavnem at [email protected]. Murphy, Mathias Nordvig and Rolf Stavnem.

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CALLS FOR PAPERS

Interdisciplinary Student Symposium on Religion, Ideology and Cultural Practices in the Old Norse World 21st March 2014, Aarhus, Denmark

The Departments of Aesthetics and Communication and of Culture and Society at Aarhus University are very proud to announce the 7th annual interdisciplinary Student Symposium. If you are a student with a keen interest in any subject connected to Religion, [email protected], no Ideology and Cultural Practices in the Old later than the 15th of January 2014. All Norse World, we hereby invite you to present correspondence must be in English. The a paper. abstracts will be reviewed by a reviewing Students at all levels from BA to PhD are committee from the Departments of invited to participate. The only requirement is Aesthetics and Communication and of Culture that you are enrolled at a university when the and Society. The organisers and reviewers deadline for call for papers expires. The reserve the right to choose participants symposium will be in English and each paper according to the symposium’s requirements of will have a duration of 20 minutes. The quality, internationality and interdisciplin- Student Symposium is a great opportunity to arity. Acceptances and rejections will be e- present your research and interests to a group mailed within a week of the deadline. For of academic peers working in the same field further information, please contact the as you. Furthermore, it is a great opportunity organising committee. to network and make connections with like- The organising committee for the event minded scholars. consists of Lisbeth H. Torfing, Sophie All students who are interested are Bønding and Simon Nygaard. For more encouraged to send a short abstract in information, please also visit our website at: English, no longer than 250 words, to the http://vikingoldnorse.au.dk/activities-and- organising committee by e-mail: events/student-symposium/.

Published by Folklore Studies of the Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, University of Helsinki 120