THE HISTORY of GERMANY T H E U N Co Mm E N Do N E Pope , Thro Gh His Talented Uncio , , Made Several Extremely Touch I Ng Representations to the Assembly

T HE HIST O R Y O F GE R MA N Y

PA R T X v l l

WAR O F: L IBE R AT IO N IN T HE N E T HE R L A N D S

Pre o n der an ce o the S an ia rds an d CXCVIII . p f p — Jes uits Co ur tly Vic es

HE false peace co ncluded at A ugsb urg was imm e di ’ T ately followed by Charles V . s abdication of his nu r o m e ro us c o wns . He w uld willingly have resigned m r h that of the e pi e to his son Philip , had not the Spanis o r o o m o educati n of that p ince , his gl y and big ted character, inspired the Germans with an aversi o n as un c o nque rable as

h . m o r o t at with which he beheld them Ferdinand had , e ver,

o r n . r n e e rt he gained the fav of the Germa princes Cha les , v f o so n o o less , influenced by a fection t ward his , best wed up n h im m o N one of the finest of the Ger an pr vinces , the ether W lands , besides Spain , Milan , Naples , and the est Indies r m (Am erica) . Fe dinand received the rest of the Ger an o o m hereditary possessi ns of his h use , besides Bohe ia and r r Hungary . The aged empero , afte thus dividing his do r m m o n minions , went to Spain and ente ed the Hierony ite ast e r t w o m y of Justus , where he lived for years , a using o o m himself , am ng ther things , wit h an atte pt to make a m o number of clocks keep exact ti e ; on failing , he bserved , “ ” r m o m i h i Watc hes a e like men . His whi for s le n zing s own funeral service p roved fatal ; t h e dam pness of the co ffin r r m o o c in which he lay du ing the ce e ny br ught on a old , whic h terminated a fe w days afterward in death r r Cha les, although dexte ous in the conduct of petty intrigues, (9 25 ) 26 THE HISTOR Y OF GE RMAN Y

was entirely devoid of depth of intellect , and ever misunde r o m m fe w st od his age ; agnani ous in some instances , he was unendowed with the greatness of character that had e mpo w o ered Charlemagne to g vern and to guide his times . Pos far e m sessed of gr ater power than that magniﬁcent e peror, o f o m r the half the gl be his by inheritance , he ight , du ing the thirty years of his reign , have molded the great Reformatio n to his will ; notwithstanding which , he left at his death both the church and state in far more w retched disorder than at his accession to the throne of Germany . Frederick III . w as t o r too dull of intellect rule a wo ld ; Charles V . was t o o cun

. o r ning He overl oked g eat and natural advantages , and buried him self in petty intrigue . Luther remarked of h im “ during his youth , He will never succeed , for he has openly rejected truth , and Germany will be implicated in his want ” of success . Time proved the truth of this opinion . The insufficiency of the Reformation was mainly due to this r empe or . his r I . i Ferdinand , opposed in hereditary p ov nces by a m m predo inating Protestant party , which he was co pelled to tolerate , was politically overbalanced by his nephew , Philip

IL , in Spain and Italy , where Catholicism ﬂourished . The prep o nde rance of the Spanish over the Austrian branch of the house of Habsburg exercised the most pernicious in ﬂ u c ence on the whole of Germany , by se uring to the Catholics o a support which rendered reconciliati n impossible , to the

Spaniards and Italians admittance into Germany , and by falsifying the German language , dress , and manners . The religi o us disputes and petty egotism of the several Estates of the empire had utterly stiﬂed every sentiment of r m w as pat iotis , and not a dissentient voice raised against h e t V . will of Charles , which bestowed the whole of the o f Netherlands , one the ﬁnest of the provinces of Germany , o t h e up n Spain , the division and consequent weakening of p o werful house of Habsburg being regarded by the princes with delight . At the same time that the power of the Protestant party WA R OF LIBERATION IN N ETHE RLAN DS 9 27

r r a was shaken by the peace of Augsburg , Ca dinal Ca aff

m o o n t iﬁc al . o unted the p throne as Paul IV , the ﬁrst p pe w ho o o , f llowing the plan of the Jesuits , aband ned the sys m t e m of defence fo r that of attac k . The Refor atio n no s o o ner c eased t o p rogress than a p reventive m ovement be r o f r . gan . The p nti fs , up to this pe iod , we e imitators of Leo r h d X . o a , had surr unded themselves with luxu y and pomp , r m o o h ad been , pe sonally , far fro big ted in their pinions , and o rm r m o r oppo sed the Ref ation me ely fro p licy , neither f om

o n o r . c co nvicti n fanaticism But the Jesuits a ted , while the o n e w o r r o f c r popes neg tiated ; and this de ecclesiasti s , at ﬁ st m r o c o f r e re o c m e ely a papal t ol in the coun il T ent , l ng be a e ’ m r o r the pontiff s aster . An ext a rdina y but extremely nat u ral m edley existed in the system and the mem bers of thi s m o r s o ciety o f Jesus . The st fe vent attachme n t to the an o i e nt m m r faith , ysticis , ascetic ext avagance , the courage of t h e m i r fo r r o m artyr, nay , des e marty d , reappeared in their former strength the moment the ch urch w as threatened ; the o m r r r r o r r h passi ns , for erly inspi ing the c usade , bu st f th af es t o n o t d m oppose , , as in ol en ti es , the sensual pagan and

o m m o r - o Mah etan , but the stern ality and well f unded com m plaints of the nations of Ger any , to which a deaf ear was r r o r n o w tu ned ; and eligious zeal , iginally pure , but misled o r r c by a f ul policy , indiffe ent alike to the p i e and to the m a aim t o r e ns by which it gained its , sought unde mine m t h e Refo rm atio n . A ong the Jesuits there were saints equal ling in faith the m arty rs o f o l d ; p o ets overﬂ o wing with phi l an t h ro py ; bold and unﬂinching desp o ts ; smooth - tongued

. a divines , versed in the art of lying The necessity for c o i r ti n , in opposing the Reformat on , naturally called fo th the energies o f the more arbitrary and systematic mem bers of r the order , and threw the d eamy enthusiasts in the shade . s u Nationality was also another ruling motive . Wa the a t h o rit e so o o r rm y of the for igner, l ng exercised ve the Ge an , t o r ! o be relinquished without a st uggle This nati nality , m o o r x o re ver, fu nished an e cuse for immoral inclinati ns and r was w p actices, for all that un orthy of the Master they nom 28 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

n l l r i a y se ved . The attempts for reconciliation made by both

n o r parties in the church sooner failed , and the mode ate Catholic party in favor of peace and of a certain degree of reform lost sight of its original views , than the whole so v e re i nt o o g y of the Cath lic world was usurped by this rder. o o m ro rm The p pe was c pelled to th w himself into its a s , and

IV . an m b 11 1 8 Paul , putting end to the syste pursued y pre de c e sso rs r o c , en un ed luxury and license , publicly cast off h is m t o nephews , and zealously devoted hi self the Cat h o

. o lic cause At the same time he was , n twithstanding the m o o w ar si ilarity in their religi us pinions , at with Philip of r Spain , being unable , like his p edecessors, to tolerate t he

m . b e te poral supremacy of the Spaniard in Naples Rome ,

r sieged by the duke of Alba , was defended by German P ot e st an t s , and the pope was reduced to the necessity of seeking m r aid fro the Tu k and the French . Peace was concluded t r in 1 5 5 7. Philip af e ward treated the pope with extrem e r reverence , and confede ated with him for the restoration of the church . The settlem ent o f t h e Jesuits throughout the wh o le of r 1 Catholic Germany was the ﬁ st result of th s combination . W o f r illiam , duke Bava ia , granted to them the university o Can isius o f rd of Ing lstadt , where Nimwegen , the Spania , m r e su it i Sal eron , and the Savoyard , Le Jay , were the ﬁ st J n i i at h o cal professors . Ca s u s drew up a catechism strictly C t he fo r lic , form of belief the whole of Bavaria , on which, 1 1 in 5 6 , all the servants of the state were compelled to r h c w as swea , and to which , at lengt , every Bavarian subje t .

r . fo ced , under pain of banishment , to subscribe This exam ple induced the empero r Ferdinand to invite Canisius into r m m Austria , where Luthe anis had beco e so general that by far the greater num ber of the churches were either in t he fo r hands of the Protestants or closed , and twenty years not a single Catholic priest had taken orders at the university o f an isius V ienna . C was at ﬁrst less successful in Austria than h he had been in Bavaria , but nevertheless effected so muc t hat eve n his opponents decl ared that without him the whole WA R OF LIBERA TI ON I N N E THERLAN DS 9 29

‘ h t o o of Southern Germany wou l d ave ceased be Cath lic .

r O o o v o n W Ca dinal tt , bish p of Augsburg , a Truchsess ald r o m l t o burg , aided by Bava ia , c pe led his diocesans recant, and fo unded a Je su it ic al university at Dillingen . In C o l o gne and Treves the Jesuits simultaneo usly suppressed the Ref as r o rm at io n and civil libe rty . Cobl entz w dep ived of all her

1 5 6 1 r 1 5 80 . ancient privileges in , and T eves in

a o . . re Ferdinand I . w s in a difﬁcult p sition Paul IV fused to ackn o wledge him on ac count of the peace co n cluded h im an ro m h e was between d the P testants , who unable to o h e r t o n o t w it h oppose , and wh se tenets efused embrace , m r o f standing the expressed wish of the ajo ity his subjects . i h i r L ke his brot er , he nt igued and diplomatized until his

e suit ic al o b n e w . J confess r, Bo adilla , and the pope , Pius IV , im o m m again placed h on go o d terms with R e 1 5 5 9 . He l o m o o rro c o a s found a ediat r in Barlo B meo , ar hbish p of M w h o h ad i ilan , gained a h gh reputation for sanctity by his an d o r and fearless philanthropic behavi during a pestilence , w as m o r r z o f r o m who , eove , a ealous up holder the exte nal p p of the ch u rch and o f public devotion . o t h e r c Augustus , elect r of Saxony , brother of Mau i e , al a rm ed at the fresh alliance between the empero r an d the o v o f r N m p pe , con oked a meeting the P otestant leaders at au h r . o c burg His fears were , weve , allayed by the pea eful o o o f r I n 1 5 6 1 o pr p sals the empero , and , in p int of fact,

' t h e ﬁtting m o ment fo r another attem pt at re c on c iliation h ad

r . r o r r ar ived The g eat leaders of the Ref mation we e dead , the zeal o f their successors h ad coo led or they were at vari ance with o ne another . Disgust had driven several t h e o l o o m o m T h m gians back to the b so of the R an Church . e e ’ e ro r A o f W ’e p , and even lbert Bavaria , illiam s succ ssor , were t o m i t h e c r m willing concede arriage to the pr ests , sa a ent o rm under both f rms to the people , the use of the Ge an r r o tongue in the church se vice , and seve al ther points , for the sake of term inating the schism in t he churc h ; and even

He was in c on se uence mo c in te rme c an s A ust riac as q k gly d i . 9 30 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY t h e u n Co mm e n do n e pope , thro gh his talented uncio , , made several extremely touch i ng representations to the assembly

s . m m n n at N aum b urg . All w a vain Co e do e was treated i with great indign ty by the assembled Protestants . His subsequent attempt to gain the princes over one by one also i failed , Brandenburg alone giv ng him a favorable reception . N h m The assembly at aumburg was , nevert eless , extre ely peaceful in comparison with the convocation held simultane ’ o usl r y at Luneburg , where the strictest Luthe ans , the pope s h most irreconcilable foes , c ieﬂy preachers from the Hanse

. W towns , had assembled John Frederick , duke of eimar, i t h e aum b ur had also separated h mself from meeting at N g, thro ugh hatred of the electoral house . The reconciliation so ardently hoped for by t h e moderate party on both sides was no longer possible . The schism had been too much widened ever again to close . The Protes tants , instead of awaiting a general discussion of ecclesias tical matters by a council , had , on their own responsibility , n e n e m founded a w church with w cere onies and tenets . The h n o t t h e Cat olics had , on their side , placed the council over but pope , the pope over the council , in order to give them v a e sel es h ad and greater unity , and this council , led by the h ad o Jesuits , already passed several res lutions to which N the Protestants could not accede . either party would l retract lest more might be ost, and each viewed the other R with the deepest distrust . Leonhard Haller, bishop of ich “ stadt, said in the council , It is dangerous to refuse the de ” mands of the Protestants , but much more so to grant them . r O o m n Both pa ties shared this pinion , and res lved to ai tain h m r the sc is . A last attempt to save the unity of the Ge man i t s m church , in the event of separation fro that of Rome , w as m e d l ad by Fer inand , who convoked the spiritua elec t a o t o or l princes , the archbishops and bishops , for that purp se V n t h e o i o ien a , but c nsiderat on with w hich he was c mpelled to treat th e pope rendered his efforts weak and ineffectual ; t m r hose ade by Albe t of Bavaria, independently of the Prot e st an t s in i t he , the council , for the abolition or restrict on of WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS 9 31

r c r r o r most gla ing abuses in the hu ch , we e m e successful , alth o ug h the whole o f his dem ands were n o t conceded . The council clearly perceived the necessity of raising the fallen r credit of the clergy by the revival o f mo ality . A numbe r h r c m o r t h e o f 1 n of abuses in t is espe t, e particularly sale du l e n c e s r h o o g , we e abolis ed ; the l cal authority of the bish ps

r o r t h e r o re ~ was est ed , and arbitra y p wer of the legates st ric t e d ; a catechism for the instruc tio n of the Catholics was o m o f ad pted in i itation that published by the Lutherans , and , t h e o o o f Or r o f n by f undati n the de Jesus , talent and learni g m r t o r m o m o i c o r r were o nce o e be sp ead a ng the nast de s . But the c o un c il also drew the bo nds of ancient do gm atism o r o o f u m cl se than ever, by its c nﬁrmation the s pre acy of m th e pope and of his infallibility in all ecclesiastical atters . “ ” Cursed be all hereti c s l exclaimed the cardinal o f Lo rraine

c l re - o r at the onc usion of the council , which echoed his w ds

. h h 1 5 63 . w o wit thunders of applause , in Pius IV , closed o c the c un il , and , by his reconciliation with the emperor and i o o w th Spain , had weakened the ppositi n of the hierarchy o f w as and strengthened that the Protestants , succeeded by h V . n w o Pius , a bli d zealot, castigated himself , and , like r c o f Philip in Spain , t a ked the heretics in the State the

Church by means of the Inquisition , and condemned num bers to the stake . ro The P testants , blind to the unity and strength resulting o m o f m l o fr the policy the Catholics , weakened the se ves m re r r m and mo e by division . The Refo med Swiss were al ost i m c u r t h e i more ni i al to the L the ans than Cathol cs were , and t h e general mania fo r disputation and theological obstinacy m o . W produced divisi ns among the Refor ers themselves hen , in 1 5 62 i h , Bullinger set up the Helvet c Confession , to whic the Pfalz also assented , in Zurich , Basel refused and main in r t a e d c . b a pa ti ular Confession A university , intended y

r . o r w as Fe dinand I as a bulwark against the Ref mation , m hi m r 1 5 64. founded by at Besancon , then an i pe ial city , r n i 1 5 64 Fe di and exp red in , and was succeeded on the im n i . wh o d per al throne by his son , Maximilia II , had gaine 9 32 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y great popularity throughout Germany by h is inclination t o h e favor the Lutherans ; but, unstable in character , com mit t e d the fault of granting religious liberty to his subjects h o wit out embracing Lutheranism himself , and c nsequently exposed them to t h e most fearful persecution under his suc cesso r . N o one ever more c o nvincingly proved h o w much r r d mo e half f ien ship is to be dreaded than utter enmity . w as d n The empire , at this perio , exter ally at peace . n n Fra ce, embroiled by the Catholics and Hugue ots , w as governed by a female monster , the widow of Henry II . , the l n w h o n ro ﬂ i ac Ita ia , Catherine de Medicis , , su k in p g y , and m the zealous cha pion of the ancient church , reigned in the

' m h r . an d C a l e s . B u na e of her sons , Francis II IX The gue i t u . 1 5 2 nots rned for rel ef to Germany In 6 , six thousand 1 5 67 i Hessians , and , in , the Pfalzgraf , John Casim r, with seventeen thousand men , marched to their aid . The q ueen was , on her side , assisted by the Swiss Catholics , and , to his m r w ho eternal disgrace , by John William , duke of Wei a ,

re - sent a enforcement of ﬁve thousand men . John Casimir reaped still deeper shame by his acceptation of a royal bribe , and his consequent desertion of the Hugu enots .

The Turks also left the empire undisturbed . They were m r d opposed in Hungary by an i perial a my under Castal o , h w i . ich , instead of defending , la d the country waste The Me rt e n h au se n r m in ﬂ u en monk, George (Ma tinuzzi), was ore f Z a o l a . On o tial by his intrigues the death p y , to whom he

b , had acted oth as, temporal and spiritual adviser he found h m o i self at the head of affairs in Hungary , and pr posed a ’ o Z a o l a s marriage , which never to k place , between p y son , ’ Hi m r . s John Sigis und , and one of Ferdinand s daughte s ﬁrst co nditi o n was the em ancipation of the peasantry by t h e “ e ro r ff r mpe r , on the grounds that the Tu ks o e ed liberty to . t h e r s Hunga ian serfs , and thereby induced numbers to apo t at ize r m e , and , in this apostacy f o Christianity , those alon ” who tyrannized over the peasantry w ere to blam e . Ferdi r nand naturally refused to listen to these remonst ances , and George was s hortly afterward accused of a tre ac herous corre

9 34 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

V ienna , the Protestants as well as the Jesuits , on one occa bo x sion bestowing a on the ear on his son , afterward the

r I . n h empero Rudolf I , for havi g attacked a Protestant c urch at the instigation o f the Jesuits . Half measures of this de scription we re exactly cal c ulated to excite t h e revenge of the u ro r o n h is yo ng empe the decease of father . Had Max imil i an m r c o r e b a ed the Lutheran faith , , at all events, extended o m r o m r f r freed in eligi us atte s indi ferently to eve y class , had h e o o m sancti ned it by a s le n decree , and placed it under the r r o gua antee of the rest of P otestant Germany , his c ncessi o ns w o uld have m e t with a blessed result and have deﬁed the ’ c c o f sovereign s apri e , instead acting , as they eventually did , r o r as a cu se upon th se among his subjects , who , unde his

o o o r pr tecti n , demonstrated their real opini ns , and we e , con m o . sequently , marked as victi s by his fanatical success r He o o Hi als tolerated the gr ssest papacy in his own family . s

o o r V . c ns rt, Maria , the daughter of Cha les , entirely c o in o r l cided with the opinions of her br the Philip , and instil ed H1 r m t h e h e r . s r the into mind of son b othe s , Ferdinand o f M . ax im 1 l and Charles , were zealous disci ples the Jesuits ian also ga v e his daughters in marriage to the m o st bl o od r e r o f c in thi sty p rsecuto s the hereti s Europe , Anna to Philip

f t o I X . F . o w h o II Spain , Elisabeth Charles of rance , , on ’

St . o o wn n t he Barth lomew s night , aided with his ha d in o assassination of the Huguen ts , who had been treacherously m r invited by hi t o Pa is . This event ﬁlled Maximilian with t o horror ; he , nevertheless , neglected guard his wretched subjects fro m the far worse fate that awaited them du ring ’ r r r the thirty yea s war . F o the sake of treating each pa ty h r r wit equal tole ation , he allowed the Jesuits , du ing a period w as i h r when hatred r fe in every ea t, full liberty of action , r c h and thus encou aged a se t , whic , solely studious of evil , m and animated by the most i placable revenge , shortly repaid

his to lerati o n wi t h po iso n . A fem ale member of the impe rial fam ily w as als o an o h e c t o f o f n o f e j the hatred the Jesuits . During the reig F rdi m n I . o f and , his son , Ferdinand the Tyrol , beca e enamored WA R OF LIBERATION IN N ETHERLAN DS 9 35

o f n of the daughter an Augsburg citize , Philippina Welser , m m t he ost beautiful aiden of her time , whom he secretly o married . Philippina went to the imperial court, and , thr w ’ n t h e o i g herself under a feigned name at emper r s feet, peti t io n e d h im t o guard her from the dan ger with which she was threatened in case her marriage was discovered by an in t o l

- - n t r in l a . r n e ra fathe w Fe dina d , moved by her beauty , raised o h e r and pro m ised t o plead in h er favor . Up n this Philippina r m disc ove ed the truth , and the e peror , touched to the heart, d t h e m r so n . forgave his The pope conﬁrme ar iage , and the r o f c m h appy pai spent a life delight at the astle of A bras , in ro n o t far ro m r c o the Ty l , f Innsb u k , until it was p isoned by r the ven o m instilled by the Jesuits . Thei children were

created Margraves of Burgau . The family b ecame extinct in 1 6 1 8 . The P ro testants also allowed the o pp o rt unity o ffered to m r h o them by the e pe or to pass un eeded , and , alth ugh they r o m r r o f received a g eat accessi n in nu be , sank , f om want

. rm unity , in real power and inﬂuence The rest of the Ge an r c o f p in es , Charles and Ernest of Baden , and Julius Bruns

c - W o W r wi k lfenbuttel , the son of Henry the ild , emb aced

r m . r o u l ie rs re Luthe anis Austria , Bava ia , L rraine , and J r r v m ained Cath o lic . The Refo me s were de o id o f union an d o d s energy , and ppressed by a sense of having abused and e e c rat e d o f n ro m , instead havi g rigidly p secuted , the Refor a as r ti o n . W thei p resent conditi o n t h e ﬁtting result o f a o m c rt o f c r o o h religi us e an ipation , or wo hy the sa ed bl d t at h ad n o n e o o been shed in the cause I stead of p pe , the Pr t e st an t s w m o f t h e r n ere oppressed by a nu ber , each p i ces as c rib in g that authority to himself ; and instead of the Jesuits

o - r they had c urt chaplains and superintendents gene al , who, r n o thei equals in venom , despised means , however base , by c A c o f whi h their aim might be attained . new Spe ies bar b arism had found adm ittance into the P ro testant co urts and u nive rsities . The Lutheran ch apl ains sh ared their inﬂuence o r m o m ast ro l o ve the princes with istresses , b on co panions ,

s . gers , alchemists , and Jew The Protestant princes , ren 9 36 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

t h e m dered , by treaty of Augsburg, unli ited dictators in m r atters of faith within their te ritories , had lost all sense

m . i t w o of sha e Ph lip of Hesse married wives . Branden r m bu g and pious Saxony yielded to te ptation . S urrounded o r o r o wit by c arse g ooms , equerries , c u t f ols of obscene , and t h e rin c e s l misshapen dwarfs , p emu ated each other in drunk e n ne ss m i , an amuse ent that ent rely replaced the noble and m gallant tourna ent o f earlier tim es . Alm ost every Germ an

r t o i . m o h cou t was addicted th s bestial vice A ong thers , t e o f i r ancient house Piast in S lesia was utte ly ruined by it .

o f Wurt e m b e r r Even Louis g , whose virtues rende ed h im the w as darling of his people , continually in a state of drunken i ness . This vice and that of swear ng even became a subject 1 7 of discussion in the diet of the empire in 5 7 , when it was decreed , That all electoral princes , nobles , and Estates should av oid intemperate drinking as an example to their ” subjects . The chase was also followed to ex c ess . The r game was strictly prese ved , and , during the hunt, the serfs ai d m o o w n c o rn ﬁ l were compelled to in de lishing their e ds. m The Jews and alchemists , whom it beca e the fashi o n t o r i l r have at court, we e by no means a sl ght evi , all of them e r o quiring gold . Ast ol gy would have been a harmless amuse ment had not its pro fesso rs taken advantage of the ignorance

and superstition o f the tim es . False representati o ns o f the secret powers of nature and of the devil l ed t o the belief in witchcraft and to the bl o o dy persecuti o n of its supposed ’ agents . Luther s belief in the agency of the devil had nat u ral ly ﬁlled the minds of his foll o wers with superstitious

’ r du ke o f r f . ea s Julius , Brunswick , emb aced the Reforma o r c ti n , lived in ha mony with his provin ial Estates , founded r o f He l m st ae dt the unive sity , and , during a long peace , o raised his country to a high degree of pr sperity , but had such an irresistible mania for burning witches that the

blackened stakes near Wo lfenbuttel resembled a wood . The consort of Duke Eric the younger was com pelled to ﬂy for r o safety to her b other Augustus of Sax ny , Julius having, i probably from interested mot ves , accused her of witchcraft, WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS

The Ascanian family of Lauenburg was sunk in vice . The sam e license contin ued from one gene ration to another ;

r h o w the count y was deeply in debt, and , under these cir m t n e w as c u s a c s, the cujus regio maintained may easily be

o s ' conceived . The Pr testant clergy of thi duchy were pro

r i l o . v e b a for ign rance , license , and immorality f d T h e im perial court at Vienna o fere , by its dignity and r ro morality , a bright cont ast to the majority of the P testant o r m s c u ts , whose bad exa ple was , nevertheles , followed by i many o f t he Catholic pr nces , who , without taking part in r t h e Reformation , had thereby acqui ed greater independence .

o n tests Betw een the Luthera n Church a n d th e CXCIX . C Prin ces

T HE whole Reform ation was a triumph of temporal over r i m in r. o spiritual powe Luthe h self , order to av id anarchy, o t he had placed all the p wer in hands of the princes . The o h r mem ry of the ancient iera chy had , however, not been i o o n e w cons gned to blivi n , and the passions roused by the Refo rmation co nstantly gave the p reachers an inﬂuence of which they well knew how t o avail them selves in o pposition to t h e weaker princes . Had they no t been defeated by their w n mi o want of union , they ght , at all events , have rendered um th e m the tri ph o f te poral po wer less easy . r r o m an d The st ict Luthe ans , by wh the least tenable o least practical theses of Luther, which f stered disunion m o r t h a ong the Ref rmers , we e rigidly defended against e c o f atta ks the Catholics , the Zwinglians , and the Calvinists, had ﬁxed themselves at Jena under the youthful John Fred o

m . T h e erick , the son of the expelled elector of like na e r F l ac ius was Illy ian , , the spiritual head of this university , ’ - an energetic but narrow minded man , by whom Luther s doctrine concerning original sin was so extrem ely e xagge r “ h e e i i ated that declar d or ginal sin not only nnate in man , r o a n but his ve y essence , and that he was th roughly bad ; ”

. it is r e image , not of God , but of the devil He was, t u , 9 38 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y driven t o th i s extreme by the exaggerated assertions of A gric o f Osian de r o ola at Berlin , and at K enigsberg , w ho m ain t ain e d r o that man had the p ivilege , when once t uched by r b si n g ace , of eing no longer subject to , whatever h i s acti o ns might be . Between t hese t w o extremes sto o d the Witten

r - Me l anc t h o n be g party under the aged and gentle minded , u n de r ‘ t h e r n and that of Tubingen lea ned Bre z , who w as

o o m n r shortly to be foll wed by the dipl atizi g Jacob And ea . The relation in which these the o l o gical parties sto o d to i temporal polit cs was extremely simple . The doctrine of g race taught by Agricola and Osian de r placed man in a high o h i m i p sition , flattered , fac litated the forgiveness and also m o o f o c o the co missi n sin by the d ctrine of justifi ati n , and therefo re exac tly suited the licentio us princes . The founders of thi s doctrine also man i fested the utm ost servil i ty in the r O t h e r exte nal bservances of chu ch , and conceded everything t i v to he r so ereign . This sect would have triumphed over t he o o o m t h e m re gl y tenets of Flacians , who , inflexible in O c the maintenance of external bservan es , bade defiance to h ad n o t m the princes , it in its pure theological dogma o re m l i m rese bled Ca vin s than genuine Lutherani sm . The ma o rit of r n j y the p inces , decidedly biased against Calvinism o o f account its republican tendency , preferred Lutheranism and the hateful contest with its theol o gians . r r John F ederick and his chancellor , B uck , actuated by r o hereditary hat ed of the elect r, Augustus , countenanced the attacks of the theol o gians of Jena upon tho se of Witten be rg . The Inte rim furnish ed F l ac ius with an O pp o rtuni ty for defending the Adiap h o ra (sac rificed by the fo ll o we rs of Me l anc t ho n W r u o r i t o at ittenbe g as s b d nate the Interim), which he maintained as essential ; and fo r carrying on a dis ffi o f o o pute concerning the e cacy g d works , which he totally o rejected an d declared to be a doctrine of destructi n . The t r i o mos c im nal wretch , p ssessing faith , was , according to

m - r o h i . , to be preferred before the most vi tu us unbeliever A n o i r o St ri e l antag n st appea ing at Jena in the pers n of g , a i Me l an c t h o n Ph il i ist r disc ple of , a p , suppo ted by Hugel , he WA R OF LIBERATION I N N ETHERLA N DS 9 39

r c r caused them both to be thrown into p ison . A leve phy

ian m oe o o u t t o t h e sic , na ed Schr ter, h wever, pointing duke “ the advantage of m aking use of the clergy instead o f a l m o f b e o lowing them to ake use him , excluded the wh le o f r c i o r i of the professo rs Jena f om the ons st y , wh ch he m o f i o r com posed of lay en . In the midst these d s rde s , l n t h o n i e c c l e si Me a c , who had long sighed for rel ef from

i l o d i n 1 5 59 . ast c a disputes , f un peace in the grave The ’ Fl acians trium phantly beheld the electo r s co nciliatory pro

sal s o r o r r b u t i po sc nfully rejected by J hn F ede ick, , dece ved o f ir O r by the belief the being the cause , penly ebelling against the ducal m andate by w hich they were deprived of all e c cle i t i al r o s as c authority , they we e dep sed and expelled the coun F l ius r r m u 1 5 62 . ac try in , c uelly pe secuted by his for er p m o r He s h usius r pils , especially by the ose , died in mise y at Fran kfo rt o n the Maine in 1 5 75 . u r 1 5 5 8 r o The T bingen pa ty , in made the ext a rdinary

o f - o proposition placing a superintendent general , c nsequent l r o o r y a P otestant p pe , ve the whole of the new church o r i in this prop sition , howeve , fa led , the princes having no c l in at io n t o render themselves once more subord i nate to an ecclesiasti c . r w as r Albe t, duke of Prussia , seve ely chastised for the — foundati o n of the unive rsity of Ingolstadt in 1 5 46 no t w it h n o o f o ri Osian de r standi g the comfortable d ctrine his fav te , —b t h e o o f ro o r o m h o m o y jeal usy the p fess s , s e of w , as f llow o f F l ac ius i o o f ers , others at the instigat n the ancient aris t o c rac O e y of the Teutonic rder, threw themselv s , headed by Moerl in o c , into the oppositi n , and roused the whole ountry c o r s1 an r On h i s against the talented and u tly O de . sudden 1 5 5 2 death in the duke published a mandate ordaining peace . Moe rl in bade him defiance , was deposed , and fled to Bruns o t wick ; up n which the nobili y , cities , and clergy confeder a m r i ted , and assu ed such a th eaten ng aspect that all the Osi n r k l i h a d ist s . S a c quitted the country , a Croatian by ’ r ri bi th , the duke s p vy councillor, fled . The court chap m h lain , Funk , and some of the councillors , dee ing t em 9 40 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

’ Moe rl in s selves in security, remained . adherents , however, m r co pelled the duke to discha ge his mercenaries , the duchess ’ he r m d Osian de r s to retract for er eclaration in favor, and seized the pers o ns of the councill o rs in the presence of their

. r m sovereign Ho st, one of his favorites , e braced the knees h of his master, who wept in his elplessness . Horst, Fun k, r r an d and othe s we e beheaded , the duke was compelled to Moerl in 1 5 6 6 o recall , in , whose insolence br ke the heart of s o r the aged duke and duches , both of wh m expi ed o n the

1 5 68 . same day , in Their son , Albert Frederick , a boy r was r fifteen yea s of age , driven insane by the t eatment he o m Moerl in o re c eived fr and the n bility . Moe rl i n d i ed in 1 5 1 o fi He s hu sius 7 , and bequeathed his f ce to , a man of con do genial character, possessing all the instincts of the g ex cept his fidelity . Such were the horrid natures produced by the passions of the age !

The feud carried on by John Frederick against Augustus ,

r o . r d i im elector of Saxony , te minated in bl od John F e er ck, m plicated in an atte pt made by a Franconian noble , William ’ v o n t o v Sic kin e n s Grumbach , re ive g project for the down o f rin c e s w as t h e fall the p , , put with him under the ban of i h e m ire . w h c u . J p , Augustus exec ted upon him ohn Fred r r e ick was taken p isoner in Gotha, borne in triumph to

n m r a . h Vien a, and i p isoned for life at Neust dt Grumbac Briic k r r an d and were qua te ed , and their adherents hanged ’ n o s executed . O the death of J hn William , John Frederick w h o 1 5 73 brother , died in , his infant children fell under u r o f al l the g a dianship the elector , Augustus , who expelled r o n e the Flacian p eachers , hundred and eleven in number,

i m . from We mar , and reduced the to beggary The Philip ’ Pe uc e r Me l an c t h o n s - in st s . i triumphed Their leader, , son ’ l a was w , the elector s private physician , in great favor at ro m u l court . Emboldened by success , they attempted to p s gate their tenet , in which they approached those of the Cal s n e w 1 5 71 a e d vinist , and published a catechism in , which rous t h e the suspicion of Julius of Brunswick , who warned elec u tor against his crypto calvinistic clergy . A gustus instantly

4 9 2. THE HISTOR Y OF GE RMAN Y t h e clergy demoralized , for the safe publication of a fresh r fo mula or concordat by the Lutheran princes . In Branden burg the clergy had been taught b lind submission t o t h e r 1 5 71 o cou t by Agricola , and , in , the elector, J hn George, placed the consistory under the presidency of a layman , t Chemnitz . Augustus , elec or of Saxony , found a servile o Se l n e c c e r to l for a similar purpose in , who , with Andrea W urt e m b e r o f of g, the son a smith of Waiblingen , com l e t e d wh o p the triumvirate , , in the name of the Lutherans m 1 5 of Southern Germany , drew up the for ula , in 77 with o f out the convocation a synod , in the monastery of Bergen ,

o h o r ~ and imp sed it upon the w ole of the Lutheran w ld . Wil h l liam of Hesse , whose fat er , Philip , had died , aden with

’ 1 5 6 7 l t e an d so m e o years , in , Pomerania , Ho s in , Anhalt, f

e . the cities , alone prot sted against it The people obeyed, Harm ony had existed among the Reformers since t he — co venant by which all essential differences were smoothe d o — n 1 5 63 d wn entered i to , in , by the obstinate elector of ’ the Pfalz and Bullinger, Zwingli s successor in Zurich. Basel alone maintained a separate confession between Luther

ni m Z win l iism . m m a s and g The disputes a ong the Refor ers , n alth o ugh less important than those amo g the Lutherans, nev ertheless equalled them in virulence .

R ev o lt in the N ether l a n ds— T he Geuses CC .

h ad o ff t h e CHA R L E S V . assiduously endeavored to round r e Netherlands , and to render them a bulwark against F anc r th and the P rotestants . Guelders esisted the Habsburg wi an d the greatest obstinacy . The aged childless duke , Charles, was compelled by the Estates , when on his deathbed , to name ul ie rs William , duke of J , his successor , in preference to the

Habsburg . Ghent also revolted against the enormous taxes

’ Ho o v an mo e g d , e in v an o ed Kl g , E e n Zw aard in de h and I t a n an e e r an s w pe v G ld l d. WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS 9 43

m r r 1 5 1 4 impo sed by the e pe o , who appeared , in , in person o r m d before the gates , f ced the citizens to sub it , and beheade o re twenty of the principal to wnsmen . Guelders was als

u e d W o f u l ie rs w as d c , and illiam J compelled to renounce

his claim in fav o r o f the Habsburg . The em peror vainly attempted to keep the Netherlands free from heresy by the publication of the cruel Placates . r Ty ranny m erely rendered zeal ext avagant , and gave rise to

c r m . 1 546 r secret se ta ianis In , a ce tain Loy was executed fo r promulgating t he extrao rdinary d o ctrine of the existing ro m c o f r in w o rld being hell . F Basel , his pla e efuge , the o f o r o r ﬂ u e n c e David J is , and of an the Anabaptist, Menno

im r r . o r S onis , g eatly sp ead The Menn nites we e distinguished from the rest of the Anabaptists by their gentleness and love r of peace , which caused thei renunciation of the use of arms .

The French Calvinists , who had found their way into Flan m r o r c . ders , were , howeve , far re int a table and bold Such numbers were thrown into prison and sentenced to the stake r t o that the mercantile class add essed a petition the emperor, representing the inju ry thereby inﬂicted on industry and c o m r r merce . Material inte ests , nevertheless , p edominated to such a degree in the Netherlands that the victim s of the m o r o Placates , nu er us as they we e , excited little attenti n m o n d m a ong the mass of the p pulation , a amid the i mense ’ r r m press o f business . Cha les d ew large sums of mo ney fro r ro the Nethe lands , which he at the same time p vided with r m mm r eve y eans for the acquisitio n of wealth . C o e ce and

manufactures ﬂourished . He also rendered him self ex t re m e l y popular by his constant use of his native tongue , m Fle ish , his adoption of that dress , and the favor he showed t o o his countrymen even in f reign service . His father, Maxi Lo w h milian , had greatly contributed to bring Dutc , which

1 Th e c ities w e re at t h e h ei h t o f t h eir ro s e rit h e n c e th e e ith et s rus g p p y ; p , B se s t h e N o e Gh e nt th e Gre at Me ch in t h e e aut ifu N amur t h e St ro n l bl , , l B l , g, A ntw er t h e R ich Lo uv ain t h e Wise o n ac c o un t of h e r univ e rsit p , ( y) . “ N o b il ib us Bruxe ll a v iris A nt w e r ia nummis , p , Gandav um Ia ue is fo rmo sis ru a ue l lis q , B gg p , ” Lo vanium doctis au et Mech linia st ul t is , g d . 9 44 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y u r o n nder the Burgundian ule had ceded to French , int ge eral use . Under the Habsburgs the literature of the Nether l h ands was greatly fostered , and c ambers of rhetoric were m . V . for ed in all the cities Charles , a thorough Fleming o o h at heart , did still more for the c untry , n twit standing m m which , he abandoned his Ger anic syste , and sacriﬁced t h e t h e r ﬁne provinces of the Netherlands to strange .

The petty p o licy with which this monarch co quetted dur. ing his long reign , with which he embarrassed instead of ff smoothing a airs , the great cunning and power with which h e o executed the most untoward and the m st useless projects, h i s il Lst arre d a was not contradicted by will , by which he rbi t raril y bestowed the Netherlands on his son , Philip II . o f an d l aid a Spain , deprived Germany of her ﬁnest province , heavy burden upon Spain . By it the natural position o f t h e nations in regard to one another was disturbed and an arti ﬁc ial as connection created , the dissolution of which w to cost torrents of blood .

Philip II . at ﬁrst received the most brilliant proofs of t h e o o t o c ﬁdelity of the Netherlands by their opp siti n the Fren h , w ar who had renewed the , and were again aided by the i Sw ss . Their general , Count Egmont , victorious at St. o Quentin and Gravelines , c ncluded a favorable peace at m 1 5 5 9 — t Ca bresis in , which restored Dunkirk tha , in 1 4 wh o 1 5 5 8 5 0, had been taken by the English , , in , had — been deprived of it by the French to Philip . The breast o f h o this monarc , nevertheless , remained impervi us to grati

r . t tude . Du ing the battle of St Quentin , while others fough m o v for him , he re ained up n his knees , and owed , were he

r n . victorious , to raise a splendid chu ch in ho or of St Lau m v i rence , and , in perfor ance of this vow , erected , in the in it e o n c y of Madrid , the famous monast ry of the Escurial , r wh ich h e expended al l the treasures of Spain . Being ove taken by a storm during a sea voyage , he took a solemn al l h r oath , in case of safety , to exterminate the e etics in v o w d honor of God , and, in fulﬁlment of this , spille torrents of the blood of his subjec ts with the most phlegmatic in diffe r WA R OF LIBERATION IN N ETHERLAN DS

’ His rinc i al c o ence . p p oc upation consisted of repose in s li r o o m o f m tary cham be s . The gl the Escurial for ed his ideal o f o f happiness . The bustle public life , the expression of the

r h im . o popular will , we e equally obnoxious to He theref re endeavo red t o maintain tranquillity by enforcing blind obedi ‘ ence or by death .

- Philip , on his departure for Spain , left his half sister , m V . r r a natural daughter of Charles , Ma garet of Pa a , a r st adt h o l de re ss o f wom an of m asculine appea ance , the Neth c h e r r o r Gran v e l l a erlands , and pla ed near pe s n the Ca dinal , n d r c m a man of acute a ene geti ind , blindly devoted to his m r o f service . This appoint ent g eatly fended the D utch , who ,

r instead of eceiving a native stadtholder, either the Prince m o o o f Orange or Count Eg nt , in c mpliance with their wishes ,

- f beheld a base born stranger at the head o t he government. n o in Philip , instead of maki g use of the n bility against the fe rio r m r classes , by this step i politically roused thei anger ; r r suspicious and waywa d , he prefe red a throne secured by

- in violence to one , like that of his father, ill sustained by k r r trigue . With the view of effectually chec ing the p og ess r r o o r n o w of he esy , he dec eed that the f ur bish p ics , until ex

ist in r o i r . g in the Nethe lands , sh uld be nc eased to seventeen This unconstituti o nal decree gave general discontent ; to the o r m n bility , whose inﬂuence was necessa ily di inished by the appointment o f an additional number of churc hmen ; to t h e o o n c o c r c t o pe ple , ac unt of their se et in lination and reco gnition of the tenets of the Refo rmed Churc h ; and to c r r the le gy , whose ancient possessions were thus arbitra ily r m m r r pa titioned a ong a number of newco ers . The ep esenta tio ns made by every class were disregarded ; Gran v e l l a e n o r o f n e w f ced the execution the decree , erected the bishop

m m r o f r c . rics , and co enced a bitte persecution the he eti s r n o t o f The Dutch , neve theless , did overstep the bounds

1 Th e e st o rt rait s o f t his m o narc h artic ul ar t h o se at N a e s ear b p , p ly pl , b by

no me an s a o o m o r aust e re e re ssio n b ut rat h e r o n e o f c o o im u e nc e . gl y xp , l p d Th e fe at ure r mm n m kn i s a e of a co o na a o st av sh cast . , y , l I II —2 GE R MAN Y . V OL . . 9 4 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

obedience , but revenged themselves on the cardinal by open ’ o o r m ckery and the publicati n of caricatu es , which rendered the country hateful to him , and he took his departure in

1 5 64 . The Netherlands had patiently permitted the imposition r of the useless bishop ics , the doubly severe Placates , the n e w resolutions of the council of Trent, and would indubitably have rem ained tranquil but for the attempt m ade to intro o o duce the Inquisiti n by Philip , which at n c e raised a serious opposition . The very name of this institution was not h eard without a shudder . The m anner in which it had in America sacriﬁced thousands of Indians in bl o o dy h o locaust t o the

o - - fe Christian idols of Spain , and the aut s da , great e x e c u t io n al festivals , during which thousands of heretics were o burned alive , and ver which the king , in his royal robes , ’ r m presided , were still f esh in en s minds . We are n o stu ” “ c m w e pid Mexi ans , exclai ed the Dutch , will maintain o u r ” I r ancient rights The nobles signed the comp omise , a formal ro p test against the Inquisition , which they laid in the form

o r 1 5 6 6 . o of a petition bef e the regent, in The processi n , t w o headed by Count de Brederode , went on foot and by and t B l aim n wo . o ar o t to the palace C unt de , a zealous royalist, . “ ’ ’ u u n on viewing their approach , said jeeringly , Ce n est q ” ‘ u e u x l m o tas de g Margaret gave the a friendly recepti n , t m but , incapable of acting in this affair wi hout authority fro

. Barl ai the king , promised to inform him of their request ’ mont s remark being afterward repeated at a banquet at

- h um o re dl tended by the nobility , Brederode good y sent a ’ beggar s wallet and a wo oden goblet round the table with “ ” t o ue ux l was the ast , Vivent les g The name henceforth ado pted by the faction . o f m i The n bles , o fended at the conte ptuous s lence with o t n o w which their petiti n was reated by the king , ventured

’ ’ Th e y imitat e d h i s cardinal s h at w ith a fo o l s c ap ; re pre se nt e d h im under h e fo rm o f a h e n ro o in r e e t e e n e s an d h at c h in i sh o s E t o v e s v n . , b d g gg , g b p g ’ mon t s se rv an ts e v en at t h at t ime w o re a un e of arro w s e m ro i e re o n t h e i r , , b dl b d d m uni n r o t e rms o f Ho n s eev e s a s o of o aft e w ar a t e as h a a . l , y b l , d d p d ll d WA R OF LIBERATION IN N ETHERLAN DS 9 47

r to prescribe a te rm fo r the receptio n of his reply . A g eat m o r im l i popular tu ult , in which the n bles we e partially p m c at e d . , broke out si ultaneously The captive heretics were rm released by force , the churches and monasteries were sto ed, r r and all the pictures , to the ir epa able injury of native art ,

o . o o r destr yed The n bles were , h wever , ﬁnally const ained by r m a the st adt h o l de e ss to co e to terms . The Calvinists in V nc ie nn e s n o l e and Tour ay al ne made an obstinate defence , m m m t o . o o fo r but were co pelled yield Eg nt, anxi us the ain t e n an c e o f tranquillity and fo r the continuance of the ro yal

o r r r . fav , acted with g eat seve ity r n o r a Philip , without either atifyi g declaring gainst the m n m o c ter s of peace , proclaimed a ge eral a nesty , and ann un ed r r t o his speedy arrival in the Nethe lands , and his desi e fulﬁl r the wishes of his people . Lulled suspicion was , howeve , o f o Speedily reawakened by the news the appr ach , not of the

o f m m - in - o f king, but his ferocious co ander chief , the duke

r . Alba, at the head of a powerful fo ce The more spirited m o m a ong the n bles advised instant recourse to ar s , and the c r rm defen e of the frontier against the app oaching a y , but r o r o we e ve ruled by the m derate party , who hesitated to rebel r against a mona ch whose intentions were merely suspected . W m o f Or o o illia ange , c unt of Nassau , the wealthy p ssessor

o f o - Or Chal ns ange , stadtholder of Holland , Seeland , and U r m t h e c r r trecht , su na ed Silent , on a count of his ese ve ,

him t o r V . rn whose talents had endeared Cha les , vainly wa ed o f o m o his friends the danger they incurred . The C unts Eg nt r m r an d W m n t o and Ho n re ained inc edulous , illia , u able per suade the States to m ake a resolute o pposition before the ro o mask was openly d pped by the king , res lved to secure his “ On i . o f m safety by ﬂight tak ng leave Eg ont he said , I fear you will be the ﬁ rst o ver whose corpse the Spaniards will ” march ! So m e of the nobles m ockingly calling after him “ ” r L ac kl an d l n as he turned away , Adieu , P ince he rejoi ed , “ ” sirs l o r n e Adieu , headless Numer us adhe ents to the w i r e fa th and wealthy manufacturers , ala med at the thr aten e ing aspect of affairs, quitt d the country . The majority 9 48 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

’

. On e withdrew to England hundred thousand men , more than would have sufﬁc ed fo r the defence o f the country i m aga nst the Spanish ar y , had the States been resolute and m . o united , e igrated Breder de also ﬂed , and died shortly r afte ward in exile .

