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Racist Structures and Ideologies Regarding Aboriginal People in Contemporary and Historical Australian Society

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Racist Structures and Ideologies Regarding Aboriginal People in Contemporary and Historical Australian Society Master Thesis In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science: Development and Rural Innovation Racist structures and ideologies regarding Aboriginal people in contemporary and historical Australian society Robin Anne Gravemaker Student number: 951226276130 June 2020 Supervisor: Elisabet Rasch Chair group: Sociology of Development and Change Course code: SDC-80436 Wageningen University & Research i Abstract Severe inequalities remain in Australian society between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people. This research has examined the role of race and racism in historical Victoria and in the contemporary Australian government, using a structuralist, constructivist framework. It was found that historical approaches to governing Aboriginal people were paternalistic and assimilationist. Institutions like the Central Board for the Protection of Aborigines, which terrorised Aboriginal people for over a century, were creating a racist structure fuelled by racist ideologies. Despite continuous activism by Aboriginal people, it took until 1967 for them to get citizens’ rights. That year, Aboriginal affairs were shifted from state jurisdiction to national jurisdiction. Aboriginal people continue to be underrepresented in positions of power and still lack self-determination. The national government of Australia has reproduced historical inequalities since 1967, and racist structures and ideologies remain. ii iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor, Elisabet Rasch, for her support and constructive criticism. I thank my informants and other friends that I met in Melbourne for talking to me and expanding my mind. Floor, thank you for showing me around in Melbourne and for your never-ending encouragement since then, via phone, postcard or in person. Duane Hamacher helped me tremendously by encouraging me to change the topic of my research and by sharing his own experiences as a researcher. My gratitude goes to Harold, Jaqueline and their sons, Arik, Ori and Josh for welcoming me into their home during my fieldwork in Melbourne. My friends Annika, Jeanique and Tessa have been invaluable because of their continuous support throughout this process. Without you I would not have made it. I appreciate my parents and brother for their love and patience, and my mom specifically for her help with editing this work. iv v Table of content Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... iv 1 Introduction and problem statement ............................................................................................... 1 2 Theoretical framework ................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 The invention of race .............................................................................................................. 3 2.2 Defining race ........................................................................................................................ 12 2.3 Ethnicity and race ................................................................................................................. 13 3 Fieldwork methodology................................................................................................................ 16 3.1 A story about field access ..................................................................................................... 16 3.2 Data collection and processing ............................................................................................. 20 3.3 Positionality and limitations ................................................................................................. 24 4 The racial history of Victoria ........................................................................................................ 25 4.1 Early colonisation (1835-1850s) ........................................................................................... 25 4.2 Schools, missions and protectorates (1837 onwards) ............................................................ 35 4.3 The Melbourne Gold Rush (1851-1860s) ............................................................................. 38 4.4 Establishment and early years of Aboriginal reserves (1860-1886) ...................................... 44 4.5 Child removals and the closure of reserves (1886-1924) ...................................................... 48 4.6 Lake Tyers and scattered communities (1920s-1960s) ......................................................... 52 4.7 The continuing quest for Aboriginal Rights (1930s-1967) ................................................... 56 4.8 Changes (1970s onwards) ..................................................................................................... 63 4.9 Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 66 4.9.1 Racist ideology ............................................................................................................. 66 4.9.2 Racist structure ............................................................................................................. 69 5 Race and racism in contemporary Australian government............................................................ 71 5.1 Aboriginality ........................................................................................................................ 73 5.2 Politics .................................................................................................................................. 78 5.3 Challenges for Aboriginal people ......................................................................................... 85 5.3.1 Land rights and the legal system ................................................................................... 85 5.3.2 Aboriginal incarceration rates ....................................................................................... 90 5.3.3 Continuing child removals ............................................................................................ 92 5.4 Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 93 5.4.1 Racist ideology ............................................................................................................. 93 5.4.2 Racist structure ............................................................................................................. 94 6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 95 7 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 96 8 References .................................................................................................................................... 97 vi vii 1 Introduction and problem statement Brutality and racism against the Aboriginal people of Australia has characterised colonisers’ behaviour since the colonisation of Australia (Allison, 2013; Reynolds, 1987). It has been documented that many non-Aboriginal inhabitants of Australia have regarded Aboriginal people as a lesser people, to be controlled or dealt with (Rowland, 2004). This research addresses the historical and contemporary situation of Aboriginal people related to race and racism in Australian society, with a focus on the state Victoria. Currently, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people make up around 2.7% of the Australian population and make up a total of around 350,000 people (Brady, 2017, p. 438). The Aboriginal community of an estimated 20,000 in Melbourne, Victoria is a mix of people with heritage from many different tribes. To give an example of the extent to which the lifestyle of ‘natives of aboriginal origin’ was disregarded historically, the official report of the 1937 Conference of the Commonwealth of Australia states: “That this Conference believes that the destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin [..] lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth, and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end.” (1937, p. 2) As a result of this line of thinking, the Australian government practiced a genocide which lasted until the 1970s (see Barta, 2008; Moses, 2000; Tatz, 1999). An estimated 100,000 children, called the Stolen Generations, were taken from their families. There is no doubt, however, that discriminatory behaviour has abated over the past 50 years (Walker, 2001). Nevertheless, Aboriginal Australians continue to experience socio-economic marginalisation, due to racism, discrimination, and lack of education (Brady, 2017). Racism in Australia is widespread and widely experienced, with 70% if Aboriginal people experiencing it on a daily basis (Paradies & Cunningham, 2009). It has negative consequences on health (Awofeso, 2011) and access to health care (Bastos, Harnois, & Paradies, 2018), and impedes economic opportunities (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004). Renewed attention was generated for the issue of racism in Australia by the report of a national survey in 2011, where it was found that 85.6% of Australians think something should be done to
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