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Mechanisms of Arterial Remodeling: Lessons from Genetic Diseases

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Mechanisms of Arterial Remodeling: Lessons from Genetic Diseases REVIEW ARTICLE published: 13 December 2012 doi: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00290 Mechanisms of arterial remodeling: lessons from genetic diseases Bernard J. van Varik 1, Roger J. M. W. Rennenberg 1, Chris P.Reutelingsperger 2, Abraham A. Kroon 1, Peter W. de Leeuw 1 and Leon J. Schurgers 2* 1 Department of Internal Medicine, Medical Centre and Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands 2 Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands Edited by: Vascular disease is still the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western Olivier M. Vanakker, Ghent world, and the primary cause of myocardial infarction, stroke, and ischemia. The biology University Hospital, Belgium of vascular disease is complex and still poorly understood in terms of causes and Reviewed by: consequences. Vascular function is determined by structural and functional properties of Ying Xu, West Virginia University, USA the arterial vascular wall. Arterial stiffness, that is a pathological alteration of the vascular Wei Zhang, University of Michigan, wall, ultimately results in target-organ damage and increased mortality. Arterial remodeling USA is accelerated under conditions that adversely affect the balance between arterial function *Correspondence: and structure such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney Leon J. Schurgers, Department of disease, inflammatory disease, lifestyle aspects (smoking), drugs (vitamin K antagonists), Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, and genetic abnormalities [e.g., pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), Marfan’s disease]. The Maastricht University, aim of this review is to provide an overview of the complex mechanisms and different Universiteitssingel 50, PO Box 616, factors that underlie arterial remodeling, learning from single gene defect diseases like 6200 MD Maastricht, Netherlands. PXE, and PXE-like, Marfan’s disease and Keutel syndrome in vascular remodeling. e-mail: l.schurgers@ maastrichtuniversity.nl Keywords: arterial remodeling, calcification, genetic disease, vitamin K, vitamin K-antagonists INTRODUCTION cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, Arterial remodeling refers to the myriad of structural and and chronic kidney disease as well as in normal vascular aging. functional changes of the vascular wall that occur in response to disease, injury, or aging. Although arterial remodeling can GENERAL FEATURES OF ARTERIAL REMODELING be regarded as a mechanism that naturally occurs with aging, Arterial remodeling is thought to reflect adaptation of the ves- early arterial remodeling is associated with significant hemo- sel wall to mechanical and hemodynamic stimuli (Nichols and dynamic changes and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. O’Rourke, 2005). Arterial remodeling is characterized by alter- Arterial remodeling is set into motion by a variety of complex ations in the structure and function of the vascular wall and pathophysiological mechanisms that are closely interrelated, and can be divided into atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis. Whereas that influence both the cellular and non-cellular components of atherosclerosis is characterized by a focal inflammatory process the vascular wall. Mechanisms involved in arterial remodeling in the intima initiated by accumulation of lipids in plaques, arte- include fibrosis, hyperplasia of the arterial intima and media, riosclerosis is a more diffusely localized alteration of the medial changes in vascular collagen and elastin, endothelial dysfunction, arterial vascular wall (Libby, 2002). Arteriosclerosis is associ- and arterial calcification. Migration and proliferation of vascu- ated with aging and generalized cardiovascular, metabolic, or lar smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contribute to thickening of the inflammatory disease. Macroscopically, different types of arte- arterial intima. Differentiation of VSMCs from their contractile rial remodeling can be distinguished, depending on the type to a secretory or osteogenic phenotype may lead to increased and localization of the vessel (Figure 1)(Mulvany et al., 1996). vascular tone, and promotes extracellular matrix (ECM) cal- Arterial remodeling can be either inward or outward and can be cification. Additionally, alterations in the activity of vitamin hypertrophic (thickening of the vascular wall), eutrophic (con- K-dependent proteins may affect the progression of vascular stant wall thickness), or hypotrophic (thinning of the vascular remodeling, including the induction of calcification. Because of wall) (Mulvany et al., 1996). Changes observed in arteriosclerotic this complexity, it is difficult to study to