Alba, a monster both in body and mind , entered Brussels m 1 5 6 7 in the su mer of , at the head of a picked force of twelve th o usand Spaniards and a b o dy of Gei man troops i o n m r r m which he ra sed his a ch f o Milan . He was received

- with a death like silence . Fear had seized every heart . He m co menced by displaying the greatest mildness , received Egm o nt and the rest of the nobles with open arms and over m m w o n e t o whel ed the ith civility , called no account, took o an d in s ire d no step without conv king the Estates , p the ‘ r r Dutch with such conﬁdence that numbe s of the mo e timid , r who had withdrawn , were induced to quit thei strongholds r r and t o return to Br ussels . F o th ee weeks the sam e part w as enacted ; the certainty o f the intended absence o f the r O r o ff m P ince of range then caused him to th ow the ask , m r and , inviting the Counts Eg ont and Horn to a confe ence , r r m r 9 1 he unexpectedly placed them unde a rest , Septe be , 5 67 and fro m this m om ent c ast away the scabbard to bathe his o r o sw d in the bl od of the unsuspecting Dutch . r r r r o The regent , Ma ga et , was , unde p etext of a secret rder ro m r m o f the king , sent out of the country , and a c i inal c urt , whic h passed judgm ent upon all the Dutch who c o n fessed n o m m o r im l i heretical te ets , had signed the c pro ise , been p

c at e d o . c o in the disturbances , was app inted This urt was o o f t o o m r o r solely comp sed Spaniards , whom s e Dutch t ait s , fo r t Barl aim o n t r ins ance, Hessels and the Count de , se ved rm r r as info e s . The conﬁscation of pro pe ty was the principal

T h e w e re re e c t e t h e Han se t o w n s fro m an o l d se nt ime nt o f e a o us y j d by j l y, n d o n ac c o unt o f th e ir a ini i t n t s E n an mo re c ear- si h t e av e a v st c e e . C l gl d , l g d, g e in ust rio us an d r rm re c t io n It w as in t h is mann er t h d w eal t h y e mig an t s a w a ep . t h at Wi iam urt en o f an e rs c arrie h is art and h is c a ita t o E n an t o ll C Fl d d p l gl d , w h o se mo n arch h e l e n t e no rmo us sums ; h e al so se t t le d a c o lo n y o f e igh t e e n t h o usan me n in t h e is an o f ar a o e s an d o e ne t h e t ra e e tw e e n E n an d l d B b d , p d d b gl d n d h in a He i o r b u t h is ran so n re se nt e a n um er o f v al ua e an a . e o C d d p , g d p d b bl u n io n n r rit ish Muse um t iq e s a d a co llect of at u al histo ry t o t h e B .

9 5 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

A merely desultory warfare w as afterward carried on by Ge use s petty bands in the forests (the Bush or Wood ) , or

o n Ge use s. r the sea , by the Water Hermann de Ruyte , the o n grazier, boldly seized the castle of L ewenstei , which he blew up when in danger of falling again into the hands of the Spanish .

There being nothing more to confiscate , Alba imposed a o f tax , first of the hundredth , then the tenth , and afterward of the twentieth penny . He boasted that he could extract N more gold from the etherlands than from Peru , and , never t he l e ss n , withheld the pay from his soldiery in order to i cite o n them sti ll more to p i llage . Cl se to A twerp he erected his r c r c o m p in ipal fo tress , the celebrated citadel , from which he m an de d N r n the finest city in the ethe la ds , the navigation of

o n o n r t he o r the Scheldt, H lla d one side , and Flande s on the . o r o f n It was here that he caused a monument, f med the gu s o r he had captured , to be raised in his h nor du ing his life in m . e n ti e The pope , order to reward his services and to

r o f o cou age his persecution the heretics , sent him a c nsecrated m m m m sw o rd . The nu ber of victi s executed at his co and am o unted to eighteen thousand six hundred ; putrid carc asses o on gallows and wheels infested all the c untry roads . The r n e w o m o r o appea ance of a and en r us sta (in Cassi peia), which for more than a year rem ained m o ti o nless and the n o f h r r disappeared , filling the whole Europe wit ter o and as hm e n t o o n r t o n is , and a dreadful fl od the coast of F iesland , t o by which twenty thousand men were carried away , added n t 1 5 2 r r . O 7 the gene al mise y the la ter occasion , in , the Span r o r ish stadtholde , Billy , gave a n ble example by the e ec c o m o tio n of ex ellent dikes , which f und many i itat rs , and his m emory is still venerated on the co asts o f the Northe rn o fo r rm Ocean . Happy w uld it have been Ge any had all h e r enemies resem bled him ! It w as not until 1 5 72 that William regained su fli c ie n t

h . n o t strengt to retake the ﬁeld Men were wanting , but

- t o th ey were ill provided with arms , and too undisciplined stand against the veteran troops of the duke . By sea alone WA R OF LIBERATION IN N ETHERLAN DS 9 5 1

n de r o r . W v o was success p obable illiam Mark , C unt von ’ u E m o n t s w h o o m L may , g friend , had vowed neither to c b r n o cut his hair until he had revenged his death , a descend o f c r o f o r ant the elebrated Boa Ardennes , quitted the f ests fo r r r - r the sea , captu ed the ichly f eighted Spanish ships , and

r r . o n r too k the town of B iel by a ruse de gue re Alba , lea n m “ ing this event , re arked with habitual contempt, no es ” nada (it is nothing) . These words and a pair of spectacles

r Br Ge u se s o n r . (B ille , iel) were placed by the their banne s N o so oner had a fo rtiﬁed city fallen into their hands than the r l i n n o f u . V e ssi e courage the D tch evived The citizens of g , m o r o r ani ated by the public adm nitions of thei past r, ebelled , r w h o o o put the Spania ds , had laid the f undati n of another o m m o t o citadel c anding the t wn , death , and hanged the

c Pac ie c o . o o o d archite t , The wh le of Holland f ll we their

m . exa ple The Spaniards were everywhere slain or expelled , and were only able to keep their footing in Middleburg . William of Orange had again raised an army in Ge r

ro o r . many , and his b ther Louis an ther in F ance The faith l ess French co urt o ffered its aid on c ondition of receiving the o r n W m t o s uthe n provi ces , while illia was retain those to

o r . o the n th L uis consented , and invaded the Hennegau , while William entered B rabant ; but this negotiati o n had m o r r been erely entered int by the Catholic pa ty in F ance , fo r r o o f r r the pu p se attracting the Huguenots to Pa is , whe e r r they we e assassinated . The news of the t agedy enac ted r m f on the night o f St . Ba th o lo ew o pened the eyes o the r c o f r r r c p in es Nassau to the t eache y of F an e , and they l f m ’ hasti y withdrew their tro o ps . A pl o t laid o r Willia s capture at M o ns was frustrated by the ﬁdelity of a sm all him t o dog belonging to , which is still be seen sculptured m on his to b . r n o w h Alba, bu ning with revenge , marc ed in person upon r in h abi Mechlin , whe e he plundered the city and put all the t o so n o m tants the sword , while his , Frederick , c mitted still

o r r . o w as r m e fearful at ocities at Zutphen H lland , howeve , r a destined to bear the severest punishment. F ederick w s 9 5 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

i despatched thither w th orders to spare neither age nor sex . o f o f r c o r The whole the inhabitants Naa den , nt ary to the l o r c terms of capitu ati n , we e treacherously but hered . Haar lem was gallantly defended by her citizens and by a troop of

r o m n o Hasse l aar three hund ed w e , under the wid w Kenan , r du ing the wh o le of the winter . William v o n der Mark and

W m o f O an illia range vainly attempted to raise the siege , d o m m the t wn was at length co pelled by fa ine to capitulate ,

1 5 73 . r r o F ede ick had lost ten th usan d of his men . The n inhabitants were sent to the block , and whe the headsm en o m t o c o o m were unable fr fatigue ntinue their fﬁce , the re ain m r ing victi s , three hund ed excepted , were tied back to back r and thrown into the sea . Frede ick then m arched upon A l t r maar, which was so despe ately defended by the inhabitants , m o f both male and fe ale , that one thousand his men , and r Haarl e mit e s in r some of the th ee hundred , fell the t enches , m r and he was co pelled t o withd aw . The Water Ge use s were m m u m at the sa e ti e victorio s in a naval engage ent , in which r o f thi ty the great Spanish ships were beaten , and the en o r ’ o m o r m us ad iral s ship , the Inquisition , and six the s , taken

- r m by twenty fou of the s all Dutc h vessels . A Spanish ﬂeet

fift - o r w as w of y f u ships after ard beaten , and a rich c onvoy of merchantmen taken . The captured vessels were m anned m an d l o with Dutch en , Hol and ere long p ssessed a fine fleet c ff of one hundred and fifty sail , whi h e ectually kept the

Spaniards at bay . The Spanish court at length perceived the folly of its r cruelty and seve ity . Alba was recalled , and replaced by 1 5 74 w h o o Requesens , in , s ught by gentleness and mild

t o r r . c ness resto e t anquillity The Dut h , however, no longer

t o o c rr w ar. trusted Spanish promises , and c ntinued to a y on r Middlebu g fell into their hands , and a Spanish ﬂeet, hasten ing to the relief of that town , was annihilated . Success ,

. c nevertheless , varied During the same year, the prin es were beaten in an O pen engagement on the Mo o ke rh e at h m near Ni wegen , where Louis and Henry fell , covered with de glory . Requesens paciﬁed his mutinous soldiers , who WAR OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLAN DS 9 5 3

d h r r m an d e t ei pay , with a promise of the plunder of the ich

i L h i r c ty of eyden , to w ch Valdez suddenly laid siege befo e

o i . it could pr v de itself with provisions The city , surrounded

- i i by sixty t w o Span sh forts , quickly fell a prey to fam ne , the rm h ad i an d Dutc h land a y been d spersed , the ships of the ’

e use s . r W Water G were unavailable In this dist ess , illiam s advice to cut the dikes and to ﬂood the co untry was e age rly “ r o put into practice . Bette to sp il the land than to lose it, o r exc laim ed t h e patriotic pe o ple . The sea p u ed rapidly over V i r o r the ﬁelds and llages , bea ing nwa d the ships of the gal Was r o m o e use s . lant G It , neve theless , f und i p ssible to reach o f the still distant walls Leyden , which were viewed with

r o w e at h e r o b e at e n o n bitte rage by the r ugh and skippers , w h o se b road - b rim m ed hats was w o rn a half -m oo n with the “ " “ c o v r t urc x u r i ins ripti n , Lie e dan pa sch , Better Tu k sh Bo iso t i h than p o pis h . and Adrian W l e l m sse n headed the T h o r o m o . e m expediti n m st p of und isery reigned , eanwhile , o o f h in t h e city . Six th usand the inhabitants ad already r o f r died of hunger . The p ayers the w etc hed surv ivo rs were

- r r m r . . r i at length hea d A sea b eeze sp ang up The wate , e l l e d o r w i n d r l ro p by the n theast , g adual y se , filled the r c h o f t h e rd w h o o i t en es Spania s , s ught safety in fl ght, and r t h e w r o n ro c t h e eached city alls , bea ing its b ad surfa e boats o f t he r Ge use s w h o t r i r fish b ave , , af er dist ibut ng b ead and t h e m c c o n to fa ishing itizen s colle ted the walls , went in pur o f t h e r o f o m o n e o fi v e r suit Spania ds , wh th usand hund ed r i were d rowned o r slain in 1 5 75 . The unive s ty at Leyden w as e rected in m em o ry o f the perseve ring fidelity o f t h e in m f in c o o o r o . habitants , and pensati n their l sses The anni v e rsar o r o r y of this gl i us day is still kept the e as a festival . r H o l land w as hencefo th free . William was elected stadt o t h e o m r o h lder by pe ple , but still in the na e of thei obnoxi us m o r o rm rv c r na ch , and the Calvinistic tenets and f of se i e we e

re - t o c o o f o o c established , the ex lusi n th se of the Cath li s and

. r 1 5 74 o r r h r Lutherans As ea ly as , the Ref med p eac e s had , m o h r m b in the idst of danger , pened t eir ﬁrst chu ch asse ly at o r h r h o r D drec t . The cruelties p acticed by the Cat lics we e 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY e qualled by those inﬂ i cted on the opposi ng party by the m Refo r ers . William of Orange endeavored to repress these s W i h i s exce ses , threw ill am von der Mark , lawless rival , into

b o o prison , where he shortly afterward died , it is said , y p is n , and occupied the wild soldiery , during the short peace that

re - i o f i ensued , in the erect on the d kes torn down in defence

. of Leyden The most horrid atrocities were , nevertheless , 0 1 b fe w perpetrated by Son , y which the Catholics remaining i n t e m Holland were ex r inated in 1 5 77 . A violent c o m U motion also took place in trecht , but ceased on the death of the last of her archbishops , Frederick Schenk (cupbearer)

in 1 5 80. von Tautenburg , rm i Spa i n remained tranquil . The a es and ﬂeets furnished by Philip had co st h im such en o rm ous sums that the state r was made bank upt by the fall in the revenue . Req uesens , w h o w as i i neither able nor willing to take any dec s ve step ,

1 5 76 . suddenly expired in His soldiery , unpaid and impa i r n o w w a t o t ent of rest aint , gave y the most unbridled i license , d spersed over Flanders , sacked one hundred and ri o f c a twenty villages , and , d ving in their van numbers p r c t h e o f tive women and girls , app oa hed gates Maestricht, t h e i o where , citizens refus ng to ﬁre upon the helpless cr wd , i o r r r rac the Span ards f ced thei way into the city , whe e they p m t h e ticed every vari ety o f cri e . This event caused long suppressed wrath of the citizen s of Ghent to explode . The

German citizens of this town , who favored the tenets of the rm s m al Refo ers , had unre istingly sub itted to Alba , and , tho ugh the gallows had rem ained standing fo r years in each o f o o m the city squares , and numbers of Ic n clasts , Refor ed Ge use s h preachers , and had been anged , beheaded , and b r ff o i a u ned , Ghent had su ered c mparat vely less th n her m r o f t h e siste r cities . The ru o ed advance Spanish troops h h ﬂ e w roused the w ole of the in abitants , the men to arms , the women and ch ildren lent their aid in te aring up the m r pave ent , in o der to fortify the town against the castle , d commanded by Mondragon , the brave defen er of Middle ro o f i O a burg . T he t ops the Pr nce of range were llowed to WA R OF LIBERATI ON IN N ETHERLAN DS 9 5 5

h c — r t e . r i m garrison ity The Spanish soldie y , howeve , int i d b r o o r ated y those prepa ations , and c nsci us of thei want o f o ff o r c o o b a leader, turned t wa d Antwerp , whi h they t k y

r r o m 4 1 5 76 . r o su p ise , N ve ber , They laid five hund ed h uses o in ashes , murdered five th usand of the inhabitants , and m r f co mpletely sacked the city . Nu be s o the citizens fled to

r o r r b ~ F ankf t on the Maine , which they en iched y the intro duction of thei r arts and manufactures . m o f Or m o o o f Willia ange , eanwhile , t k advantage the absen c e o f a ro yal stadtholder and of the universal u n po pu l arit o f a t o m o f r y the Sp niards , seize , by eans his f iends m o o f r Lalaing and Gli es , the town c uncil B ussels that

v o r r t o o fa ed the Spania ds , and prop se a union of all the fo r rm o r o Netherlands the conﬁ ati n of peace , the equal ec g nit io n o f o both c nfessions of faith , and the expulsion of the h ac iﬁc at io n Spaniards . This was accomplis ed by the p of m h o 8 1 5 76 . w as r o f G ent, N ve ber , Ghent the cent e the

v m aim o o f o r t o mo e ent , having for the uni n the s uthe n the

' n o rthe rn provinces . Mondrago n vainly attem pted t o de fe n d t he c c c a itadel against the enthusiasti populace , and finally pit u l at e d. n r b so . Don Juan , a natural of Cha les V y Barbara Blum r o f o f b ne w be ger , the daughter a citizen Augs urg , the Span o r m an r o m b r ish stadth lde , a al eady kn wn to fa e y the g eat r o f him 1 5 1 o r victo y Lepanto , gained by , in 7 , ve the Turk rr m r o . o o ish fleet , a ived at this c njuncture The utin us s ldie y mi t o him b ut o h i s instantly sub tted , the Estates insisted up n confirm ation of the pac ific at io n of Ghent in the nam e o f the t o h r t o king , w ich he assented and ma ched Brussels . The r o o f o u t Spanish troops we e , in c nsequence this peace , sent o r D o n i m r o of the c unt y , Juan d sse bling his eal pr jects , and yielding to every dem and with the V iew of weakening the r him o o f . O influence the Prince of ange , of limiting to H lland o f o and Seeland , and reconciling the southern pr vinces to o f i m Spain . Several of the no bles were jealous Will a of O m o o r o f r o w h o range , a ng the s , the duke Ae sch t, , as gov ern o r o f r o t h e Ci o f h D o n Flanders , ga ris ned tadel G ent in 9 5 6 T HE HISTORY OF GERMANY

’ J n m an d r n uan s a e , sec etly correspo ded with him . D o n J r w uan also b oke his word , secretly quitted Brussels , thre i o o i o f c t h himself nt the f rt ﬁed castle Namur, and re alled e

o o . n o f t re ac h Spanish tr ps The Estates , indig ant at this act f W m Or n ery , deprived him of his o ﬁce , and called illia of a ge t o o f ff e al the head a airs , but that prince , conscious of the j w as t h onsy with which he beheld by the rest of e grandees , and less intent up o n h is perso nal agg ra ndizement than de siro us o f o f o r the welfare the c untry , ceded his ight in favor

‘ o f t h e A rc hdu ke m Matthias , the second son of Maxi ilia n

. r m o r II , by whom the Nethe lands ight once m e be united h w h o m r ro m wit Germany , and , o eover, appeared far f dis o m inclined to advance the cause of the Ref r ation . Matthias was rm rm r received with open a s by the Ge an pa ty , and the foreign and Spanish fac tion c o m pletely succum bed on the r -o f c r o C c captu e the itadel of Ghent by the en aged p pulace ,

o 28 1 5 77. T he o r m i c m t ber , g ve n ent of th s city be a e a pure r o o c m dem o c ac y . Ic n las and the assassination of Cath o lic r w as rr p iests recommenced , and a violent feud ca ied on with o o o o i m the Wall n n bility , the zeal us supporters of Catholic s . These events were beheld with g reat uneasiness by Mat r n O ff thias and the P i ce of range , whose e orts were solely n t h e Cat h o directed to the unio of all Netherlands , whether m r i o m r . W l lic or Ref r ed , under a Ge an p ince against Spain m o fo r r o lia visited Ghent in pers n , the pu p se of preaching re ason to the Calvinists and of renewing the article concern Pac iﬁc at io n i ng religious to lerati o n contained in the of Ghent. o o f 1 5 78 S on after this , in the February , the Dutch army r Or m n unde Matthias and ange was , while atte pti g to take ’ uan s c m Ge m b l o urs o rm Don J a p at by st , defeated by the r c i t h e r r m c Spanish , p in ipally ow ng to b ave y and ilitary s ience f r rm o . of the young Duke Alexander of Pa a , the son Ma garet This misfortune again bred dissension and disunion amon g the Du t ch ; Matthias lost courage , and endeavored by his i t o n promises to induce the Cathol cs abandon the Spa iards, o n while the citizens of Ghent, with increased ins lence , agai i r c ruc iﬁxe s and attacked monaster es and chu ches . committed

9 5 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

o f b r provinces , resolute in the defence their li e ties , kept alo o f 22 d 1 5 79 from these dissensions , and , on the January , , sub s i U U cr bed to the nion of trecht , renounced all allegiance to o f Spain , and founded a united republic , consisting seven r u f ee states , G elders , Holland , Seeland , Zutphen , Friesland ,

’ Ob er sse l o - r o y , and Gr ningen , the states gene al of H lland , over which William of Orange was placed as st adt h o l de r . r general . This step had been st ongly advised by Eli zabeth ro of England , as a means of raising a st ng bulwark on the mouths of the Rhine against both France and Spain . The h o f w Dutc declaration independence , like that of the S iss o m Ho l confederati n , contained the prea ble that by this step land had no intention to separate herself from the h o ly R o m m an empire . The aid de anded by both the Dutch and the o Swiss against f reign aggression had been refused , owing to the egotism o f the princes and the mean jealousy o f the m r o cities . The e pe or wanted the spirit to act with decisi n ; h r n e it his brot er , Matthias , ente ed the country a d q uitt d r r with equal sec ec y . The Luthe ans refused al l fe llo wship al m with the follo wers o f C v . o f m The Prince Par a , a man distinguished both as a m o rm o i warrior as a states an , f ed a c al tion with the _and W o o i o alloons , with the disc ntented n bil ty , even gained ver ’ W n m illiam s frie d , the inﬂuential Lalaing , and co menced r r as o pe ations without delay . Dunki k w taken withi n six m days ; Maestricht was stor ed , the inhabitants were put to

r w as r . o the swo d , and the city educed to ruins Herz gen busch and Mechlin fell by stratagem . The underhand sys t e m of sed ucti o n pursued by this p rince w as o pposed by an m r o f h r o f HOl l an d open anifesto on the pa t the stadt olde , in which the revolt of the pro vinces against their legitimate o n w as r l s vereig justiﬁed , on the g ounds that the peop e were w as not for the prince but that the prince for the people , and that Philip had injured , not beneﬁted his subjects . This manifesto was answered by another on the part of Philip

IL , in which , without touching upon the just complaints of i n t h e the people , he ascr bed the revolt of the Netherla ds to WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS 9 5 9

r W m O w h o int igues of illia of range , had wickedly seduced m h r m . his appy subjects f o their allegiance He , at the sa e r c - ﬁ v e c time , set a p i e of twenty thousand du ats on the head

r - r m o no bil of this a ch rebel , and p o ised to best w a patent of ity on his assassin . o f Or m William ange for a third ti e visited Ghent , in

1 o . r 5 80, and appeased the civil br ils Ghent and B uges sub o scribed to t h e Unio n of Utrecht . Matthias had v luntarily m t o r t o retired ; and Willia , in order raise a f esh enemy the rm d r rear of Pa a , who continue apidly advancing , advised ’ the elec tion o f a F renc h p rin c e to the stadtholdership . o h e o o r Alenc n instantly ast ned int the c unt y , and delayed ’ r r m r the duke s p o g ess by the siege of Ca b ay . The Span m hi a ish anifesto had not, meanw le , v inly appealed to the o f m r m m basest passio ns the hu an heart . A F ench an na ed aure u i m b o o f ro m o o J g , a iti us the p ised guerd n , sh t the Prince

o f O o f 1 5 81 . o range in the head , in the March The w und ,

o ro w as n o t o . alth ugh dange us , m rtal r c The P ince of Parma , favored by the state of ina tivity m w as r c o f o to which Willia educed in consequen e his w und , o o rt o o o r O r red ubled his eff s , t k T u nay and udena de , and was m f m even ore successful by intrigue than by fo rc e o ar s . The Fren c h were eq ually o bnoxi o us to both the Ge rm an and Span ‘ m o o w as o 1 5 8 1 . ish facti ns , and Alenc n c pelled to retire in rm o o o Pa a, meanwhile , skilfully t k advantage of the nati nal dislike o f the Germ ans t o the F re n ch t o pave the way to a o o i W m o f Or o n re rec nciliati n W th Spain , and illia ange , his c o v e r r m o o f o y , pe ceived with alar the inclinati n the s uthern provinces to accede t o his pro posals fo r the sake o f peace . o 1 5 83 r o His facti n in Ghent was defeated , in , but the t eas n o f He m b ze t he o f w h o o y , head the Spanish party , ffered to r t o Or delive up the city Parma , being discovered , the ange c o was c c o r b e fa ti n re alled , the treaty con luded at T u nay ’ n m twee Ghent and Par a annulled , and the duke s letters b w a c r . were , y y of answer , publi ly bu ned Bruges , insti t h e gated by Duke von Aerschot , opened her gates to the r Spania ds. 9 60 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

O r t o range , t ue his motto , calm in the midst of storms , bu t o r still hoped for success , scarcely had he rec ve ed from the effects of his wound than a seco nd assassin w as sent by m r the Spanish o narch . Balthasar Gera d presented himself b r him m r as a suppliant efo e and received a handso e p esent, “ n b in retur for which e lodged three balls in his b o dy . 0 Go d m r ! , have e cy upon me , and upon this popr nation were the last words of the dying pri nce . This deed of hor

1 7t h 1 5 84 . t ror took place the July , His las wife , Anne de

Coligny , had seen her murdered father, the celebrated ad r T e l i n miral , and her ﬁ st husband , g y , expire in her arms . m w as . o f Gerard quartered , but P hilip II , in i itation the o o n o f m r p pe , who , receiving the news the u der of the ’

u o n . ar o r re Hug enots St B th lomew s night, o dered public o ic in s j g , ennobled his family , and bestowed upon it the title “ of destro yer of tyrants . e rﬁdio u s He m b ze w ho The p y , , although in his seventieth m o m year, had just arried a y ung wo an , was , as if in expia m A u tion of this base assassination , al ost at the same time ,

4 h r o r o . gust , beheaded at G ent as a t ait to his c untry The

Orange faction in the city was , nevertheless , comp elled to submit t o the duke and to com ply with the general desi re for rm tranquillity and peace in 1 5 84 . Pa a pro hibited the Cal inist ic m r r w r c v for of wo ship , th e four hund ed of the itizens c o r - into prison , l sed the academies and p inting presses , and o He m b ze established the Jesuits in the city . The h use of y r was converted into a Jesuit college . B ussels and Antwerp were taken , after sustaining a lengthy siege . T he s o uthe rn Netherlands were thus lost t o the Refo rma r b r r m o r tion and to libe ty , and , y thei separation f o the n th r o ern provinces , gave rise to that unnatu al distincti n between nations similar in descent that still keeps Holland and Bel gium so widely apart. WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS 9 6 1

T h e e ublic o Ho l lan d CCII . R p f

E A CE w as o n o f c O f P , the death the Prin e of range , of ered rm m i by the duke of Pa a to Holland , by who it was stead ly w as c r o rejected and Spain de lared a faithless f iend , wh m she ’

t o o f he r r . o would oppose the last drop hea t s blood F rtune , ’ m n m r . W so in eanwhile , favored Pa ma Maurice , illia s , an r c o r i r o expe ien ed y uth , had been a sed by the g ateful pe ple to o r r o the stadth lde ship, and Leiceste , the English env y , had , c r r r i m o o i o by his incapa ity and ar ogance , ende ed h self bn x us t o t h e c o m c be Dut h , wh he would willingly have redu ed r neath the B ritish sc eptre . The declining p o we of the R e m r was r o c for e s , neve theless , ren vated by the destru tion of rm i c r m w as the invincible A ada , wh h , shatte ed by a stor , com pletely annihilated by the Dutch and Englis h sh ips u n ‘ de r r o r 1 5 88 . the admi als H wa d and Drake , in This suc

’ r c o ura e an d m cess animated the Dutch with f esh g , Par a,

t o o f r - o - o compelled raise the siege Be gen p Zo m , which had

fo r m m h i s f o r r . so e ti e resisted e f ts , fell ill with chag in The r castle o f Bl ey e n b e k yielded to the Dutc h in 1 5 89 . B eda w as c r taken and sa ked by Mau ice , who defeated the Span

’ iards r Cae w o rde n r ro ro under Ve dugo at , f eed G ningen f m r o v o n R e n n e n b u r her ty annical g vernor , the Count g, and m took Ni wegen .

ar r n . re The w d agged slowly o Philip II . again had ’ t o r r r W i m r c course int igue , and esto ing Philip ill a , Mau i e s ro r o m h ad o r o r elder b the , wh he l ng detained a p is ne in Spain , i r him c N to l be ty , sent unexpe tedly back to the etherlands , in the h o pe o f dissensio ns breaking o ut bet ween the b reth W m o m o ren ; but Philip illia , alth ugh refused ad issi n into o r w h o r r c the c unt y by the Dutch , fea ed the distu ban e of ’ r c o r c h ro o their epubli , n bly eje ted P ilip s p p sals , and even preferred ren o un c ing his right t o his Burgundian estates to o m h lding the on dishono rable term s 1 5 9 5 .

1 Th is o f c e r ro u h t t h e rst o tato e s fro m A me rica ﬁ b g ﬁ p . 9 62 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

1 5 9 6 The duke of Parma expired in , and was succeeded o by an ther Spanish stadtholder, Albert , also a son of the em ’

e ro r . p Maximilian II Albert had married Philip s daughter,

Isabella . Peace was equally desired by all parties in the o r Netherlands , and remained alone unc ncluded f om want of

. w ar unanimity T he was , meanwhile , mechanically carried c o prin ipally by f reigners , French , English , and eastern Germ ans ; and it was in this school that m o st of t he g reat military characters during the ensuing wars ac quired thei r m science and skill . The ost remarka ble event during this ar t he o f O r w was siege stend , which Albe t , or rather his “ h e r m r t o wife , Isabella, the only man in fa ily , esolved gain at whatever p rice ; she even vowed not to change h e r undergarm ent un t il success had crowned her endeavors . m 1 602 m The siege co menced in , and was at length ter i n a e 1 605 r t d by Spinola , in ; the city had , du ing this inter

val , been gradually reduced to a heap of ruins , and one hun

dred thousand m e n had fa l len on b o th sides . The tint known as Isabella - colo r w as so nam ed from the hue acquired by the r ga rm ent o f the Spanish p incess . A truc e for twelve years was at length concluded in 1 09 w ar r o ut r o m m 6 , but b oke af esh on the c encement of the rm religio us war th at c o nvulsed the whole of Ge any . The h ro c r o m o seven nort ern p vin es etained their freed , the s uth r in h abi e rn o nes remained Spanish . The latter lost all thei

r m o tants favo able to the Refor ati n , and with them their pros C i o pe rit y and civil libe rties . The ties st od desert ; the people

m i n o ' were rendered savage by ilitary rule , or steeped in g rance by the Jes uits ; and in this melancholy m anner was r h e r ro w r o f m Ge rm any dep ived of st ngest bul a k , the ost

r h e r ro . o o n blo o m ing and the f eest of p vinces H lland , the r c o other hand , blessed with libe ty , qui kly r se to a high de He r o gree of p ro sperity . populati n , swelled by the Calvin r r c ist ic em ig rants from the Spanish Nethe lands , from F an e m t o o m ro fo r an d and Germany , beca e nu e us the land , whole m w e o fa ilies , as in China , d lt in b ats in the vicinity of the r larger to wns . The over population of the country gave ise , 63 WA R OF LIBERATION IN , NETHERLANDS

1 6 07 r r r r in , to that He culean ente p ise , the d aining of the Bre mst e rse e r c o f w as r m , by which a la ge tra t land eclai ed , t o at e rst aat o r m o f c l and the excellent W syste ana s and dikes , r su e rin which p evented the entrance of the sea , and was p tended by D e ic hgrafs. The navy created by the Water Ge u se s furnished m eans fo r the extensio n of the co m mer m m m r c ial relatio ns o f the republic . A sterda beca e the g eat emporiu m of Dutch c o m merce and the outlet fo r the internal r o c rr b n p ro duce o f Ho lland . The t ade l ng a ied on etwee the m erc hants o f Spain and o f H o lland h ad secretly c ontinued T h e ff o f o m during the w ar. tra ic the f r er with the East Indies and Am erica was carried o n with the c ap i tal o f the w h o o u t o f r o f ro rm r Dutch , , their sha e the p ﬁt , a ed thei r m r r count y en against the Spanish t oo ps . This t affic being

o an d r ro . disc vered st ictly p hibited by Philip II , the Dutch rr o n o n r r ca ied it thei own account, and speedily ivalled the m r o f r r 1 o b . 5 83 e chants Spain in eve y pa t of the gl e In , Huyge n van Linsc ho ten m ade the ﬁrst vo yage to the East r 1 5 95 Ho ut m an n Indies , whithe , in , Cornelius sailed with m r a s all ﬂeet and planted the banner of the epublic in Java ,

r ﬂ r r . 1 5 9 6 whe e it still utte s in the b eeze In , the united ﬂeets o f H o lland and England took the ric h c o m m ercial to wn o f r m Cadiz and burned it to the g ound . During the sa e year Linsc ho ten and Heem skerk set o ut on an expeditio n for the c o o f r dis very a no theastern passage to China . The Dutch o m m m rc had l ng aintained co e ial relations with Russia , and A rc hangel had been fo unded by Ad rian K ry t ; the ente r r r c p ise , neve theless , failed , the ships being i ebound in the ro O r m t o r o n o F zen cean , and Heemske k co pelled winte N va

- Z e m b l a. 1 5 9 9 o In , Stephen van der Hagen pened the spice r o f o 1 601 c t ade with the islands M lucca ; in , van Ne k , the r w S il be r e n m o tea t ade ith China , and van p g , the cinna n r r m r t ade with Ceylon . An incessant struggle fo the e pi e w as rr o n of the sea meanwhile ca ied between Holland , Spain , o r t wo r o f r and P tugal , the latte which had al eady colonized r f N w o e W r . w as 1 605 pa ts the o ld The English Channel , in , b H h blockaded y outain , the Dutch admiral ; no Spanis ship 9 6 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY w as c o permitted to rea h the c ast of Holland , and all the o o Spaniards who fell int his hands were dr wned . The r Dutch ﬂeets incessantly ha assed the Spanish coasts . In 1 608 o , V erh even settled in Calicut , on the Coromandel coast . On e o f t 1 609 his ships visi ed Japan in , and discovered a

r m m o r Dutch sailo , na ed Ada , who had been cast on the sh e , r living the e in g reat rep ute . A c o nnecti o n with this c ountry

o r r o w h o r was f med at a later pe i d by van den Broek , , awa e of the g reat im p o rtance o f the island o f Java as the c ent re of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies , erected , in 1 6 1 8 o f c w , the fortress Batavia , whi h speedily gre into an

. 1 6 1 4 N o o rdt o o n r extensive city In , van foll wed the t ack Oc 1 6 1 5 of the Spaniards in the Southern ean , and , in , Schou ro r m r ten sailed und the southe n point of A e ica , named by h im n o i rn . e Cape H rn , honor of his native town , Hoo N w Zealand was discovered ab o ut the same tim e and named

t he o o f . o 1 6 1 0 after pr vince Seeland Huds n , in , had also o r m o m disc vered the ext e e n rth of A erica , and the bay named h im h o f c after . The Englis , jealous his suc ess , seized and m m r r starved h i t o death . Nu be s of his count ymen fo llowed 1 6 1 4 t o in his track , and , in , added the whale fishery those o f c o dfish c r o and herrings , whi h we e alm st exclusively in their hands . The m ean jealousy o f the Hanse towns met with its fit o ting reward , their c mmerce gradual ly declining as that of o m H o lland rose . Their prohibiti n of English anufactures caused the expulsi o n of all the Han se at ic s fro m England and the instalm ent of the Dutch in their stead in 1 5 9 8 . r r o f o r o f r Mau ice inhe ited little the n ble since ity his fathe , and viewed with jealo us eyes the despotic p o wer wielded by

o r r c . t o the neighb ing p in es The peace , which he had been f r r r . o e fo ced to accede by Henry IV F ance , the friend of m o m o f for , the c m ercial prosperity , the increase the navy, S r the colonial and civil wealth , and the republican pi it of

Holland , were alike distasteful to him , but , compelled to relinquish the hope of executing his tyranni c al projects re by force of arms, he concealed them beneath a mask of

9 66 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

of the republic , the founder of its real grandeur, of its n i r avy , was condemned to death , as a d sturbe of the unity of the state and of the church of Go d . He addressed the m f “ people fro the sca fold in the following words , Fellow r m citizens , believe me , I am no traito to y country . A ”

o . r patriot have I lived and a patri t will I die Mau ice , by wh o m the people had been deceived with false repo rts against o r r o r their nly t ue f iends , pretended to m u n fo r his death and m r o n m to la ent the t eas that had led to his conde nation , in Ho e rb e t an 1 6 1 9 . g e d Grotius were condemned to pe rpetual

‘ m n imprison e t . The latter escaped from the castle of Lowen

im r stein , in which he was mured , by means of his wife , Ma ia , r o - r von Reigersbe g , who c ncealed and had him car ied away in a chest of boo ks . r Popular disturbances ensued . Several insur ectio ns were quelled by force ; the secret assemblage of the Remonstrants was strictly prohibited and the censorship of the press estab i h t o O l s e d. The w sons of lden Barneveldt conspired again st

c 1 623 . the life of Maurice , were discovered and exe uted , ri r Mau ce expi ed in 1 625 . Conscious of the inevitable dis c o v e ry of the artiﬁce with which he had studiously slande red at his victims and deceived the Dutch , and of the infamy t ac h e d t o m o his na e , he enj ined his brother, and successor ,

o . Frederick , with his dying breath , to recall the Rem nstrants

R u do l h the Sec o n d CCIII . p

T HE rest o f Germany beheld the great struggle in the r de st ru Ne t herlands with alm o st supine indiffe ence . The c tion o f the Calvinistic Dutc h was n o t unwillingly beheld by r m fo r r the Luthe ans . The de and assistance add essed , in 1 5 70 W m , by the Dutch to the diet at or s received for reply that Spain justly punished them as rebels against the p rin

c i l e e us . r p of cujus regio, j religio The Lutheran p inces , r either sunk in luxury and vice , or me e adepts in intrigue , r shared the peaceful inclinations of their Catholic neighbo s .

m o o . The oderati n of the emper r , Maximilian II , also greatly WA R OF LIBERATION I N NETHERLANDS 9 6 7

m contributed to the aintenance of tranquillity , but still far m o re so the cunning policy with which the Jesuits secretly enco uraged the internal dissensio ns of the Reform ers while watching fo r a ﬁtting o pportunity again t o act on the offensive .

m . o r o r Maxi ilian II had , sh tly bef e his death , been elected f o r m b r king o P land , and g eat ight have een the esult had he r a e l l o n s m been endo wed with higher ene gies . The J g beca e r c o extinct with Sigism und Augustus in 1 5 72 . The cap i i us

o o o r r m o n P lish n bles , w ked upon by the agents of the F ench ‘ c h r i r o f o t o ro c r ar , a sed Hen y Anj u the th ne , whi h that p ince r speedily and v o l u ntarily ren o unced fo r that of F ance . Max il ian c b -o n e Bat ho ri im was ele ted king y faction , and Stephen , m r i b . prince of T ansylvan a , y another Maxi ilian ceded his

1 5 75 . claim and expired shortly afterward , in The Jesuits c b o were a cused of having taken him off y poison , thr ugh jeal o usy o f his inclination t o favo r the Reform atio n . The beauti ful Philippina Welser is also said to have been mur de red in the castle of Am bras by O pening her veins in a

bat h in 1 5 76 . m n w as so o . Maxi ilian succeeded by his , Rud lph II , a sec r ond F rede ick III . This prince devoted his whole thoughts o r o m m m to his h ses , of which he p ssessed an i ense nu ber , altho ugh he never mounted them ; to the co llecti on o f natu ral curi o sities and pictures ; t o the study o f al c hem y and ro o w as c o ast l gy , in which he assisted by the Dane , Ty h de ‘ r r r rm r o m r B ahe , and by Keple , the g eat Ge an ast on e . Tycho is said t o have draw n his ho ro sc o pe and t o have fo retold his

Th is e t rao r inar man t o w h o m we are in e te fo r t he isc o v e r o f t h e x d y , d b d d y s w h ic h re u at e t h e mo v m n r i ir i i it t aw e e t s o f t h e ane t a o e s t h e e t c e c . l g l pl y b d , ll p y , , as o rn in 1 5 7 1 at Wie in i Wh i e b o t e n in sh ee h e asse w Sw a a . a b , l , b l y , d g p , p d h is n i h t s in t h e e s and h is o se rv at io n ac uire h is rst n o w e e o f g fi ld , by b q d fi k l dg t ro no m His i s o r o n as y . d c v e y w as c o n de mne d by t h e Tubinge n univ e rsity as c t rar t o t h e ib e He as u r um . w a o t t o e st ro h is w o w h e n an as w as y B l b d y k , yl ran te t o h im at Graet h i h h e ft e r r ui t o r t h im ri o urt H w c a w a t e f e e a c . e g d z , d q d p l w as no t w ith s t an in h i s Lut h e ran rin c i e s t o e rat e t h e e suit s w h o , d g p pl , l d by J , ne w h o w t o v a ue sc re n t ific n o w e e He w as so e e rse c ut e in h is nat iv e k l k l dg . l ly p d c o un t r h e re h e w it h i ffi c u i in i h w t sav e h s mo th e r fro m e urne as a w t c . y , d l y d b g b d He w as a so in t h e se rv ic e o f t h e c e e rat e Ge ne ra Wa e n st ein He i e i n l l b d l ll . d d 1 6 3 0 at R atis o n , b . 9 6 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

c o death by the hand of his own son , in nsequence of which

r wo r m r c o he fo s e ar iage and lived in constant se lusi n . He w as t o o f r r m m subject ﬁts fu y ese bling adness . His sleep

r m ro r so ing apa t ent was st ngly barred like a p ison , great o o f o was his apprehensi n a vi lent death .

Rudolp h bestowed no attention upon the empire ; he , r m Cl e se l o neve theless , per itted Melchior , bish p of Vienna, s t o m r o c and the Jesuit , atte pt to b ing ab ut a rea tion in his

r r ro c ro w h o he edita y p vin es against the P testants , , deeming ’ S hi s r r r themselves ecure under fathe s scept e , had , cont ary m r m to agree ent , e ected churches on spots not im ediately b e

- t o r . 1 5 79 u n longing the p ivileged nobility In , every privi l e ge d cure was seized and the public instruction placed ex c lu siv e l o ro r m y in the hands of the Cath lics , a p ceeding ext e ely mild when com pared with the merciless extirpati o n of the o o f r Calvinists in Sax ny , the Luthe ans in the Pfalz , etc . r o r o f d The g eat vict ies the Dutch , the ecided inclination o f o f f I V. o of Elizabeth , queen England , and Henry France , d l c to Calvinism , sud en y raised that se t to a high degree of r r c o inﬂuence , which was fu ther inc eased by the defe ti n of seve ral of the p rinces from Lutheranism through disgust at m m the do c trines taught by the clergy . I ediately after the r m o f c t iu ph gained by the Lutherans by means the con ordat, m m the only Calvinistic prince re aining in Ger any , the Pfalz r m r c o g af , John Casi ir, brother to Louis , the Luthe an ele t r , r o r 1 5 77 had , at a congress hel d at F ankf t on the Maine , in , h ad h m demanded ai d from England and France . He i self levied a tro o p of Germ an auxiliaries for the French Hugu e f r o o o . On o n ts the death his brother , he unde t k the guar

dian shi o f r r . 1 5 85 p his infant nephew , F ede ick IV , in ; all the Luth erans were instantly expelled the Pfalz and the tenets of Calvin im p o sed upon the people . o r It was about this peri d that Gebha d , elector of Cologne , r W born Count Truchsess (dapife ) von aldburg , a young ,

- m gentle hearted , but so ewhat thoughtless man , embraced

- Sa Calvinism . His equally worldly minded predecessor, Yse n b u r 1 5 77 lentin von g , had , in , after persecuting the WA R OF LI BERATION IN N ETHERLANDS 9 69

f Lutherans , suddenly renounced his o ﬁce and wedded a h r m be r i Co untess von A e g, an example Gebhard was nclined

. to follow , but without relinquishing his position He had a al ready become not orious for easy mor lity , when , one day , h e loo king fro m his balcony , beheld , in a passing procession , a the Countess Agn es von M nsfeld, canoness of the noble a convent of Ge rrish e im ne r Dusseldorf , the most beautiful t wo man of the day , and becoming violen ly enamored , called h e r into his presence , and, by his united charms of rank , o c y uth , and beauty , qui kly inspired her with a correspond ' T h Lut h eran o u o n o . e v ing p assi n C nts Mansfeld , speedily inf o rm ed o f the connec tion betwe en their sister and the arch o r bish p , hastened to Bonn , where they we e holding court to ’ o gether, and compelled the archbishop to rest re their sister s

r m . hono by a for al marriage The Calvinists in the Pfalz , o h im in H lland , and France , however , promising their aid on condition of his reforming the who le o f the Co l o gn e se t o erritory, and inspiring him with the h pe of rendering his

' o m p ssessions hereditary in his family , he e braced the tenets c u im s o f o of Calvin , and onseq ently deprived h elf the supp rt m of the strict Lutherans . He was himself co plet e ly devoid

. a o n of energy The bishop of his cathedr l , Frederick V Saxon i o Lauenburg , who grasped at the archiep scopal mitre , alm st t h e entire chapter and the citizens of Cologne declared

. Y se n b ur ao against him His predecessor, Salentin von g, t u at e im d o O o h . On o n by jeal usy , also pp sed the day which m o o Gebhard sole nized his wedding at Bonn , the bish p to k

Kaise rsw ert h . F e b ruar 2 1 5 83 . possession of the city of , y , o The maj o rity of the pe ple were against him . The po pe put him under an interdict ; the emperor and the empire were b o und by the ecclesiastical proviso ; the Lutherans refused

t o . r heir aid through jeal usy of the Calvinists E nest , duke o f v o an d F re sin e n Ba aria , bish p of Liege y g , was elected

o e r o r . archbish p in his stead , and in vad d his te rit y The r im t o r Pfalzg af, John Cas ir, whom he had in his te ror mort l o t o o l gaged the whole of the e ectorate of C logne , was deep y engaged in the expulsion of the Lutherans from the Pfalz to - S E R MAN Y V OL . . G . III 9 70 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

T h h is . e lend him the requisite aid , and left him to fate whole of the elec to rate was speedily in the hands of the Ba r o va ian duke , and Gebhard to k refuge in Zutphen , whence v he escaped to William of Orange . Agnes secretly isited ’ England and applied for assistance to Essex , the queen s b e al favorite , but was instantly expelled the country y the j ’ o us . queen , who refused to see her Gebhard s adherents , m r eanwhile , ravaged the country a ound Neuss , but were r u o f m fo ced to capitulate by the Spanish under the d ke Par a , t to whom Ernes had turned for aid . The cause of the ex e l l e d n o w 1 5 89 p archbishop became hopeless , and , in , he withdrew with Agnes , to whom he ever remained faithful , to Strasburg , where he had formerly held the ofﬁce of dea

1 . . 1 60 con He died in , leaving no issue Agnes survived him ; t h e perio d of her death and her bu rial - place are unk n o wn . w h o Ernest of Cologne , became at the same time bishop o f m t h e Munster , Liege , and Hildeshei , favored Jesuits , and persec uted the Protestants with the greatest rig o r in Aix - la l Chapelle . The Catho ic league , meanwhile , incessantly car o ried on hostilities against the Huguen ts , whose leader,

Henry of Bourbon , the ﬁrst of that line , mounted the throne of F rance in This monarch was g reatly seconded in m r o his war with the league by the Refor ed Swiss , unde L uis v o n v r v o n Erlach , and by the Cal inistic p ince , Christian

- o Anhalt . The Landgrave , Maurice of Hesse Cassel , penly r embraced Calvinism in 1 5 9 2 . The sepa ation of Hessian

Darm stadt fro m Cassel took place in 1 6 1 4 . It was brought ’ r n about by the Luthe a prince , Louis of Darmstadt , Maurice s u r o o o f E s co sin , in di ect ppositi n to the will the provincial ‘ s. r m tate Mau ice was one of the most e inent among the , r princes of his time , witty and learned , deeply ve sed in

classic literature and art , well acquainted with modern and m o fo r foreign cultivation and custo s , and not the less zeal us m r r r the improve ent of Germany . The Ma grave , E nest F ed

1 Th is rinc e w as t h e rst inv ent or of the t e e ra h an inv ent io n t h at did p ﬁ l g p , no t come int o use unti on after l l g . WA R OF LIBERATION IN NETHERLANDS 9 71

o f - o r erick Baden Durlach , became a c nve t to Calvin , and o f im po sed his te nets o n his Lutheran subjects . He died 1 6 04 o r m w o apo plexy , in , when marching upon Pf zhei , h se l o r n e . o citize s had resist d his tyranny J hn Sigismund , e ect r r o m m o f B andenbu g , als e braced Calvinis , the faith of the o f ul ie rs in h eri citizens J , Cleve , and Berg , his subjects by c r r o tance . He in ur ed g eat unpopularity by his tolerati n of r Lutheranism in B randenb u g . The Cath o li c party had gradually gained internal

o . strength . Paul IV . commenced the rest ration ; Pius IV gave a n e w c o nstitutio n t o the Catholic wo rld by the reso luti o ns of the c o uncil o f Trent ; Pius V . exchanged ’ r f fo r o t o the shephe d s sta f the fag and the sw rd , and , by h i m t h e s exa ple, sanctiﬁed cruelties perpetrated by Philip f r r r X . a o II . ; G ego y III , the represent tive Jesuit lea ning , ro m m ro put the P testants to sha e with his i p ved Calendar, c was 1 5 84 o ro ed whi h published in , and vi lently p test against t h e rr at imperial diet by the Lutherans , who prefe ed an ro m t o c er neous co putation of time anything , however a cu

ro c ro o . rate , p eeding f m a p pe ; and ﬁnally , Sixtus V again displayed the wh o le pomp o f the triumphant c hu rch fro m

1 5 85 to 1 5 9 0 . The Je suits had rapidly spread over the wh o le o f the o e al Cath lic world , and , solely opposed by the Dominicans , j o u s o f o r rt d c the p we they had hithe o possesse , had pla ed all

r r . r so v beneath thei ule The F anciscans , inﬂuential o er the r c r e suit ic al o f people , were epla ed by anothe J body begging o m t h e wh o m nks , drawn fro their ranks , Capuchins , were m m t o o o t h e co issioned w rk up n lower , as the Jesuits did r m . ad upon the highe , classes Per anent nunciatures , as v an c e d posts noting the movem ents o f the enemy and o f the c o o w o 1 5 70 1 5 88 nfederati n , ere stati ned , in , at Luzerne , in at r o B ussels , Col gne , and Vienna . The Refo rmers had entirely l o st sight of the an c ient r t o f r r d o n o r chu ch in the mids thei inte nal issensi ns , was ’ it until the publicatio n o f Car dinal Be l l arm in s subtle eriti ’ c ism o n e o o 1 58 1 o f e o s the R f rmati n in , and that Pope Gr g ry 9 72 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

“ c oe n a o m 1 5 84 o n o n e celebrated bull in D ini in , the side , and o f the histo ry o f the o rde r o f Jesus by the renegade Hase n m u l l e r c r Jesuit, , in whi h he lays ba e all its evil p rao r r m 1 5 86 o n tices and exagge ates its c i es , in , the other side , that p o lem ic s again raged and the press vented its venom o n h r bot pa ties . The bisho p rics continued a m aterial o bjec t of discord ; those to the n o rth o f Germ any had i rrec o verably fallen into h o f r c o f r r r c the ands the p in es B andenbu g , B unswi k , Meck

- l e n b ur . o g , and Saxon Lauenburg The possessi n of o thers r was a matter of un c e tainty . In Upper Germ any and in w r o r r S itze land , the Cath lics g eatly inc eased in strength and

r c r o o da ing , and the onfede ates , instigated by the Jesuits , t k

rm o r. 1 5 86 o up a s against one an the In , the Catholic cant ns , o Pf ffe rs o f o f inﬂuenced by L uis y Lucerne , the head the r m Catholics , su na ed the Swiss king , concluded the golden or r r B o rrom ean league with St . Cha les B o ro meo fo r the exte r o minati o n o f heretics . This league raged s fearfully in Italy that num bers of Reform ers ﬂed thence to Zurich ; hence the m f r l l i c r o o O e . eleb ated Zurich na es Pestal zzi , , etc b R o r o The favor lavished y Stephen ath i , king of P land , o r ffo u o up n the Catholic pa ty , a rded the Jes its an pportunity

r m o r o o - r t o sp ead the selves ve Liv nia and P lish P ussia . They r r o u t o f r c were , howeve , d iven Riga by the Luthe an itizens m r m 1 5 7 o u t o f r 1 6 06 . in 8 , and Dantzig in a si ila anne in m m . o Cle ent VIII , eanwhile , intent up n extending his m o te poral sway in Italy , had , on the death of Alfons , the o f 1 5 9 5 rr r last Marquis of the house Este , in , seized Fe a a and fo rc ibly annexed that duc hy to the do m ini o ns o f the

c c o r V . o r c church . His su ess , Paul , zeal usly pe se uted the r o ro m 1 605 t o 1 621 heretics , and , du ing his l ng reign , f ,

incessantly encouraged disco rd and dissensi o n . Bavaria displayed the greatest zeal in the Cath o lic

- r o r r cause . Baden Du lach , wh se Ma g ave , Philip , had fallen n t o n c urt fo r o h ad re at Mo o ﬁghting the Huguen ts , been ’ catholicized by Duke Albert , the guardian of Philip s infant ’ so n . Albert s successors , William and Maximilian

74 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y o n W 1 609 the death of John illiam , in , the whole of the o rm r n rich inheritance fell to the Ref ed b a ch , which , aided ’ r o by F ance , ﬁnally succeeded in expelling Sibylla s facti n , t which was suppor ed by the Spanish Netherlands . r m The united p inces , eanwhile , took the ﬁeld , but again laid do wn arm s on the death of the elec tor of the Pfalz and r r o f R av ail l ac o o o f the mu de Henry of Navarre by , the t l r the Jesuits . B andenburg and Neuburg rem ained in peace

o f ul ie rs - c r able possession the J Cleve inheritan e , until a qua Out l r m r rel breaking between them , the Pfa zg af e b aced Catho licism and called the League and the Spaniards to m a r n . w s e o t ia his aid The atter , neve theless , settled by g o r b ti n , Brandenburg taking Cleve , Ma k , and Ravens erg ;

e u b ur J 1 6 1 4 . N g , uliers and Berg , in They were , however, t o o m still destined not h ld the lands in peace , the e peror attem pting to place them under sequestration as p rop e rt y l apsed to the crown ; the D utch and Spaniards agai n r w inte fered in the dispute that ensued , and shortly after ard r r u t c the great w a b o ke o . John Sigismund su ceeded the r r o f r imbecile duke , F ede ick Albert , on the throne P ussia 1 6 1 4 r m in , where, du ing that stor y period , the Branden r bu gs with difficulty secured their footing . THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 75

PA R T X V I I I

T H E T H I R T Y Y E A R S ’ W A R

Grea t R eli io u s D ist u rba n c es i n A us tr ia CCIV . g D efea t of th e Bo hem ia n s

r c m ro r m . r HE p o je ts laid by the e pe Maxi ilian II we e , r m r r ro h r even du ing his lifeti e , f ust ated by his b t e ,

r r - o rc r Ca Cha les , the ult a Cath lic a hduke in Sty ia , i h rin t hia r o . r w o , and Ca ni la This ene get c man , , by his m o f m o o t h e r settle ent the ilitary c lonies in Cr atia , in hea t o f h r c 1 5 80 m o o r w ich he e e ted , in , the etr p lis of Ca lstadt , r m r o o o ro had g eatly served the e pi e , vi lently pp sed the P tes t n ra r a ts , established the Jesuits at G etz , and by his vi ulent persecuti o n o f the Luthe ran co m m unes in the m o untain dis r r r t ric t s dro ve them t o ebel in 1 5 73 . The peasant y th o ugh o ut r r o r l r r Sty ia and Ca ni la evo ted , but we e educed to sub ‘ U z ko ke s o ro r c fo r mission by the , wild Slav nian bbe s , alled r m ‘ t hat purp o se f o the mountains of Dalm atia . The vi o lent ab o litio n o f the religio us libe rty of the privi i o r r r m l e ge d c ties by Rudo lph II . called f th an ene geti c e o n r ro m o o f r c r w st ance f the wh le the p ovin ial Estates , that d e ro m h im r o f o r r rc ra f the g ant f u p ivileged chu hes at G etz , r Cl a e n furt 1 5 78 Judenbu g , g , and Laibach , in , which were , v r ro r ne e theless , dest yed by the Archduke Cha les , at whose comm and twelve thousand Germ an Bibles and o ther Lu

‘ theran books were burned by the public exe c uti o ner at

ae 1 5 79 . r r c r r su Gr tz , in The Luthe an p ea he s were g adually e rse de d o c c r c r p by Cath li le gy in all the cities , the ha tered

o n o t r c o m t o r c . t wns excepted , and the citizens we e pelled e ant

Th e se ar ari an s aft e rw ar re at an n o e h is so n t h e e m e ro r e r in an d b b d g ly y d , p F d

II . wh o at t h e n r t ni i i i r A ri i e t e a o f e c e nt e r ct e t h e r i ac in t h e at c . , , y V , d d p y d 9 76 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

o r h c t h The privileges of the n bility we e still eld sa red , but e o e u s o o m principle , cujus regi , j religi , was in s me easure t m n o r l rm even applied to he , Luthe an ord being pe itted to take a Catholic peasant into his service unless b o rn on h is

. m h estates The Estates , perceiving their de ands un eeded r n o 1 5 82 o r by their sove eig , laid their c mplaints , in , bef e m t h e o f c the diet of the e pire , in hope being prote ted by the r Luthe ran p rinces . But he e also their h o pes were frustrated m r e u s r o . by the pitiless axio , cujus egio , j eligi The Jesuits , m c m e boldened by this defeat, redoubled their atta ks ; nu bers

r r r d r of Luthe an preache s we e incarcerate , but were pa tly r resto red to liberty by the enraged peasant y . The m o ve r r 1 5 88 c h ment g adually inc eased , and , in , the ar duke was m erely saved from assassinatio n at J ude n b u rg by the m ag u r r n an imit y of a L theran preacher . An insu rection b oke u o u rc o o f r o t simultane sly in the a hbish pric Salzbu g . Tu m ul t u o u s o f t h e meetings , the violent seizure preachers an d o t h e r r the armed opp sition of peasant y , we e annually renewed in Austria from 1 5 9 4 . The persecutio n of the Austrian P rotestants raged with redoubled violence on the accession o f the Archduke Fer e suit ic al r din an d in 1 5 9 6 . His J precepto s had carefully pre parzzd him fro m his earliest c hildho od fo r t h e part they h im o m o o intended to perf r , and he had s lemnly v wed at the shrin e of the Vi rgin at L o retto to exti rpate he resy fro m his h is m . o do inions The acti ns and principles of uncle , Philip c o rm r r II . , the model on whi h he f ed himself , we e me ciful in him r f m m i . U co par son with nwa like , nay , e fe inate in his hab r ro m r its , eve sur unded by Jesuits and wo en , he , neve theless , possessed a bigo ted o bstinacy o f c harac ter that naught had o r n V power to s ften , and , while t anquilly residi g in ienna , o r ro willing too l s were easily fo und to execute his h r id p jects . r ac t r t o o o f His ﬁ st , in answe the renewed petiti ns the Estates

r o r t h e ro o for eligi us libe ty , was erection of gallows th ugh ut fo r m the co untry the evangelical preachers , the de olition of c r t h e their hu ches , nay , desecration of the churchyards by a the disinterment of the dead . In L ibach , where the most THE THIRTY YEARS” WA R 9 77

n w as o ffe réd ro m reso lute resista ce , the pastors were torn f

r r n thei pulpits , the citizens that efused to reca t expelled , and o o o o f was their goo ds conﬁscated . The pp siti n the Estates o o r o o o f U weakened by the diss luti n of thei uni n , th se pper

r r r r h r o and L o we Aust ia , Sty ia , Ca int ia , and Ca ni la being

r . co m pelled to h o ld sepa ate assemblies The Estates , refused r r r aid by their breth en in belief , we e d iven by necessity to

r o r o . dem and assistance f o m their. f eign neighb rs Venice o c r o c i he r in was t o o Cath li , Hunga y too deeply cupied W th r te rnal affairs and the war with the Tu ks , to listen to their ‘ Be t hl e n o r r r v o o ad entreaties . Gab , P ince of T ansyl ania , t k f r de c ade n de o f r m o n vantage o the g adual the Tu kish e pire ,

n o f o m the o e hand , and the religi us war in Ger any , on the

r t o o n r . othe , f und an independent power in Hu ga y The Ge rm an Transylvanians had been c o nve rted t o Lutheranism n 1 5 33 w o o t h e i , and ere , at this peri d , in cl se alliance with

rm . . o Ge an Lutherans Rudolph II , with the view of rec n

r m t o m r ve ting the Catholicis , instigated the Hunga ians m r c r against the , and the Saxons we e a tually decla ed in the r 1 5 9 0 r r Hunga ian diet, in , serfs to the Hunga ians , the e m r Hut n o o m m o . being n ble en a ng the The national G af , t e r o r o m a , h wever, rose in thei defence , and penly told the g “ nates befo re the wh o le assem bly that Lab o r was n o bler

o b r c . than r be y , and su ceeded in repealing their decision r o r c o n The T ansylvanian Sax ns , as a p ote ti n agai st the o rm o 1 6 1 3 o m Jesuits , f ed a uni n , in , and b und the selves by o ath t o stand up as o n e m an in defence o f their p o liti c al r o o f r o o c f eed m and the Augsbu g C nfessi n , never to ac ept v t o r of nobility, and e er preserve thei equality , the condition

of their freedom . o al l h r o o Thus , Tyr l alone excepted , the eredita y p ssessi ns o f r o o rm of the house Habsbu g had fav red the Ref ation , and o f m m c o . w as were , in point fa t , Ref r ed Catholicis , never t h e l e ss r m o c r , ei p sed , by means of politi al int igue , on the w o i mm o h le of th s i ense p pulation . r c o r re The a chdukes, less inﬂuenced by the dis d that p v ailed th roughout the empire than by the distu rbances in 9 78 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

i t the hereditary prov nces , which caused the Habsburgs o t r 1 606 t o otter on the th one , resolved , in , install Matthias in m u o the place of his spiritless brother , the e peror R d lph . This event afforded a glimmer of h o pe to t h e oppressed Prot n e st a t s. Matthias speedily found himself at the head of an m n army , and compelled the e peror to cede Hu gary and o o b h Austria . Rud lph , shaken fr m his slum ers , astened t o c t h e unexpectedly Prague , where , sacriﬁ ing principle h e v c r o f on which had hitherto go erned , the ex lusive ule o o f m r the Cath lic form worship , to his en ity towa d his r o r t h e b other , he fully rest ed privileges anciently enjoyed U 1 609 o m o by the traquists , and , in , pr mulgated the fa us o f h e r o letter patent , the palladium Bohemia , by which p lit

c m . o i al and religious liberty was confir ed The st rm had , o r ro however , no s oner passed than , reg etting his gene sity , rc he allowed his cousin , the A hduke Leopold , bishop of n n o f c Passau , whom , otwithstandi g his priestly fi e , he des m c o n sid tined for his successor on the throne , to asse ble a e rab l e o o f o o at Bo b dy tr ps Passau , invade and devastate o r bemia, and take possessi n of the Kleine Seite of P ague . r r The Bohemians unde Matthias , Count von Thu n , made a r n m gallant defence , and seve al bloody e gage ents took place . o f m r r The rage the Bohe ians was , howeve , chiefly di ected r h against the Jesuits , who we e accused of aving instigated c r l l this atta k upon their libe ties , and Rudo ph , deep y sus e c t e d t h e r r c o p by citizens of P ague of pa ti ipating in the pl t, was kept p risoner by them until Leopold voluntarily retreated r E u o n the news o f the app ro ach of Matthias from Hunga y . d o lph w as c o m pelled t o abdi c ate the th ro ne o f Bohem ia in o f r er o c o ro o o m m fav o r his b oth , wh se nati n was s le nized a id m o f o o n o m the j o yful accla ations the pe ple , wh he lavished “ ” r r ! fresh privileges . Ung ateful P ague exclaimed the de m rc o o o o c p o sed ona h , as he l ked d wn up n the gorgeous ity “ U n r ! o fro m his palace windo w . g ateful Prague to me d st

o - thou o w e thy w ndrous beauty , and thus hast thou repaid and my beneﬁts . May the vengeance of Heaven strike thee, ” my curse light upon thee and the whole of Bohemia ! THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 79

’ o m c Mat t hias s i r The B he ians , en hanted with l be ality , o w n r m prudently s ught to dra a real adva tage f o , and to

r c o o h i s c o o n . strengthen thei nstituti n by , de eptive c ncessi s The falla c y o f their hopes is clearly pro ved by the fact o f ’ Ferdinand s having annihilated in the m ountains every trace of the liberty so deceitfully planted by his uncles and so v er o o r r o f t h e m e ign s in B o hemia . Sh rtly bef e the Ch istmas sa e r 1 6 1 0 ro o m o r o o yea , , the Passau t ps ade a sec nd incu si n int Upper Austria and c ruelly harassed the Pro testant in h a bi tants . Matthias suc c eeded t o the i m perial cro wn o n the death

o f o . 1 6 1 2 n t o r c Rud lph II in , and , u able e all past events , r o c o m m o r peaceably withd ew fr m publi life , c itting the g ve n t o r m t o ro ment his nephew , Fe dinand , who he caused be p m o f w h o c o clai ed king Bohemia , and was destined to dis ver the little ac c o rdance between the system of o ppressi o n pur sued by h im in the mountains an d the letters patent issued ’ r by Rud o lph . Ferdinand t eated his un c le with the basest r r him o f o f o l d r ing atitude , dep iving the society his f iend ,

r Cl e se l him c o m . Ca dinal , and treating with the deepest nte pt The po o r o l d m an w as at length c arried o ff by go ut in

r - 1 6 1 7 . Cl e se l had d awn upon himself the ill will o f the o r r o o m m y uthful ty ant , by exp essing a h pe that B he ia ight “ r r r r be t eated with lenity , to which Fe dinand eplied , Bette ” r r r a dese t than a c o unt y full o f he etics . The o nly des c end ants o f the h o use o f Ha bsbu rg still rem aining in Germ any

r r . t w o ro r o o o o f we e Fe dinand II , his b the s , Le p ld , bish p r r f o o f . ro o Passau , and Cha les , bish p B eslau The th ne w as 1 21 m o r 6 . o t o Spain , in , unted by Philip IV (g ands n o b ro r r m c r Philip wh se the , Fe dinand , beca e a a dinal r and the stadtholde o f the Netherlands . The arrival o f Fe rdinand with his Je su it ic al co u n sell o rs r o m r n o r w as m at P ague ﬁlled B he ia with d ead , it di inished by his hyp o c riti c al o ath t o hold the letters patent granted by Rudolph sac red ; fo r h o w co uld a Jesuit be b o und by an o ath The p rinciples on whi c h he ac ted had been c learly sh o wn by o ra his behavi r at G etz and Laibach . The Jesuits no l o nger 9 80 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

r h o o r concealed thei pes , and the w ld was inundated with c r m t o f pamphlets , des ibing the easures be taken o r the ex t ir at io n r p of heresy throughout Eu ope , and for the re s t o ra t iOn h of the only true churc .

t Bo h e m ia l e av in Ferdinand speedily quit ed , g the govern h Sl aw at a fo r ment in the ands of (a man who , a wealthy

‘ r r e ro m l b ide , had enounc d P testantis , and who crue ly perse o o rm r r Mart in it z wh o t o in uted his f e breth en) and , sought r o m a r sna e the pe ple and syste atic lly to suppress thei rights . A strict censorship was established ; Jesuitic al w o rks were m o . l al ne un utilated Religious liberty , a though legally pos e o r o s ssed by the n bility alone , had , by ight of cust m , ex e tended to the Protestant citizens , more esp cially since the r o f o r o g ant the letters patent by the emper , Rud lph II . but they n o sooner ventured t o erect new churches at Braunau and Kloste rgrab than an order for their demolition was wh o issued by Ferdinand , , treating the representations of

h r - the Estates with silent contempt , t ei long suppressed dis

o r o o f o r content br ke fo th , and , at the instigati n C unt Thu n , Sl aw at a Mart in it z o they ﬂung and , after l ading them with o c h r h r r r bitter repr a es , togethe wit thei secreta y , Fab icius , cc o r t o o l d o m o m o a ding B he ian cust , out of the wind w of

- h - the council ouse o n the Radsc hin . They fell t hi rty ﬁ v e ‘ r Mart in it z r r r . e ya ds and the s c eta y escaped unhu t, being c ast up o n a heap o f litter and o l d papers ; Sl aw at a was d read r o fully shatte ed , and was carried int a neighboring house , o f r r h r m u n that a Princess Schwa zenbe g , w e e he re ained o r 23 1 6 1 8 ro m s m lested. This event occu red May , , and f thi ’ r day dates the c o m m encem ent o f the thi rty years w a . The ﬁrs t act of the B o hem ian Estates under the di rection o r f c of C unt Thu n was the expulsion o the Jesuits , in whi h r m o f t h e r r o they we e i itated by the rest he edita y pr vinces , l n r o f r o f r r Si esia u de the rule John Geo ge , duke B andenbu g Jae e rn do rf r r r g , Mo avia under its p incipal leader, the Ba on

1 i h i f Ho h e nfall He is sai t o h av e fa e n He aft e rw ard re c e v e d t e t tle o . d ll u o n Mart init z and no t w it h stan in th e h o rro r o f th e mo me nt t o h av e o itel p , , d g , p l y r is in un t ar ru n e s aske d pard on fo h v o l y d e s .

9 82 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

’ m o raised against the by Ferdinand s diplomatic arts , als h f h r r . o n o t o o t e U speedily et eated The C ssacks ( t se kraine) , n o r the rudest of the Lithuanian tribes , were i vited int Aust ia by the empero r fo r the purp o se of c onverting the pe o pl e by _

ﬁ re o . , sw rd , and pillage A Spanish army under Verdugo also crossed the Al ps and defeated Mansfeld at Langen m o . r m L ys The Bohe ians and Hunga ians were , eanwhile , o r m victori us ove the Poles , and , in the idst of the tumult of

w ar V . o r o f k Bo , elected Frederick , elect the Pfalz , ing of b Be t h l e n o emia , and Gab r king of Hungary , in the stead of

m o r 1 6 20. the e per , The behavi o r of the German princes du ri ng the war in Austria was m ore deeply than ever marked by treac hery and weakness . Never has a great period pro duced baser r o m o r r characte s , never has a sacred cause f und e unwo thy m o r o . o e m cha pi ns The pr jects ha bored by the p pe , the e ro r r o m p , Spain , and F ance , for the c plete suppression of o r o w r o frus the Ref mati n , e e well known , and could al ne be t rat e d by a pro mpt and firm coal i tion on the part o f the Prot m f r r r e st an t . W o o o princes George illia B andenbu g , J hn Ge ge m F W urt e m of Saxony , Louis of Dar stadt , John rederick of r an r r o rn r be g , d the Ma g ave , J achim E est , of B andenburg , b ribed by perso nal interest o r ac tuated by c o wardi c e and by o u o f o r r t o jeal sy the Pfalzgraf , aband ned thei breth en their m r m . fate , and took pa t with the e peror Maxi ilian , duke of w h o t h is Bavaria , , notwi hstanding youth , was at the head o o f c o of the Catholic League , had , through jeal usy his usin r c r o c o f h i s o the Pfalzg af , sa ificed the brilliant pr spe ts h use , and headed the Wittelsbach against the Wittelsbach in a o o w ar p ro fitable al o ne t o the Habsburg . C nsci us of this r h o o f false step , he endeavo ed , alt ugh the ally the Habs

r t o r o f m r r t o bu g , curb the powe the e pe o , and retain his

o f c rm . F o r o p o sition as the head Catholi Ge any this purp se , c c o m he long delayed advancing to his aid , until a tually e l l e d o p , by the fear of losing the laurels he h ped to win , to c o n c l ud take the ﬁeld at the head of his whole force , after ing an alliance at Wurzburg with his brother Ferdinand in THE THIRTY YEARS WA R 9 83

Sc h w e i h art o r o f Cologne , and g , elect Mayence , in which o r o o f r o L tha of Treves and L uis Da mstadt also j ined , and r m r after protecting his rea by making ter s , as c editable to him as a statesman as they were scandalous in the opposite t o f u t h e U i par y , in the name the Leag e with n on , the duke of Wurt e mb erg promising to discharge the troo ps of the o n L n Union , Bavaria her part undertaking to leave the r o r Bo the an and Ref med countries , including the Pfalz ,

m o c . b e ia al ne ex epted , unharassed by the League r o o f o o F ederick , elect r the Pfalz , a y ung and ambiti us m an o r , wh se projects were eve seconded by his wife , Eliza m o r . beth , a zeal us Calvinist, the daughte of Ja es I of Eng o difﬁc ul t o land , had placed himself with ut y , wing to the ff t h e supine indi erence of the rest of the united princes , at

U . fo r head of the nion His ineptitude government was, c o r m o however, speedily dis ve ed by the Bohe ians , by wh m he had been elected king and received with the greatest e n r fo r t h u siasm . w as Frederick was me ely fitted parade , and , r m o f i r o f pe hap s , the ost incapable the reign ng p inces his fo r r o t o o m time , he neve all wed others g vern in his na e . r o f r m o r The Lutheran p inces , jealous the inc eased i p tance o f t he m h im o f Cal v inis Pfalz, and ini ical to on account his h im . o f r c tic tenets , abandoned His introduction the F en h to ngue and of F rench custom s and fashi o ns into his c o urt c r r o m o m c eated g eat dissatisfacti n a ong his B he ian subje ts , which was still further increased by his enco uragem ent of m o m c c the attacks ade fr the pulpit by his haplain , S ultetus , o t h e U r m o up n t aquists and Lutherans , and by the de oliti n o f t h e o r m m na ents still re aining in the churches at Prague . c rucifix e s r o ro The and pictures we e torn d wn and dest yed . T h e attem pt t o dem olish the great sto ne crucifix on the b id o r n r ge ve the Moldau caused a revolt , which Thur was i alone able to quell . Peace was restored , but Freder ck had forfeited the affectio n of his subjects . Instead of attaching o m i o c r c r n r the B he ian ar st a y to his pe so , he showered favo s u o t w o n p n poor obles , distinguished neither by their talents n o r h i by their c aracters , Christ an , prince of Anhalt , and 9 84 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

d o George Fre erick , Count von H henlohe , by whom Count d w as Mansfel , whose birth illegitimate , was treated with such marked contempt that h e withdre w with his tro o ps

m . 1 620 b e from the royal ar y The terms stipulated , in , t ween the League and the Union also deprived Frederick of o the aid of the latter, B hemia being expressly given up as r m t o . u a p ey the for er His alliance with T rkey , moreover, greatly contributed to increase his unp o pularity with every r pa ty . While the Protestants were thus weakened by their own r o o treache y and disuni n , the Cath lics acted with red o ubled m r vigo r. Spin o la arched f o m the Netherlands at the head of twenty thousand men and system atically plundered the r r Pfalz . The c ies of the people at length st uck up o n the u r m dulled sense of the united p rinces . W t e b e rg trem blingly “ d Wh was emanded , y the late stipulation thus infringed ! and remained satisﬁed with the reply that Spinola , not being t o included in the League , was not bound keep its stipula U o tions ; and the ni n made a treaty with Spinola at Mayence , by which they consented to his rem aining in the Pfalz on r condition of the neighboring p inces being left undisturbed . r r r Heidelbe g , Mannheim , and the F ankenthal we e defended o o o f Or n w h o w as by the tr ps Frederick Henry of a ge , aban m doued by the rest of the united princes . Maxi ilian and his ’ ‘ ﬁe l d - m h o T se rc l ae s ars al , J hn , Count von Tilly , a Dutch w h o v U man , had served under Alba , next in aded pper Aus

m e n . tria , with a force of thirty thousand Linz yielded ; the Estates were c o m pelled to take the oath of fealty t o the duke ’ as t h e em pero r s representative ; Tsc hernem bl ﬂed to Ge

r 1 62 6 . neva , whe e he died in want in The mountain peas u r o a t y , enraged at the capitulati n of Linz by the panic m w struck nobles , took up ar s , but ere unable to overtake in r m the duke , who had , the meantime , ente ed Bohe ia, where n num bers of the inhabitants were , on accou t of their deter mined resistance , cruelly butchered .

’ T serclae s si ni ﬁes Si r aus Sir Nico as. g Cl , l THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 85

m h m t h e m e Da pierre , sacriﬁcing i self for e p ror, kept Beth o o o c len Gabor at bay , th ugh with an inferi r f r e , but was r ﬁnally defeated and slain befo re Presbu g . The Hungarians c w r n l p o ured in ro ds a ound Vie na , whi e the League , joined Bo u u o i r o o f m r f r by q , Ve dug , and the whole the i pe ial o ces , m r h u o r left Vienna to the right and a c ed straight p n P ague ,

i . where the k ng , Frederick , little anticipated battle Anhalt and H o henlohe h ad fixed an encam pment on the Weissen ’ m fo r Zizka s o f ro t h e Berg, fa ed deeds p wess ; Mansfeld and r rm far e r flowe of the a y were away at Pilsen , and , b fo e it was p o ssible fo r h im t o advance t o t h e relief o f the m e t ro p m c o r W e r o lis , the ene y unexpe tedly st med the eiss n Be g , f h u e n c o u n o r 29 1 6 20 . o Oct be , Christian An alt r shed to the t e r and was w o u nde d ; ' t he Hungarian auxiliaries fled and Mo r v drew the B o h em ians in thei r train . The a ians made o o r t o a valiant but futile resistance . The battle r lled nwa d o f r r c o i o w as i r the gates P ague , whe e the nfus n st ll fu ther r o r inc reased by t he panic o f the king . P ague was well f ti fl e d ro o r ff r ; the t ps had , afte su e ing a trifling loss , entered the walls ; an im m ense Hun garian army lay a ro und V i enna ; Mansfeld w as at P i lsen ; Upper Austria in o pen i n surrectio n ; o r o m e n c o rr o f f u th usand and ten ann ns , left in the hu y the o m o n W n r o m o m o m ent the eisse Be g , c prised the wh le a unt l . r r h o f l o ss But fea had para yzed the senses o f the m o na c . o f r m i Instead , like the Hussites , int enching hi self beh nd his o r c o n r o f frie n ds h e f tifi ati s and awaiting the ar ival his , yielded

m ro o o o m r m n - o r his et p lis with ut a bl w , e ely de andi g twenty f u r t o r r fo r r r o n hou s p epa e his depa tu e , n twithstandi g which he h im c ro an d m m o r o m left behind his wn ost i p tant d cu ents, o r o f U o o d o f the wh le a chive the ni n , which fell int the han s r h rt r m ri . c t o r h the i pe alists F ederi k ﬂed B eslau , t en fu e ,

h s r - t r . On e r r i o c o never to retu n winte b ought eign a l se , ‘ - r hence he received the so b riquet o f the winter king . Thu n als o escaped . c o m h o The ele tor of Sax ny , who had , eanw ile , ccupied the

o m e s a t i nu a ans in e c o mi te He as ursue W i t h sat i ric a o n s C p la s p l s . w p d l s g n d ri a c a cat ure s . 9 8 6 T HE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

i h his n Lausitz w t troops and had taken Bautze and Zittau , n o w expelled the fugiti ve king o f Bohem ia fro m Silesia and ’ compelled B reslau to do him ho m age as the em pe ro r s re pre se n t at iv e . Frederick t o ok refuge in Holland with his c o n r o m o o f r h ad n e r so t , wh the elect r Brandenbu g unwilli gly p m it t e d to rem ain at Frankfo rt on the M aine until after the r r h c M . o bi th of her son , P in e aurice The castle f R enen , in o d b H lland , was granted as a residence to the exile pair y r the Prince o f O ange . re Mansfeld , driven from Pilsen by Tilly , entered into a p m tended negotiation with the emperor , who vainly atte pted r him o o r ro to b ibe to enter into his service , and had no s ne p v ide d h r r h imself , by pillaging the count y a ound Tac au , with h i n h o orses , ammunit on and mo ey , than , forcing his way t r ugh m W r h e r Ba berg and u zburg , escaped the impe ialists under m i i o w h o Maxi l an and General C rdova , had been left by o N Spin la , on his return to the etherlands , in the Pfalz , r r t h e whe e he had wintered . Tilly vainly pu sued fugi t iv e s ; Mansfeld passed the Rhine and ﬁxed himself in A l o rr n e c e smt r sa e and Lo aine , ready , in case of y , to ret eat up o n H o lland . B t e n o r r o i e hl Gab r, d iven f om b th V enna and Presburg Bo u uo i w as r o r r r by q , , in his tu n , vict ious ove the Aust ian Pal ff n r r o rc facti o n under Count y in Hu ga y , and was einf ed

ae e rn do rf o o . Bo u uo i by J g , who again t k the ﬁeld in Silesia q ’

r . fell befo e Neuhausel Mansfeld s expulsion , the open per ﬁd U o o f o d y of the ni n , and the threatening aspect P lan , r Be t hl e n o r w howeve , inclined Gab r to make te ms ith the o m c o r emperor, to wh he , nsequently , resigned the Hunga ian cro wn o n c o nditio n o f receiving seven distri c ts and the title f n o w u n r . Jae e rn do r o f p ince of the empire g , who stood o m t o r aided and al ne , was co pelled dismiss his t oops , and the Silesian Estates credulously accepted the pro ffe red o f o ro mediatio n of the elector Sax ny , who promised to p t e c t their religious libe rty . ’ Ferdinand s apparent lenity greatly facilitated the sub j e c t io n of Bohemia . For three months vengeance slum THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 87

- m r . o o o r as be ed With the c ld bl oded hyp c isy of Alba , his t e r i o m in deceit , he patiently waited unt l the B he ians , lulled o c r r r c int se u ity , had etaken thei peaceful o cupations , and n t h o f the fugitives had regained their h o m es . O the 20

r r 1 6 2 1 rm r o r . o Feb ua y , , the sto bu st f th All the p pular rr r leaders w h o had n o t esc aped were a ested . Thu n was t o be o o o v o n not f und , but his friend , C unt J hn Andreas c r o o m Schli k , a descendant of the celeb ated chancell r , to wh ur o so m r r the Habsb gs wed uch of thei grandeu , was dcliv e rﬁdio u s o o m ered by the p elector of Sax ny , to wh he had Hi s r fo r r t o t h é m o f r . ﬂed shelte , heads an P ague ight hand

r - r r and his head were st uc k o ff. Twenty fou nobles we e b e

r . h headed , th ee citizens hanged , etc Seven undred and

- o f o twenty eight the n bility , who were induced by a prom ise o f r o r r c o pa d n to confess thei pa ti ipation in the rebelli n , r r r were dep rived o f thei estates . F o ty m illi o n dolla s were r c o llected by c o nﬁscati o n alone . Five hund ed n o ble and

h r - o c m m t i ty six th usand itizen fa ilies emigrated . B o he ia r r l o st the wh o le of her ancient p ivileges . The lette patent ’ g ranted by Rudo lph was destro yed by the em pero r s o w n

h . c o o r L am o rm ain L ae mm e r ands His nfess , the Jesuit ( r fo r r r ar mann) , sea ched and bu ned all heretical wo ks , p t ic u l arl o f ' y th se o the an c ient Hussites . Nor did the dead ’ es c ape ; R o kizan a s rem ains were disinterred and burned ; ’ Zizka s m o num ent and eve ry visible mem orial of the hero ism o f o m r r B he ia we e dest o yed . Every trac e o f religio us

r m ro r r r n libe ty was annihilated , and the e pe , dis ega di g his p ro m ise t o the electo r o f Saxo ny in regard t o the Luther c r m o c rm ans , de la ed hi self b und in conscien e to exte inate all ’ r c . o fo r o r he eti s Sax ny , f m s sake , protested against this o f want faith . The churches thro ughout B o hem ia we re re c o o r w h o nsecrated by the Catholics ; the Hussite past s , failed m r c r t o r . in aking thei es ape , fell a p ey the savage so ldie y The peasantry were im p risoned by the hundred and c o m e l l e d m i c . fe w c p by fa ne to re ant The Catholi nobles , Sla Mart in it z Mit t ro v ski Cze ka wata , , , Klenau , y , who had for r u r o me ly been expelled the co nt y , t ok a fearful revenge . 9 88 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

The emigrants were the most fortunate portio n of the p c pu

. fire r lation At Lissa, the citizens set to thei o wn homes and fled into Saxony . A desperate resistance was here and there made by the people . The most valuable of the con fisc at e d o r pr perty was g anted in donation to the Jesuits , w h o were trium phantl y re - established in the c o untry fo r the r o f e pu pose drugging the minds of the enslav d people , and h o ffi o so skilfully did t ey fulfil their ce that , ere one generati n - o had passed away , the bold , free spirited , intelligent B hemian c r r t h e was no longer to be re ognized in the brutish c eatu e , Of r fsp ing of their craft , that until very lately has vegetated r unnoted by histo y . r u w h ad A similar plan was pu s ed in Silesia, hich sub m it t e d on the guarantee of its religious liberty by the elec to r m o . c o o of Sax ny Jesuits or other monks , a c panied by a tr op of c r v o n the Li htenstein d agoons , under Count Hannibal Dohna , t o m o went from village village , fro one h use to another , for r o the pu pose of c nverting the inhabitants ; pillage , torture , r r o r m r the mu de robbery of children , were the eans reso ted m r m r r . o to . E ig ation was p ohibited The e pe r, not satisfied o t with suppressing religi us liber y , also restricted the civil libert y o f the Estates and metam o rphosed the Silesian pro v in c ial Estates into a body of comm issioners n o m inated by and subservient to him . Bres lau and the duchies of Lieg O r n nitz , Brieg , and els , which we e still gover ed by their petty immediate princes , were alone spared . Ferdinand , m r unable to suppress Protestantis in Hungary , secu ed his hereditary p rovinces from infection by c o mm ercial int e rdic o r o f r o t o o m r tio ns . His ffe pa d n a fugitive n ble an , F ederick o r o n c o o o f t o von Ro ggend f , nditi n his return his country , “ r W r r o received for answe , hat so t of pa don ; a B hemian one Heads off ! A Moravian o n e ! Im priso nm ent fo r life ! An Austrian one ! Confiscati o n ! These horro rs were enacted ’ m c at Ferdinand s co mand , under the superintenden e of his

r L am o rm ain m r t o c onfesso , , who styled hi self, in refe ence " “ ’ at io n s c o t h e immense c o n ﬁsc that took pla e , G d s clerk of the exchequer ! Saxony received t h e Lausitz in pledge ;

9 9 0 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

r m political , not of his ecclesiastical sup e acy . The Estates were forever prohibited the discussion of religious matters under pain of a fine of o ne million fl o rins on the whole as se m bl o r o y , and a court of c rection , empowered to c nfiscate o f the estates all political offenders , was established at m Vienna . The nu bers of the nobility were by these means r considerably reduced , and thei confiscated property served fe w r o ro . to reward the p selytes of the c wn In Austria , as m nu m e rOus in Bohe ia , the independent nobility p o ssessed of petty estates was replaced by a small number of favorites r n e w and upstarts , some of whom int oduced and foreign c i t o m r r ra es n o the country, and on wh la ge t acts of land o r were bestow ed . The pe ple were fo ever deprived of their t o n only organ , the Es ates , which they had reposed implicit confidence , by the flight and defection of the nobility ; they r were , notwithstanding , at that time far f om being the blind , m r dull mass they afterward beca e , and among their anks t there were many men devoid neither of spirit nor in elligence . Upper Austria had been co nsigned by Ferdinand to Max im il ian o f Bavaria by way of indemnification for t h e expenses H rb e r t o rf w ar. o e s of the The C unt von , a man of an aus r d o f o c te e an cruel disposition , possessed great pers nal our a o r o r age , the st dth lde appointed by Bavaria ve Linz , gave r his soldiers license to plunder , vex , and murder the he etical

r o e re - peasant y . The whole c untry b ing Lutheran , the estab l ishm e n t of Catholicism w as necessarily gradual . The m ag ist rac r o t y , co p rative privileges , the use of hospi als , the right u r o n e o ne o m Lu of g ardianship , we e by withdrawn fr the therans ; thei r c hildren were torn from them and educated in

r c . the Catholic faith , their wills we e de lared invalid , etc In 1 24 r 6 , all Lutherans who still publicly p ofessed their faith m m r 1 625 were co pelled to e ig ate ; in , the external ceremonies r o m m Of ro of the Catholic Chu ch , the fasts , the acc pani ent p

r . r o r cessions with banne s , etc , were st ictly enf ced , and the Easter of 1 62 6 was ﬁxed as the term fo r the enti re suppre s sion o f he resy thro ughout the co untry .