what extent a sin- arterial remodeling are mainly seen in large central elastic arteries. gle mechanism contributes to arterial remodeling. Monogenetic They are characterized by increased vessel diameter and thickened diseases such as pseudoxanthoma elasticum (PXE), PXE-like syn- intimal and medial layers of the vascular wall (outward hyper- drome, Marfan’s syndrome or Keutel syndrome are characterized trophic remodeling) (O’Rourke and Hashimoto, 2007). On the by a clinical phenotype that is similar to that of arterial remod- other hand, remodeling of muscular peripheral vessels is more eling, but are caused by a specific defect that affects only one often inwardly eutrophic or hypertrophic, probably reflecting or several pathophysiological mechanisms of arterial remodeling. sustained vasoconstriction of vessels (Mulvany, 2008). Lessons learned from these relatively rare diseases may there- Thickening of the arterial wall is caused by intimal hyperplasia, fore ultimately provide insight in more common, multifactorial medial hypertrophy and hyperplasia of VSMCs, and deposition www.frontiersin.org December 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 290 | 1 van Varik et al. Mechanisms of arterial remodeling remodeling of vascular tissue (Blaha et al., 2009; Sekikawa et al., 2012). In addition to structural changes, endothelial function plays an important role in arterial remodeling. Blood flow and shear stress stimulate endothelial cells to produce nitric oxide (NO), which in turn influences contraction and relaxation of VSMCs. Endothelial function decreases with age and endothelial dysfunction is com- mon in many cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, in response to pathological conditions, such as altered shear stress or inflam- mation, endothelial cells produce cytokines and growth factors that influence the homeostasis of the vascular wall (Csiszar et al., 2009; Urschel et al., 2012). Endothelial cells produce transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) and bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) which stimulate VSMCs and vascular pericytes to pro- liferate, to differentiate and to deposit ECM matrix (discussed in more detail below) (Simionescu et al., 2005; Boström et al., 2011). PATHOGENESIS OF ARTERIAL REMODELING Arterial remodeling is driven by numerous, highly regulated and FIGURE 1 | Types of vascular remodeling. Adapted from Mulvany et al. interrelated processes. Processes that are of particular importance (1996). Different types of arterial remodeling can be distinguished: as they are central in arterial remodeling include: (1) VSMC hypotrophic (left column), eutrophic (center column) and hypertrophic proliferation and differentiation, (2) degradation and fracture of (right column). In addition remodeling can be either inward or outward. Hypotrophic remodeling results in a relative thinner wall and a lower elastin fibers, and (3) calcification and deposition of ECM mate- wall-to-lumen ratio. Conversely hypertrophic remodeling is characterized by rial (Figure 2). Genetic diseases with a phenotype resembling thickening of the vascular wall due to cellular hyperplasia and/or vascular disease all affect one or several of these key processes hypertrophy or deposition of extracellular matrix material and results in andmaythusprovidemoreinsightinthemechanismsofvascular increased wall-to-lumen ratio. When the diameter of the vessel changes but disease (Figure 3). the wall-to-lumen ratio remains the same it is called eutrophic remodeling. All types of arterial remodeling can occur in cardiovascular disease, depending on the underlying pathophysiology (e.g., aneurysm or VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE CELL PROLIFERATION AND hypertensive arterial stiffening) and arterial site (e.g., central elastic DIFFERENTIATION arteries vs. peripheral resistance arteries). VSMCs are key regulators of vascular tone and health and insight into their function is of utmost importance for our understanding of the causes of arterial remodeling. In normal arteries, VSMCs of ECM material including minerals (Virmani et al., 1991; Safar in the tunica media regulate vessel tone and diameter in order to et al., 1998; Schwartz et al., 2000). The normal composition maintain hemodynamic balance (Alexander and Owens, 2012). and lay-out of ECM of the vascular wall is disrupted in arterial To fulfill this regulatory function, VSMCs need to have a con- remodeling. In the media of the normal arterial wall, elastic fibers tractile phenotype. Contractile VSMCs are characterized by a are arranged in parallel, concentric, fenestrated layers, alternating number of phenotype-specific marker proteins such as smooth with layers of VSMCs anchored to the elastic fibers and structural muscle 22-alpha (SM22α), alpha-smooth muscle actin (αSMa), fibers by glycoproteins and integrins (Dingemans et al., 2000; and smoothelin (Iyemere et al.,
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