This decree was a signal fo r a last and desperate struggle . THE THIRTY YEARS” WA R 9 9 1

T h e people resolved to shed the last d rop o f their blood fo r the gospel rather than pollute them selves by participating in the devilish idolatry o f their ty rannical master . The peas ant ry of the mere of Frankenburg first revolted and expelled r Z wie s al t e n the p iests engaged in purifying the church at p , He rb e rst o rf w as m ro m o f . by fu igation , f the smell heresy , r r however, at hand , and , o de ing seventeen of the peasants to h ad m r m o n w be seized , the hanged as o na ents the to er and i r beneath t h e eaves o f the sacred edifi c e . Th s sac ilegio us r r He r e rst o rf a deed caused a gene al insu recti o n . b w s de ' Pe urb ac h wh e re o v r feated at , he l st twel e hund ed of his m e n w as o rc , and f ed to seek shelter within the walls of din e r . F a Linz Stephen g , a wealthy peasant , formerly a m w as c r w ho hat aker, pla ed at the head of the insu gents , v m m di ided the selves into regi ents , some of which wore a c o rm o f r fo r o r n bla k unif in sign sor ow their c unt y , fixed upo r c m m o r ce tain pla es of eeting , and maintained the st pe fect r o h m m r o f E s o der, with ut aving a single e be the ancient r i r r m r r tates eithe at the head o a ong thei anks . A collisio n too k place at Hausruc kv ie rt e l betwee n the scatte red soldiery r c m and the peasant y , whi h ter inated in a general assassina i h t o n o f t e Bavarians . The Estates were n o w c o nvoked fo r the purpose of medi “ ” m o r r ating between the e per r and his t usty p easant y , to “ o o m h e t o r wh se c plaints promised tu n a lenient ear, while m r m r o r c o f he ade f esh ilitary p eparati ns , the p esen e his troo ps being at that tim e required in o ther parts of the em

. a m m t o arm m pire The peas nts , eanti e , continued the selves , and seized th ree vessels bearing Bavarian troo ps up the Dan o f F n r . 0 as . adi e ube to the relief Linz N quarter w given g , o r t o on his part, t ok advantage of the t uce gather in the r t o ro f r ha vest and p vide o the future wants of his followers . “ T he r r m ro r w as r alte native offe ed by him to the e pe , libe ty of c onsc ience o r renunciation o f allegiance to the h o use o f

Habsburg .

m o m r c a The atte pt to c pel Linz , Enns , and F eistadt to it ul at e b m F adin e r b p y fa ine failing , g formally esieged them 9 92 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

1 626 was - in the summer of , when he killed by a cannon ball r r while econnoitring the fo tiﬁcations of Linz . The attacks

r . Wie l l in e r n e of the enraged peasant y proved futile g , their w was r leader , unpossessed of the talent of his gifted predecesso . W m Another body of insurgents under Wolf urm had , ean r while , gained possession of Freistadt, and Enns had been e l ie v e d m l L oe b e l by a troop of i perialists under Colone , whose soldiery set the villages in ﬂames and butchered their in h abi

. Wie l l in e r o f r tants g , instead of pposing them with his o m id able numbers , foolishly marched the main body of his forces upon Linz , where he met with insurmountable difﬁculties and m a deter ine d resistance . His attempts t o take the place by o r st m were signally defeated . A thousand of the peasants

- were kille d and numbers wounded . A night attack by water w as also failed , and a ship , crowded with peasants , blown t r into the air. Fresh regimen s of impe ialists and Bavarians , L oe l i . b e w as meanwh le , poured into the country supported o r Pre un e r Sc h aﬁ t n r e b e . by the Col nels von Aue sperg , , and g Pre u n e r took Freista dt by a coup de ma in and defeated a

. Wie l l in e r body of peasantry at Kerschbaum g , compelled to o am raise the siege of Linz , during which he had l st all his munitio n and his army had been reduced to t w o tho usand L oe b e l r men , when too late , attacked , and a d eadful battle o to k place at Neuhofen , where one thousand of the peasants fell and Wie l l in ge r was severely wounded . He was replaced “ ” m was by a fresh leader , the Student, whose real na e never o w as known , alth ugh he the greatest character that appeared r in this tragedy . T he peasants , inspired by him with f esh o o o n o w o courage , undauntedly pposed the tr ps p uring upon r o o f o them from every quarte . Ad lf , duke H lstein , the em ’ e ro r s p ally , was surprised by the Student during the night r se nufe r m e n nea We s ; a thousand of his were slain , and he r w as constrained to ﬂee in his shirt to Bavaria . Gen e al Lin dl o wh o r , was sent by Maximilian to avenge this disg ace , fell into an ambuscade laid by the Student in the great Pram n r forest . Li dl o cont ived to escape , but almost the whole of e t o his ofﬁcers and three thousand of his men wer cut piec es . THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 3

Another bo dy of peasantry defeated L oe b e l on the Welse r Pr un e r w as o r o l heath . e , h weve , vict rious in the Muh viertel r and at Lambach . The Student divided his men into th ee o W bodies and to ok up a strong positi n at eibern , Eferding , m ro o and G unden , at which latter place cks and st nes were ’ r e rst o rf s r fl rolled upon He b troops , which we e put to ight, leaving o n e thousand ﬁve hund red m e n on the ﬁeld . r The celebrated general , Henry Godf ey von Pappenheim , whose fam e as a distinguished commander of the League o o n o w was nly sec nd to that of Tilly , was despatched into the m ountains at the head of fresh troops against the in v in u o m o o cible St dent, wh he attacked in his second p siti n at t e o Eferding , and at length , af r a hard and dubious c ntest,

t wo s . in which thou and of the peasantry were slain , defeated r He then ma ched upon Gmunden , whence he succeeded in m w h o o dislodging the ene y , instantly to k up a strong posi o m r tio n in a wo o d . The wh le of the i pe ial forces stood here o t o c opp sed the little body of peasantry , and in su h close vicinity that the psalm s s ung by them and a serm o n de l iv r c o m t o o f e ed by the Student , in whi h he exh rted the be

o o r r fo e . e go d c u age , we e plainly heard by the The charg made by the peasantry upon the flank of the im perialists r c was at fi st suc essful , the whole of the right wing taking to r r o f m flight and being pu sued as far as the st eets G unden , o r r o t o f o n twithstanding which , afte a mu der us ba tle f ur o r m r h u s , Pappenhei kept the field and fou thousand peas ants were slain . This defeat was follo wed by the battles of V oec kl abruc k W o and lfsegg , in which several thousands m r u of the peasantry fell , a ong othe s the unknown St dent, m whose head was presented to the general . An enor o us mound that was raised over the fallen brave near Pisdorf , o and which is still known as the Peasant Mound , is the nly o rec rd that remains of th o se bloody tim es . w s m The country a placed under martial l aw . A nu ber o f captive peasants were dragged to Vienna , whence they r r neve eturned . Many thousands had fallen . The remainder were c o nverted t o Catholicism by the m il itary and by the —4 GE R MA N Y V OL . . . III 9 4 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

u . F adin e r e Jes its The remains of g and Zeller w re , at t he ’ r m empero s com and , exhumed and burned by the hangman . Wie l l in ge r and twelve of the other ringleaders were ex e c ut e d ; num bers of the peasants were butchered by the soldiery , and , in conclusion , the emperor , unable t o deny m Madl fe de r Hausl e it n e r hi self the pleasure , ordered , , and Ho l zm ul l e r w ho , the poor peasant commissioners , had for merly entered into nego tiati o n with h im ‘ an d the Es t ates and - o who had received a safe conduct signed with his r yal hand , i to be seized , quartered alive , and their l mbs exposed o n gal o u lows the highroads in different parts of the country . o o The obstinacy with which the pe ple , n twithstanding

r r the success of the League and the t eachery of the p inces , asserted their liberty of conscience , had , by the great c o n o f o course soldiery beneath their banners , enabled s me o f o m t o the minor n bility , a ong others , Count Mansfeld , keep

m u - . o d rm m an the field This di in tive , sickly l oking, efo ed , ’ r possessed a hero s soul . The P otestants floc ked in su c h o m 1 62 1 cr wds beneath his standard , that, in the autu n of , he found him self in Alsace at the head o f twenty thousand c w h o o men ; but, deserted by all the powerful prin es , al ne o m o f o r rm w as c o m p ssessed the eans supp ting an a y , he e l l e d t o m n o l p by necessity aintai his tr ops by pi lage , an ex am ple that w as im itated by all the leade rs during this te rri m w ar. o ble In the ensuing spring , seconded by s e of the w h o r t o r minor princes , had ventu ed join him du ing the i r n r he o . r r wi te , t ok the field against T lly Geo ge F ede ick ,

r r o f - r c rm Ma g ave Baden Du la h , had taken up a s against the em pe ro r o n ac c o unt o f the p ro tection affo rded by h im t o his

o W o f - o m o u c usin illiam Baden Baden , wh he s ught , nder r t o f t o o f in p etex of the illegitimacy his birth , deprive his r o f ru r h r he itance . Christian B nswick , the youngest b ot e of U o h r was Frederick lric of Wolfenbuttel , an t e of his allies , w h o m o f an adventurer , , having become ena ored Elisabeth ,

- m w o ex queen of Bohe ia , ore her glove in his hat, and f ught “ ” r r l un fo God and his lady . He ente ed Westphalia and p dered the wealthy churches and monasteries . Numbers of THE THIRT Y YEARS ’ WA R 9 9 5

m o f o the towns escaped pillage on pay ent ransom ; he l st , o t w o r o r ho wever, one th usand hund ed men bef e the little — w as o o r town of Geseke . Mansfeld als joined by J hn E nest , - W m w h o r F rede rick and William of Saxe ei ar, we e ﬁlled with indignation at the guardianship attem pted t o be im r r i posed upon them by the t eachero us electo o Sax o ny . o r r r Their y ungest brothe , Be nard , se ved , in his eighteenth ’

r ro r W m m . o f Wu r yea , in his b the illia s regi ent Magnus ’ m b e r o o m o r t e g also t k up ar s in Mansfeld s fav , against the

o f o r o r d r . wish his br the , J hn F e e ick , the reigning duke r r o f l o o r Mau ice, Landg ave Hesse Cassel , a s sh wed g eat zeal c w as n o t r r E s in the ause , but suppo ted by his p ovincial r r o a t ates , the p elates and the nobility , who ente ed int a sep r o rate negotiation with the Spania ds , between wh m and the o 1 621 n obility a treaty was c ncluded at Bingen , , in the h n r m r w o o t . na e of the Landg ave , a g ily pr tes ed against it n t o He was unable , owi g to the defection of the Estates , r r o bring a sufficient numbe of t o ps into the field . The ex - king of B o hem ia ventured in perso n into the cam p w h o de of Mansfeld , , united with the Margrave of Baden , w ho w as m r n feated Tilly , urde i g and burning in the Pfalz , r Wisl o c h o r Min e l sh e im r r nea g ; but the Ma g ave , separating h im W from , was attacked at impfen by Tilly , who , mean o o r while , had been j ined by C dova , and was completely r r r routed . His flight was co ve ed by fo u hund ed o f the citi o f o r m m zens Pf zhei , under their burgomaster, Dei ling, who r c u t o f rt m b e r . o Wu e c c v we e d wn to a man Magnus g fell , r r r o f m r e red with gl o y . Be na d Wei ar g eatly distinguished

m . m im hi self in this action Mansfeld had , in the eant e , r o r rm taken p is ner Louis , Landg ave of Da stadt, who had him r r rr refused a f ee passage ac o ss his te itory . Christian r t o su r of B unswick , when attempting join Mansfeld , was o c o n r r prised and defeated at H e hst the Maine , whe e a te ri m ble slaughter took place , Christian having rendered hi self ’ c o t o r o pe uliarly bnoxious the Cath o lics . Mansfeld s ope ati ns w ere rendered less effective by t h e unexpected deserti o n o f - o f m w h o o o the ex king Bohe ia, , at the instigati n of Sax ny, 9 9 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

’ m o m r o m i pl red the e pero s pard n and dis issed his troops . o m n o w Mansfeld , with ut oney or credit , had but one alter r m native , and th ew hi self, with Christian , into Champagne , f r f r o o o o X . w h o u the purp se inspi ing L uis III , had beg n to o h im persecute the Huguenots , with alarm , and of pr vi ding m r self with the eans of subsistence , and ma ched thence into c n the Netherlands with the intention of atta ki g Spinola , t h e t o r o who had forced Dutch ret eat up n the Rhine , taken

u l i r as - - m e s w O o o . J , and besieging Bergen p Z Although pur o w a sued by Cord va , they fought their y in the Ardennes ro r r r th ugh the insu gent peasant y , gained a b illiant victory r r o f o o r ove the united fo ces C rdova and Spin la at Fleu us ,

r - - m r and raised the siege o f Be gen o p Zoo . Frede ick o f We i m ar w h o t o o , had ventured j in the evangelical fugitives , fell r w as r o in this battle , and Ch istian seve ely w unded . The w as winter passed in East Friesland , where the maintenance ro o n m of the t ps fell heavily on the u re unerated peasantry . t o w as r Mansfeld visi ed Lond n , where he received with g eat m o o o accla ati ns , in the h pe of gaining assistance fr m Eng

l . w as r r v and He w ecked du ing his return , and sa ed by the

r - ﬁdelity of his f iends and attendants , sixty six in number, h o t o h im t h e o c r w ceded nly chan e of escape , a f ail boat , c r him d m r whi h bo e safely to lan , while they cal ly esigned them selves t o a watery grave . ’ ’ Mansfeld s retreat left t h e Uppe r Rhine a prey to Tilly s w as o rm o r vengeance . Heidelberg st ed by his savage s ldie y , by whom the w retched inhabitants were treated with h o rrid T h e w as m o cruelty . valuable library sent by Maxi ilian , wh se p o ssession o f Upper Austria began t o ex c ite the disp l easure m n f f r t o o r o r . o re o Fe dinand , the p pe , G eg y XV , as a ea s ’ r c r tainin g that pontiff s favor . The p e ious ancient Ge man m o r c o anuscripts , c ntained in this lib ary , rea hed R me in

r r r c o safety , and we e thus saved from sha ing the dest u ti n r w o f r that, during late wars , a aited the castle Heidelbe g,

h t o m . w ere they had been kept , which fell a prey the ﬂa es w as They were sent back to Heidelberg in 1 8 1 5 . Mannheim

take n by storm and burned to the ground . Frankenthal

9 9 8 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY the bulwarks of the Reformation in the South had been

. m e destroyed The North , that fondly dee ed herself s cure , t o was next be attacked . The cruel fanaticism o f the em pe ro r and the pe rﬁdy of Saxony had weakened every guar r antee . The d ead of the general and forci ble suppression

r fo r of P otestantism throughout Germany , and shame their o r o t inacti n , induced the ci cle of Lower Sax ny o take up arm s and to seek ai d fro m their Pro testant b reth ren in Eng m land , Den ark , and Sweden . Richelieu was at this tim e o f o at the head affairs in France , and , alth ugh as a cardinal o f o was n o t a zealous upholder Cath licism , he blind to the

o r f u r r opp tunity o fered , by s pporting the Ge man P otestants m r r o w o f against the e pe o , for weakening the p er that poten m i r tate , partitioning Ger any , and extending the French te i

r o w . r r r to y t ard the Rhine The Ge man Luthe ans , insna ed r b r by his int igues , blinded y fea , and driven to this false o m e rﬁd m step by the desp tis and p y of the e peror, little fore saw the im measurable m isfo rtune foreign interference was

o r . r l e n i o t e n to bring up n their count y Bellin , the F ench p p t iar r c r m o c y , at ﬁ st wished to pla e the wa like Swedish nar h , rm o n Gustavus Adolphus , at the head of the Ge an Pr testa ts , r o r ente ed into alliance with England , and gained ve the c r o f r r w h o ro m r r ele to B andenbu g , p ised his siste , Cathe ine , t o r o r r t o c h c o o n the Russian cza , in de keep a e k up n P la d , r w ar r r at that pe iod at with Sweden , but these int igues we e m r ru ri . f strated by Ch stian IV , king of Den a k , who antici pated the Swedes by taking up arms and placing him self at m m o . the head of the vement Gustavus , at that ti e engaged m o t o r . with P land , was unable interfe e The Russian atch w as o ff 1 6 25 c r broken , , and the lu kless b ide was given in marriage to the aged Be t h l e n Gabo r.

a llen stein — T he D a n ish Ca m a i n CCVI . W p g

W A R with Denm ark n o so o ner th reatened t han Ferdi t o r c o r r an m nand , the g eat dis ntent of Bava ia , aised ar y , independent of the League , by the assistance of a Bohemian THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 9 99

r v o n W ro W . no bleman , Albe t allenstein (p perly , aldstein) m This noble an belonged to a Protestant family , and had r been bred in that fait h . He had acqui ed but a scanty sup f ply o learning at the university of Goldberg in Silesia , which r he quitted t o enter as a page the Catholic co urt o f Bu gau . c While here he fell , when asleep , out of one of the high astle windows without receiving any injury . He afterward stud ie d r c r c r the da k s iences , mo e espe ially ast ology , in Italy , and r c r re read his futu e destiny , of which he had had a se et p

ro m e arl r . sentiment f his childhood , in the sta s He com O y ’ m e n c e d c r r m ro r r o o his a ee in the e pe s se vice , by pp sing the r r rro w c ro m Tu ks in Hunga y , where he na ly es aped death f

o o - o o m r t o him W ic zko wa swall wing a l ve p ti n ad iniste ed by , m o o m m ar an aged but extre ely wealthy wid w , wh he had m m o f c r ried , and with whose oney he raised a regi ent ui as r r o r o r B sie rs fo r the em pe o . His p pula ity was s g eat in 0 b m o o n r o ut e ia that the B hemians , the b eaking of the r h im r r r n c . distu ba es in P ague , appointed thei gene al He , r m c m r r c neve theless , re ained atta hed to the i pe ial se vi e and g reatly distinguished him self in the field against Mansfeld r o m r and Be t h l e n Gabo . By a sec nd and equally ri c h a ria e rr o o f g with the Countess Ha ach , and by the fav r the m ro r w h o o o him e pe , best wed up n Friedland and the dignity o f c o o f m r c rc o f n u m unt the e pi e , but hiefly by the pu hase b e rl e ss n m ro c o n fisc a estates , which , on account of the u e us o m r o r o m m r ti ns and e ig ati ns , we e sold in B he ia at e ely a ‘ o m r c o n W n inal p ice , and by the adulteration of i , allenstein c m o c o m o t o be a e p ssessed of su h en r us wealth as be , next to ro r r o r m r the empe , the richest prop iet in the e pi e . The em e ro r r him o o m e n p equesting to raise a b dy of ten th usand , h e o r o o f m levied f ty th usand, an army that agnitude being o t o r v r r t c s lely able p ovide itself in e e y qua ter wi h subsisten e , r r o f r r and was , in eturn , c eated duke F iedland an d gene alis

He urc h ase ro e rt t o t h e amo un t o f o rims a ft h o f it s re al p d p p y fl , fi v a ue an d t h e c o in w it h w h ich h e ai fo r it w as mo re o v e r so b ad t h at t h e l , p d , , e mpe ro r w as c ompelle d t o sec ure h im again st e nfo rce d re stit ut io n by an e xpre ss ri v fl e e p g . 1 000 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

m t h e o fe si o of imperial f rces . A w m o nths sufﬁced for the o m r levy of the tro ps , his fa e and the p inciples o n which he c a ted attracting crowds beneath his standard . E very relig n o w as ion , but priest , tolerated within his camp ; the strict est discipline was enforced and the greatest license perm itted ; r o m merit met with a princely rewa d ; the c monest soldier, m m o t who distinguished hi self , was pro ted o the highest posts ; and aro und the pe rso n of the c ommander was sp read the charm o f myste ry ; he was reported to be in league with w r r t o e n the po e s of da kness , to be invulnerable , and have chained victory to his banner . Fortune was his deity and o o o f r the m tt his t oo ps . In person he was ta ll and thin ; his c o untenance was sallow and lowering ; his eyes were an d r w as small pie cing , his forehead high and co mm and

r n . r o ing , his hai short and bristli g He was su r unded with ‘ mystery an d silence . ’ Tilly , jealous of Wallenstein s fame , hastened to antici pate that leader in the reduction of the circle o f L o we r Sax m h . w o ony The Danish onarch , held Schleswig and Ho l D it m arsc h stein by right of inheritance , and by that of o r conquest , while his son , Frederick , governed the bish p ics r t o o h of Bremen and Ve dun , attempted encr ach still furt er o n the Ge rman empire and long carried o n a contest with

. m 1 6 1 9 Lubeck and Hamburg During peace ti e , in , he r m seized the free town of Stade , unde the pretext , custo ary o in those times , of protecting the aristocratic c uncil against u the rebellious citizens . He also built Gl ckstadt , and levied r c high custo m s o n the citizens of Hamburg . The ava i e and servility o f the p rinces of Wo l fe n bii t t e l and Luneburg - Zelle had also at that peri o d rendered them c o ntemptible an d de m r priv e d them of u c h of their form er p o we and inﬂuence . W o Christian the ild , of Brunswick , was app inted generalis

T w o o rt rait s o f t h is sin u ar man are t o b e se e n at D ux n e ar T oe l it z o ne p g l p , n r i n h re se n t c o un t s o f Wa st e in One re re se nt s o f t h e c o u t y re s d e c e s o f t e p ld . p h im as a fair o uth w h o se smo o t h an d o e n ro w is stil un su ie c rime y , p b l ll d by ; t h e o th e r be ars t h e dark an d sin ist e r aspe c t o f a man w h o se h an d s h av e bee n im rue in o o w h o se seare c o n sc ie nce h e sitat e s at n o means h o w ev er b d bl d , d — , ase c rue o r unh o fo r t h e at tainmen t o f h is ur o se Trans. b , l ly , p p THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WAR 1 001

n o o simo of the circle of Lower Saxony , but was sooner p r G o r k U r o f p o sed by Tilly than his brothe , e rge Frede ic l ic w r Wolfenbuttel , and the Danish king , ithdrew their t oops

r . r and dissolved the confede acy Ch istian , nevertheless , still kept the ﬁeld with tho se o f his allies w ho remained faithful m o o r r o f m r to him , a ng thers , William and Be na d Wei a , and o St adt l o o a bloody engagem ent to k place at , in which Tilly

“ was victorious and William of Weimar was w o unded and

t d. taken prisoner . He returned to Eas Friesland to Mansfel The noble Danish body - guard that had been sent to Wolfen buttel was attacked and driven acro ss the frontier by the e n

rm raged Ge an peasantry , and the Hanse towns , ﬂattered by

‘ the empero r and imbittered again st Denmark by the erec u tio n o f Gluckstadt and the seiz re of Stade , were almost the r t o r o t o o ﬁ st recall their t o ps and desist from oppositi n , while o r c o o f r Ge rge of Lunebu g , attra ted by the rep rt the g eat rro m o c b m a ndisse ents pr je ted y the e peror , preferred gain to loss and fo rm ally sec eded . The Danish m onarch n o w fo und himself totally u n pro t e c t e d r r u h is r i , and , in o de to g ard Ge man acquis tions in case Brunswick followed the exam ple o f the Hansa and em r c m r o o f b a ed the imperial party , set hi self up as a libe at r rm Ge any , in which he was countenanced and upheld by o m England , Holland , and Richelieu , the nipotent minister f r r r r o c . F an e He , neve theless , g eatly unde valued the si m u l t an e o u s o U r t o o m b e im rev lt of the pper Aust ians , wh n r p o litically offered o assistan c e . The Ge man p rin c es re m t h e ained tranquil and left Dane unaided . The Hessian ’ r o r o e n peasant y r se in Tilly s ear, and th se of Brunswick , raged at the cowardly deserti o n of the cause o f religion by r i m o the p inces and the nobil ty , killed nu bers of his s ldiery So l l in e r r r o o f in the g Forest, captu ed the gar is ns Dassel and o r r r o r E im b e c k ro B denwe de , seized a la ge c nvoy nea , dest yed ’ o u r the castles of all the fugitive n bility , and h nted Geo ge s o o r o f o o o f c ns rt , the daughte the treacher us L uis Darmstadt, ro m o n e u c o f f place of ref ge to another . The itizens Han r r ove , whe e the magistrate was about to capitulate to Tilly , 1 002 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

also ﬂ e w to arms and app o inted John Ernest of Weimar

commandant of their city in 1 625 . o r ie mb ur Tilly , at ﬁrst w sted at N g by the Danish gen Ob e n t raut r eral , , who fell shortly afte ward at Seelze , spread n u the terror of his ame throughout Hesse , Br nswick , and the rest of the Lutheran provinces . The Spaniards in the N o etherlands , enc urage d by this example , again resorted t o o f 1 their ancient practices , and, during the winter 626 , Henry o t o C unt von Berg made an inroad , s ill unforg tten by the V Dutch , into the elau , where he burned down the villages , butchered all the men , and left the women and children naked and houseless, exposed to the inclemency of the season .

s In the ensuing year, the approach of Wallen tein caused u t o t h e i o n Tilly , anxio s bind laurels of v ctory around his w o brow , to bring the Danish campaign to a hasty cl se , and , taking ad v antage of the state o f inactivity to which the

Danish monarch was reduced by a fall from horseback , m seized Ha eln and Minden , where the powder magazine blew up during the attack and destroyed t h e whole garri

o o f d r 1 62 . son , c nsisting two thousan ﬁve hund ed men , 7 r GOt t in e n Havelbe g , g , and Hanover next fell into his hands , and a pitched battle was fough t on the Barenbe rg near Lut ter , which terminated in the rout of the whole of the Danish forces and the surrender of Holstein . e o f Mansfeld and John Ern st Weimar, too weak , not withstanding the reinforcements sent to their aid by E n g W land and Holland , to take the ﬁeld against allenstein , rm o f who , at the head of a wild and undisciplined a y sixty c o r at thousand men , was advan ing upon L wer Ge many , tempted to draw him through Silesia into Hungary and to i o a carry the war nt the heredit ry provinces of the emperor, t o n but were overtaken and defea ed the bri dge of Dessau . c Mansfeld , nevertheless , escaped into Silesia , where his p pu l arit y was so great that in the course of a fe w weeks he found himself onc e more at the head of an army consisting sa t s n of twenty thou nd evangelical volun eers , four thou a d THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 1 003

n ur e rs o . W al Me c kl e b g , and three th usand Scots and Danes him r fo r o m l e n st e in pursued , and the contending a mies lay s e o f c o n W time in sight ea h other the aag , without venturing

an engagement . Wallenstein , meanwhile , gained over the o o at Hungarian king , and Mansfeld , once m re aband ned , o ut r tempted t o escape to Venice , but , worn by chag in and rm o Ur fatigue , expired, standing upright in his a r , at aco

S al at ro . z in . wic , Bosnia He was buried at p His ally ,

r f . o John E nest o Weimar , died in Hungary A b dy of his o Bau dis o wa o tro o ps under C lonel f ught their y , although p m B t hl n Braiide n b ur t o . e e p o sed even by g , Den ark Gabor

r 1 629 n n o . expi ed in , leavi g issue The trium ph o f the Catholics was complete; As early as r 1 625 , a jubilee had been solemnized and public praye s for the extirpation of the heretics had been o rdained througho ut

o o f o U . the wh le the Catholic w rld by the pope , rban VIII ,

h o o o c o n re at io w als f unded the celebrated Propaganda , g g o ﬁde o de pr paganda , wh se members were instructed in the t r o f ask , wheneve violence failed , alluring apostates , more o m r especially the princes , back to the bos of the one t ue

church .

The Pro testant cause was lost . The more p o werful and inﬂuential am o ng the princes o f the Lutheran Uni o n had o r turned traitors ; the lesser p tentates had , afte a futile con

. r o f r test , been compelled to yield Ch istian B unswick ex r f pire d at Wolfenbuttel . The Ma gra v e o Baden had ﬂed

into Denmark . Maurice of Hesse was ﬁnally redu c ed to m 1 6 32 n sub ission by Tilly , and died in , after abdicati g in o o f so n W m n o t fav r his , illia , who , bound , like his father, t o w as o by an oath maintain tranquillity , free to seize any p po rt un it y that o ffered during the war fo r his resto ratio n to

r. ac powe The Hessian nobility , supported by Tilly , had qui red great p rivileges by the stipulatio ns o f the peac e c o n w r o f h cluded bet een that gene al and Maurice , w ich they m o o made use to raise a tu ult against their sturdy pp nent, ’ W o lfgang Gunther , the Landgrave s privy councillor , whom

they sentenced to execution . 1 004 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

The Opp o sition offered by the pe o ple had also been stiﬂed in bl o o d . The peasants in U pper Austria and B ru n swic k t o c o had fallen a prey the soldiery , and an insurre ti n of the R e de rn Bohemian peasantry , under Christopher von , who had taken K oen igsgraet z by storm and laid waste the pro p ’ e rt t - in - l aw T e rzki y of Wallens ein s brother , , was speedily r quelled ; ﬁve hund ed were slain , the rest branded and de ri o f r p v e d thei noses . Wallenstein bec ame the soul of the intrigues carried o n t o f t in the camps and in the little cour s Nor hern Germany, n o t and had the Catholics , like the Protestants at an earlier r o pe i d , been blinded by petty jealousies , Europe would have been m olded by his quick and comprehensive gen ius i nto an

o . n u nc o n i other f rm He demanded a thorough reactio , an d tio n al o f t h e m c restoration ancient imperial power , a onar hy abs o lute as that of France and Spain . In order to carry out his project for securing the submission of the southern prov in c e s o f Germany to the im perial rule by the ﬁrm and peace o o f t h o o o able possessi n those in the nor , the seat of pp siti n , o he invaded H lstein , defeated the Margrave of Baden near

I . o V . Aalb rg , and made Christian tremble in Copenhagen r t h e Tilly , meanwhile , gar isoned the coasts of Baltic and r m o seized Stade , while A nhei , with the Sax n troops sent by ’

n . the elector to Walle stein s aid , held the island of Rugen o R stock fell into the hands of Wallenstein , John Albert and Adolf F rederick of Mecklenburg were driven out of the c o un d w as try , Stralsun besieged , and the people were laid under m heavy contributions . Wallenstein had already co e to an n o o r u derstanding with P land , and the Hanse t wns we e drawn into his interests by a p ro mise o f the annihilatio n of r fﬁ o f o v the Dutch , of the t a c the whole w rld being di erted ‘ o m r o f o f fr m A sterdam to Hambu g , and the monopoly the

m a . o t o whole of the co merce of Sp in The emperor , in rder counterpoise the power of the ancient princely families which threatened t o contravene t h e schemes laid fo r his aggrandize

Th e se pro mise s w e re in de e d v ain ; th e last Hanseatic diet was h e ld in

1 6 3 0 Th e Han sa h ad fa e n nev er a ain t o rise . . ll g

1 006 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY empire and to treat the dignities an d privileges of the princes with contempt . Richelieu also dreaded the u n ity of Ger many , and offered to invade the empire in order to curb r Wallenstein , whose genius he d eaded , by force .

The emperor, undeterred by repeated warnings , aban do n e d 1 his great general , and published , in 629 , in the m spirit of the League , the infa ous edict , enforcing the res t it ut io n of all ecclesiastical property confiscated since the treaty of Passau . By this edict the P ro testant arc hbish o ric s t h e p of Magdeburg and Bremen , bishoprics of Hal Misn i berstadt , Minden , Lubeck , Ratzeburg , Merseburg , a, m u r r m Nau b g , Brandenbu g, Havelberg , Lebus , Ca min , and o r l numberless monastic lands , were rest ed to the Cath o ics . The imperial com missioners intrusted with the executi o n of o e x e r the edict , pr tected by the Friedlanders and Leaguers , c ise d o o o the greatest tyranny , enf rcing the rest rati n of lands confiscated p ri o r t o the te rm fixed and the rec antation o f their

o - p ro prietors . The Cath lic ritual w as re established in all the m r free i pe ial cities , even in those where , as , for instance , in r b o f Augsbu g , it had een abolished and replaced by that r r Luther long befo e the t eaty of Passau . The emperor ap ro riat e d r r o f o t o o w n m p p the g eater pa t the b oty his fa ily , o r o so n o and enc uraged plu ality by app inting his , Le pold , r o h o o f r m M t a chbish p , and bis p B e en , agdeburg , Halbers adt , r r Passau , St asburg , and abbot of He sfeld , which placed all r c those ich e clesiastical demesnes in his hands , and thus , while seemingly defending religion against the p o litical ego t ism o f r m m the P otestant princes , e ulated the in stripping f t h m o c ro r c rc . o e o the hu h The whole c nﬁscated nasti p pe ty ,

o c o . With ut distin ti n , fell to the Jesuits r n Lay pro pe rty shared a similar fate . Eve y obleman w h o

r r r r m o r had se ved unde F ede ick of Bohe ia , Mansfeld , Bruns ’ r m r r wick , was dep ived of his estates , and the e pe o s and the ’ r o r r c i o m m League s tro ps , unde pretext of p ote t ng the c is io n e rs r o t r o s in the pe f rmance of heir duty , we e stati ned in an d allowed t o pillage the Pro testant provin c es . The Cath o oli s , nevertheless , generally viewed their success with dis THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 007

an d r m Wu rt e m b e r t h e m o n trust, it was e arked that , in g, t e rie s t o f o o o r m r as , ins ead being taken int p ssessi n , we e e ely t h e r r plundered , that booty was ca ried into Bava ia and Aus m o r a . tria , that even the forests we e cle red and the ti ber s ld ' i o f W u rt e m b e r h ad 1 628 John Freder ck , duke g, expired in ,

so n r . r r l eaving his infant , Eberha d III , unde the gua dian r r w h o o ship of his uncle , Louis F ede ick , died sh rtly after rr r ward o f chagrin at the devastatio n of his te ito ies . The cruelty and ty ranny prac ti c ed by the em peror re

mained wh o lly unopp o sed by the P rotestant princes . The city o f Magdebu rg alone m aintained h e r an c ient fam e by

defending h e r walls against the who le of t h e im pe rial fo rc es . The free im perial cities had been delivered up t o the em peror r r o l t h e r and we e pu p se y unrepresented in council of p inces , r r m r which usu ped the pre ogatives of a diet of the e pi e , held r at Ratisbon in 1 6 30 . The resto ati o n o f the ecc lesiasti c al

p ro perty sorely displeased the Lutheran princes . Sax o ny and B randenburg beheld with pain the archbish o pri c s and bisho pric s in the n o rth to rn f rom their fam ilies and bestowed o r o m r r up n the A chduke Leop ld , Hildeshei on P ince Fe dinand o f r c o o f o r c Bava ia , ele t r Col gne , Minden and Verdun on F an is

o v o n Wu rt em b e r - r William , C unt g (a side b anch of the Bava

rian dynasty) , who , as commissioner for the whole of North m h e t e . ern Ger any , superint nded the execution of edict But h e t eir dr ad of Wallenstein sm o o thed every difﬁc ulty . The c o r o r r ele t of Sax ny and all the Lutheran p inces , b ibed with ’ W m r t o allenstein s dis issal , gave thei consent the edict and o r r r m t le ated its transg essi o n in the f ee i perial cities . The com plaints against his adm inistratio n were studi o usly b roug ht r h r t o t e o r . fo ward , as if veil r bbe ies committed unde the edict The duke of Friedland was m ade the scapegoat fo r the crim es

of others . The m an to wh o m t h e em peror owed all h e po s as m r im sessed w dis issed in 1 630 . N o was this t h e least portant trium ph o f the princely aristo c racy over all the c o n

te nding parties in Germany in the co urse o f this century . The hope o f resto ring the unity o f t h e em pire was once more fru strated and the ancient polyarchy saved . 1 008 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

Gustavus Adolphus . king of Sweden , landed at this c o n o juncture on the c ast of Pomerania . His arrival was vie wed V with pleasure by the cabinet of ienna , as a means of hum r bling Bava ia and the League , and , in case of necessity , Wallenstein would still be able to rai se the Austrian stand ard when Bavaria and Sweden sho ul d have m utually weak ’ ened one an o ther. Wallenstein s offer to defend the c o asts r r w as in his ight as Prince of Mecklenbu g rejected , and he t r w r wi hd e , with the wealth he had amassed , to P ague . A groundless fear of opposition on the part of Wallen stein had induced the emperor to d raw off twenty thousand m e n m in of his , and to send the into Italy order to secure to t h e m t o i perial house the succession the duchy of Mantua, to which Charles , duke of Nevers , a French prince , laid ' m r r clai . F ance eage ly seized this o pportunity to take a

- o . U . fo ting in Italy The pope , rban VIII , a worldly minded ,

“ r rm warlike , intriguing p ince , and Venice , ala ed at the em ’ ero r s c rm r su p suc esses in Ge any , and d eading anew the re m ac o f p y Austria in Italy , leagued with France and m c o untenanced the invasion of Northern Ger any by Sweden . The c o ncessions m ade by the empe ror to Bavaria probably ’ aro se fro m a d read of Maxim ilian s o pen ac cession to this r m r dangerous confede acy . Ferdinand , eanwhile , en aged at m o the defiance of his power by the Italians , levied a nu er us o o fo r r o f w h o f b dy of tro ps the elief Spinola , with di ficulty r U r kept his g ound in ppe Italy , and , after gallantly defend o f r r ing Casale , died chag in , caused by the ing atitude with m which he w as treated by the Spanish c o urt . The i perial ist s r c o r o u w as o o r we e vi t i s , took Mantua , which str ngly f ti fie d m c o m m m o o r o r , by stor , and itted the st h rid ut ages in

i . w as the city and its v cinity The duchy , nevertheless , ceded to N eve rs for the pu rp o se of con c iliating F rance and o f r of securing the allegiance Bava ia , which threatened to s r c side with France unless Mantua w a sac iﬁced . The ac es o o f t o m si n Savoy his party , through dread of the supre acy r m of F ance , little availed the e peror , that duke being com pe l l e d to cede to France some of the most important pas THE THIRTY YEARS WA R 009

i Pi ue ro l ro . I n w ar sage s nto Italy, q , Riva , and Pe use this ,

six thousand Swiss fo ught un de r French co lors . It also r o appears that the Catholic generals at that pe i d in Italy , r Co l al t o o v o n r Gallas , Altringe , , Eg n Furstenbe g , entered into the Je suit ic al conspiracy an d we re ever false friends to r Wallenst ein . George von Lunebu g , who had been sent o m c t re ac h to Italy , and had there bec e a quainted with the ero u s pro jects cherished by the p o pe and the Jesuits and the

r o f r c r o f r checke ed fate his inhe itan e , epented his t eason ,

r . s fo r his , ought a pretext . retu n and ﬂed to the Swede r r o The c o wa dly Luthe an princes , before the diss lution of o n o f r c o m d the c u cil p in es at Ratisb n , dee ed themselves calle up o n t o m ake so m e dem onstratio n in fav o r of th eir oppressed o — r m r o religi n , and p otested against the i proved G eg rian c calendar, for whi h they evinced far deeper horror than for

the edict of restitution .

Gustav us A do l hus CCVII . p

R OM o m o r o m F H lland to the untains of Ca ni la, fro Prussia t o n r r o the Ber ese Alps , whe ever Ge man was sp ken , had the tenets of Luther and Calvin spread and fo und a harbor in

o . the hearts of the pe ple Bavaria and the Tyrol excepted , every province throughout Ge rm any had battled for liberty n o t it h st and of conscience , and yet the whole of Germany , w in h e r l o fo r o rm o h ad g universal inc inati n the Ref ati n , been o o r c m deceived in her h pes , a sec nd impe ial edi t see ed likely to crush the fe w rem aining privileges spared by t h e edict o f u r w restit tion , and Magdebu g alone , ith unﬂinching perse

v e ran c e t o m . , ventured oppose the imperial com ands o n e o f c o n Gustavus Adolphus , the most zealous and scient io u s o f o e o f o rm o r the adv cat s the Ref ati n , eigned at

. r r r that time in Sweden His father, Cha les , a younge b other o o f o o f o n of King J hn , the h use Wasa , had been placed the r ro w o f th one by the P testant S edes instead the actual heir, m m Sigis und , king of Poland , who had embraced Catholicis . r 1 61 5 t o e The attempt made by Mau ice of Hesse , in , plac 1 01 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

t h e h U Gustavus , then a youth , at ead of the nion , had been f rustrated by t h e j ealousy of Denmark and the war between ’ w o m S eden and P land , which terminated in Sigis und s defeat f t o and the annexation o Livonia Sweden . Riga fell into the w m o hands of the S edish narch in 1 62 1 . Elbing shared

. r the same fate Dantzig offered a successful esistance . The ’ r elector of Brandenburg , Poland s vassal , prese ved a strict

. o f r n o neutrality Gustavus , on the defeat Denma k , l o nger rm hesitated in joining the Ge an Protestants . His ﬂag speed

w . m ily aved in Stralsund Arnheim (Arni ), sent by Wallen r stein to the aid of Poland , was at ﬁ st successful , but was

o rm afterward defeated at Marienburg by Gustavus , wh se a y m r m r t was reinforced by nu be s of i pe ial deser ers . The o f r o n o f r elector Brandenburg , b ibed by the cessi Ma ien r r r o o r m bu g and We de , f rgot his jeal usy and passed f o neu m t ral it o o . w as in y to de nstrati ns of amity Peace , by the t e rv e n t io n o c of France , ﬁnally c n luded with Poland and m r re Den ark , and Gustavus , urged by his since e piety , solved t o take up arms in defence of P ro testantism and to rm m m o free Ge any fro the yoke i p sed by the Jesuits . The love o f fame and t h e chance of placing the i mperial cro wn h is o n ro c o on w b w were other but se ndary inducements . o w ar o a His military genius , devel ped in the with P l nd , the r o f inte nal state of Germany , and the excellence his well o t o c c disciplined tr ops , inured hardship and fatigue , a us t m e d o r t o to vict y , and ﬁlled with enthusiasm for heir faith

fo r r c . rm and thei king, vouched for his suc ess In his a y

r r rm o r - h we e seve al Ge an refugees of distincti n , the g ay eaded o r o f v r r C unt Thu n and his gallant son , who died fe e du ing o O o o R he in rav e o f l m this expediti n , tt L uis , g Sa , and the

r r v o ro r o . c fo r th ee b ave Li nian b the s , R sen The ause which o r fo r h im h r he f ught had , it is t ue , gained the ea ts of the o t o o o o r v w as Pr tes ant p pulati n thr ugh ut Ge many ; his arri al ,

r h r c ro ~ neve theless , viewed wit g eater dissatisfa tion by the P t r e st an t p rinces than by either of the Cath o lic pa ties . The r r o d m a o f League , F ance , Bava ia , and the pope h pe , by e ns m t he the Swede , to reduce the emperor to sub ission , while THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 1 0 1 1 e mperor an d Wallenstein o n their side se c retly aim ed at m l r o c o n se weakening the League by si i a means ; b th sides , ’ o o f quently , greatly fav red Gustavus s chance success by their hesitation in taking strong m eas ures against him . The

o w o r r o w wa greatest bstacles ere , on the c nt a y , thr n in his y

ro m m w h o by the P testant princes , who he ca e to defend , and o c o n ﬁrm a refused t o seco nd his effo rts . The extensi n and o f o r r o o f t ion o f the p o wer Sweden to the n th we e , in p int o o f r r o f o fact , at the s le expense B andenbu g , the h use of

o f h o f o . o Guelph , and t at Sax ny The jeal usy with which t h e German princes viewed the entry o f a warlike and po w e rfu l neighb o r o n their te rrito ry was also n atural ; their l ate c o c o m m o r o r m re n iliati n with the e peror, e ver , rende ed the l o w n peculiar y disinclined to fav r the S edish expeditio , by whi c h the ﬂam es of w ar we re again t o be lighted thro ugh o ut m h r r ro r unhappy Ger any , w e e eve y p vince , ancient Bava ia ro o ﬁ re and the Ty l al ne excepted , had been ravaged by ,

r o w ar. r sword , and pillage during the eligi us A d eadful m c i t h e r o f fa ine , aused by the Mansfeld exped tion , by apine ’ W r rr o n allenstein s soldie y , and by the pillage ca ied by the r r Jesuits , aged in Silesia ; the citizens and peasant y died by o d o f r m c c c rr th usan s sta vation , and any instan es o u ed of o r n r h r o f r r parents dev u i g thei c ild en , and b ethren dest oying ' an o t h e r fo r o r m one the last m uthful of b ead . This isery , r w as r m r r t o t h e h o r fea ful as it was , , howeve , a e e p elude rs rr ro that ensued . The a ival o f the S w edish king was but o i o f the pen ng the war . o l o o n 24 1 630 Gustavus Ad phus cast anch r June , , the r r o f o o o f r r l annive sa y the C nfessi n Augsbu g , nea to the ittle o f r v o r o rm island Ruden , and landed , du ing a i lent thunde st ,

U o m . m o o f o m e n at sed His ar y c nsisted sixteen th usand , o m r r rm c o m r o o c p ising fo ty Ge an panies , unde C l nels Falken r r o n Mi r a d t c h e fa hl . be g, Died ich , H ll , Kniphausen , His ﬁ st objec t w as t o take ﬁrm fo o ting in P o m e rania and Me c kl e n

r . Bo zisl aw o f o m r w as c o r c o m bu g , duke P e ania , , ac dingly , e l l e d o c m r rr o p to j in his ause , and the i pe ial ga is ns were r o ut f m d iven o the in o r to wns during the winter o f 1 63 1 . 01 2 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

r u n u To q ato Conti , the imperial stadtholder in Pomerania , r able to keep his g ound , laid the whole country waste duri n g n his retreat . Tilly evi ced no anxiety to oppose the advance m t o of the Swedes , but Pappenhei , unable restrain his impa t ie n c e c , atta ked Charles , duke of Lauenburg , who had ven t ure d r , in the service of the Swedes , as far as Ratzebu g , and im r h . N e w r r m car ied off prisoner B andenbu g , De min , where r W o A n c l am he took Duke di Savelli captive , Ga tz , lgast , ,

Stargard , Colberg , fell into the hands of the Swedish king . r i Mecklenbu g , and the anc ent Hanse towns , Griefswald and r Rostock , we e still maintained by the imperialists .

o r o The vain neg tiations between Bava ia , the p pe , and F rance were at length term inated by the ne c essity of o pp o s o ing the Swedes , and Tilly received rders to take the ﬁeld . N e w r e rﬁd B andenburg was speedily retaken , but the p y with c whi h he , contrary to the terms of capitulation , butchered t wo r thousand of the Swedes , was bitte ly avenged on the r O w h o captu e of Frankfort on the der by Gustavus , , as a warning to Tilly to desist from imitating the c ruel prac tices o f r t w o im the C oatians during war , put thousand of the e rial i r m r p st s t o the sw o d . Nu be s of the fugitives were O d drowned in the der , the bri ge giving way beneath the cro wd . r ae w A t eaty was , meanwhile , concluded at B r ald between r r t o Gustavus and the French mona ch , who p omised pay him annually the sum of four hundred th o usand dollars and t o n o w w t o grant him his aid , rendered requisite o ing the m lukewar ness of the Lutheran princes ; and Gustavus , deeply r a o ro m disgusted at thei conduct, was l ne withheld f aban r o r r doning his pu p se , f om retu ning to Sweden and coming rm t h e o r c o t o to te s with emper , by the nsciousness that him al o ne did Magdebu rg and the pe o ple throughout Germany r o r r o l ook for succo . The elect s of B andenburg and Sax ny ro o o n o f r b ught ab ut a c u cil p inces at Leipzig , in which they t o r r Lu sought pe suade the princes of Northe n Germany , c c o therans and Calvinists , who , on this o asi n , offered an example of rare unity , to maintain a system of armed neu

1 01 4 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y o f women cast th em sel ves h eadlong into the Elbe and into the flames of the burning houses in o rder to escape the b ru tality of t h e sol die ry ; fift y - three women were beh eaded by t h e o t h e . h Cr atians while kneeling in church of St Cat erine . On e r C oat boasted of having stuck twenty babes on his pike . On e hundred and t h irty - seven houses and the fireproof cath e d u ral , in which four tho sand men took refuge , were all that r remained of the proud city . The est o f the inh abitants had fallen victims to the sword or to the flames . T h e slaughter 22 d continued until the , when Tilly appeared and resto red discipline and order. The refugees in t h e cath edral were

t h e r fo r r o pardoned and for ﬁ st time th ee days received f od .

- o l Tilly , a tall , haggard lo king man , dressed in a short s ashed o green satin jacket, with a l ng red feather in his high h at h m crowned , with large brig t eyes peering fro beneath h is f m o deeply furrowed brow , a sti f ustache under his p inted l - m n f nose , ghast y , hollow checked , and with a see i g af ecta l w m o n tion . of wi dness in his hole appearance , sat , ounted a r t h e o o bony charge , on ruins of Magdeburg , pr udly lo king upon the thirty th ousand bodies o f the brave citizens n o w h is m m w r stiffening in death , which , at co and , e e cast into i h m the Elbe . The r ver was c oked up by the ass near the

N eustadt . The n e w s o f this disaster ﬁlled Gustavus w ith rage and o r o w r o m l s r , and , p obably reckoning up n aid fro the peop e ,

- t h e o r panic struck by destructi n of Magdebu g , in case the r n m r r p i ces still aintained thei neutrali ty , he ente ed Prussia, ro o r sur unded Berlin , and , stationing himself sw d in hand

o r c m o . T h e bef e the ity gates , de anded a deﬁnite declarati n c o o W relation in which he stood with the ele t r, Ge rge illiam , n m was so m ew hat extraordinary . This pri ce had an extre ely n m r o beautiful sister, a ed Eleono e , wh se hand had , ten years r o f befo e the present period , been demanded by Wladislaw

o w o . P land and by the S edish monarch , then the bitterest f es

The elector , who merely held Prussia in fee of Poland , nat u ral l o v h y favored the f rmer suitor , but Gusta us , abitually an d r 1 620 t h e bold da ing , visited Berlin in , during elec THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WAR 1 01 5

’ ’ s e r f c o n an d r tor abs nce , gained the p incess s a fe ti , retu ned

t o m . o i with her as his queen Stockhol The P l sh king , in r r evenge , incited the fanatical Lutherans in P ussia against ae e rn do rf r w as the elector . J g , the heritage of Brandenbu g , , n h o r h n o the ot er hand , best wed by the empe or on Lic tenstei , o o f o but the elect r, instead penly ranging himself on the side

ro r - in - l aw o m of his b the , all wed hi self to be swayed on the r o f r w as one hand by his d ead Poland , while on the othe he identiﬁed with the im perial party by the intrigues o f his r am r r o o ministe , Ad von Schwa zenbe g , a t l of the Jesuits ,

o o f h i s o o r v o n r o r . and by th se fav rite , C n ad Bu gsd f The r o f m o r t h e r o f female pa t the fa ily , enc u aged by p esence n o w o o o o o Gustavus , opp sed the bn xi us fav rites , and the o m i m r r elector, to wh the Swed sh onarch offe ed the alte na tive of his alliance or the redu c tio n of Berlin to a heap o f

o . er ashes , was c mpelled to yield B lin , Spandau , and Kus r r o t in were ga ris ned by the Swedes . r r w as m o The c uel pe secution , eanwhile , unavailing t tally r o r t o rep ess the c u age of the citizens and the peasant . Stras ’ burg followed Magdeburg s glori o us exam ple and to o k up m r m o . r ar s in defence of the g spel Nu be s of Swabians , t em b l in l o f Wurt e m b e r g y countenanced by the regent g , Julius

r r c o o f r r . F ede i k , ﬂ cked to the aid thei breth en in belief o v o n r r o r c ro m Eg n Fu stenbe g was , c nsequently , e alled f

Man t u a ‘ an d c m ro r o w despat hed by the e pe int S abia , at the f m m m n o o m e n . K head ﬁfteen th usand Me ingen , e pte , and ro m o f r r the little P testant settle ent Aust ian refugees , F eu den st adt c o r t o c o f h i s in the Bla k F rest , fell a p ey the li ense

r . r soldie y Julius Frederick yielded with o ut a bl o w . St as r r ro m an d r r bu g , neve theless , p ved i pregnable , Fu stenbe g t o o o r h h o o f m hastened j in his f ces wit t se Tilly , at that ti e r r o f ha d pushed in the n o rth . The insurgent peasant y the Harz had greatly ha rassed him o n his passage th ro ugh the

mountains . His invasi o n o f Hesse had been opposed by r m the Landg ave William . The i po rtant fo rtress o f Wesel k had been ta en by the Dutc h . Gustavus had also advanced t o the Elbe and intrenched himself near Werben , where 1 01 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

l e t uri r l Til y, v n ng an attack , was epu sed with considerable

o . T h e r r r r l ss t oops under Furstenbe g , Alt inge , etc . , sent n to his aid by the emperor , alo e enabled him to make h ead against the Swede ; this aid was , however, coupled with the condition of the pillage of Saxony in order to imbitter t h e wavering elector, John George , against Bavaria and t o h im the League , and compel to declare himself. Halle , Me rse b e r W m r g , Zeiz , eissenfels , Nau bu g were , accordingly , plundered , and the great plain of Leipzig was laid waste .

o r J hn George , roused by this proceeding , obeyed the p essure of circum stances and fulﬁlled the warmest wishes of his

Protestant subjects by entering into alliance with Sweden . r Arnheim , who had quitted the imperial se vice , and whose o diplomatic talents well suited the intriguing Sax n court , w as placed at the head of his troo ps . Eighteen thousand Saxons co alesced with the Swedish army near Duben o n the r i Heath , and the confede ated troops marched upon Le pzig , ’ which h ad just fallen into Tilly s hands . The Sw edes and imperialists stood opposed to each oth er for the ﬁrst time on the broad pl ains of Leipzig . The Swedes were distinguished by their light (chieﬂy blue) coats , by the c e o f r r m m r absen a mo , their active ove ents , and light a til

r t he r - o o - ﬁt t in le y ; impe ialists , by their old fashi ned cl se g (gen e ral l m m r y yellow) unifor s , besides ar or , such as cui asses ,

- m thigh pieces , and hel ets , their want of order and discipline ,

o r r . th eir sl wer movements , and thei awkward , heavy artille y t m The bat le was com enced , contrary to the intention of w h o o r r Tilly , awaited the arrival of the c ps under Alt inger r r d him and Fugger ( Fu stenbe g had alrea y joined ), by Pap e n h e im w h o o n p , , being attacked while reconn itri g , Tilly

was compelled to hasten to his aid . Gustavus Adolphus,

m r - dressed in a si ple g ay great coat , with a green feather in o his white hat, rode al ng the Swedish ranks animating his t men to the ﬁght . The Swedes were stationed in the righ ’ was wing , the Saxons in the left . Tilly s army drawn up ,

according to ancient custom , in one long line ; that of Gus s e t avus was , on the contrary , separated into mall movabl

1 01 8 THE HISTORY OF GERMANY

n with open arms , through the Thuringia forest to Bamberg r and Wurzburg , the latte of which he took by storm . T h e garrison and a number of monks were put to death . The ih t e rv e nt io n of France was a second time refused by t h e Swe wh o dish conqueror , advanced on the Rhine with t h e in t e n r tion of throwing himself between F ance and Bavaria , of aiding the Dutch , and of liberating the Protestants in Upper

. r Germany Hanau , Aschaffenburg , Rotenbu g opened their o gates to him . Fran kf rt on the Maine was entered in tri

. . A umph Mayence was taken The archbishop , nselm Cas h imir, ﬂed . C arles of Lorraine , who still maintained his o n m position the left bank of the Rhine , and the i perial h O . Colonel ssa , on the rig t, were repulsed Spires , Landau , r o and nume ous other t wns opened their gates to the Swedes . o f o B The fortresses K enigstein , Mannheim , Kreuznach , ach

c r h . h o arach , and Kir hbe g fell into their ands The w le of the Pfalz w as once m o re freed from the Spanish yoke . The r v o n garrison of Heidelbe g , under Henry Metternich , alone held out . The arrival of the Swedes was hailed with o pe n o r e c kar t h e dem nst ations of delight along the N and Rhine . o n O Horn , sent by Gustavus int Swabia , took Man heim , p e nh eim i M p , He lbronn , and ergentheim , and extirpated the r m o ro o bands of robbe s , co p sed of the fugitive t ps of Charles

. r v o n r r of Lorraine The Pfalzg af , Christian Bi kenfeld , aised

- troops for the Swedish army . Frederick , the ex Pfalz

r - o w as g af and ex king of B hemia , returned , but not for mally reinstated by Gustavus , who hoped by this refusal

c . w to spur England into a tion The queen of S eden , Eleo ’ m ‘ o r o c m r . n e , als a e to F ankfort to share her husband s triu ph “ ” o l d o The devil Tilly , as Gustavus wr te to the Pfalz m h o o n graf , eanw ile retook the ﬁeld . R tenburg the Tauber r m r r and Bambe g once o e changed maste s , but he was com pe l l e d to raise the siege of Wurzburg in order to cover Ba r h m m va ia against Gustavus , while Pappen ei threw hi self

On mee t in h i m sh e t h re w h e r arms aro un him and h o in h im fast in g , d , , ld g ” h e r e m rac e e c aime N o w is Gustav us t h e Gre at a riso ne r ! b , x l d , p ‘ THE T HIRTY YEAR S " WA R 1 01 9

m n u rt h D o a oe . alo n e into Northern Ger any . w fell The bat e o n r m in t i of Rain the Lech , whe e Tilly and Maxi ilian had n m rm r o t re ched the selves , proved fatal to the fo e ; a cann n t c ru c n b all shat ered his thigh , and he expired in ex iati g m n ie 1 63 2 . c o t o ago s in His last injun ti n Maxi ilian , at any

r t o rr so t o o m r p ice ga i n Ratisbon , the key B he ia , Aust ia ,

r o . o r and Bava ia, with ut delay , was instantly obeyed H n r o r w as o r l was al eady en r ute thithe , but f estal ed by the r r m ro o Bava ian duke , who th ew hi self with his t ps , disguised

u r o r . as Swedes , nde c ve of the night , into that city t r re o r r o f c o n c t o Gustavus , af e st ing libe ty s ience Augs

r c o m o f c r Ma bu g, and re eiving the h age the itizens , ente ed c c rr r c r o r m ni h , whi h su ende ed at dis eti n , in t iu ph with the

- o f o m o o o ro ex king B he ia and Queen Ele n re , at wh se side de ’ m r a onkey with a shaven c own , in a Capuchin s gown , and f r with a ro sary in his paws . A ﬁne o fo ty tho usand do llars On e r o . o c o was laid up n the town hundred and f ty ann ns , Within which thirty tho usand ducats and a qu an tity of pre o o c o c r ci ns st nes were n ealed , and which had been bu ied for

c ri r ra c o ro r. se u ty , we e bet yed into the hands of the nque ’ m l r o fo r r Maxi i ian s p op sals peace were sco nfully rejec ted .

’ a llen ste in s ec o n d Co m m d— e t CCVIII . W S a n Th Ba t le of — — L u tzen The Heilbro n n Co nfedera cy D ea th of Wa l l e ns tein

T HE o f w h o r advance the Swedish king , , du ing his Rhen is h c o o r m ro r m r nquests , had aff ded the e pe ti e to c eate a most

ro v r o n o w c . dange us di e si n , received a heck

o r r rm m r o f o o c In N the n Ge any , the i pe ial garrisons R st k an d W h ad Gro n sfe l d ismar capitulated , but still kept the

o r r ro v ﬁeld , Ge ge von Lunebu g , unaided by his b ther , ha ing r with ext em e difﬁculty succ eeded in settin g an arm y o n fo o t. m o m e t c Willia of Hesse als with little suc cess . The Dut h

t r . m r ook Maest icht Pappenhei appea ed in the Netherlands , b ut i r h im r a d spute a ising between and the Spanish leade s , h e r r a h is c etu ned to Centr l Germany , where presen e was 020 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

r — loudly called for . He etook Hildesheim en rou t e . T he arrival o f the Swedes had roused the fanaticism of the Cath u r m olic population in the So th , and a gene al rising , si ilar to that of the Lutheran peasantry against the Catholic soldiery o in Hesse and the Harz , t ok place among the Catholic peas

u . ro a try against the Swedes In Bavaria , every straggler f m the main body w as murdered by the country people ; in Weis se n b u r o n e g, thousand men , who capitulated , were butchered . Ossa endeavored to organize a great insurrection of the peas an t r U i w as y in pper Swab a , but defeated at Biberach by the W Swedes , in Bregenz , by Bernard von eimar , and the town F rie dst adt r r of , whe e several Swedes had been murde ed by o w as r r the pe ple , burned to the g ound by Gene al Banner,

s . Ho o n and all the inhabitant were put to the sword rn , r the othe hand , laid siege to Constance . o f n e v e rt h e The movement to the rear the Swedes was , o f r less , of far less importance than the proceedings F ance . l Richelieu , after vain y urging Gustavus to spare Bavaria t o o c o r h ad and direct his whole f r e against the emper , thrown fresh troops into Lorraine and the electorate of r o T eves , whose prince , Philip Christopher , had v luntarily c w h o pla ed himself beneath his protection , and Gustavus , o n o f o r r r w as was the point c nque ing Bava ia and Aust ia , m o E h re n b re it co pelled to permit the ccupation of Coblentz , stein , and Philipsburg , by the French . m o o h ad Maxi ilian , wh se corresp ndence with Richelieu been interc epted by the imperialists and sent to Vienna, n o w saw him self constrained to cast himself unconditi o nally m r r U into the a rm s of the e pe o . The pper Austrian peas an t r c ro c r m a y , attra ted by the app a h of the great no thern g r m o f r m e n net , once more d ea ed libe ty , and six thousand r r Hausruc kv ie rt e l h had al eady taken up a ms in the , w en t h e news of the retu rn of the Swedes northward once more

crushed their h o pes . The electo r of Saxony had gone into Bohem ia ; A rnheim m r r into Silesia . The i perial forces , in this quarte nume

ic al l o . was y w ak , fell back Schaumburg beaten at Steinau

1 022 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

h t quent retreat of the Swedes nort ward ; ins ead , therefore , of n i i advancing upo Bavaria, he forced Maxim l an to join him bl i m at Eger, where he pu cly e braced him , and marched h thence to Leipzig , w ich shortly capitulated . W l no w a lenstein had gained his purpose . Gustavus , throug h dread of t h e defection of the vac i llating and timid was elector, compelled to renounce his projects against the h Sout and to turn his arms against the imperial leader ; but,

‘ w o r un illing entirely to cede the S uth , he took up a st ong position with sixteen thousand men near Nuremberg, where

. W al he awaited the arrival of reinforcements allenstein , h at Si o thoug the head of an army of xty th usand men , was too well acqua i nted with the advantageous position of h i s o im antag nist to hazard an attack , and took up an equally pregnable p o sition o n the Ol d Mountain c lose to the Swedish m m . o ca p Three nths passed in inactivity , and a famine ere ’ b i n N ure m b r i n i long prevailed oth e g and Wallenste n s camp . The peasantry had ﬂed in every d i rect i on fro m the pillaging o w h o rr tr ops , destroyed whatever they were unable to ca y i n se i zm away . The Swedes succeeded g a large convoy of ro fo r W r p visions intended allenstein , and were sho tly after

' r b t h e O r wa d reinforced y chancellor of Sweden , xenstie na , o n m i h v W . by Bernard ei ar , and by Banner The Swed s m m b r m no w m t o o e n . ar y a ounted seventy th usand Nure e g, ’ d r Gustavus s ﬁrm ally , coul send thi ty thousand into the h . W w o ﬁeld allenstein , patiently awaited the destruction m b o i . of the enemy y famine , kept cl se W thin his ca p The n d b m Swedes at le g th , ren ered furious y want, atte pted to m r l m b o m b ut w h take the i pe ia ca p y st r , were repulsed it r h T o rst e n so n w as d eadful loss . The Swedis general , , taken m r o r w as n . pris ne , and Banner wou ded The i pe ial general ,

w as . o Fugger, killed while pursuing the Swedes An ther v b r w fourteen days elapsed , when Gusta us , una le to d a his O w as o m o u pponent forth , c pelled , after losing twenty th san d o f m b r o o f in habi men , and the city Nure e g ten th usand her

m . tants, to quit this scene of death and fa ine Pestilence ’ W s had , however, raged with still greater fury in allenstein THE THIRTY YEARS ’ WA R 1 023

am m w n - o c p, and had cut his immense ar y do to twenty f ur

h 1 63 2 . t ousand men , September , o o f rr w ar o r Gustavus , in the h pe ca ying the int Bava ia r o m r o and into the hea t of the Cath lic states , s uth “ a ched o t o r r r Ge r ward ; while Wallenstein , anxi us ende No thern

o f w ar o . v many the theatre , to k a contrary direction Lea ing m rc a h undred villages around Nuremberg in ﬂa es , he ma hed , r ro o r t o with te ror in his van , th ugh the Thuringian f est Leip

- r h e r . zig , which , panic st icken , threw wide gates Pappen h i m o him r r c e j ined , but , unawa e of the apidity with whi h ' O ff fo r o r Gustavus had turned in pursuit , again set L we Sax f r t o . o o W ony Gustavus , in the h pe b inging allenstein an m t he no w i engage ent on plains of Leipzig, rap dly advanced h r h t he fo e an d su m t o ug country lately pillaged by his ,

mo n e d h i s o c . ally , Ge rge von Luneburg , to his assistan e T he conﬁden c e of that p rince in the fortun e o f the Swede h ad b r r een , howeve , seve ely shaken by the reappearance of m o . r w ho Wallenstein , and he refused to bey A nhei , had

o r . r q uitted Silesia, als ta ried at Dresden At E furt, Gus

v b t o o r . ta us ade adieu his queen , Eleon e The battle of Lutzen com m enced early in the m o rning o f ’ t he 6 t h o 1 6 32 n o t far r m of N vember, , f o the scene of Tilly s

m r . r r for e defeat Gustavus would have sca cely ventu ed , u ﬁr r o rc m t o witho t st awaiting the arrival of einf e ents , have c W no t r r o f atta ked allenstein , had he learned the depa tu e m w h o n o w c r m Pappenhei , was hastily re alled f o Halle , h ad c which he just rea hed . A thick fog , that lasted until ’ i r o f ro o eleven o clock , h ndered the ma shalling the t ps , and gave t h e Pappe n h e im e rs tim e to reach the ﬁeld befo re t h e l o . W f ri conc usi n of the battle allenstein , although su fe ng o m r c m u r w fr a seve e atta k of gout , o nted his steed and d e up

h is ro o . i w as r t ps His nfantry d awn up in squares , ﬂanked r b by cavalry and guarded in f ont y a ditch , defended by

r i . rm o r o n c o o f a t llery Gustavus , without a , a c unt a slight “ o n h e r r c u m w u d had eceived at Di s ha , and exclai ing , At ’ them i n G o d s nam e ! Jesus ! Jesus ! Jesus ! let us vindicate t o - day the ho nor of thy holy name ! brandished his sw o rd 1 024 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

c m n over his head and harged the ditch at the head of his e . r o r . r The infant y cr ssed and seized the batte y The caval y , W l ’ b l opposed by a lenstein s lack cuirassiers , were ess suc ” e sfu l c s . Charge those blac k fellows ! shouted the king t o o n l h n St a a t sc h . m m Col el At that o ent the Swedish infantry , ’ w ro t wo m hich had already b ken of the ene y s squares , were ’ r b W c cha ged in the ﬂank y allenstein s avalry , stationed on o o n t o the pp site wi g , and Gustavus hurrying their aid , the r o n r o b o o caval y the nea est wing als ore d wn up n him . The increasing density o f the fog unfortunately veiled the ap c o f t h e m proa h imperialists, and the king , falsely i agining m o c r m hi self f llowed by his aval y , suddenly found hi sel f in m t o f o the ids the black cuirassiers . His h rse received a shot r o H o arm . e in the head , and an the br ke his left then asked

o f o - r w h o Albert , duke Sax n Lauen bu g , was at his side , to i w as t h lead him off the field , and , turn ng away , shot in e m r o f c r r m back by an i pe ial fi e . He fell f o his saddle ; his o o e m n w as r f t b ca e enta gled in the stirrup , and he d agged r m n along by his ho se , adde ed with pain . The duke fled , c m o r but Lu hau , the aster of the royal h se , shot the officer

o n . i d who had w unded the ki g Gustavus , who st ll live , fell m o t he c r . int the hands of uirassie s His Ger an page , Lubel ’ ﬁ n o h t o m r g , a y ut of eighteen , refused tell his aster s ank ,

m . n as r and was ortally wounded The ki g w st ipped. On “ ” h i s c m am ! m ex lai ing , I the king of Sweden they atte pted t o r him c r c o m car y off , but a ha ge of the Swedish cavalry m h r pelling the to relinquis thei prey , the last cuirassier, as ‘ h im . he rushed past, shot through the head ’ o f r r The sight the king s cha ge , covered with blood , c o rm re wildly galloping along the Swedish front, nﬁ ed the o m port o f the m elancho ly fate of his royal m aster. S e of r o r c the Swedish gene als , m e espe ially Kniphausen , who r o ff m i d ew his men in reserve , ed tated a retreat, but Duke r o f m r S r o m Berna d Wei a , pu ning the idea with c nte pt and

1 Gustav us w as e t re me ﬁne and ma e stic in e rso n h i s e e s w e re ue an d x ly j p , y bl n n H e n t e in e re ssio n h is mann e rs c o mman i n no e and co c i i at i . is g l xp , d g , bl , l g o unt e nanc e as O e n and at t ra ti c w p c v e .

1 026 THE HISTOR Y OF 1 GERMAN Y

near Utrecht . The battle of Lutzen ﬁlled the imperialists , ,

“ r notwithstanding thei defeat , with the greatest delight . i c i i r . r Publ rej o c ngs we e held at Madrid The empe or, F e r din and , r m m discove ed no i oderate joy at his success , and even showed some signs of pity on seeing the bloodstained

o f . o Ur . o collar his late foe The p pe , ban VIII , rdered a

on r mass to be read for the soul of the fallen m a ch , whose

’ r o f m r r powe had curbed that the e pe o . The em peror s fo es

r e - have , at eve y period , b en regarded with secret goo d will by the pope . O ’ Axel xenstierna , Gustavus s minister and his most faith r c m r o f r m ful f iend , be a e egent Sweden du ing the in o ri ty o f r o o o the queen , Ch istina , and f ll wed in the f otsteps o f his

o m e . r m n o t i n ble ast r But he was me ely a states an , a mil

r r m r n o t . n o ta y leade ; a iniste , a king Swede , instead f l o m ro o f rm p acing a Pr testant e pe r on the throne Ge any, could henceforward merely endeavor to secure libe rty of ’ r c o nscience to the Ge man Protestants . Gustavus s am bitio n had emb raced the whole o f Ge rm any ; that o f Oxenstierna

w as un no w n h e r ro t h e r h ar e s I . o f E n an w h o se h ea h ad ro e o n t h e k , b , C l gl d , d ll d r i r H r n He n r r sc affo and h e unfo rt unate c h e n . e e e st so e e ri c w as ld , ld ld , y F d k , ro w n e in 1 6 29 at A mst e r am T h e se c o n h ar e s Lo uis e came o n d d , , d . d , C l , b , t h e t e rminat io n o f t h e w ar e e c t o r o f t h e fa b ut i v e un h a i w it h h i s , l P lz , l d pp ly w ife an d t akin a mist re ss h i s mo t h e r re fraine fro m re t urn i n t h i t h e r Th e , , g , d g . t hir R o e rt aft e r dis tin uish in h imse f a ainst ro mw e l and S ain re mai ne d , b , g g l g C l p , d i m th e r an d o cc u ie h im se f i th t h e s t u o f c h e mist r Th e fo urt h w it h h s o W . p d l dy y , Mauric e isa e are afte r a nav a e n a e me nt w it h t h e S anish o t i a and w as , d pp d l g g p fl ll , n in t rm T ft E r i r i su o se t o h av e e e o st a s o at sea. h e h w a sh o no e h s pp d b l fi , d d , d d fami t h at h ad suffe re so muc h fo r t h e sa e o f re i io n t urn i n ath o i c ly , d k l g , by g C l , r r n h se r i e Th e si t h h i i a rav e a v e n t ure r mur and e n t e e t h e e c v c . d F x , P l p , b d , r a n o em an an d fl e d int o ranc e He w as i e in t h e re nc h se rv ic e d e e d bl F . k ll d F i T h e n h ust a u i in i s o h o o Th e e e st dau h urin a s e e se v e t G v s e h . d g g . , , d d b y d ld g t e r E isa e t h re e c t e t h e h an o f W a is aw o f o an fro m a re i io us mo tiv e , l b , j d d l d l P l d l g , st udie h i o so h w as a frie n o f D e sc art e s and o f Wi iam e nn t h e fo un e r d p l p y , d ll P , d H r r Th e se c o n He n ri t o f e nn s v ania an d i e Lut h e ran a e ss o f e fo . e t a P yl , d d bb d d , Maria marrie R a o c z rin c e o f T ran s v ania b ut ie s h o rt aft e r t h e w e d , d g y , p yl , d d ly in Th e t h ir Lo uisa h ad a t a e nt fo r aint in and re maine fo r a o n t ime d g . d , , l p g d l g i h R o e rt in at t e n anc e o n h e r mo t h e r w h o m sh e su e n ui t t e in o r e r w t b d , dd ly q d d f Man b uisso n T h e fo urth h i h e e came at h o ic a e ss o . t o t a e t e v e . S k l b C l bb , So h ia marrie a o o r rinc e E rn e st A u ust us o f runsw ic - Lune ur t h e p , d p p , g B k b g , o un e st o f fo ur ro t h e rs —E isa e t h and h e r so n R o e rt t h e o n o ne o f h e r y g b l b b , ly nume ro us fami e ft in h e r o ld a e re aire t o E n an o n t h e re st o rat io n o f ly l g , p d gl d r h ie t h re i n 1 6 6 2 R o e rt a so ie in E n an eav in t h e St ua t s . S e e . d d b l d d gl d, l g n e itimat e issue o l g . THE THIRTY YEA RS ' WA R 1 027

simply extended to the possessio n o f one of her p ro vinces . m r Had Gustavus lived , Germany ight have become g eat, n united , and happy ; France would have been conﬁned withi h e r limits ; Sweden w o uld have becom e a Germ an province ; the Germ an provinces o n t he Baltic would have been inco r t e d m r po ra with the e pi e ; Livonia would have been saved ,

c . O and the Russians che ked xenstierna , by his project for the dism em berm ent of Germ any and his consequent c o alitio n

r w as i m n with F ance , , instead of the fr end , the ost da gerous foe to the Germ an c ause . The coalition of the Catholics and Pro testants for the expulsion of the foreigner was u rgently r fo r o m r necessa y the salvati n of the e pire , but the P otes m r o n o tants , inti idated by the edict of estituti n , placed con m u i l r ﬁde n c e in t h e pro ises of their Je s it c a sove eign . The r r confede ated princes , bribed by French gold , p omises , and r r w ar m i t o O g ants , still car ied on the and re a ned true xen st ie rn a o O o r , who , n twithstanding the ppositi n offe ed by r o f r F ance and Saxony , was elected head the confede acy f r in a co nvocation o the p inces held at Heilbro nn . The Swedish tro o ps we re once more thrown into Upper r r m U Ge many , and Be nard von Wei ar set off for the pper r t o m c o w Danube in orde for a jun ti n ith Horn , in the spring

1 633 . r r o o n of The Bavarian caval y , unde J hn v Werth , h im r r a o vainly intercepted ; they we e epulsed , and juncti n o o n e ub ur r m o r to k place with H r at N g , whe e the cla r aised by the o fﬁc ers fo r the paym ent o f their long arrears was silenced by the seizure of the ecclesiastical pro perty and its m r . r r pa tition a ong them Be na d received , as his share of o o o f W r r the b ty , the bishoprics urzbu g and Bambe g as a n e w r c o r r o m F an nian duchy , while Ho n usu ped the g vern ent m m of Mergenthei . Night skir ishes conducted by the c aval ry r o ro m r m r r and light t o ps became f this pe iod o e f equent , and pitched battles o f rare oc currence . W m m allenstein , eanwhile , remained i movable in Bohe mia . France attem pted t o shake his ﬁdel i ty to the em peror

m r . by an offer of the Bohe ian c own Spain , actuated by her c m o an ient distrust, sent an ar y under Feria , with rders to 1 028 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

’ join the divisi o n of Wal lenstein s army under Altringer at c o Kempten , in which he suc eeded , n twithstanding the ad f r v o . ance French t oops into the Grisons Horn , who had , n o w o meanwhile , laid siege to Constance , rej ined Bernard , T ut l in e n . and offered the Spaniard battle near g Feria , o and r h wever , declined coming to an engagement, , afte at entering Alsace and relieving Breisach , that time R h e in rav e m besieged by the g von Sal , dragged the re m ain de r of his army , which during the winter had fallen c o a prey to pestilen e and famine , thr ugh Swabia to Mu r e r nich , where he expired , while Ho n remain d t anquilly at

Balingen . o o f c o m France , in the h pe nﬁr ing her possession of L o r o raine , still kept that c untry garrisoned with her troops . In

r o v o n r i o o r the No th , Ge rge Lunebu g cont nued to pp se G o n s W o f r o feld ; illiam Hesse and his brave gene al , H lzapfel , n took Paderbor , and , uniting with George and a smal l w m r S edish ar y unde Kniphausen , laid siege to Hameln . Gro n sfe l d o M and his Dutch allies , the C unts erode and o m Geleen , hastening to the relief of that town , were c pletely

- m routed at Hessisch Oldendo rf . Ha eln and Osnabruck c a h r it u l at d . Bon in au se n s p e g , the imperial pa ti an , and Stal h an t sc h o o o r r , the Swedish c lonel , t k up thei quarte s in ’ - m . W r Hesse allenstein s pa tisan , Holk , eanwhile , laid Thu ' rin ia w ast e t o o k r g , and plunde ed Leipzig , and burned Alten

c . burg , Chemnitz , and Zwi kau to the ground In Zwickau , m o f r a pestilence , caused by the fa ine and the heaps put id o o ut m o dead , br ke and raged like an avenging spirit a ng ’

o ro . o H lk s t ops He s ught safety in ﬂight , but the pestilence c m o m r kept pa e with his ve ents , st ewing his path with the n him c dying and the dead , and at le gth made its vi tim at

Tirschenreuth . Wrung with anguish and remorse , he sent r o r his horsemen out in every di ection , and ffered six hund ed dollars to any one wh o would bring a Luthe ran pasto r t o administer the sacrament before h e expired ; but shortly b e fore this he had ordered the assassination o f eve ry ecclesias fe w n tic in the country , and the who remained having take

1 030 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

e b quart rs in the vicinity of Augs urg, had marched down t he b o m Danu e , and in N ve ber taken possession of Ratisbon . W n ff allenstei looked on with indi erence , and when at length induced to return by the urgent entreaties of the Bavarians t and of the Viennese cour , evaded coming t o an engagement and went back t o B o hemia . John von Werth gained a slight advantage at Straubing . It is a well - c o n ﬁrm e d fact that Wallenstein carried on r negotiations with Saxony and B andenburg , and that the latter hoped by his aid t o restore the intermediate power so long desired between the emperor and Sweden . It is also indubitable that F rance favored this intrigue and assured

W t o . to allens ein the p ssession of Bohemia If, at the same r O time , he secretly cor esponded with xenstierna , it was solely for the pu rp o se o f c o m pelli ng the others t o acc ede to r i h im bette terms ; the Swede did not bel eve to be in earnest . It is impossible t o disc o ver to what lengths Wallenstein ih as tended t o go . His first object w at all e v ents to secure a supp o rt in case he should again fall a victim to the Spanish r m o Bava ian faction . At the same ti e , he c nfided the fact of o m r o h his negotiati ns to the e pe or, who , believing their sole o m jcet to be to s und all parties , authorized him to carry the on . The ambiguity and reserve with which he c o nsequently him t o r acted rendered an object of suspicion all pa ties , and , m v r h is w as oreo e , no one valued alliance unless he backed m r . by his a y The cessation of hostilities , caused by contin o o w as ual neg tiati n , , meanwhile , highly distasteful to his o r r s ldie y , in whose minds prejudices we e busily instilled by t h e J w h o m i m r t h e o esuits , , at the sa e t e , whispe ed to big ted Catho lic s that the duke o f Friedland w as on the p o int o f n ro go ing o ver to the P ro testants . The fo reig t ops were easily gained ; the Ge rm an s o ldiery rem ained firm in their

c t o W . U r c w h o allegian e allenstein l i , prince of Denmark , m o W w as had entered the ca p to neg tiate with allenstein , ’ o b o sh t , as if y accident, by one of General Piccolomini s b dy r V l l n t e in i m . a e s gua d V , either unable or unwill ng to co e to terms W i th t h e enemy unless secure beforehand of the c c THE THIR T Y YE A R S ’ WA R 1 03 1

r r t o o ope ation of his army , endeavo ed utwit the Jesuits by m m o rm o ffe ring to resign his c o and . The c nduct of the a y ’ appe ared to meet Wallenstein s highest expec tations . A vio lent c ommotion ensued ih the camp at Pilsen ; the who le of o f W n n o t t o o m the f icers entreated alle stein aband n the , and ,

- m r at a banquet given by his conﬁdant , Field a shal Illow , a m c r bo m docu ent, by whi h they in their tu n und the selves h m m n r i . o r ever to dese t , was signed by the all The f eign r t o r ofﬁcers also added their signatu es , but with intent bet ay

him .

th e m ro r m m The jealousy of e pe was , eanwhile , infla ed m by the insinuations o f the Jesuits . The Spanish a bassado r “ Wh ! r o r o w re exclaimed , y this delay a dagge a pist l ill m ove him l His assass ination was resolved upon by the o r o r emper r, who , in pe fect conf mity with his character, h im o m o r e rm wrote to c ntinually in the st g acious t s , for rr fo r twenty days after having signed the wa ant his death . o r Oc o i o o n The v luptua y , tavi P cc l mini , in whom Wallenstei , blinded by a superstiti o us belief in the co njunctio n o f their r c m o sta s , pla ed the ost implicit c nfidence , betrayed all his o t o m o w h o m m t o pr jects the e per r, co itted General Gallas o o f W o m o the decree for the depositi n allenstein , his n inati n r m r m as gene alissi o in his stead , and a gene al a nesty for the r o r o officers . This sec et rde was solely c nfided by Gallas to o r o ffi c c o m t o o o o r o the f eign ers , to Pi col ini , Is lani , C ll ed ,

r e t c . w as r r Butle , ; and the general amnesty afte wa d ex fo r r r m changed a dec ee , dep iving all the Ger an generals of r m m r thei app o int ents and replac in g the with fo reigne s . o m Wallenstein , suddenly aband ned by Piccolo ini and the o f o r fe w m h rest the f eign generals , ﬂed with the regi ents t at c t o r o m m still lung him (the e were trait rs a ong the ) t o Eger . r c no w m o v o n D iven by ne essity , he de anded aid fr m Bernard r w h o w as h is h r Weima , had taken Ratisbon and in neig bo o ho d . The asto nishm ent caused by this message was ex r t eme , and Bernard , who believed Wallenstein in league “ ' c o s Go d with the devil , ex laimed , He who d es not tru t in can never be trusted by man ! ” Wallenstein ’ s hour was 1 032 THE HISTOR Y OF GER MAN Y

. r O come Colonel Butle , an Irish fﬁcer named Lesley , and wh o a Scotchman named Gordon , were probably in league h J t Of wit the esui s , conspired , in the hope being richly re warded by the emperor, against the life of their great leader r and common benefacto . The soldiers used by Butler for o O f t w o this purpose c nsisted Irishmen , Scotchmen , and an

. o w T e rzki Ca t ain N e um an n Italian Ill , , Kinsky , and p . were b ‘ murdered during a anquet held in the castle of Eger . The ’ door of Wallenstein s apartment was burst O pen . Wallen was w h stein sprang from his bed and met by Devereux , o w h o cried out to him , Are you the villain would sell the army to the enemy and tear the crown from the em peror ’ s

W ho r head allenstein , wit ut replying , opened his a ms and received a mortal wound in the breast, February Bernard v o n Weim ar reached Eger sho rtly after the mur Of m der, and found the town in the hands the i perialists . Butler and Lesley were created counts and richly re w arded

b m . w y the e peror Neustadt was besto ed upon Butler, the ’ T e rzki s whole of possessions upon Lesley , those of Kinsky upon Gordon . Devereux received a badge of disti nction ’ and a pensio n . Wallenstein s possessions were divided m a o ng his betrayers , Gallas receiving Friedland ; Piccolo w ho m o f m mini , , on the urder his for er friend had helped m m r r r h hi self richly to his treasures , being e ely ewa ded wit R ac ho d O o t sc h n o r the gift of , Colloredo with p , Alt inger

h T oe l it z r m n . wit p , T aut a nsdorf with Gitschin The emperor r m W approp iated Sagan to hi self . The money left in allen ’ stein s treasu ry by Picco lomini w as scatte red as a largesse h o m rm ad am o n g the soldiery . The officers w had ost ﬁ ly r t o m r r r o f he ed their for e leade we e , although guiltless par t ic i at io n m d o r t o m p in his political sche es , banishe , in der ake room for foreigners ; twenty - fou r of their numbe r we re be m o r m m headed at Pilsen . The e per , at the sa e ti e , published

1 T h e an ue tin - h a w h e re t h i s t ra ic sc e ne t o o ac e is no w al l th at b q g ll , g k pl , t o f E e r —Tm ns re main s o f t h e c as l e g . . ‘ ’ 1 Th e ro o m in t h e ur o mas t e r 8 h o use w h ere t h is mur e r was co mmit te b g , d d , h in ui sit iv ra e er —Tran3 may st ill be see n by t e q e t v ll . .

1 034 THE HISTORY OF G ERMA N !

Of D for that France , and his master , the young uke Eber o i Wurt e m b e r W o f He sse hard g , was , like illiam , , in the pay of that crown . The whole Of the Protestant forces were thus scattered when the great imperial army broke up its cam p in Bohemia and advanced upon Ratisbon , with the design of seizing that city and of joining the Spanish army then advancing from r n Italy . Berna d vainly summoned Bo r to his aid ; the mo m n o ent for action passed , and , whe too late , he was j ined by m o that co mander at Augsburg , and the c nfederates pushed r hastily for wa d to the relief o f Ratisbon . Landshut was taken m r r t . by s or and shared the fate of Magdebu g Alt inger , while vainly attempting to save the city , perished in the general

c o nﬂ a rat io n . a g The c stle , which had been converted into

o o 1 634 . a p wder magazine , was bl wn up in The news of t h e 2 6 t h a the capitulation of Ratisbon , on of July , re ched r r the victo rs m idway . A nheim and Banner appea ed on the

r r . in same day befo e P ague T he imperialists , nevert heless , r Of m o m diffe ent to the fate Bohe ia , c ntinued to ount the c ro r m m Danube . The advan ed C atian gua d co itted the most rdl in e n o . oe h rrid excesses At N g , a junction took place with m r m n o w m t o the Spanish troo ps . The i pe ial ar y a ounted

- o m e n r . forty six th usand under Fe dinand III , the Cardinal o r O f o f rr Infanto , the elect Bavaria , the duke Lo aine , Gen

v o n W r . o ai e ral s Gallas and John e th T he Pr testants , o f W urt e m b e r though reinfo rced by the people g , merely f r . r O num bered thi ty thousand Berna d , too conﬁdent suc m c N oe rdl in e n cess , and i patient to relieve the ity of g , at m o ro m r that ti e vig usly besieged by the i pe ialists , rejected ’ t o r R h e in rav e H o rn s advi c e await the ar ival of the g , and On 2 6 t h 1 6 4 t o r . 3 reso lved haza d a battle the of August , , he m ade a succ essful attack and gained a fav o rable p o si

o n o o r w m n u m ti , but was , on the foll wing day , ve hel ed by - m a azm e bers . The explosion of his powder g , by which r t o o m num bers of his men we e destroyed , contributed c plete r his defeat . Count Thu n the Younger vainly endeavored to turn the battle and led his men seventeen tim es to t h e THE THI RT Y YEA RS ’ WA R 1 035

charge . Horn was taken prisoner, and twelve thousand r r men fell . Be nard fled . His treasures and pape s fell into n R h e in rav e w h o the ha ds of the enemy . The g , was bring ing seven thousand men to his aid , was surprised and com r pl e t e ly routed by John von Werth and Charles of Lo raine . Heilbro nn w as plundered during the retreat by the Swedish o o Col nel Senger, who fled out of one gate with his b oty as m the impe rialists entered at another to co plete the pillage . The h o rro rs inflic ted upon Bavaria were terribly revenged

. Of Wu rt e mb e r r r . upon Swabia The duke g, Ebe ha d III , o r Of r r o r o r safe behind the f tiﬁcations St asbu g , f g t the mise y of his c o untry in the arm s Of the beautif ul Ma rgravine v o n N ii rt in e n r m Boe bl in m . W Sal aiblingen , g , Calw , Ki chhei , m m o u o gen , Besighei , and al ost every village thr gh ut the o r r m o o c unt y , were destroyed ; Heilb onn was al st t tally burned down ; the inhabitants were either butchered or f c ruelly tortured . T O pillage and murder suc ceeded am f f u ine and pestilence . The population O the duchy O W r t e m b e rg was reduced fro m half a m illion to forty - eight thou f l r sand so uls . The Jesuits took possessio n o the O d Luthe an r i n r f v . Os a de o o uni e sity of Tubingen , the chancell r the uni m r versity , unmoved by the exa ple of his weaker breth en , wh o o r t o recanted in der retain their ofﬁces and dignities , o r bravely kn cked down a soldie , who attacked him , sword m in hand , in the pulpit . The Catholic service was , in any

c re - f u rt e m b e r r . o W pla es , established by fo ce The whole g was either co nﬁscated by the em pero r or partitio ned am o ng o r m W his fav ites ; Traut annsdorf received einsberg ; Schlick, Bab l in e n g and Tuttlingen , etc . Taupadel , who had been left

r r r was . r by Be na d in Scho ndorf , forced to yield Augsbu g w as agai n distinguished amid the general misery by the l o ss o h e r w h o of sixty th usand of inhabitants , were swept away m i r m o by fa ne and pestilence . The e aining citizens , wh m o o o r starvati n al ne c mpelled to capitulate , we e deprived of o o o r t o c r r all their p ssessi ns , f ced re ant , and efused pe mission t o m r . W r r o r r e igrate u zburg , F ankf t , Spi es , Philipsbu g , the o f R r whole henish F anconia, besides Mayence , Heidelberg , 1 03 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Of t h e and Coblentz , fell into the hands emperor . The whole an d of the Pfalz was again laid waste , the inhabitants were butc hered in such numbers that two hundred peasants were all that remained in the lower country . Iso lani devastated

r the Wetterau with ﬁre and sword , and plunde ed the c oun try as far as Thuringia . The places whither the Swedes had ff i r ﬂed for refuge also su ered nc edibly . T he fugitive sol d r o o i fo r ie y , with ut pr v sions or baggage , clamored pay , and O o xenstierna , in order to av id a general pillage , laid the r o n merchants , assembled at the fair held at Frankfo t the

o . f n Maine , under c ntribution The su feri gs of the wretched Swabians were avenged by the imbittered soldiery o n the f Catholic inhabitants o Mayence .

The imperial army , although weakened by division , by o r r garris ning the conque ed provinces , and by the departu e fo r r t o o o of the Infanto the Netherlands , still p esented f rmi fo r o f u n dabie an aspect attack on the part Bernard , who , m r m willing to de and the aid he required f om France , re ained peac eably beyond the Rhine . The Heilbro nn confederacy him o m Of r ; had , independently of , cast itself int the ar s F ance o f r w o f L ef le , the S edish chancellor, and the chief leader the o o c r c c nfederation , had c ntrived to se ure to F an e , without ’ r r o o o f c Be na d s assent , the hereditary p ssessi n Alsa e , for wh i ch he was deprived o f his O ffice and banished by Oxen

t ie rn a. c o s The celebrated Dut hman , Hugo Gr tius , replaced u m r him as Swedish ambassado r in Paris . W rt e b e g and

Hesse had l o ng forwarded the interests of France . The sin com m itted by the Heilbro nn confederati o n against Germ any by selling themselves to Fra nce is alone to be pal i l iat e d by the desperate situatio n t o whic h they we re reduced o by the defection of the Protestant ele c to rs . Sax ny and Bran e n b u r o 1 6 35 r d g again c ncluded peace in , at P ague , with m r o o e the e pe or, to whom they aband ned all the Pr t stants in so uthe rn and western Ge rm any and the wh o le of the Heil r bro nn confederation , under p etext of the urgent necessity r o f m of peace , of the restoration of the hono Ger any and of the happiness of the people by the expulsion of the foreigner.

1 038 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

r m a a in t eaty of Prague , y be re d that of the Pfalz and of ur W t e m b e rg . Oxenstierna hastened in person t o Paris fo r the purpose c u n t e r l of making terms with Richelieu , and thereby o ba anc in o r n g the league between the emperor , Sax ny , and B ande r r W m o burg , and Be na d von ei ar was c mpelled passively to be ho ld the dispute between Sweden and France fo r so y er e i n t r m o o r . i g y ver P testant Ge any The French sold ery were ,

o o so c i r h m re ver , undis iplined and cowa dly that t ey deserted n as i troops . Bernard w consequently far from sufﬁc iently e reinforced , but neverthel ss succeeded in raising the siege of i He delberg . The death of the energet i c and aged Rhein c grave took pla e just at this peri o d . While matters were thus at a standstill on the Upper c c m m h Rhine , su ess attended the i perial ar s in the Net er r ir r r . c at A v a e lands The Fren h , victo ious , we e fo ced to raise the siege Of Louvain by the Infanto and Picco lom ini in 1 6 35 . The Dutch were also expelled the country . Ber r o o i r r nard , fea ing to be surrounded by Picc l min , reti ed f om i t the Rhine into Upper Burgundy . He delberg fell ; w o Fren c h regiments were cut to pieces at R e ic h e n we il e r by J o hn v o n r Werth ; Hatzfeld took Kaise slautern by storm , and almost totall y annihilated the celebrated yellow regiment Of Gus r tavus Adolphus . Mayence was closely besieged , and F ance , r ff o l d d alarmed at the tu n of a airs , sent the Car inal de la t h e Valette to reinforce Bernard , who advanced to relief of n n Mayence and succeeded in raisi g the siege , notwithstandi g r c o r the cowardice of the F en h , who were f rced by th eats to i o o n h r . W c oss the Rh ne J hn v erth , meanw ile , invaded Lor c o o t h e m raine , and , with Pi c l mini and Infanto , ade a feint in to cro ss the Fren c h fro ntier . La Valette and Bern ard an t l r ro st y returned , pu sued by Gallas and already sur unded ' o w h o by Coll redo , was defeated by Bernard at Meisenheim , where he had seized the pass . Hotly pursued by Gallas

T h e o o re o are e sc e n e fro m th e Sw a ian famil o f Wa se e w h i c h in C ll d d d d b y l , , h fo urt e e n th c e n t ur se t t e in t h e riau an d at a l a t e r e ri o e re c te th e t e y , l d F l , , p d, d o n t h e ste e co o ri i o castle p ( ll g d ) . THE THIRT Y YE A RS " WA R 1 039

r and hard pushed by the Croatians , Bernard escaped ac oss al de rﬁn e n o n o n - the Saar at W g a bridge raised wine casks , o r o f o c bef re the ar ival the main b dy of the imperialists , whi h m re c a e up with his rearguard at Boulay, but met with a m l . e a r pu se Aft r retreat of thirteen days , the fugitive a y

1 6 35 . reached Metz , in September , Gallas ﬁxed his head r r in t he r qua te s Lorraine , but country had been al eady so com pletely pillaged that he w as co m pelled t o return in N O e m b e r fix - Gab e rn v , and to his camp in Alsace , where he m r r gave hi self up to ioting and drunkenness , while his a my m w as thinned by fa in e and pestilence . Mayence w as starved n out and capitulated , after havi g been plundered by the

Swedish garriso n . 1 63 6 In the commencement of , Bernard visited Paris, o o where he was c urteously received by L uis XIII . The imp ressi o n made upon his heart by the lovely daughter of the Duc de Ro han was no sooner perceived than a plan was formed by the French co urt to deprive h im of his in de pe n d f r ence as a p rince o the empire . Be nard discovered their pro ject and c l o se d h is heart against the seducti o ns o f the

. n o o lady The aid promised by France was w withheld . B th

r r . r r pa ties we e deceived F ance , unwilling to def ay the ex penses O f a w ar carried on by Bernard for the sole beneﬁt o f r m r r P otestant Ger any , me ely aimed at preserving a p etext fo r interference in the p o litical and religious disputes agit at in c o r fo r r o ro m r r g that unt y , and , that pu p se , p ised Be na d a su m o f fo ur millio n livres fo r the maintenan c e o f an army o m n of eighteen th usand e . o a o w Ga b e rn The rec nquest of Als ce f llo ed ; at , which o r r O f was taken by storm , Bernard lost the f eﬁnge his left w as r hand , and the bed on which he lay shatte ed by a cannon

. rr ball He returned thence to Lo aine , where he carried on a petty war with Gallas and took several fortresses . The m hu anity evinced by him at this period , so contrary to the license he had formerly allowed his soldiery fro m a spirit of r o o r t o eligious fanaticism , pr ceeded fr m a desi e please the r F ench queen , the celebrated Anne of Austria , the daughter 1 040 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

’

f . of Philip III . o Spain He surprised Iso lani s Croatians at

Champlitte , and deprived them of eighteen hundred horses O f and the whole of the rich booty they had collected , in

1 6 3 6 .

o f o v o n W h in In the beginning the year , J hn ert had ,

o f as far h r a dependently Gallas , ventured as Louvain , w e e

r l - o . o c revolution had b ken out The Ga l Dut h faction , never t h e l e ss o c o r o , pr ved vi t i us , and the imperialists were expelled .

W r t o t h e . t o wn r r e th , unable lay siege to with his caval y , e

' m t h e r venged hi self by laying count y in the vicinity waste. m In April , he joined Piccolo ini with the view of invading

r o f c o . F ance and mar hing full up n Paris This project was, ’ o o o m t h h wever , frustrated by Picc l mini s ti idity and by e

a o m r . t rdy m ve ents of the infant y This expedition , under t r r o s aken in deﬁance of the orde s of the elector of Bava ia , f rm

’ o f t h e m o f s r r one few a using episodes thi te rible t agedy . his r h Werth , advancing rapidly with cavalry , beat the F enc o r m O on every point , f ced the passage of the So me and ise , and s pread terror thro ughout France . The cities laid their fo r keys at his feet , the nobles begged sentinels to guard their

h m o m o m . w as ouses , and paid the en r us su s Paris reduced o t o r O r to despair . The r ads Chart es and rleans we e crowded m r o m w ith fugitives , and the et op lis ust inevitably have fallen r Of o n m e n r m had We th , instead all wi g his to e ain behind

t h e c o r r d . p lundering unt y , pushed steadily fo war By this m ro o delay , Richelieu gained ti e to levy t ps and to send the r h wh o le of the disposable fo rce against him . A pa t of t e ro c u t u r a French t ops were , nevertheless , to pieces d ing m l n ight attack at Montigny , and it was not until the autu na rains and ﬂoods b ro ught disease into his camp that Werth m fo r o m m r r o retired . He re ained s e ti e afte wa d at Col gne, where he wedded the Countess Spaur (of an ancient Tyro t b lese family) . Ehrenbrei stein , still garrisoned y the French, n o W w h o h ad long lost Coble tz , was cl sely besieged by erth ,

1 63 7 . and forced by famine to capitulate , r William of Hesse , instead of joining Be nard after the Of rdl in e n d t he re battle N oe g , had raise troops with money

1 042 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

the war to rage with redoubled fury . Banner and Torsten son defeated the Saxons in the depth of winter at Goldberg Kirit z and , and , in February , Banner again invaded Saxony and cruelly visited the defection of the elector o n t h e heads of his wretched subjects . The arrival of Hatzfeld at the head of a body of imperialists compelled him t o retire beh ind Bau dis Magdeburg , where was severely wounded and reliu q u ish e d the command . Each side n o w conﬁned itself to o r r man euvring until the ar ival of reinfo cements . The Swe o o o dish tr ps arrived ﬁrst, and Hatzfeld and the Sax ns , being m at o drawn into an engage ent Wittstock , before G etz was

t o o . w a able j in them , were totally defeated Hatzfeld s wounded , and the elector lost the whole of his baggage ’ and treasure . Saxony was again laid waste by Banner s o f infuriated troops . The gallant defence Leipzig increased their rage . All the towns and villages in the vicinity were Mi n ia . s W reduced to ashes A similar fate befell , urzen , m O c o . s hatz , C lditz , Liebwerda , and several s aller towns The peasants fled in cro wds to the fortified cities and t o r the mountains , and , to complete the gene al misery , famine r r and pestilence succeeded to the sword and the fi eb and . A bloody revenge was taken by D e rfl in ge r with a Brandenburg squadro n o n a th o usand Swedish h o rse that ventured into the r ro pro vince o f Mansfeld . Banne finally assembled his t ops ro and intrenched himself in Torgau , which he stored with p visions , while Gallas , Goetz , Hatzfeld , and the elector of Sax ony advanced to the attac k.

D ea th O F erdin an d the Sec o n d—Pes tilen ce an d CCX . f F a min e—Bern a rd v o n Weim a r— Ba n n er

T HE favo r o f the electoral p rinces being secured by t h e Of m o f 1 63 6 treaty Prague , they were , in the autu n , con f ke . t o o o v o d by Ferdinand II Ratisbon , for the purp se elect h is o n ing son , the Archduke Ferdinand , as his successor the r 1 3 7 r t h e . . 6 th one Ferdinand II expired , in , afte having gratiﬁcation of quelling the revolt Of the peasantry in Car THE T HIR T Y YEA RS ’ WA R 043

i U . r im r n ola and pper Austria In Erfu t , the perial gene al , o m Hatzfeld , seized the g vernment, i prisoned and tortured ff t h e . Lutheran clergy , and drained the co ers of the citizens r m Ul m m m Nu e berg , Augsburg and met with an al ost si ilar treatm en t . r t o Fe dinand bequeathed the empire his son , Ferdinand o m r III . , a man of insigniﬁcant character, wh se other , Ma ia , r also a Habsburg , was daughte to Philip III . of Spain . The r r a m o n late empe o , notwithst nding the i mense scale which

r rm r - Of m he pe fo ed his part‘ and the unhea d cala ities which , r o r o f o wo se than the w st despots , he inflicted up n his subjects , m f r o r . N o did not live to witness the t iu ph his pa ty ap leon , h o rr o m o ro w ca ied fire and sw rd al ost thr ughout Eu pe , brought less death and so rro w on the world than this quiet m o r o fan a i and devout e per , to whose religi us and political t m o f m e n c ism ten illions his fellow were sacrificed . The peo ple were deprived by him of their p o litical and religio us rm c o n liberty . The ancient Ge an onstituti n was an ulled and t h e r c o m o rc o o f r p in iples of abs lute na hy , like th se Spain , we e for the fi rst tim e carried into practice in the hereditary p ro v f r e r o f m in c e s o e o r . the Habsbu g , and l ng in those Ge any The assem bling o f the Estates bec ame an em pty co urt cere m r r r m m . o ony Had the e pe t iu phed , Germany would at least have been rewarded with t h e ac quisiti o n Of unity fo r o f h e r r v h e r o f the loss libe ty , but her e il destiny deprived the one with o ut g ranting the o ther. During the year in which the Ol d emperor c losed his eyes so o o n o m r h that had l ng gloated bl od , the ise y t at reigned t hro ughout Germ any had reached the highest pitch ; the ro o w ar o f o hor rs of the l ng , the destruction the t wns and t o r villages by fire , the ture and murder of the citizens and n r b o r ac c o m ain e d m peasa t y y the s ldie y , were p by a fa ine , which depopulated wh ole districts ; the land remained un ro cultivated , and a p estilence resulted f m want , bad food , and the putridity o f the air o c casio ned by the heaps of u n o r buried dead . The s ldie , driven by necessity as well as by Of r m love rapine , snatched the last morsel f o the hands of 1 044 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

m the famishing wretches that re ained . Bands of Maraud

- r m ers (Merode brothers , so called f o their leader , the Count v o n o m r m n Merode), c posed of peasant y and of ho eless w a de re rs m o n e m , who so etimes aided party , so etimes another, cruelly avenging them selves o n the soldiery or j o ini n g them r n o in their p edatory excursions , ra ged the country and f rced m o the inhabitants , by the inﬂiction of the ost horrid t rtures , O t o o o O f s r pen their c ncealed hoards provision o of treasure . W h o le p ro vinces were so c o m pletely pillaged as t o afford no o r sustenance to the tro ps , and men and child en fought like wolves fo r a morsel of carri o n . The histo rian s o f this peri o d graphically describe this ex f m r o O . cess ise y Ferdinand IL , on his accessi n to the throne , o r r ro r f und Aust ia Luthe an , thickly populated , and p spe ous ; h e r o o he left Cath lic , dep pulated , and impoverished . He found in Bo hem ia three milli o n Hussites dwelling in ﬂ o u r ish in r g cities and villages , he left merely seven hund ed and

e o c . o o ighty th usand Catholi beggars Silesia , happy and bl m w as o f ing , laid desolate ; most her little cities and villages h ad r r th e been bu ned to the g ound , her inhabitants put to

r . o r r r swo d Sax ny , the Me e , and Pome ania had sha ed the m m o r o o sa e elanch ly fate . Mecklenbu g and the wh le of L wer

o . Sax ny had been ruined by battles , sieges , and invasions r n o Hesse lay utte ly waste . In the Pfalz , the livi g fed up n

t h e o n o n . dead , mothers their babes , brethren each other r m r o r In the Nethe lands , Liege , Luxe bu g , L r aine , similar scenes of h o rro r were o f frequent occurrence . The whole of w i the Rhenish p ro vinces lay desert . S abia and Bavar a were ro r al m ost entirely dep o pulated . The Ty l and Switze land had

rr o f w ar r . escaped the ho ors , but were avaged by pestilence Such w as the aspect o f Euro pe o n the death o f Ferdinand w h o m II . , , like an aged hyena , expired a id mouldering bones

and ruins . r o n o Berna d v Weimar a sec nd time visited Paris , where O r ro he was n o w u pheld by xenstie na th ugh his friend , Hugo G ro tius (the Swedes being unable t o take any m easures in

r . the No th so long as he remained ﬁxed in the South) He ,

1 046 THE HISTOR Y OF G ERMA N Y

w in success , and fresh levies of troops , to for himself the power in Ge rm any which he had so long and so vainly t o m O f attempted gain by eans France . Laufenburg and r Waldshut we e taken by surprise . Rheinfelden , where fo ur hundred of the ga rrison w ere destroyed by the expl o si o n of a mine , made a gallant defence . John von We rth and Savelli

t o i t s r i 1 8 t h . F e b ruar hastened el ef, and , on the y , a desperate a m eng ge ent took place beneath the city walls . Bernard, r w as ove whelmed by numbers , forced to quit the ﬁeld ; the R h e i n ra v e o n brave g fell , and R ha was wounded . But on 2 1 st r t he m the , Be nard unexpectedly assailed ene y while cel e b rat ing thei r victo ry in Rheinfelden and completely ro uted

m . o o v o n r the B th the leaders , the gallant J hn We th and w r E n ke fo rt S e rre ut e r the o thless Savelli , Generals and p , m o o f m with al st the whole the ar y , were taken prisoners . W r o m John von e th , c ntrary to the pro ise given by Bernard ,

o t o w as r was sent a pris ner Paris , where he treated with g eat as hi . w s e distinction Savelli sent on parol to Laufenburg , m whence he found eans to escape . Bernard continued to pursue the enemy and to collect re

m n l d - Gue b rian t o in fo rc e e t s . O His school fellow , , j ined him m m r r with a s all nu ber of F ench . Rheinfelden and F eiburg

o . t u t t r in the Breisgau fell int his hands Taupadel took S ga d. o o f t he o o f U The possessi n Breisach , key to the wh le pper

h ﬁ l - rm . o t e e d Ge any , was keenly disputed G etz , marshal of o the empire , hastening to its relief , was r uted at Benfeld by it t n e e r . W e w Taupadel The battle of y , in which Bernard , o w as wh se forces were far less considerable , victorious over G oetz and Savelli and an army of eighteen th o usand ﬁve h r r o o . w o hund ed men , f ll wed Taupadel , had ashly ventured t o o r w as c w h o him in far in pu suit , aptured by Savelli , kept

m . r close imprison ent B eisach still refused to capitulate , and the besieging army suffered a considerable loss from the at

Of . r w h o tacks the peasants of the Black Forest Ho st , was an d o wde r w as r bringing a supply of ﬂour p , fo ced to retreat

w as . and deprived of part of his stores Charles , duke of

Lorraine , when attempting to relieve the city , was taken THE THIRT Y YEA RS ’ WA R 1 047

r r w h o o m m n priso ner at Thann . Be na d , had for s e ti e bee ff r m rr su e ing fro fever, being ca ied from the ﬁeld half dead m o t o h im w r to his ca p , G etz attempted take una a es , and had r d o r r al ready reached the b i ges ver the Rhine , when Be na d ,

r m o r - Sp inging fro his c uch , best ode his battle steed , and h u i t o c . o r e n t s rushed the defen e The tr ops , inspi ed with m r as at the sight of an eagle hovering over his head , p essed o r r r c r f ward , and , after a d eadful st uggle, suc eeded in out m r r o f o m r ro ing the i pe ialists , numbe s wh we e d wned in the m r as . Rhine . B eisach w driven by fa ine to capitulate The

garriso n w as promised fo o d and free eg ress . The treatment r o r m r of the p is ne s taken by the i pe ialists during the siege , m o f o m r r t o r o so e wh we e sta ved death , while the est fed up n t o m w as o rm heir c rades , not kn wn until the te s of capitula o t o r r o ti n had been acceded ; Be nard , neve theless , alth ugh r r him m r n his hea t bu ned within , re ained t ue to his give r wo d . O f Savelli , the ﬁtting favorite the Jesuits and of the o o c Viennese c urt , had , with c nsistent baseness , effe ted the m f r r m o o o o . On re val and imprison ent his w thier ival , G etz Of r r o r t o m the fall B eisach , he had again ec u se diplo acy , and r m o f r t o o called upon Berna d , in the na e his count y , j in the “

m . r o f e peror Berna d replied , that a duke Saxony needed ” n o o r o m m rr less n in pat i tis fro an Italian duca , and , ga i o r c r ro o r s ning B eisa h with Ge man t ps , refused to delive that r t h e h h o O f t e . r fo r f t into hands French But, eit e the pur o o f o r O f r c w h p se pacifying Richelieu , providing B eisa h it r Of fresh sto es , he returned to Burgundy during the depth m hit h winter, and seized that part of the earldo which had r o f r e t escaped the ravages o war. The peasantry we e de ro r o f was feated , the lofty , cky st onghold Joux taken , and an im mense num be r of h o rses and stores of every desc ripti o n

r c r t o r . m we e ar ied B eisach Richelieu ade fresh advances , ’ r o f but , being personally offended by Be nard s refusal the o f r r V i ne ro t hand his niece and hei ess , Ma garet de g , he , m o . r o ne fro that moment , res lved upon his ruin E lach , of ’ r r m o Ofﬁ r as an Be na d s st conﬁdential ce s , w bribed with 1 048 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y annuity of twelve thousand livres to betray h is noble - spirited ’ r m master . Berna d s intention to aint ain himself in de pe n d o f was ent France clearly evident . He placed German gar i i n r sons all the strongholds , received petitions as the so v e r h o f eig Alsace , negotiated with Sweden , and , unadvised by ii h t a so e . Fr nce , g an alliance with H sse His death speedily

w . On w a Pﬁrt n follo ed his y to he was sudde ly taken ill , an d was carried to Neuburg , where he expired , in 1 63 9 . Alm ost all contemporary writers assert his having been “ ” poisoned by a French emissary . Germany , wrote Hugo “ was r Grotius , , in this prince , deprived of her greatest o na h e r h O e o ment and of last p , of almost the only one w rthy of ” m r the na e of a German p ince . Be rnard bequeathed his conquests and the whole of his ro e r o personal p p ty to his brother , to the express exclusi n Of t o r France ; but the traitor , Erlach , whom he had int uste d r r o r r t o r B eisach , delive ed that f t ess up F ance , seized the o f r o r whole his treasures , app opriated the most valuable p r t w o n tion to himself , and dist ibuted hundred thousa d dollars r r o r o f among the soldiery as a F ench la gesse , in c nside ation which they were bound to serve Fran c e until the question of the inheritance w as settled . This settlement never took rm O ffc o r r place . The Ge an i ers and s ldie s we e kept in a state o f r o m unce tainty , and the p ssibility of a utiny on their part was obviate d by the fo rtresses being garrisoned half with m c o f French , half with Ger ans , until the ina tivity the r W , Swedes , the , helplessness of the dukes of eima and the r O seduction p acticed upon the troops , left the German fﬁcers t o c r t o no alternative than remain in the Fren h se vice , which they yielded the m o re readily o n the app o intment of their

c m Gu e b rian t e o m . ancient o rade , , to th ir c mand u h The young Pfalzgraf , Charles Louis , the son of the o f m fortunate king Bohemia , made a futile atte pt to replace

1 Be rnar o n We imar w as a an so me man scarc e in h is t h irt ie th ear d v h d , ly y , man rn n t nan e His h air wh ich w as remar a o n w ith a sun u e c o u e c . , ly , b d , k bly l g H n e v e r married and was l a in th ic ri h t c ur s u o n his sh o u e rs. e , y k , b g l p ld e ua h aste an d io us He ai e v o t e sev era h ours t o th e stu o f the q lly c p . d ly d d l dy Bi e which h e n ew a mo st ent ire h eart bl , k l ly by

1 05 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

The French conﬁning themselves to the occupation of c r Alsa e , the emperor, Bava ia , Saxony , and B randenburg turned their united forces against the Swedes . The claim s

O f Bo zisl a Brandenburg upon Pomerania on the death of w , 1 637 e n the last of her dukes , in , had b e treated with de w r m rision by the S edes , and , f om that mo ent , the electo r W George illiam , aided by his general Klitzing, had disc o v

O . n h ered the greatest zeal in pposing them Ar heim , w o had thrown up his comm and and was living peaceably at Boitzen wh o burg, was seized by the Swedes , dreaded lest he might replace himself at the head of the Saxons , and sent to Stock m . o hol Gallas , Hatzfeld , G etz , and Geleen , meanwhile , at tacked Banner and d ro ve him from his intrenchm ents in u Torga ; \ but , although completely surrounded , he contrived O r by means of a ruse to escape across the der to Landsbe g , d W m where , disappointe in meeting rangel , he found hi self o t o exp sed the most imminent danger, shut in between the r impe ial army , the Warthe , and the Polish frontiers , which the fear o f involving P o land in a f resh w ar withheld him r t r o f om crossing . Wi h ext a rdinary presence of mind he rc o o w m made a feigned ma h t ward P land , dre the i perial m o n c r o ut ar y that side , and su ceeded in d awing himself of r o c rr his pe il us situation without in u ing the slightest loss , “ m ” “ 1 6 37 . e c i h e July , They caught in the sa k , sa d , but ” o ! r t o f rgot to tie it up He ret eated the sea , while Gal e o o o las laid the whole country wast , t k Havelberg , D emitz r and Wolgast , whe e he destroyed the magniﬁcent castle of the Po meranian dukes ; the more ancient one in Schwedt

r . had , at an ea lier period , been burned by the Swedes The f an r c Mere suf ered in equal deg ee , and , exa tly at this mo t he o f ment, Klitzing , offended at conduct Burgsdorf , the ’ o elector s favorite , withdrew from the scene of acti n . The peasants in D roem l in g rose against the plundering soldiery l l ’ . Ga as s and captured their artillery men , neglected , as in

Alsace , by their voluptuous general , were driven by famine t o o wh o e desert in tr ops to Banner , had in the meantim again drawn George von Luneburg on his side with a prom THE THI RT Y YEA RS ’ WA R 1 05 1

m ise O f conﬁrming him in the p o ssessio n o f Hildeshei . A r o 1 6 38 fresh t eaty was c ncluded , in , between Sweden and r o f 1 639 r France , and , in the sp ing , Banne again took the r w ho im ﬁeld , and , afte defeating Marzin , at that t e headed o r m r Ho f the Sax ns , nea Che nitz , and taking a corps unde Mo n t e c uc u l i r r r rr BO ki rch and p isoner nea B andeis , ove an fa r r r m o n W b em ia as as P ague , whe e he enca ped the eissen c o r r St al h an t sc h o c Be rg . A small Swedish ps unde cupied h r m so r r c Silesia , w e e the fa ine was d eadful that at Hi s h

r fo r c m o t o be g , instan e , al s the wh le of the inhabitants died r few w h o r c m of hunge , and the su vived atta hed the selves to the S wedish tro o p fo r the sake o f the rem nants o f fo o d left r h i o o f ﬁ n o r . o s d by the s ldie s Banne , disapp inted in h pe m m ing so e Hussites still in Bohe ia , at length quitted that

r t c c o r r o o f w e hed unt y , which p esented a c mplete scene deso o o rd r t o o G ue b rian t t o r o rm lati n , in e j in and p event the f a r rt r r r tion o f an inte mediate pa y in No the n Ge m any . The fo o tsteps o f the retreating Swedes were marked by i n r ﬁre and blo o d . In Thuringia the pe o ple ﬂed c o wds into O f r r the Harz Fo rest . The du c hess Hesse sent a einfo c e o f w o m e n o r Of r ment t enty th usand , and Ge ge Lunebu g sent o m r c Klitzing , wh he had taken into his se vi e , with the whole

o r t o . r m r of his f ces , his aid The g eat i pe ial army , led by ’ r o o r r the A chduke Leop ld , the emper s b other, and by Picco ’ l o m in i w h o o Gal las s , had stepped int place and had just ’ bee n c reated Duke d A m alﬁ o n acc o unt o f a victo ry gained him D ie de rh o v e n r o r r by at in the Nethe lands ve the F ench , m r o m re ca e up with Banne at Saalfeld , where b th ar ies m m o o t o o n e o o ained enca ped pp site an ther, with ut ventur i n r ro m g an engagement , and suffering ter ibly f m fa ine , the o o r r wh le c unt y in the vicinity having been laid dese t . Ban ’ r w o r c m 1 640 ne s ife , a C untess E lach , dying in his a p in , o m o m o rm he b re her re ains , acc panied by his wh le a y , to Er r r o fu t, where his tears were speedily d ied by a passi n for

c o n - r m m e t r the Prin ess J ha na of Baden Du lach , who he the e

" b h y c an c e . Picc o l o m ini also quitted Saalfeld in order t o join t l i e wh o e j Bavarians under Mercy , had been mployed in 1 05 2 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y watching the movements of the Weimarians in Swabia and m e ust adt the Pfalz , and the two ar ies again met near N , but i m . e w thout coming to an engage ent Both sid s , meanwhile ,

. w ho fell a prey to famine and pestilence Holzappel , had att empted to form a German party independent of France w se and S eden , threw up his commission in disgust, and a p c arate alliance was formed between the du hess and George . a ff o Of B nner, equally indi erent to the m vements the imperial a r c Gue b rian t t h e rmy and to the remonst an es of , followed r m ar P incess Johanna to Waldeck , where he solemnized his r k iage with her . He t OO up his winter quarters at Hildes heim with George von Luneburg . Both George and Banner are said t o have been poisoned during the festivities that to ok

- Of place ; the ill health the former may , however , be ascribed , o n Of stronger grounds , to mental anxiety , that the latter to

r . as S e rre ut e r debauche y Taupadel w exchanged for p . An attempt made during this winter by Banne r to seize r w h o the person of the empero , had convoked a diet at Ratis was Of bon , frustrated by the rising the Danube , occasioned

. Gu e b rian t by a sudden thaw , fearful of the desertion of W u the eimar troops sho ld he quit the Rhine , abandoning h im m o to the e per r , who was advancing at the head of an m o r ro m overwhel ing f rce , he ret eated th ugh Bohe ia into Sax r o ny . Three Swedish regiments under Col o nel Slangen we e s W cut to piece , after gallantly defending his rear , at ald b rian t un . Gue Neuburg Although rejoined by , he was still able to cope with his antagonists , and , after vainly attempt d ing the defence of the Saal near Merseburg , was compelle r to take refuge in Halbe stadt , where , worn out with his lin

1 641 . gering sickness , he expired , May , George von Lune t o r wh o burg had preceded him the g ave , and Arnheim , had escaped from his Swedish prison to p lace himself at Of o the head the intermediate party , had also died not l ng r be fo e . W e The advance of Piccolomini to the relief of olfenbutt l , f whe re the impe rial garri son had long held out against t h e ro e t e e d t he t e a i in be sieging P t stan s , t rminat dispu s alre dy r fe

05 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y m an w r coasts of the Baltic into a S edish province , and e e c t e d O f j the alliance the elector of Brandenburg , who , visit i n i n 1 6 3 7 g Stockholm , Christina quitted that city without

i t o him . Of in de gning receive Her mother , the aunt the

b was . tended ridegroom , also compelled to quit the kingdom r m F ederick Willia , afterward surnamed the Great Elec r B tor , succeeded his father, Geo ge William , in randenburg , in 1 640 . This prince might easily have placed himself at the head of all the Protestants in Northern Germany , have l conc uded an advantageous peace with the emperor , and w have chased the handful of S edes and French , disputing i u o l ke vult res ver the remnants of their prey , across the u t h e frontiers ; but distr st of Catholics , of the sovereigns

ruled by the Jesuits , had struck root too deeply , and the edict of restitution w as still too recent fo r him at that period

to pu rsue the p o licy he afterward ado pted . He might pos sib ly have bee n also disinclined to play a part subordinate to o that acted by Sax ny , and have hoped , by opposing the false o in Saxon , to be rec gnized as the ﬁrst Protestant prince rm o Ge any on the demise of Ge rge , when Brandenburg , in r o f fact, ﬁ st superseded Saxony as the head the German

P ro te stants . r The Guelp hs , Christian Louis von Calenberg , F ederick v o n n o t von Celle , and Augustus Wolfenbuttel , went over , withs t anding the V i ctory gained by them beneath the walls o m m r f Wolfenbuttel , to the e peror , who conﬁr ed Calenbe g

in the po ssession of Hildesheim . The inﬂuence of this family w as considerably weakened by the division of its possessions

am ong its different mem bers . w ar o t he m The , meanwhile , c ntinued , Germans re aining o f r O f true to the colors both F ance and Sweden , the latter o f i which sent a small body re nforcements , scarcely seven o r r T o rst e n so n th usand st ong , and a fresh leader , Leona d , w h o 1 641 m , late in the autumn of , took the com and of Ban ’ r ue b rian t ro m h im o r ne s late troops . G separated f in der to

O o o . 1 6 42 pp se Lamb y on the Lower Rhine In the spring of , after encam ping at Salzwedel in sig h t Of Piccolomi ni witho ut THE THIR T Y YEA RS ’ WA R 055

t o in be ing able bri ng him to an engagement , he suddenly i r vaded Silesia , wh ch F ancis Albert von Lauenburg had just St a h ant sc h Sc hw e id wrested from l , defeated Lauenburg near s nitz , took him pri oner and entered Moravia , with the view R a o c z of forming an alliance with g y , prince of Transylvania, V b ut r Be t hl en and of besieging ienna ; that p ince , who , like d O f e Gabor, merely ma e use the Protestants for the purpos o o no f e xtorting favorable terms from the emperor, sh wed

t o l . inclination end him aid The siege of Brunn , which

was . O offered a steady resistance , abandoned lmutz and o v w the wh le of Mora ia , hitherto spared by the ravager , ere T o r n n r t . st e so plundered then e urned to Silesia , burning Bu nt zl au o r and seizing Zittau en r ute , and was reinfo ced by

K oen i sm ark W . m g and rangel The i perialists , who had taken r ro a te rible vengeance on the P testant Silesians , by whom ’ T o rst e n so n s arrival had been hailed with delight , had, m s o eanwhile , fruitle sly blockaded Gl gau , gallantly defended

Wr . T o rst e nso n r by angel , on the ar ival of a large body of m m Hungarian reinforce ents in the i perial camp , retreated ro m O f the der to the Elbe and laid siege to Leipzig , whither r r r m he was pu sued by the impe ialists , who , not far f o Leip r r w O f r zig , nea B eitenfeld , t ice already the scene thei dis c o mfit ure m 2 1 642 r , met, Nove ber , , for a thi d time , with a ’ T r t n n . o s total defeat s e o s horse was killed under h im . The r Lil i n T e h oe k . wo Swedish gene als , and Slangen , were slain o f t h e m r o o Madl o D e fo ur wh o h ad i pe ial c l nels , and , been t o t o the first quit the field, were put death . A reunion o T o rst e n so n Gu e briant afterward to k place between and , wh o o concerted an attack up n Bavaria , which , however, was o Gue b rian t not put int execution , returning to the Rhine , T o rst e n so n r and , afte spending the winter months in a futile r siege of F eiburg in Saxony , again fixing himself in Moravia, ’ with the view Of carrying the war into the em peror s heredi o tary pr vinces and o f awaiting aid from R ago c zy . m 1 6 43 was o i The ca paign of pened by Gallas , Piccolomin

‘ h n r re - avi g , after the disaster of B eitenfeld , entered the ser e O f a r n his vic Sp in , and the a chduke having withdraw to 1 06 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

i T o rst e nso n b shopric of Passau ; but , after a second and futile

r i o r attempt upon Brunn , unexpectedly ece ved rde s to ad o i o o vance upon Denmark , by wh se hum liati n al ne Sweden h t m could ope to secure her conquests in Nor hern Ger any . i h o w h The superior ty of the Danis ver the S edis ﬂeet, more O f rm n over, rendered the presence the a y indispe sable . Aus i o b i tr a and Saxony were als usily ntriguing with Denmark . The urgency O f the circumstances dem anded instant action ; by a sudden stroke alone could the m o vement t o the rear of be T o rst e n so n c r the Swedes checked ; , ac o dingly , mounting m o t h e r al st whole of his infantry , hurried th ough Silesia and

' in . T h e b s ur in ﬁfteen days reached Holste Danes , taken y

r i . w as r d r p ise , subm tted Jutland as api ly conque ed , and h is hungry soldiery took up thei r W i nte r quarters in these o r h ad no w fertile c unt ies , which , until , escaped the ravages r D i t m arse s r t o o Of w a . The brave alone ventu ed ppose their R a h i . o c z unwelcome guests g y , meanw le , advanced upon r o f m r Hungary and kept a pa t the i perial t oops occupied , so that Gallas w as unab le to follow the Swedes at the head O f r h o 1 644 r b a st ong enoug f rce until , when , st engthened y i r T o rst e n so n the junct on of the Danish a my at Kiel , he shut m J . o t o up in utland That c mander, nevertheless , contrived h i s a n d b m f n u n e x elude vigilance , , y ounting his in a try , pe c t e dl y passed his o pponents and re - entered Ge rm any K oen i sm ark m m d w here g had , in the eantime , ade hea i o n r l o sm h m h ad aga nst the Sax s , and , afte g C e nitz , taken R a o c z o u t b Torgau . g y had been driven of Hungary y T o rs n n o m h i s . t G oetz e so was pursued by Gallas , wh he in r i n b r h m tu n shut up Bern u g , w ence , after losing a nu ber

O f m t o . E n kefo rt his men by fa ine , he escaped Magdeburg , i i marching to his rel ef , was defeated and taken pr soner by

n ut rbo k . i 1 645 T o rst e n so at J e In the W nter of , Gallas , Of was who , in the midst the want by which he surrounded , c i t h continued his drunken revels , found means to es ape W

i . W w as t wo thousand men to Bohem a rangel , in the mean n d o r o . a time , victo i us over the Danes Hatzfeld G etz were m hastily recalled, the former fro Lower Germany , where he

1 05 8 THE HISTO OF A N RY . GERM Y

who laid the country waste with ﬁre and sword . The Prince O f Orange advanced in o rder to unite his forces with those G ue briant w h o of , at length received a reinforcement o f h o o Frenc tro ps , f ur thousand strong , all of whom shortly

. W t afterward ran away John von er h , who had been ex changed for Horn , also appeared in Cologne , where the citi ’ b Hat zfe l d s m c zens , embittered y inactivity , e bra ed his knees

i . o r as their del verer B th sides were , howeve , too weak t o r u rian t r haza d an engagement . G e b retu ned in autum n to Central Ge rmany with the view of attacking Bavaria in

i i h T o rst e n so n r w as r conjunct on W t ; this p oject , howeve , b u a andoned , and , ﬁnding himself hard p shed by the Bavari L o t h rin ian v o n ans under the g , Mercy , and John Werth , he o r r n i nce mo e ret eated upo Breisach , and after be ng beaten r m h is r r i n oe n O m m f o qua te s G ppi gen , fterdingen , and He en

K in z1 t hal - m ro dorf , reached the g with his half fa ished t ops . Swabia was red uced t o a state of indescribable misery by the depredations c o mm itted by both parties . ’ Banner s Germa n army having been reintegrated by sev w T o rst e n so n r o eral thousand S edes under , F ance reinf rced that under G ue b riant with a b o dy o f troops under the C o unt ’ n Of u r m r de Ranzau , An e A st ia s handso e and gallant favo w h o in m m r o f 1 643 t o c ite , , the su e , laid siege Rotweil , whi h

r . W O was bet ayed into his hands hile encamped , during N v e m b e r w as , in and around Tuttlingen , he suddenly sur b o f r rounded y Mercy , Charles , duke Lor aine , Hatzfeld , W and John von erth , and fell , with the greater part of his

r o h h . a my , int t eir ands Taupadel , who lay sick in the town , c o r v t o nt i ed escape , and the evening before this unexpected Gue b rian t w h o h ad r disaster , been seve ely wounded dur m o f o r . ing the siege of R tweil , expi ed Nu bers the fugitive rm French were slain by the Ge an peasants , who , through war out the , took a bloody but just vengeance on the brigand invader . The military science displayed by Mercy on this o ccasi o n was rewarded with the app o intm ent of generalis m L o t h rin ian si o over the allied imperial , Bavarian , and g

. u hi s troops D ring stay in S wabia , where he fruitlessly THE THI RT Y YEA RS ’ WA R 1 05 9

Ho h e n t v ie l W m blockaded , the fugitive ei ar troops pillaged ’ T au l s m m o t o Burgundy . pade regi ent was al st cut pieces I n m m 1 1 4 n r . 6 by the enraged peasant y the su er of , Turen e , Gue b rian t o f who , as well as , had served his apprenticeship m r r v o n W m ar a r s unde Berna d ei , crossed the Rhine at the r r c rm t o o f h ead of a f esh F en h a y , and advanced the relief

r r m o b F eibu g in the Breisgau , at that ti e cl sely besieged y

r . r r Me cy F eiburg , neve theless , fell , uncontested by Tu w h o l c o r c rm renne , awaited the arriva of a se nd F en h a y ’ r D u c d E n hie n o t h unde the g , afterward kn wn as e great dre adfu-l w as o r r Condé . A battle f ught near F eibu g , in o é w h o rr t o o t o r o f which C nd , a ived late tu n the fate the w as r Off day , d iven the ﬁeld , and Mercy , too much enfeebled by his victo ry to make head against the superio r forc es o f m r o r the ene y , evacuated Swabia , where p ovisi ns we e no

o t o be ro c r o n . o n l nger p u ed , and retreated the Maine J h h r v o n Wert took Mannheim and H oechst by su prise . The rr r whole Of the Bergstrasse was ga iso ned by Bava ians . The French ﬁxed their headquarters o n the Upper Rhine and o f o r c seized P hil ippsbu rg . N thing O imp tance o curred on the

Lowe r Rhine . Seve ral ski rm ishes too k place with vario us success o n o m f bo th sides in the pening of the ca paign o 1 645 . Mercy w as r c - 3 st u k dead by a cannon ball , August , and Geleen w as r o o f A l l e rh e im taken p is ner in the battle in the Ries , c h Was o whi gained and l st by both sides , Enghien , after r m r v o ff routing the Bava ians , being hi self d i en the ﬁeld by o W r rr r o f J hn von e th , who a ived at the te mination the con o f t he o r r ﬂio t . The defection elect of Saxo ny f o m the im c n o w M o f perial ause was imitated by aximilian Bavaria , w h o also so ught t o prom ote his o wn interest by a renewal of m c r o . was a i able elati ns with France Geleen , consequently , fo r r m m r o r exchanged G a ont, who had been taken p is ne at A l l e rh e im t h e mm r w as h o w ; co and of the Bava ian forces , him ever , bestowed upon in the place of the gallant John v o n W r r t o o e m erth , whose p inciples we e favorable to the

e ro r. E w h p nghien and Turenne it drew . Peace was con 1 060 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Ul m e c cluded at b tween Bavaria and Fran e in November ,

1 646 . T he defection of Bavaria was dee ply felt by the em m m e ro r. w p Geleen thre up his co and in disgust , and J o hn von Werth , w ho had simply regarded the Bavarians as Of troops the empire , was released from his oath of alle ianc e i m g to Maximil an , and atte pted to desert with his m m entire ar y to the e peror . His project, however, failed ; was m an ro he abandoned to a by the Bavarian t ops , and , with Spork and some other ofﬁcers, narrowly escaped Wal ’ l e n st e in s fate . A price of ten thousand dollars was placed h i t h upon his ead , and his possess ons in Bavaria , on e Rhine ’ and in the Netherlands were , at Maximilian s command , destroyed by ﬁre . U i n Wrangel , meanwhile , invaded pper Swabia the depth Of r winter, plundered Ravensburg and Leutkirch , ove came the despe rate resistan c e Of the peasantry near Kempten and

Isny , and , after laying a hundred villages in ashes , returned , i 1 647 in the spr ng of , to Franconia , where he took Schwein furt . Turenne , in the meantime , laid the country around

. c o n t n Darmstadt waste Paderborn , so often the bone of e o n i ti during this war, and wh ch had been taken by the o f 1 645 Landgravine Hesse in , was recaptured by Melander v o n HOl za e l w h o n o f pp , had lo g quitted the service the Land r w as n o w g avine , and , although a Protestant, appointed generalissimo Of the imperial troops ; such vicissitudes were there in a w ar which had originally been a religious one ! ’ m l . n o w d A a ﬁ Gallas was dead Piccolomini , Duke , again displayed g reat activity in the Netherlands and even invaded i o n F rance . The great mperial leaders had disappeared e by b Mo n t e c uc u l i w as n o w one , and had been succeeded y , who r recalled from Silesia , where he had g eatly harassed the little ’

i n Me l an de r s . Swedish garr so s , to aid t o t h e Turenne , covered rear by the Bavarians under Gro n sfe l d n , haste ed to the Netherlands in order to check the

r . r prog ess of Piccolomini The German cavalry , the Weima n veterans , however, refused to follow the infa try across the i l st 1 647 French front er, and , on the 2 of June, , turned back

1 062 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y pe are d unexpec t edly before Prag ue an d taken the Ne ust adt m i o i where he ade an mmense bo ty , by treachery and surpr se .

o The Altstadt was gallantly defended by Rudolph C lloredo .

- T he h r ~ Pfalzgraf , C a les Gustavus , the newly appointed ge n e ral issim o of the Swedish forces , followed with reinforce in m ments , was j oyfully welcomed Leipzig , and arch ed r c apidly upon Prague to the onquest of the Altstadt . u Peace was , at this conj ncture , proclaimed throughout

i c the empire to all the arm es , to all the besieged ities , to m the tre bling princes , to the wailing people . The wild sol ; n diery were roused to fury at the news At Feuchtwange , Wrangel dash ed h i s c ocked hat t o the gro und and gave o r o r o f i T h ders to let lo se all the fu ies war dur ng the retreat . e beautiful city of Li egnitz i n Silesia was wantonly set on ﬁre

~ b y one o f his men . The neighboring city of Jauer was simi l arl t t t h e wh o fo t h e y rea ed by imperial troops , , shortly be re h d h a w . peace , attacked the S edes in t at place Turenne , the do i . l of France , acted in the same manner Neresheim was

W was . s sacked , and eil laid in ashes by his soldiery Thi robber - band at length d i sappeared behind the V o sges in — 1 649 . Had the disputes between the Royalists and Cardi n al is t s r o e in F ance been turned to advantage , a peace m r f r fo r m c o avo able Ger any might have been ncluded , but no h r Of Lo r one , with the exception of the indefatigable C a les sc o o r raine , appeared con i us of the fact . He j ined the F ench r rr o n o wn an d 1 649 de p inces , ca ied the war at his cost , , in , ’ n r m feated Mazari s t o ops at Ca bray . o r r ce Plenip tentia ies from the bellige ent powers had , sin 1 644 m O r r in W , been asse bled at snab uck and Munste est

fo r t h e r o c n . re phalia , pu pose of c n ludi g peace The hat d subsisting between the different pa rties in Germany had i i c n o w m r m a t insensibly d m nished , and ea h e ely ai ed sav

i n in s o f t h e E m e ro r R u o h II amo n Th e v a ua e c o e c tio n o f a t . l bl ll p g p d lp , g o th e rs so me fin e Co rre io s w e re c arrie awa . T h e o ut h fu uee n h rist i na gg , d y y l q , C , o ssess e i t t e t ast e fo r t h e fin e arts and ad t h e fin e st h ea s out o ut o f th e p d l l , h d ic t ure s an d as t e u o n t a e st r Th e re st o f t h is inv a ua e c o e c t io n 2 50 p p d p p y . l bl ll ,

ict ures w ere urch ase at a at er erio for th e Or eans al e r at aris. p , p d l p d l g l y P r i o l l as Th e most val uable part o f t h e booty was t he c eleb ate d B ble f U phi . THE THI RT Y YEA RS ’ WA R 1 063

ff ing the little rem ain i ng in its possessi o n . Misery and su er o o l o f t ing had c oled the religi us zea the people , license tha

o m c o f r . r t of the troops , and dipl a y that the p inces The thi s r o io o fo bl od had been satiated , and pass n , w rn out by ex m f r m . o o cess , slu bered Ger any had l ng sighed the ter mination o f a struggle so lely carried o n within h e r b o som r h ad o r r . by the st anger The Swedes and F ench , h weve , m n o w o 1 o t o i r o f triu phed , and were in a p s ti n d ctate te ms o r fo r m o r o peace fav able the selves , and a l ng pe i d elapsed bef o re t h e jealo us p retensions o f all the parties interested i n the co n c lusion o f peace were satisﬁed . The pro crastination ro r w h o o r - r r o f r of the empe , all wed th ee qua te s a yea to o r r o f elapse bef e giving his assent to the t eaty peace , the tardiness Of the F rench and Swedish am bassado rs in appear s t h e m u ing at the congre s , disputes between the me bers abo t m o f r c e t c . c rr o n fo r o titles , right p e edence , , a ied nths and r n o t so m t o years , are to be asc ibed uch the pedantry of the t o m m age , Spanish punctilio and to Ger an tediu , as to the o o r w ho r p licy of the belligerent p we s , , wheneve they ex e c t e d r r ro m m o r o f r p a f esh esult f the an euv es thei generals , often m ade use of these means fo r the sole purp o se o f pro

longing the nego tiatio ns . o f o ur r im The fate g eat fatherland , the prospects of the mense em pire over which Charlem agne and Barbaro ssa had Of h m r c reigned , lay in the hands Avaux , the s a eless F en h

m o r w h o n o n - o c c o f a bassad , cited the upation the left bank of the Rhi ne by F rance as an extrao rdinary instan c e o f gen e ro sit Sal v iu s w h o r y , and of , the Swedish envoy , , ever d ead r o ing to be outwitted by his p incipal antag nist, Avaux , vied h i m m f m r with in i pudence . At the side O the for e sto od Se rV i e n r o O i o f , at that of the latte J hn xenst erna, the son

o . m o m o the great chancell r Traut annsd rf , the i perial env y, o Of r a tall , ugly , but grave and digniﬁed man , al ne fe ed to t m h hem a long and steady resistance , and co pelled t em to r m elinquish their grossest de ands . By him stood the wily o m r o f Wu rt e m be r V l a g, a recanted Catholic . The Dutch a o r Paw mbassad , , vigilantly watched over the interests of 1 064 THE HIST ORY OF GERMAN Y

n h h wa s it his cou try , in w ic he im ated by the res t of the e h v o s w h o di o f m n a l e y , , in fferent to the weal Ger a y as who , were soi e l y occupied in prese rving or gaining sm all por tio ns o f r B n u territory from the g ea t b o oty . ar b hl er o f W urt em and se ie berg , whose spirit per verance remed d his want Of o t h e e l hi s O an p wer , and celebrat d natura p lo opher , tto v Gue rike t he e t o f - r o f , inv n or the air pump , burgomaste u d b m e rc v a r ined Mag e urg , ight also be p ei ed in the b ck o Of t he ic m e t a gr und assembly , wh h had to deliber te o ver the state O f the em pire un de r the pres idency of foreigners and brigands . m s if si s e The isery cau ed by the war was , p os ble , urpass d by the sh am e brought upon the country by t his treaty o f In s m ro m c e peace . the a e p v w here Armin had once route d t h e e m i e be h fo l gions of Ro e , Germany bent serv l ly neat a r

i e r i o u a e n . g yoke At Munst , Spa n c ncl ded peace with Hol lan d The independen ce of Holland and her separati o n from t h e r e a was o f empire we e r cognized , and Germ ny deprived he r ﬁnest p ro vinces and o f the free navigat i on Of t he Rhi ne ; a fatal stroke to the prosperity of al l the Rhe n i sh c i t i es . T he independence o f Switzerland w as al so solemnly guarantee d r Peace was concluded between France and the emp i e . Fran c e w as c On ﬁ rm e d e in the poss ssion of Metz , Toul , Verdun , and w o o f t he the whole of Alsace , ith the excepti n Strasburg , of imperial cities and o f t he lands of t h e nobil ity of the empire sit n at e d c h in that province , in onsideration of which , Breisac

n f of r k t o U ~ a d the ortress Philippsbu g , the eys pper Ger m e he r b w m e rm de any , were c ded to , y hich ans Ge any was p riv e d of one o f h e r ﬁnest frontier provin ces and left o pe n t o t h e r c h a r a w h m t h e e o f F en inv de , ag inst o p tty princes r n o e Southe n Germany bei g , conseq uently , unpr tected , th y t he O f l fell , in course of time , under inﬂuence their powerfu

- t O i Sw e ne i ghbor . A snabruck , peace was concluded W th i was e fo r t h e n war den , wh ch indemniﬁ d expe ses of the by t h e paym ent of ﬁve milli on dol lars and by t h e c ession o f t h e n V e t h e O t ish b isho prics of Bre men a d rdun , bjec s of Dan e a o u t h e c it Of i th e i l a Of R u e t ai j l sy , of y W smar, s nd g n, S r

1 06 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r t m p inces ; nor was it long before hey i itated the example . The pope n aturally made a violent protest against the secu

. i h l arizat io n o f church property . Inno cent X publ s ed a bull against the peace of Westphalia . The religious zeal of the

Catholics had also cooled , notwithstanding the adm onitions i c of the Jesu ts ; the princes , onsequently , were solely gov b ro erned y political ideas , which p ved as detrimental to the papal c ause after as religio us enthusiasm h ad been during

. k the Reformation The authority of the pope , li e that of

the emperor, had faded to a shadow . All secularized property reclaimed by the Catholics sin ce

1 624 o the Normal year, , consequently since the publicati n o f t h e t t h e ro edict of res itution , was restored to P testants , and all Pro testant subjects of Catholic princes we re granted the free exercise of the religion professed by them in the said m year , which , happening to have been that i mediately after h o m o de l t e battle on the White M untain , and the e per r c ar r o o ing that , at that pe iod , his Ref rmed subjects no l nger n t h e e mi e joyed liberty of conscience , the protests made by m ff grated Austrian Protestants re ained without e ect . The t n r h Silesian princes , s ill remaining in Lieg itz , B ieg , Wo lau , O r b r o els , Munste e g , and the city of Breslau , were all wed m w r to re ain Lutheran , and three privileged churches e e ,

moreover , permitted at Glogau , Jauer, and Schweidnitz . The ancient system was strictly enforced t hroughout the r rest of the hereditary provinces . The sole favo shown to ward the Protestants was their transportation to T ran sy l r r Of vania , where they we e allowed the free exe cise their r m religion . The Jesuits we e invested with unli ited author ity in that p o rtion of the German em pire which remained

t he W . 1 65 2 Catholic after peace of estphalia In , an impe o Of rial edict enforced the pr fession Catholicism , under pain

c . of death , by every individual within the hereditary provin es The disputes between the Lutherans and the Reformers

r . l aw we e also brought to a close , and the senseless , by means O f which the fai t h professed by the prince was imposed upon

u was . his s bjects , repealed The violence with which the THE THIRT Y YEAR S ’ WA R 1 06 7

t O h s doctors of heology defended their pinions , nevert eles ,

remained unabated .

- Germany is reckoned by some to have lost one half , by

- i r others , two thirds of her ent re population during the thi ty ’

w r. n years a In Saxony , ine hundred thousand men had t w o in h abi fallen within years ; in Bohemia , the number of h t h e Of . t e t de l o r tants , at demise Ferdinand II , before las p d T o rst e n so n h ad able inroa s made by Banner and , sunk to

- u n Of i i one fourth . A gsburg , i stead e ghty , had e ghteen thou

sand inhabitants . Every province , every town throughout m h ad f e xc e the e pire , su fered at an equal ratio , with the p o h ad t h e m ro m ti n of the Tyrol , which repulsed ene y f her fro ntiers and had enjoyed t h e deepest peace du ring thi s f r n r w as m im o e r period o hor or . The cou t y co pletely p v r h ad o o ish e d . The wo king class alm st t tally disappeared . r h ad r The manufacto ies been destroyed by ﬁre , indust y and

com merce h ad passed into oth er hands . The products of U pper Germany were far inferio r to those O f Italy and rl h Of o r t o o Switze and , t ose L wer Ge many those of H lland

. n r o r and England Imme se p ovinces , once ﬂ u ishing and o o r p pul us , lay enti ely waste and uninhabited , and were only by sl o w degrees repeo pled by foreign em igrants o r by

so ldiery . The original character and language of the in m r habitants were , by this means , co pletely alte ed . In r o n r o F anconia, which , wing to her ce t al p sition , had been r r r m r t ave sed by eve y party during the war , the ise y and depopulati o n had reached to such a pitch that the Fran c o wi r nian Estates , th the assent of the ecclesiastical p inces , in 1 65 0 o r abolished , , the celibacy of the Cath lic cle gy , m c and per itted each man to marry two wives , on ac ount of t h e numerical superiority of the women over the men . The l m t ast re ains of political liber y had , during the war, also been snatched from the people ; each of the Estates had been i depr ved of the whole of its material power . The nobility w r n Of n e e compelled by ecessity to enter the service the pri ces , o r the citizens were imp verished and powe less , the peasantry had been utterly demoralized by m ilitary rule and reduced 1 068 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r ro to se vitude . The p vincial Estates , weakly guarded by w r m o f the cro n against the enc oach ents the petty princes , we re completely at the me rcy of the more powe rful O f the o o f m petty s vereigns Ger any , and had universally sunk in m . o m i portance Science and art had ﬂed fr m Ger any , and pedantic ignorance h ad replaced the deep learning of her r universities . The mothe tongue had become adulterated c r by an in edible variety of Spanish , Italian , and French o r m w ds , and the use of foreign words with Ger an termina Of tions was considered the highest mark elegan c e . Various o f foreign modes dress were also as generally adopted . Ger h e r fo r many had lost all save hopes the future .

PA R T X I X

T HE IN T E R N AL ST A T E O F G E R MAN Y D U R IN G T HE R E F O R MAT IO N

he Jesuits CCXII . T

o h HE Reformati n had , in its results , fallen far s ort of the anticipations cherished by the more lofty - minded ] n f m o . o n a ong its pr moters The church , i stead bei g r r gene ally and tho oughly reformed , had been but partially freed in the n o rth fro m her external shackles and rem ained internally almost as deeply as ever enslaved ; the n e w church t o r fan at i was , like her elder sister , a prey supe stition and c ism o in h , and modern scholastic contr versy , belief witc craft o f and ghosts and in involuntary works grace , were , with c the bloody persecution of heretics, the wret hed results of a h struggle that, for t wo undred years , had drenched Europe

in blood .

1 070 THE HISTOR Y OF GER MA N Y

Go d o r of , and , with justice , opp sed the hie archy . She re r r r i qui ed mo ality and piety in her p iests , and , with just ce , c o ndem ned t h e debauchery and immorality consequent upon f celibacy . She demanded freedom o c o nscience and Ofthought m in religious as well as all other atters , reason being n o t the least Of the talents bestowed by Go d up o n man to be used to o r r o o his hon and glory , and eas n being the nly safeguard against the e rro rs into which the c hurch had so deeply fallen ; w u o o m and , ith j stice , she opp sed sch lasticis , by which reas o n was oppressed and nations were kept in dark ignorance . The defecti o n of the whole O f N o rthern Eu rope dealt a w r o o f r severe blo to the exte nal p wer the hie archy , but, at m m o r rm the same ti e , e ﬁ ly established its sway in the South , where the Catholics were d riven by necessity t o coalesce and r r r r m t o take ext ao dina y m easu es . The Refor ation also ex rc ise w o o T h e d . e a po erful inﬂuence upon its pp nents pope ,

’ r no t o f r o n it is t ue , did relinquish the least his p etensi s , but a t o m c an end w s put the ost glaring vices of the hurch . The justice o f the rep ro ach c ast upon her by t h e Reformers was c r o m felt, and the le gy ref rmed the selves , or, at all events , externally p racticed the most rigid morality . License was o if t o m o r m e n m o r s lely d ficult check a ng the lower cle gy , of e fi n in re ned and elevated minds being , generally speaki g , c l in e d fo r o m r ref rm , and leaving behind the an igno ant m w h o scu , were , nevertheless , consecrated for the priest fo r o hood , principally the sake of giving ccupants to the i r ro livings . Discipl ne was fi st reint duced into the church t h e wh o o by Jesuits , were , however, fully c nscious of the o m r h influence of r ugh anne s and speec , nay , even of that O f the ridiculous up o n the people ; n o r did the fact escape m c n r the of the disadvantage under whi h Luthera ism labo ed ,

Th e infamo us u ne Coe na Do min i w h ich an t e rio r t o t h e R e fo rmatio n b ll , , , c o n e mn e al l t h o se isa re e i n W i t h R o me a e t h e fo o w in anat h e ma d d d g g , dd d ll g , ’ “ un e r U r an III urin t h e t h irt e ars w ar : E xc o mmunic amus e t anat h d b V . , d g y y m iz m n i n t is e tc uo sc un ue Hussit as Wic hl e e at a us e x art D ei o m o t e . p e p , Q q , m x o mmu ﬁst as Lut h e rano s Zw in l i ano s a vinist as U o no t t o s e t c . It e e c , , g , C l , g , n i amus i r a t ut urum c o nc i ium a e l l ant e s c e t anat h e mat izamus o mne s ad un v e s le l pp . I t em e x c o mm unic amus e t an at h e mat izamus o mn e s i rat as c ursario s e t l at runc ul o s P , ” marit inio s. Luth e rans a vinist s and irat e s were th us c asse t o e th erl , C l , p l d g 3 I N TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 071

' owing t o its glo o m and austerity . By a bold artiﬁce they ' bro ught the laugh on thei r side and pe rmitted the Capuchins t o attract their audience by joc o se serm ons, Capucinades o r Sal b ade re ie n ; so called from the opening words of their dis “ ”

o r o r. c u ses , dixit Salvat r noste The toys with which the ” o r o w pe ple , like children of a la ger gr th , were amused , r m r o r o m se ved a si ilar pu p se ; the spi itual sh ps , the s all retail c r o f o o c r trade in pi tu es Mad nnas and saints , in c nse ated amu lets p o ssessing the p o wer of guarding the pu rc haser against c r o Of o every ill ; the onsec ati n h uses , tables , beds , kitchens , Of o c cellars , and stables: and the abuse religi n by its appli a h m r r m o o m ti o n in t e ost ludi c o us o the st unh ly atters . This sac red buffo o nery was di rec ted in the c ities and towns by c r wh o the Jesuits , in the ount y by the Capuchins , were hence ’ m e u i t r o m o o r r nickna ed the J s s p o odles . E v e y ther nkish de was deem ed inferior t o th em and m erely vegetated in the l c o r . N o t o O d ri h m naste ies nly the Benedictines , who , r o o f n m th ough jeal usy the Jesuits , agai applied the selves t o r o c o n t radist in c lea ning , chieﬂy to the study of hist ry , in o m m c Of o o tion to the d g atis and diale tics their pp nents , but o r r wh o m o als the st ict Ca thusians , had co pletely ren unced o r r r o r b e the w ld , we e immeasu ably wealthy , and the c nt ast m r r o tween their a ble palaces , thei g ld and diamonds , and r o r v o w r o r ffo thei iginal of exte nal p ve ty , a rded a signiﬁcant ro o o f r p f the unnatu al positi o n gained by the c hurch . Ro m e ruled o ve r the ch urch by means o f the Jesuits and

Capuchins . The council of Trent attempted the partial re establishm ent o f episcopal p o wer in o rder t o check the l o cal o o m u n su c and national opp sition raised against R e , but was fu l c e ss o t o Of o m . , wing the rapid progress the Ref r ation The o t o o m Of sub o rdi bish ps , consequently , sank their f r er state o ff r r o o nati n , and all ecclesiastical a ai s we e hencef rward s lely wh o controlled by the pope and his Jesuitical propaganda , r r o m Of we e , neve theless , always c pelled to secure the assent

8 0 name in 1 5 3 6 o win t o a ri ic u o us is ute amo n t h e ranciscan s d , g d l d p g F , ’ wh eth e r t h e ir h o fo un St ran e s o A i i r int e c a uc h i n o r e r . c c d ss s w o e a o ly d , F , p d p not . Th e art in i in t o r er p y fav o r Of th e lat t e r forme d t h emselv es in t o a d st c d . 1 072 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y the princes by means of the nuncios accredited to t h e great

Catholic courts ; the bishops were simply subalterns , except when , at the same time , sovereign princes .

The church required expert champions , and therefore did not fail to Oppose similar weapons to the m ass of learning r among the P otestants . The n ecessity of borrowing t he weapons Of her o pponents and of intrusti n g t h e defence of m l r her syste , mere y founded on un easoning credulity , to w as o f reason , , however, of itself productive a great internal change . The Catholicism of the Jesuits , although externally f o m i unaltered , totally di fered fr that of the M ddle Ages . o no w r Even in its exaggerati ns it had until been natu e , an ff Of n o w m art overdrawn e ort , an abuse nature , but it beca e , f r a creation O Jesuitry . The peo ple had fo rme ly been left t o c their simplicity , of which it was perhaps ex usable to take n o w l t h e advantage , but they had attained know edge , and Jesuits made use of art for the pu rp o se of resto ring igno rance . This formed the essential difference between former and modern times . Of o The Society Jesus was f unded by Ignatius Loyola , an w h o enthusiastic Spaniard , for penitents , , in those heretical e e r times , r long made it their business to conﬁ m the faith of

c o O f o . the wavering , and , onsequently , became the to ls R me ’

. . r Benedict XIV . named them St Peter s Janissaries Thei O r bject was the resto ation of unlimited hierarchical power , i m and they desp sed no means , however base , that ight con t o r duce success , according to thei celebrated maxim , The ” as end justiﬁes the means . The society w intended to form r t h e an aristocracy of talent , whose office it was to gua d o f o Of avenues kn wledge against the rest mankind ; and , as r m a precaution against individual treache y , no ember was permitted to quit the order except to take the vows of a o Carthusian , by which he bound himself to silence and s li tude for the rest Of his days . The heads of the society m r h ad unli ited powe to remove , punish , and assassinate the r v o w members . The ﬁ st taken by the initiated was that of er unconditional Obedience . A system of secret espionage p

1 074 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

On e of the principal Objects of the Jesuits was to replace s fa the sale of dispensation , which had llen into bad repute hi since the Reformation , and w ch was , moreover, almost ih t h e h as dispensable to c urch . This w done by means of the lax morality of the confessional. The more luxurious co urt di d J life became , the more easily the esuits forgive t h esins co mmitt ed by the aristocracy ; in o rder t o pac ify the ne w n s o conscie tious scruple awakened by the Ref rmation , they m a e beca e the dvocates inst ad of the judges of sins , from e x ul every description of which they , by their casuistry , c

O ff . s w pated the ender The Spani h Jesuits ent furthest. ’ s The book of Escobar , the confessor manual , passed through

- e u thirty six editions , which were print d nder the direction of the society and of the church . The church closed her eyes t o a r h any measures t ken by the confesso s , provided t ey made proselytes and gathered the stray sheep into the fol d . e x According to their casuistical system , all sins w ere c u l : e b s h pated First , By the doctrin of proba ilismu , t at is , by “ the mildest of all possible interpretations . A says , Such a ” “

. a l sin is too horrible to be forgiven B s ys , Certainly ; stil ” h . U . s it might thus be exculpated, etc , etc pon t i C says, “ ’ Acco rding to A s opinion it cannot be forgiven ; but it can ’ be according to B s ; and as an authority is all that is requi o f site , and the mildest point view is admissible , I agree with ” t he dire c t io in t e nt io nis B . Secondly , By , that is , by the thoughts being occupied during the performance of a b ad action with an innocent object. Thus , for instance , one e am might bribe another or accept of a brib and , at the s e

m be l d . ti e , mere y thinking of civility or gratitu e Thirdly ,

By the reservatio mentalis . It w as allowable to take a false ta oath by volun rily adding a mental reservation , as , for t ins ance , a man might swear he had no money, although “ he had some , provided he mentally added none to lend , “ ~ One w a etc . might take an oath thus, I s e r (that I say “ e u e tc . w her , although it is ntrue) that , or , I s ear that I did not do that (a hundred years ago or a hundred miles “ r or, I swea to do so (if I cannot think of some IN TE RN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 075

am hib o l o ia o o thing else) . Fourthly , By p g , or equiv cati n ; r o r c fo instance , one can deny anything t uching the F en h by ” thinking of the wo rd gallus as implying a cock instead of o r a Gaul . Fifthly , By the intentio b na , which was the p in d i al . r c p thing St ictly speaking, the only virtue require in a Jesuit w as the promotion Of the intentio ns of his order ; wh o

m h . ever did this , erited eternal bliss , whic was ever the case r o m was The sins of the wealthy and powe ful , wh it to the r r r W c o n inte est of the o der to t eat ith lenity , were ex used ro o f the g und their having no intentio mala , that is , that the m fo r o f n o t c o e . sin had been mitted the sak sinning Thus , f r u r w as o r o o instance , ad lte y all wable in p inces and n bles , m r v o w r fo r because the a riage had been b oken , not the sake

o f m r . com itting adultery , but for the sake of anothe woman o Sixthly , and lastly , By pia opera, by go d works ; whoever o r m h no ed the Jesuits , built colleges for the , gave them

o . r o r m ney , etc , whoeve , in general , did g od se vice to the a o c o h e r C th lic hurch , diligently bserved ceremonies , pur

a . r r . chased dispensation , etc , was completely f ee f om guilt Means such as these easily gained o ver the wealthy and the po werful . The Jesuits displayed the greatest ac tivity at o r t o c ro c u t , their maxim being inﬂuence the ﬂo k th ugh its r leaders . They long go ve ned all the Cath o lic court s Of Eu o t h e r rope , sometimes as c nfessors or tutors to sove eign , o m o m s etimes as councill rs and negotiators , the ost talented m e n o f their o rder especially devo tin g them selves t o p o litical

’ m atters ; but their prin c ipal professio n was that o f a pro c urer ; the secrets of the co nfessio nal rendered them m asters O f r r c o m the weaknesses of the p inces and p in esses , wh they m o t o doubly ﬂattered , by affording the pportunities satisfy r o t he m v thei inclinati ns , and , at same ti e , gi ing them full

o o . r abs luti n Like the Lutheran cou t chaplains , they ever r r o f o found means to secu e the ete nal salvation the s vereign , h r whatever might ave been his c im es . They even succeeded in creeping into Protestant courts fo r the purpose o f convert in r o r o o n g the p ince of c rrupting his c u cillors . It was in m c t h e this anner they onverted Queen Christina of Sweden, 076 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

a daughter of the great Gust vus Adolphus . The most im portant pro jects of the Protestants have been frustrated by the secret intrigues Of Jesuitical emissaries at the c o urts o f the Protestant princes . The Jesuits also applied themselves Of to the study medicine , by which means they got the life of r the sovereign , in whose service they were, into their powe , and many of the poisonings which took place at that time c may be pla ed to their charge , no less than manyof the as sassinat io n s re o , by which they m oved the leaders of the p

o sit e . 1 6 1 4 a p party In , the general of the order, Aquaviv , r c s p ohibited the public defence of regi ide by the Jesuit , o ff pr bably from fear of giving o ence to their royal patrons . r r m m In o der to work with g eater security , they had secret e bers among the laity ; princes were even enrolled in their

- ranks . These members were termed the short robed Jesuits .

Education was almost entirely controlled by the Jesuits , m who , by this eans , secured the rising generation and me t h o dic al ly implanted in the pe o ple the spirit requisite for m o their purposes . The most ﬁtting me bers of the rder were placed in their schools or colleges . Every science w as turned to suit their purposes . Everything that might prove pre j u dic ial to them selves w as carefully avo ided in the sch o ols and in o e their writings , and all Protestant bo ks wer strictly pro

h ib it e d. Although there were many deeply learned and

h - n n s rewd mi ded men among the Jesuits , the wa t of truth in their discourses rendered their schools far inferior to those of the Protestants ; nor could the knowledge they acquired e s ever benefit the p ople , owing to their almost con tant use of r r the Latin tongue , which was at first natu al , the fi st Jesuits h a ving been Spaniards or Italians , but which was afterward purposely persevered in with a view Of preventing the stu

dents from studying German and , more particularly , Prot

e st ant works . The inclination of the Jesuits to place themse lves as an t he intermediat e class between the priests and laity , and , by ne w this means , to govern both , is clearly discernible in their “ ” Of a e k fo rms . They avoided the old terms mon st ry , mon s,

1 078 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y that France was sending disease and i ncendiari es into Ger u many , did German geni s nobly avenge its fatherland by imparting a beneﬁt to its foe .

The L uthera n a n d R e o r e CCXIII . f m d Churches

T HE Reformers were as disunited as the Cath olics were

. t h e o the contrary The doctrine of Lutherans , or Pr testants , t h e stood opposed to that of the Calvinists , Reformers in the stricter sense , and these two great sects were again inter nally divided . The political distribution of the Reform ers f h also a fected the external constitution of the churc , each h principality or republic having its separate churc . The bonds Of the universal church had thus been torn asunder , and separate provincial churches alone existed . The independence and liberty of t h e ch urch were by this Of rc h means destroyed , and , instead the ancient hiera y , which had asserted its superiority over or its equality with m o te p ral power, there was merely a political church sub servient to the temporal government of each province . The whole of the hierarchical power had passed into the hands of the princes . The prince inherited the ecclesiastical property , an d and , at the same time , exercised all spiritual power juris O f diction . The ministry and the cure souls were all that re mained to the priest, whose nomination , removal , and even t h e the doctrines he was to inculcate , depended upon caprice of the prince . The curate was a salaried servant of the state .

A number of parishes stood under an inspector , superintend o r m o ent , deacon , in i itati n of the Catholic deaconries , all of t o o r o m o whom were subordinate a consist y , c p sed of spirit ual and temporal mem bers and fo rm ing a subdivisi o n of the I t government . w as only in countries where the prince and his subjects differed in religion that t h e consistory main ff i m t ain e d . o its independence All temporal a a rs , matri nial t s n — causes alone excepted , were beyond i jurisdictio The poo r country clergy were also generally dependent upon t h e wh o Of nobility , held the right patronage , or the right of I N TERNA L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 079

n o f wh o n o m inating o e the candidates for the ministry , was examined by the consistory , to his village church ; a right Of b n simply consequent on that property , the village elo ging to the n oble in the sam e manner as the country belonged to the prince . The poor candidates , consequently , competed for the favor of the nobility , and , as the depravity of the courts w t gradually spread do nward , the Pro estant clergy were ex b f o posed to the most unworthy treatment, serving as u fo ns to their patrons or as convenient husbands for their cast -off mistresses . ' Oi The splendor the Catholic church , her adoration of re l ie s t OO u t o saints and , her ceremonies all deeply calc lated l ed t h e R e imp o se upon the senses , had Lutherans and the r inart iﬁc ial fo mers into the opposite extreme in their , meagre , i n prosaic serv ce , which merely consisted of listeni g to a ser m o n in o c between bare walls, and of singing ch rus , whi h generally degenerated t o a screaming so und little in harm ony o with the notes of the rgan , the whole congregation , whether m r o . r o o able to sing or not, j ining in chorus The se n , the w d Go d of , was the main point, and , until abused by hypocrisy , o r o t r o m de n scholasticism , and orat ry , had an ex a rdinary r n inﬂuen c e ove the multitude . The Luthera s retained a greater degree of sol em nity in their church service than the

Reformers . R o m r m The ef r ed churches were at ﬁ st strictly de o cratic . The cl ergy were not even distinguished by their atti re from the rest of the community ; nor was it until the aristocracy t o o t o gradually rose p wer , as in Swi zerland and H lland , that the Reformed churches also assum ed an aristocrati c appear ance . In strictness of morals the Reformed maintained her superiority over the Lutheran church . At the present day , as o in the sixteenth century , when church g ing was con side re d in Switzerland , more particularly in Zurich , as an i O ndispensable duty , the Sabbath is bserv ed at Zurich with a t ric t N i s ness unknown elsewhere , except in orth Amer ca, in t o m o r ow g a si ilar reason , religion and morality being m e rigid ly practice d b y the people in a self - controlled republic 1 080 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

h m t an they ever can be under a o narc hy . Be rn e ﬁrst com o f i o f plained the serv lity , and the consequent laxity O f t h e

’ o o t h e u e r c l asse m rals , of the clergy dependent up n pp s . The theological un c ertainty displayed in the comp o sitio n m o m Me l an c t h o n of the Interi , the c pliance of , and , more o f r o particularly , that Ag ic la , the separation of the strict r Luthe ans from the Swiss , and , in Holland , . that of the r c ro m m st i t Calvinists f the Ar inians , have already been al o r r l u de d to . The c nt ove sial writings of these sects and those of the Jesuits henceforth chieﬂy occupied the theol o gical m press , swelling the bo bast of ancient scholasticism , and uniting indescribable co arseness and b rutality with exp res o o m m si ns f the ost enveno ed hate . Pamphlets fro m eve ry

o r o f n f r c ner Germany disputed , like an imme se fl o ck o avens r rc o r m h ove a ca ass , ve the rotten re ains of the churc , and the scholastics had no sooner triumphed over the anab apt ist i r o cal dilettanti than they fell at st ife am ng themselves . The first and m ost important p o i n t was to replace the in e xh au st i ble means of grace possessed by the ancient church with so m e O f u r t o o rm thing fering an equal g a antee the people , whom f er habits and the p romulgation o f f resh doc trines had rendered f h anxious for the salvation o their so uls . T e text of the Bible . o r o r r was o n was pen to va i us inte p etations , and it all sides unanim o usly reso lved that the cheap dispen sation sh o uld be replaced by a justification o f the easiest descriptio n . The o d h o w m de by which this justification was to be obtaine , l ius h o o c . F ac w ever , pr du ed a furious dispute Luther and , r O f went still further , justified by blind faith in the wo d God , o f n a F l ac ius c independent all good works ; y , even ondemned

virtue without faith and justified eve ry sinner who believed . Agricola and Osian de r adm itted the eternal grace o f Go d by m n r d o f which a was justified and rende e , like Christ, devoid r O f r c r sin . Calvin taught the doct ine p edestination , ac o ding to which certain individuals were from their birth destined n fo r to future bliss . O no side was means salvation want r n . i g These theological controve sies being , moreover , with m a out practical influence on the people or on public or ls,

1 082 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

ceded to Spain , part of Lorraine and Alsace to France , part o o of Lower Sax ny to Denmark , P merania to Sweden . I n t e rn al l y , the empire was torn and hung but loosely together, o re i u bl i her constituti n was a monstrum p c ae . The imperial was o diet divided int three colleges or benches , those of the

o . elect rs , princes , and cities The elector of Mayence , as - o O f e arch chancell r the empir , held the presidency , when m w as o ever the e peror not present in pers n , and the secre taries received all petitions , etc . The electoral princes de o n cided all questions by vote , of which each had e . The

w as tw o o n e o f bench of princes subdivided into colleges ,

w h o which consisted of the spiritual and temporal princes , n o t c o f were ele tors , the other prelates (abbots) and counts . The spiritual princes were those who as p rinces O f t h e em pire were independent in tem poral m atters of the o ther r p inces . During the gradual decay of the ancient duchies , the subordinate bishops and even some of the abbots declared h m r t e selves independent , and it was only in the Habsbu g Burgundian hereditary province that they still rem ained sub ordinate to the princes ; the powerful archbishops and bish O U ops of Prague , Breslau , lmutz , and the nited Netherlands m r n u were , consequently , si ply Aust ian subjects , and were n m r o f r r represented i the diet . The nu be s the spi itual p inc es of the empire had been greatly thinned by the Reform ati o n on account of the defalcation of the m ajority o f those of f m Northern Germany . O the te poral princes every house o o f r had a vote , and disputes ften ar se between the di fe ent O f o f lines , each which claimed that right, or on account m r fresh h o uses raised t o the dignity Of prince . The nu e ous o f princes created by Ferdinand II . Austria in imitation of the Spanish g randees were refused adm ission to the bench occupied by the houses of more ancient date . The prelates t wo were divided into benches , the Swabian and Rhenish , each o f which possessed but a singl e vote . The co unts were t o b W e t t e rauan t o divided into w enches , the Swabian and , r 1 640 1 65 5 which we e , in , added the Franconian , and , in , he in t Westphalian , and here again each bench , not each I NTERNA L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 083

m dividual , possessed one vote . In the sa e manner, since 4 4 o o o f t wo 1 7 , the c llege of the cities c nsisted benches , each o r of which had one v te , the Rhenish , ove which Cologne ,

t h e o r o r . and Swabian , ve which Ratisb n , p esided The r m r ba ons of the e pire , although not rep esented in the diet, r o m r we e rec gnized as an Estate of the e pi e , and consisted w n of three circles , the S abian , Franconia , and Rhenish , r r m c ontrolled by a directo y selected f om among the selves . was m r o v t wo The diet , o e er , collectively divided into bodies, o r t o ff Cat ho l i acc ding the di erence of religion , the corpus

an c o r ii s E v an e l ic o ru m . corum d the p g Every question , o r o h weve , naturally depended upon the great princes , wh se r separate votes always gave them the maj o ity . The taxes an d o levy of tro ps were divided among the circles , each of t which had a cap ain , generally the most powerful prince m m r r . o within its li its The e pe , even in his character as r r o o f p esident over the imperial chambe , the highest c urt O f o o justice for the whole the German pe ple , and ver the m o t i perial aulic council , the highest c ur of justice for the r was o p inces , dependent up n the voices of the princes , and was unable t o execute any sentence he might venture to pro o n unce in condemnation of one of their number . The same was the case in regard to the appropriation Of fe o fs lapsed r t o the c o wn . The mo st distant claims were asserted in c Of m o r as deﬁan e the e peror, the whole of whose auth ity w m t o r o f Of o li ited the g ant titles , the protection the less p wer o r m m o o o f c o r . ful am ng the Estates , and the p om ti n e ce The r r powe ful princes pursued a pe fectly independent course . m r t h e r In this anne , diets natu ally declined . Affairs of importance were transacted by writing o r by dipl o m atic m eans o u m r o m thr gh a bassado s between the p tentates of the e pire , o r and the weak were either c mpelled to yield , or , by thei dis m sent, ultiplied the negotiations without exercising any de o m r r r isive inﬂuence over the . The p inces a ely appeared in o m pers n at the diet, and their a bassadors , as well as the city m deputies , while engaged in info r ing their m aster o r their constituents o f the progress of the question and in awaiting 1 084 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

m instructions , generally allowed the mo ent for action to slip by . This procrastination , however, suited the Estates , who, Of r from selﬁshness or from jealousy the house of Habsbu g, m ever refused to assist the crown , however urgent the de and . “

u . de lib Sultan S leiman II justly remarked , The Germans ” c ! rate , I act n The election of the emperor and his coro ation , mean o while , still retained much of their ancient s lemnity and b ut - - had u splendor , Aix la Chapelle grad ally sunk into obliv s n o o ion . Both ceremonie w t ok place at Frankfort on t h e

Maine , whither the regalia, kept at Nuremberg, were regu

l arl d. e y carrie These consisted , ﬁrst, of sacred relics , a piec ’

a . of the holy cross , thorn from the Saviour s crown , St Mau ’ ’

. . c t h rice s sword, a link of St Paul s chain , etc Se ondly , of e m o insignia of the empire , the assive golden cr wn , weighing Of d fourteen pounds , Charlemagne , set with rough diamon s, h the golden ball , sceptre , and sword of that great monarc , i t h e the mperial mantle and robes , the priestly stole and t h e rings . The election over, a peal of bells ushered in coronation day ; the emperor and al l the princes assembled in the R Om e r and proceeded thence on horseback to t h e e Of cathedral , where , mass having been r ad , the elector Mayenc e rose as first bish o p and arch - chancellor of the em “ ff V is . pire, and , sta in hand , demanded of the emperor, s “ ” o fide m c at h o l ic am servare to which he replied , V lo , s and took t h e oath on the gospel . Mayence then a ked the “ ” electors whether they recognized the electe d as empero r ! “ ” to which they with one accord replied , Fiat . The em e ro r was p then took his seat , and anointed by Mayence while Bran denburg held the vessel and assisted in half dis — Of t h e t robing the emperor o n the crown the head , breas , t h e t h e neck , the shoulder , the arm , wrist, and the flat of the hand ; after which he was attired in the robes of Charle o t h e al magne , and the ceremony was concluded in fr nt of t ar e n . by Mayence , assist d by Colog e and Treves The em e ro r h u p , adorned with the crown , t en mo nted the throne , b e ha the hymn of St . Ambrose eing meanwhil c nted , and

1 086 THE HISTOR Y OF G ERMA N Y

o f e Margrave Baden , Counts von Ettingen , Furst nberg, o b o n Montf rt , E erstein , L ewenstei , Helfenstein , etc . Innu

m e rabl e . : Ul m e petty nobles Cities Augsburg, , Kempt n , W Ue b e rl in e n Leutkirch , angen , Ravensberg , g , Pfullendorf, W D un ke l sbu h l Schaffhausen , Esslingen , eil , Wimpfen , , N oe rdl in e n Gruningen , g , Buchau , Gengenbach , Rotweil ,

Kaufbeuren , Memmingen , Biberach , Isny , Lindau , Buch horn , Constance , St . Gall , Reutlingen , Gmund , Heilbronn , Bo ﬁn e n D o n auw oert h O Halle , p g , Aalen , , ffenburg , Zell .

6 t h . . h , Circle of Bavaria Archbishop of Salzburg Bis ops R of Passau , Freising , Ratisbon , emsen (Chiemsee) . Duke of e u b ur Bavaria and Pfalzgraf of N g , of the house of Wittels r r bach . Landg ave of Leuchtenberg (sho tly afterward ex O m o O f tinct) , Count von rtenberg , and so e thers lesser note . h T h e r . t U The city of Ratisbon 7 , Circle of the ppe Rhine . o W r Bish ps of orms , St asburg , Besancon , Geneva , Metz

e r r n . V dun , Spi es , Basel , Sion , Lausan e , Toul Princely o Of o abb ts Fulda , Hirschfeld , and numer us others of lesser Of o r H note . D uke of Lorraine and Sav y , Landg ave of esse , o R h e in rav e C unt of Nassau , g von Salm , Counts von Bitsch , e a l ke n st e in m Wit t e n Hanau , L iningen , F , Isenburg , Sol s , g o m r m O . : stein , Waldeck , etc Cities Basel , C l a , Turkhei , ber m R o szh e im L an dau Wo rm s r Ebenhei , , Hagenau , , , F iedeburg, Gail h ause n a Metz , Verdun , Besancon , , Muhlhausen , K isers berg , Munster (in the Georgenthal) , Strasburg , Schlettstadt,

W o Saarb ruc k. Weissenburg , Spires , Frankfort, etzlar, T ul , U r h . 8t , Circle of Westphalia Bishops of Paderborn , t echt,

m m e ric h O . Ca , Verdun , Liege , Munster, snabruck , Minden f He r o rde n E o v . o v s Abb ts of Cor ey , Stablo , etc Abbesses ,

Of . sen , etc . Dukes Juliers and Berg , Cleves and Mark O r W r Counts von ldenbu g, Bentheim , ied , Mande scheid , e Camm e ric h i o . : L ppe , M ers , etc Citi s Cologne , Wesel , , He rv o rde n V A ix - - Soest , , Warberg , erdun , la Chapelle , Deu

Bra ke l L e n ad. 9 t h bern , Dortmund , Duisburg , g , g , Circle O f of Upper Saxony . Elector of Saxony , of the house Wet

Of . tin . Elector of Brandenburg , of the house Hohenzollern

The master o f the Teutonic order in Prussia , and the land IN TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 087

f Misn ia o . o o master in Liv nia Bish ps , Merseburg , Naum

r r r b bu g , B andenbu g , Havelberg , Le us , Camin ; abbess of l nri d O f W o ke e . Quedlinburg , abbot Saalfeld , , etc Dukes of Saxon - Thuringia (the Albe rtine line of the h o use of Wet o m r tin) . Dukes of P erania , p inces of Anhalt, Counts von r Mansfeld , Schwarzbu g , Stolberg , Hohenstein , Gleichen , r f : Wo l ken ie d. l 0t h O etc . Cities Dantzig , Elbing , , Circle

r o . Lo wer Saxony . A c hbish ps of Magdeburg and Bremen o Of r Bish ps Halbe stadt , Hildesheim , Lubeck , Schwerin ,

. o Ratzeburg , Schleswig Dukes of H lstein (king of Den

r o O f O r w o ma k , of the h use ldenbu g) , Bruns ick (of the h use

- r o f of Guelph), Saxon Lauenbu g ( the house of Anhalt), and m Goe t t in e n r . : Mec klenbu g Cities Lubeck , Ha burg , g , Gos l ar o rdh ause n W m o c , N , Muhlhausen , is ar, Rost k , Stralsund ,

Brunswick , Magdeburg , Lemgo , Erfurt , Limburg . t u r war Each of the Es ates s ffe ed by the religious , the r prin c es alone gained the eby . The aristocracy and the cities in r Of sank power and independence , while the powe the p rincely houses rose by the establishment Of the right o f

m re. In 1 621 i r pri ogenitu , the indiv sibility of the heredita y pro vin c es Of t h e h o use O f Habsburg was passed into a l aw ; t h e ho use of Wittelsbach in Bavaria had d o ne the sam e in 5 45 t o o r r 1 , but late , the other b anch having al eady ﬁxed i w Of m tself in the Pfalz , here the division the fa ily posses sio ns still co ntinued . The electo ral h o use lost the Upper Pfalz t o Bavaria ; the c o llateral line o f Pfalz - Neuburg divided the Cleve in 1 666 m o heritance with Brandenburg , and , in , ca e int the o ul ie rs 1 683 re actual p ssession of Berg and J ; in , this line placed the extinct electoral house . The other collateral line,

- r i Pfalz Bi kenfeld, surv ving the rest of the Wittelsbacher, came into sole possession of t h e Whole of the Bavarian in

r . O f he itance A descendant this line , Charles Gustavus ,

o - m unted the thro ne of Sweden in 1 654 . The ho use of Ho henzo llern was also divided into the B randenburg and o W h Franc nian lines , the house of ettin into t ose of Saxony an d r Of r Thu ingia , the house of Guelph into those Lunebu g 1 088 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

l . n and Wo fenbuttel Hesse , Bade , Mecklenburg , and A n u r m r halt were also subdivided . W t e be g formed a single exception amo ng the Protestant houses and established the r m o right of primogenitu e at a uch earlier peri d . The right of primogeniture in the Catholic reigning families and t he subdivision of the poss essions of the Protestant princes e x er c ise d r w ar a g eat inﬂuence over the of religion . The sub r e division of the possessions of the petty p inc s , Hohenlohe ,

W S . aldburg , chwarzburg , Reuss , Lippe , etc , also contrib ut e d m o w o to di inish the little p er they p ssessed . The demoraliza tion engendered by this subdivision and

m r by the fa ily disputes to which it gave rise , and which we e , o r m reove , fed by the religious war and by the sovereignty usurped by the princes independent of bo th em pe ro r and o i O f r rm n p pe , and pervad ng most the cou ts of Ge a y , has bee n already mentioned . The ancient sturdiness of the Ger a was ih man ch racter long perceptible the sports of the ﬁeld , nor was it until vice had gradually sapped both m ental and physi c al V i gor that more effem inate amusements were intro du c e d i n r m their stead , that the ancient tou na ent yielded to r o f o the childish spo t running at the ring , and shall w wits r fo r m we e salaried the entertain ent of the great . Fools , m r o o . o misshapen dwa fs , M rs , apes , etc , beca e c urt append m r e o ages . I mode at drinking was at ﬁrst the fashi nable vice o r r m am ng the p inces , whose successors , ene vated both in ind

and body , brought license on the throne . The nobles , de

generated by court life , quitted their fastnesses , whose walls n r r t o ff no lo ge resisted the artillery of the besiege , hrew m o o r e m r m their ar r , that no l nger p otect d the f o the bullet , and exchanged their b ro ad battle - swords fo r the p retty toy r r o m worn by the cou tier . Here and the e , h wever, ight still o f O l d be found a noble man the school living on his estate , but the country nobility were regarded as far beneath the

- cou rtly aristocracy . The ancient and free spirited nobility in the hereditary provinces had been alm os t entirely exter ’ in at e d m o m by war , the heads an s axe , and emigrati n , and a had been repl ced by proselytes and foreign adventurers , on

1 09 0 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

o f u the cabinet for the maintenance ambassadors , for p rposes o of bribery and corrupti n at foreign courts , etc . Funds were required by the government fo r the maintenance of an army o u in during war and peace , for the f undation of p blic st it u

. r n n e tions , etc Eve y imaginable means of raisi g these c e s sary funds was consequently resorted to . The demesnes of o c c h l fie f the sovereign , c nfiscated hu r property , or apsed s r r t o o were , like a large count y estate , tu ned the pr fit of the n o crown . The coi age , t lls , and mines were applied to the o same purpose . Fresh r yal dues were created by the sale of privileges , titles , offices , and even justice , or by the reserva tion of immense mon o polies . While the revenue and pre ro at iv e s O f h m r h g the c a be s were by t ese means extended , r the people were opp essed with heavy taxes . The wealth possessed by the subje c t was esti m ated by the g o ver n m ent as a capital , in point of fact , belonging to the sovereign , and lent by him to his subjects at an arbitrary percentage . m o f The general Ger an and imperial courts justice fell , r o r re like the local and p ivate courts , int disuse , and we e o r i t h e ff r placed by the provincial c u ts o di e ent principalities . m l aw h h ad The Ro an , w ich long been in use , became gen h r m l an d o r t e aw . eral , f med subst atu of all provincial All m r n m u la ws of Ger an o igin had fallen i to conte pt . The po p

o . N lar courts of justice , consequently , fell int disuse either m c n o r t h e the com une , nor the ele ted judge , the Feme , last f o o o f o r ree p pular c urt justice , could any l nger hold a t ibunal . The w h ole of the judicial power fell into t h e h ands o f the m r t h e l aw princes , who co mitted it to one pa ticular class , e rs w h o r m y , were inst ucted in the universities in the Ro an n l aw and appointed as judges and sal aried by t h e pri ce . T he r o f o l aw r o m people , igno ant the R man , we e c pelled to intrust their complaints and defen c e befo re the court to another espe c ial l aw Of class , connected with the , that the advocates , who aided the judges in deceiving th eir c l ients as interest or c a m price p ro m pted . Decisions were secret . The Fe e had been

o r w as . L a diss lved , but its wo st feature , secrecy , retained w suits were conducted in writing , for the sake of greater ex IN TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 09 1

t it u e Of fo r r O f o c m s ac d , and , in case appeal , the delive y d u ent t o the h igher courts . These written proceedings naturally m c i w as ad required ti e , and the pro rast nation of a decision an t a e o u s c o v g to both judge and advocate , all sts being paid

. u by the co ntending parties This was the worst o f all . J s l tice was no onger dispensed gratis . The poor were c o m e ll e d c e r n r h p to pur has their right , and the lawye s e ic ed o n o w r them selves at their expense . Pe ple f equently applied fo r t o r m t o m r o f justice neutral judges , p esu ed be aste s their r an d m l w h o o m n p ofession i partia , and were to be f und a o g h e t o h o m m o the professors in t universities , w i p rtant suits

r r fo r c o n . c o f c were efer ed de isi The an ient bench justi es . at b o o r o f r i Leipzig , ﬁlled y the learned pr fess s that unive s ty , was raised in this manner t o the dignity of a high er c ourt o f t o a n r appeal . The note which it att i ed may be judged f om t h e c r r Of m c fa t that the g eatest lawye those ti es , Benedi t Car zo w o n ro m 1 6 20 t o 1 6 6 6 p , who sat the Leipzig bench f ,

decided n o less than twenty tho usand capital sente n c e s . T h e barbarous and dishonoring punishm ent s inﬂi c ted by the degenerate Romans on thei r slaves were still enfo rced

- upon t h e free born German . The punishment of the rack r m m m or to rture was taken f o the Ro an l aw . The cri in al m V . w as o f code of Charles , the Carolina , an abridg ent all r r these barba o us and wicked inn ovati o ns . Eve y township

r n o r h ad o r - h m e r r ao and p ovi cial c u t its t ture c a b , whe e the

c u se d Was his m m - c racked in all li bs , thu b screwed , pri ked n r o i d Oil o r o under his ails , bu ned with b il ng lea , , vitri l , until h c o . o u t e r he nfessed The inn cent, nable to bear hor ible r O t n m to ture , consequently f en co fessed the cri es with which

they were charged and were condemned to death . Every o an o f t wnship d court had also its place execution . Where ever a h ill com m anding a lovely prospect rose in the vicinity m m of a town , its su it was crowned with a gallows and a m wheel and c overed with the bo nes of vi c tims . The si ple punishm ent o f death n o l o nger satisﬁed the pampered appe f tite o the crimin al j udge . Torture was formed into a sys t e m o o r n , and the h rr s practiced by the ancient tyra ts of 1 09 2 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

r o f m c h Pe sia and Ro e , by the Ameri an savage in is war r in o like fanaticism , we e , c ld blood , legalized by the lawyers h Off throug out Germany . The chopping of hands , the cut

Of h - o ting out tongues , blinding , pinc ing with red hot t ngs , o ut o f r im al cutting slices the back , tearing out the hea t , p o ff t h e r ing , wrenching limb by limb with i on wheel , quar te rin g with four horses or with o xen in o rder to le n gthen the r r m o f n n to tu e , odiﬁed the simplicity beheadi g , hangi g , and it burning . A species of tyrannical w was som etim es dis

in o . played the m de of punishment In Switzerland , bigamy t h e m i o n e was punished by cri inal be ng cut in two , and half h i s r O f of pe son being given to each his wives . In Augs r r w n ro bu g , the cle gy ere e closed in i n cages and hung as i r o n t h e o w sing ng bi ds church t wers , here they were left to perish with hunger ; as grievous crimes could not be left u n r o u n o ra punished , and the tempo al p wer co ld inﬂict corpo l m f punishment on a m e ber O the church . Jewish thieves were hanged by the legs between t w o d o gs . Poachers were w as o o chained to the stag , which turned lo se into the wo ds , r or were sewn into a deerskin and th own to the d o gs . In the white tower at Cologne , bread was hung high above the h r heads of the criminals , who were t us compelled eithe to r t m it t o o f b eak heir necks by cla bering up to , or die hunger ; etc . , etc . The prince chieﬂy maintained his authority by m eans O f h is mercenaries . Formerly the whole of the population bore arms , afterward only the feudal nobility and the citizens ; the power was therefore formerly in the hands of the c iti n c zens , and afterward in those of the obility and itizens , who were in their tu rn e re lon g com pelled t o cede their arm s ’ o o r to the s ldiery and their p wer to the p inces , the soldiers o f paymasters . After the invention of gunpowder, heavy r o ne w o o f artillery , the consequent int oducti n of the meth d

rr o n o r o arm ca ying sieges , and of m de n tactics , a str ng and r o r c t h e a b ave heart n longer gua anteed suc ess in battleﬁeld,

but the experience and disciplin e Of regular troops . Corps e consequently formed under experienced leaders , which , lik

1 09 4: THE HI STORY OF GERMAN Y

infantry that generally advanced to the attack in a wedge, rm i m a ed W th jagged clubs ( orning stars), and with extremely

- . b broad , double handed swords They were succeeded y the rm r wh o o n Ge an lance s , bore immensely l g pikes , at one end

. T o of which was a hatchet (halberds , partisans) these were shortly afterward associated the arquebusiers , who used the r c o r ﬁ st guns , whi h , on acc unt of their weight, were ested

o r O f . up n fo ks , for the purpose taking aim The Spanish arquebusiers were the most celebrated . Gustavus Ad o lphus ro int duced a lighter gun , the musket , which has ever since been used by the infantry . The Croatians in the imperial arm ies ﬁrst distinguished themselves as light infantry fo r ski rmishing and fo r harassing the advanced guard and the

r . rea ﬂanks of the enemy In the cavalry , the ancient knights c o o r r r and squires were suc eeded by the tro pers cui assie s ,

w h o n o . o still retai ed the arm r and helmet The drago ns , rm r Of h w ithout a o , with a hat instead a helmet, armed wit S o f o r the carbine , a pecies light cavalry , that c uld also se ve o n o o b a o f t, were first introduced y M nsfeld and were m re system atic ally organized by Gustavus Ado lphus . T o these we re finally added a bo dy o f light cavalry fo r o utp o st duty i h and skirmishing , the Hungarian Hussars and the Pol s — C o ssacks in the imperial army The artillery at fi rst bo re r g reat affinity t o the gigantic and awkwa d catapult . The r fi rst light artillery was int oduced by Gustavus Ado lphus . r O u O f Mau ice , Prince of range , bro ght the art siege to c greater perfection . The first routine in tactics was practi ed o f by the Swiss , who also intr duced the square , as a fording r the best p ro tection t o infantry against the caval y . Gus o r r t o o r tavus Ad lphus laid at fi st great, pe haps g eat, weight m r his c i o d on ilita y science , and in tacti s dec dedly fav re ’ t h e m attacks on ene y s flanks .

ze CCX V . Th e Citi ns a n d the Pea sa n try

T HE fourteenth century was the hero i c age o f the cities ; i n c m O f r b ut the ﬁfteenth , they rea hed the sum it thei power, I N TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 095

o m h had already bec e disunited and slothful ; in the sixteent , h ff r o O f t ey su e ed by religi us factions , by the attacks the Of o m m r princes , and by the decrease c e ce , which passed principally into the hands o f the Dutch and English ; the ’ o thi rty years w ar c o m pleted their ruin . The c nfederated cities of the Rhine and Upper Ge rmany were included in the

- o r im newly c nstituted circles , although still rega ded as free r c t o pe ial cities ; the single ities fell without exception decay , w hile th o se O f lesser im p o rtance becam e Obje c ts o f ridicule w ith the im perial eagle over their l o w gates and with their r i o n c r o o s . petty co p rati n The g eat cit es the Rhine , Mayen e o o o m o O f r c and C l gne , fell under the d ini n thei e clesiastical r c n o t r t o r r p inces , whi h a little cont ibuted the ise of the f ee

im pe rial city o f F rankfo rt on the Maine . Of the Hanse o m r r m o t wns , Ha bu g , B e en , and Lubeck al ne retained their c c r an ient independen e ; the rest fell , like Brunswick , pa tially, o r r W m r r o , like Magdebu g , is a , and St alsund , wh lly under r m t h e r c o f o . r r p in es the N th In Central Ge many , Nu e berg maintained her freedo m against the petty princes o f F ran conia ; Leipzig ro se t o p rosperity thro ugh the fav o r O f the c o r o w h o r ele t of Sax ny , rende ed her the seat of a general fair fo r the who le em pire ; and Ratisbo n enj o yed a respect r o f o able neutrality as the p incipal scene dipl matic affairs . r r o o In B andenbu g , Sax ny , Bavaria , and Austria , h wever , c r r i all the ities , Vienna , P ague , B eslau , Berl n (the ancient ro i o m o r t o re f nt er t wns) sub itted , after a vi lent st uggle , the S e c t i e o r f r r p v s ve eigns o th o se c o unt ies . Bava iaeven m ade m r o D o n au w oert h o n e o f r an old i pe ial free t wn , , her p ovincial — . o Of cities Besides these t wns ancient date , there sprang up m r o r art ic u any othe s as the p wer of the princes inc eased , p l arl r c r c o y p in ely esiden es and c llegiate towns . o f o m In the cities , the spirit the g vern ent changed from m r de ocratic to a isto c ratic . The great comm o ti o ns in the o m a m f c mmunes ter in ted in silent subm issi o n . In so e o the cities Of Southern Germ any the ancient burgess families re o m r o r n e gained their f r e inﬂuence ; in the s , a w hereditary c c o o f m O f c aristo racy , nsisting embers the town ouncil , 1 09 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

sprang fro m the ruli n g corp o ra tio n s . The revolutio n in the r m o f o f o r Ge m i an a o gove n ent the cities N thern y , lth ugh o r o vi lent , had taken place at a later pe i d , in the sixteenth r t h e o m r centu y , than in those of S uth , and had been e ely

in ff . n n o transient its e ects In all the Ha se tow s , the m re in ﬂuential among the burgher fam ilies had n ever raised a ro o f rc a t o - o i m b ad line dema tion , as wn n bil ty , between the had dm o selves and the rest of the citizens , but a itted am ng thei r ranks all the fam ilies Whom wealth or me rit gradually ai d n c c r se to distinction , and , by this means , gai ed an a es o o f t h a c si n weal and talent, gainst whi h the lower classes, o m r o f v the w rk en , vainly st ove , the necessity again ha ing reco urse t o com m e rce and trade fo r the pu rp o se o f gain i ng a livelih o od ever replacing the go vernm ent in the hands o f the m c r o o c . mer hants The uni ipal gove nment, nce so p werful , n o as had , nevertheless , fallen in the Ha se t wns it had every o t he m where else . Instead of bold speculati ns , aintenance r o f m e o o h o f of p erogatives and fa ily wealth wer al ne th ug t , r c ro m o and gave rise to the p a tice , bad even f a physical p int

O f t ar e o f . of view , in erm riage betw en near kin In Spires , ’ c h o r r w ar m r r whi , anteri r to the thi ty yea s , nu be ed thi ty o c m th usand inhabitants , su h ti idity prevailed that even the i m r i i o r anc ent burgher fa ilies we e div ded nt three deg ees , r d acco rding to the antiquity of thei races , and , with pe antic

o o o c o o c Of jeal usy , l ked with s rn up n ea h other and the rest i i the citizens . The denization of rising families or of nd vid i c ual s was by this means rendered difﬁcult, and any part ipa ti o n in the municipal governm ent utterly impossible . The S r O f c m n free , proud pi it the itizens beca e petty and e slaved , r n o t o and the bu gher families aped , the n bility , as their o o r m t h e r fathers had d ne bef e the , but se vile dependents of a m ro the court . They ssu ed p ud titles , decorated themselves o an d n o t wit h with chains and orders , played the dipl matist, , i r standi n g their wise and d gniﬁed demeano , were ever over reached or bribed . O f s Notwithst anding the decline commerce, the citie r an d i ic c ontinued for some time wealthy and p osperous, c v

1 09 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

. F u n masked and frolic characterized the popular festivals . Each guild had its Hans w urst (Jack - p udding) in imitation ’ in c o f o of the prince s jester , and , the ex ess their f lly , they ’ t a c h - o i execu ed fant sti al c efs d euvre , built g gantic tuns , like d o o that at Heidelberg , founde en rm us bells , like that at r E furt, made gigantic sausages and loaves to match , etc . Merely a shado w of the mad j o viality of the citizens re ’ a t h m ined af er the t irty years war . had The cities gradually gained in circumferen c e . The danger to which they were continually exposed had caused the citizens to colle ct within the walls ; hence the narrow Of streets and the tall , dark houses in the old part the towns . o o The pulent citizens, nevertheless , n bly expended their wealth in the foundation o f establishm ents fo r the public

u o o o beneﬁt, s ch as sch ols , libraries , hospitals , p orh uses ,

e e t c . o m hot ls , The m st magnificent of these establish ents r was e ected in the sixteenth century , at Augsburg , by Fug w h o u r o f o u ger, built pwa d a hundred c ttages in the s burb ’ o f . o o St Jac b s , as refuges for the p or ; it was not , however, unti l the ensuing century that sanitary establishments and r r t o i poo ho uses we e brought perfect on in Holland . The ex ample O ffered in this respect by the free towns and republics had a benefic ial influen c e up o n the states . Luxu ry with her o r im train of c ncomitant evils had , meanwhile , rende ed an o O f m derate care health necessary , and sent crowds to seek Of r o O f it at the baths Ge many , those ab des license and c qua kery . ’ The Jews were still confined to the J e wrie s or Jews quar r w o k o ters , whe e they ere l c ed in at nightfall ; and , alth ugh n o o r ro their lives were l nge unp tected by the laws , they were O o the bjects of public c ntumely , which , however, did not hinder them from enriching themselves by usury at the ex

- m m pense of the Christians . The well eant atte pt made by r Wurt e m b e r Ch istopher the Wise , duke of g , to banish the m Jews from the Ro an empire as public nuisances , as the t o n Of m secret foes the nationality and religio Ger any , as traitors ever on the watc h to betray the empire to the for I N TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 09 9

r m r c o r o n im eigne , as crafty and de o alizing spe ulat s the ro c Of r p vidence , weaknesses , and vi es the Ch istians , failed , principally o n acc o unt o f t h e c o untenance at that tim e r t o o m o f r c r affo ded the Jews by s e the p in es , who t ansacted h m o n m m m o f business with t e an i ense scale , and , by eans o r r h r their c u t Jews , drained the coffe s of t ei Christian sub a — r n r r jeet The gypsies , anothe foreig ace , but ha mless and m o r n in m r m r r r c Ge r uni p ta t nu be , ade thei ﬁ st appea an e in

m l n 1 422 . r o r any They we e pr bably an Indian ace , ﬂying c m m befo re the o nquering ar s of Ti ur. The peasa n try suffe red even m o re t han the c itizens by ’ r r o O f o r the thirty yea s w a . With the ex c epti n the c unt ies in whi c h t he peasants h ad preserved their liberties and w o r o o f rights , S itzerland , H lland , and F iesland , the wh le r r rm w as o u n Cent al and Easte n Ge any pe pled with slaves , o O f h o r l o r o ro c p ssessed no , wea th , kn wledge , the p du e o f w o o w b o c r h se toil was swall ed up y the n bility , the le gy m o r . i i c o be m and the c u t A d st n ti n ust, nevertheless , ade between the o riginally Ge rm an and the o riginally Slavo nian

o o . o r r bur p pulati n In the Slav nian East , there we e fewe m o r o r rm W dens and re pe s nal slave y ; in the Ge an est, r urt m greater pe so nal freedo m and heavier dues . In W e r fo r c r w as n o t o t o o be g, instan e , the se f b und the s il and r o r r o m was f ee to quit his l d ; in Aust ia , B he ia , Silesia , ro r ro c he w as o O f r and the f ntie p vin es , unp ssessed this p ivi

. Wurt e m b e r o n o r far lege The g peasant was , the the hand ,

h o r o - r more heavily laden wit pp essive dues , s cage se vice , and exp o sed t o heavier punishm ents than t h e half - slave in

- . rm r w as m o r r the East The fo e an i p ve ished , fallen , ill t eated r o r i o r h o o m f eeman , wh se ebell us spi it ardships al ne c uld ta e ; t h e r o m o c o latter was a he editary b nd an , wh se patient ntent b e fit t e d t h e c o o o f patriar hal p siti n his lo rd . o m o w as r t b e In lden ti es , when g ld sca ce , the peasan , t o rc o r sides the tithes that fell the chu h , paid his l d in kind , o r o f r r r c o w ro r a p tion g ain , flax , f uit, g ass , a f m the he d , o m o r o so c a hen and eggs fr h use and hea th . He als paid a e - r h o r g se vice , t at is , worked in person and with his h ses 1 1 00 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y fo r his lo rd . These dues and services were o riginally m o d c b u t o r l c rate , , as the wants of the n bility g adua ly in reased , a r b m o r o e r the peas nt y ecame e heavily ppr ssed , and thei c o n sequent revolt m erely affo rded t o the no bility an o ppo rtunity an d fo r m m O f O r an excuse a ore syste atic mode pp ession . o r a a S cage dues we e rbitrarily incre sed . In the sixteenth r t he o r o f r r m centu y , elect s B andenbu g were co pelled to m t o r c c o set a li it the opp essive pra ti es of the n bility , and t o fix the services perfo rm ed by the pe asant t o his l o rd at t w o days in the week . The most oppressive of all was t he

- r o m hunting ave age , which c pelled the peasant to tread down o n r o r c his w c ops while aiding his l d in hasing the deer. The r r m peasant y we e also exposed to the most unjust, ost dis

- r o . o w as m o r gusting , and ext a rdinary dues S cage duty , e o r r m i o n m O f i h w as ve , e ssible pay ent a certa n sum , w ich enfo rced upon all unable o r unwillin g t o perfo rm it in per f m . O s son Rents or natural dues were , in course ti e , al o r r f . On c O raised every par el of land , eve y co ner the house , a - ne W a nd c m st espe ial i post , often di inguished by a whim

sic al was . c s o r name , levied Ea h eas n of the yea , every m a o change in the fa ily by marriage or death , an dditi nal m r e t c . . building , , enriched the ano ial lord Besides the gift o f b c r r o r of the best head the cattle , the est pie e of fu nitu e , c e o t h e the best dress of the de ased peasant , to his l rd , Lan de miu m c o f , generally ten per ent on the real value the ro o r o n it s i p perty , had to be paid int his coffe s transition nto m other hands, besides innu erable other chance dues . Then cam e a number Of n e w punishments and ﬁnes . Air and

o . water , f rest and field , were originally free to all Villages o c r m r o o m o were m re s attered , the count y o e pen , the n bles re r o o f co ntented and generally absent ; but , by deg ees , the l rd o t he the manor insisted on the s le enjoyment of the chase , t he o stream , forest , and the field , and inflicted the m st ter rible punishm ents on the serf w ho ventured to infringe his

- o ro ﬁt self raised prerogative . These punishments were als p

m . able , being re ittable by ﬁne s Of r e In the Catholic state , the cultivation the land in la g

1 1 02 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

r the poor and untaught children of natu e . But , wherever O ppression and contempt roused the bitter feelings o f the o c r o r b bo r, they found vent in mo king p overbs , p pula allads , o but and , more than all , in c arse cutting j ests .

T h e E r uditio n O CCXVI . ] the Un iv ersities

HI L E o b i n o ran c e W the pe ple were thus enslaved yx g , learn in m i i t h e g ade rapid strides at the un vers ties , where reputa tion o f the scholars gradually ro se as that of the chu rc hmen i fro sank ; but the l terati , after freeing themselves m the ’ c o f o m r o w sha kles the R an hie archy , and , under Luther s p e rfu l fo r o m i o i guidance , s e t me forwarding the p pular nter m o r o i i i ests of Ger any , ere l ng fo s ok the r nat onal l terature fo r the exclusive study o f the classics and i ntro du c ed m uch ro t h e i r r that was hete geneous into l teratu e of Ge many . r c i c r fo r The lea ned lass , wh h p ovided servants the state fo r r w as o i n i and the chu ch , f rmed the un versities , which , o m o since the Ref r ati n , had increased in”, number and had i been newly const tuted . The Ge rman unive rsiti es were fo unded at the following e r o : r 1 3 48 1 3 65 d 1 387 p i ds P ague , ; Vienna , ; Hei elberg , ; o o 1 388 r r 1 39 2 1 409 o o c 1 41 9 C l gne , ; E fu t, ; Leipzig , ; R st k , ; o 1 42 6 r 1 45 6 r r L uvain , ; G iefswald , ; F eibu g in the Breisgau , 1 45 7 1 472 o 1 472 ; Treves , ; Ing lstadt , ; Tubingen and May 1 477 W r 1 5 02 r o r o n O r 1 5 06 ence , ; ittenbe g , ; F an kf t the de , ; M r 1 5 27 KOn i s be r 1 5 44 i 1 5 49 a burg, ; g g , ; D llingen , ; Jena, 1 5 5 8 1 5 75 He l m st ae dt 1 5 76 o 1 5 78 O m ; Leyden , ; , ; Alt rf , ; l utz , 1 5 81 W r r 1 5 82 F ra n e c k e r 1 5 85 rae 1 5 86 ; u zbu g , ; , ; G tz , ; Gies

’ 1 607 o 1 6 1 4 r o r 1 6 1 5 sen , ; Gr ningen , ; Pade b n , ; Rinteln and 1 62 1 1 6 23 O n r c 1 6 30 U Strasburg , ; Salzburg , ; s ab u k , ; trecht,

1 634 1 63 6 1 648 . o r ; Linz , ; Bamberg , The Cath lic unive sities r o rm we e , previously to the Ref ation , principally under the r O f t he r c i n su b se di ection F an sca s and Dominicans , and , J q uently to that period , under that of the esuits , all of w h o m were equally imbued with the spirit of the Roman hierarchy . The Protestant universities were at ﬁrst directed I N TERNA L ST A TE D URI N G REFORMA TI ON 1 1 03

r o s by the Refo med clergy ; at a later peri d, by the lawyer c o i n n l aw n and urt counsellors , the spirit of Roma and moder mo narchy . The German universities underwent a ra dical change immediately after the great catastrophe at Prague i n t h e sub di time of the Hussites . The professors and scholars , e t o v id d according nations, no longer formed free republics as heretofore ; the professors were paid by the government, n and the students were divided , not according to ations , but B r a c cording to faculties and bursa . Bursa ( oe se ) were i nsti ut io n fo r nt Of t he h t s the mai enance students , who were t ence r o o r r termed Burschen . The e were pr fess r and burghe Bu sa ; the fo rm er O f which looked do wn upon the latter and ill treated them . The fresh students were also dreadfully abused by tho se of longer standing . These Bursa were put an end r S to by the f ee pirit of the Reformation , but the roughness m m t b and brutality inherent in the was i ita ed in the clu s , i nto which the students were again divided according to t he r s an count y to which they belonged , a resu citation of the o o i t o in o r cient divisi n acc rd ng nations , and also the h r id f . 1 6 6 1 J . O w Pennal system In , ohn George II Saxony as com pelled fo rmally t o prohibit the ro bbery O f the yo unger t h e Sc h o rist s w ho students , the Pennales , by the elder ones , , deprived them of their goo d clothes and gave them rags in m r o es . retu n , obliged the to clean their sh , etc Be fOre o m a i in o l aw the Ref r ation , schol st cism theol gy , , m r i and gra mar was chieﬂy taught at the unive sities. Cav ls, fo s poverty of idea , verbosity , dialectic controversy were t e re T he d ; science was but little studied. pure conception m l of the Virgin for ed , before the Reformation , the principa

subject of controversy betwee n t h e theologians of all the u ni o v e rsit ie s o t , and was for a wh le century disputed with grea subtlety and bitterness in co ntroversial writings and in dis in n i o b e courses lear ed assemblies . The princ pal c ntroversy w n v o c at i us t een the profane masters concer ed the casus v , w r o su o sit io t hethe it was a positi or a pp , and an importan c ongress was co nvoked at Heidelberg fo r t h e purpose of de 1 1 04 . THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

i ciding the dispute . Th s scholastic sp i rit unfortunately also m r an d m h ani ated the Refo mers , , as the enthusias t at pre ’ t he i i f vailed during Luther s time disappeared , d v ni ty o the Pro testant universities became as strongly i m p regnated Wi th s o phistry and cav i lling as that Of the Pap i sts had fo rm erly

. T o o i i m o f t h e been these were added the sch last c s lawyers ,

o o m w h o the cavils of the commentat rs on the R an law , ih dust rio u sl u t o r o o m t o an n y so ght up o t all German cust s , ihi l r m o f rma i r ate Ge man spirit and the poor re ains Ge n l be ty , by setting o ut with the principle of the worst peri o d of the “ m t h e i o i Ro an empire , that W ll of the s vere gn was t h e sou rc e of all law . The m o st distinguished of the Ro man i s t s Ho l o an de r Z asius in the sixteenth century were , , Hen n o r m o n ar h ni g von Gode the c a juris . As early as the ﬁf t e e n t h n o n rm ce tury , Peter von Andlau , in a work the Ge an r m o m empi e , atte pted to reduce its constituti n to a sy ste , in w o i o f t h e h hich he was f llowed , in the beginn ng seventeent m A ru ae us . o f century , by of Jena Chemnitz (Hippoly tus r u i b o Lapide) , howeve , acq ired the h ghest repute y his w rk o f W i o m on the Peace estphalia , in wh ch he c nde ned the unity of Germany and lauded her su bd i visio n under petty princes and fo reign brigands . Poli tics were studied in Hol w a m r r i i r land , here o e liberal spi it re gned , W th far g eater

n . o ro b assiduity tha in the rest of Germany Hug G tius , y e t o n t o his work de Jure Belli Pacis , laid the foundati a l aw O f i i m o r nat ons , based on natural r ght , reason , ality , an d Christianity . m m r c was Gra a , hitherto a dry and unintelle tual study , o f t h e l an im ated wit h fresh l i fe . The study dead anguages r rm h o o r rende ed the Ge ans familiar wit the p ets , phil sophe s , h o i o f r S o f and ist r ans Greece , and the da k hades scholastic f T h i gnorance faded before the rising light O knowledge . e study of the humanities had greatly a i ded the Reform ation and was therefo re naturally carried on t o a still greate r ex o u o f r t tent in t h e Protestant universities . The f nders the ﬁ s i n m ac ademies , which the learned languages and hu anities r i we e taught , were Rudolf Agricola , of whom ment on has

1 1 06 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

v Catholic Middle Ages , e ery subject had been treated fro m r o V N a spiritual or eligi us point of iew . atu re had been de s ise d r m f ’ p as an inst u ent o sin . Heaven was the Christian s r highest aim , and his sojourn upon ea th w as to be spent in - in m self denial , celibacy , fasting , ental and physical a base ment . This sp rang fro m the anti thesis o riginally Offered by i t h o r o f Christian y to the heat en ad ation nature , and the ih ’ q u ire r into nature was consequently regarded as a student of the black art . At Salerno in Italy m edicine had been studied on the

Mahometan principle , but had been rendered incapable o f being im pro ved by experience by its accomm o dation to t h e general sc h o lastic notions . In the comm encement Of t h e ﬁf t e e n t h V ih century , an Alsatian monk , Basilius alentinus , o spired by his own genius , began , as he el quently expressed ”

. r c o r himself , to analyze nature His ﬁ st dis ve ies in ch em ist r n - o y formed a steppi g st ne for all others . In this century , Me e n b e r o also Conrad von g g, deacon of Ratisb n , wrote a o n o n treatise the nature of the heavenly bodies , that of the m . o earth , stones , plants , animals , and ankind His noti ns o r were , it is true , extremely imperfect . This w k passed through six editions between 1 475 and 1 49 9 . r m Almost a century , however , elapsed befo e the hu anists s ucceeded in form ing physicians on the m odel o f the an c ient r o o f G eeks and R mans , Hippocrates and Galen , in banish ing the o l d scholastic dogm as and in taking experience as a ] c u . W c g ide Koch of Base , inther of Anderna h , Hagenbu h , c o t r t Fu hs , Lange , Zwinger , and numer us o he s dis inguished r c i o r r o r o f themselves as p a t ti ne s , as well as t anslat s the

c o m m . o r r 1 5 65 ancients and as entators C n ad Gessne , in , m o m m n was the ost n ted a ong the hu a ists and naturalists . T B o tany and anato m y were also studied . ab e rnae m o n t anus r o r c r w o te a celebrated botanical w k in the ﬁfteenth entu y . I n 1 49 1 appeared t h e bo tanical work Of John v o n C ube o f c r K e t h am m Mayen e , ado ned with woodcuts ; and ade ana

' t o m ic al o fo r Wo l f an rin c e o f . W w odcuts g g , p Anhalt erner 1 R o l ﬁn n 5 9 9 . g , a cele brated a atomist, was born in , at Hamburg IN TERNA L STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 1 07

‘ The o phrastus Para c elsus opened a co m pletely n e w path c r m r c in the sixteenth entu y . The syste of this g eat physi ian and phil o so phe r w as as far rem o ved fro m that Of the hum an ist s o r c o m h , the Hipp c atic physi ians , as fr t at of the ancient

- o c . was r n o t sch lasti s He taught by self gained expe ience , m o . c r S by ancient asserti ns The suc ess of his cu es , his i pli ﬁ c at io n m c m m of edi a ents , and his abolition of innu erable abuses gained him imm ense p o p ularity during his c ontinual r ro m o w o o jou neys th ugh Ger any , and , n t ithstanding the pp si o o f O r m r o f m s ti n the lde physicians , nu be s the edical student fo ll o wed in his st ep s . He c o m pletely upset the prevalent system o f natu ral phil o so phy and reduc ed the fo ur elem e n ts r o c c t o r c rr o w r hithe t a epted , th ee , o esp nding ith the th ee r m m m r r p i itive ele ents in chemistry , e cu ius , sulphur, and so r t h e r u o m o m sal , te med after p od cti ns st nearly rese bling

m c r . w as c c r t o the , qui ksilve , brimstone , and salt It a o ding o r o r this the y that he divided the whole of the natural w ld , r r m an o m m o f and , ega ding as an epit e (microcos ) the uni r m c r c o m c t o m ve se ( a o s ), redu ed medicine a sy pathetic and

t c m . r r c antipathe i syste Eve ything in the unive se , a cording t o h im c m an r m r , affe ted eithe entally , spi itually , or physi o c cally ; c nsequently , the great study of the physi ian was the dete c ti o n o f whatever was injurious o r beneﬁcial in its

ff . r r e ect in every case Impe fect as his theory was , it g eatly ad v an c ed the study and p ractice o f m edicine by pro m o ting o m r o f m m c m the c pa ative study nature , by si plifying edi a ents and by laying do wn as a gen eral rule the ch o ic e O f the re m c o r t o w edy a c ding the sym ptom s Of the disease . Art as at that perio d still so c o mpletely in h e r infancy that Parac elsus w as led from a belief in the sym pathetic afﬁnity pe rvading all nature to ascribe a corresp o nding quality t o the stars ; o n e o f Cro l l iu s o r m and his pupils , , supp sed the external ese blance between the remedy and the sym ptom s o f the disease t o S o f r r o rr o m be a ign thei inte nal c esp ndence , and atte pted ,

h i i A ureol us T h e o h rast us arac e sus Bo mb ast us ab Ho h e nh e im o rn P l p p P l , b at F n sie del n in S it e r n Hi fami am r m H h n h e im near t ut t w a . s c e f o o e S , z l d ly , gari 1 1 08 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

t af s for ins ance , to cure the jaundice with s fron , disea es of

o . r r v the brain with p ppy buds , etc These e ro s were , howe er, founded upon truth , and , even at the present day , Paracelsus is allowed by the faculty to have greatly promoted science , t u se b by his in roduction of the of aths , mercury , etc. ; much o f his o f i system is still irrefutable , and many his remed es

- r . He 1 5 41 at are still in gene al use died in , Salzburg , and

r e r during the aging of the cholera , in the present c ntu y , the pe ople went in crowds to pray at his grave . The most cele b rat e d T h urn e ise r o f e among his numerous pupils was Bas l , f wh o was born in 1 5 30 . He was one O the most enter Of prising spirits the age , began life as a soldier , and was in i o turn a miner, a great traveller, pr vate physician to J hn r s George , elector of Brandenburg , treasurer to several p ince , s r and , at the ame time , ﬁnancier , alchemist , physician , printe ,

and r . o r o eng aver in wood He ﬁrst br ught the calenda , ad rned m t . t with woodcu s , into general use Af er accu ulating an

o m - en r ous fortune , he was seized with home sickness and c returned to Basel , where he was accused of practi ing the black art and only es caped the stake by the sacrifice Of the whole of his property and by a has ty flight into Italy . He E rast died (1 5 9 5 ) in a monas tery at Cologne . of Heidelberg ’ was Parac e l su s s most noted opponent. o The f llowers of Paracelsus, undeterred by opposition , pursued his system throughout the whole of the Sixteenth and part of the seventeenth centuries , gaining knowledge by Kraft h e im their o w n experience ; for instance , Crato von , n e F o re e st Sc henk von Grafe berg , Plat r, the Dutchmen , and F re s O f s s y , the great anatomist , Vesalius Brus els , the fir t o o f i r surge ns note , Braunschwe g and Wurz , the first g eat

r r c R oessl in . W erus re n oculist Ba tisch , the ﬁ st ac oucheur , y dered great service to his age by his philanthropical work o c against the belief in the existence of witches . Ge rge Agri r t he m Ol a was the ﬁrst mine alogist in Saxony , where ines v o n were industriousl y worked . John Gmunden gained n s s great repute at V ien a as an a tronomer ; his pupil , Peur

l . bach and Regiomontanus , became equal y celebrated In

THE HISTOR Y OF GER MA N Y

T h e — CCXVII . D ark Scien ces Sup erstitio n

T HE power of Satan upon earth had long been an article h b ut was n o t e of fait , it until the R formation that it became m the general belief , and that atte pts were m ade t o exo rc i se spirits and to m ake use Of dem oniacal p o we rs fo r the attain o f ment human aims . The studi es o f the hum an ists had l e d to a nearer acquain t ance with the magic of the ancients and r f had produced a s o t O partiality for ancient he athen prac

. c l o t o r o tices The prin ipa s urce these dark desi es , h wever, o m lay in the Ref r ati o n . The bo lt launched by Luther ’ r against St . Pete s chair at Ro m e drove t he fai th o f the t ime s into two o pposite extremes ; the so l dier and the sav ant o es d o f o r c nf se the inﬁdelity the heathen philos phe , and the

r s t o mass of the people was enslaved by the g os est supersti i n .

t w o . o The extremes , nevertheless , met The devil , the p wers o f r o f u h da kness , the horror the one , were diligently so g t m fo r r. r S wh o rm by the othe The e were so e bold pirits , , ﬁ ly o persuaded of the power of Satan , instead of ﬂying fr m , o m him fo r r o o f o b und the selves to the pu p se attaining p wer, ‘ f r m . o r o v . wealth , etc , gua ding the selves against e il Sol d r o art c w as ie s , c nsequently , believed in the Passau , whi h u o t o m t he r Of r s pp sed render the invulnerable , in powe f ee aim bullets , which never missed their , in the virtue of man dra o re - i o g , spirits in crystal , the lucky penny , love pot ns ,

- . . o o etc , etc The f lhardy spirit which led the lawless soldier and the l o st fem ale t o invoke the powers of hell fo r the at t ain m e n t O f some l o w and w o rldly aim to o k a higher dire c

- o tion among the savants , and the well kn wn tale of Doctor

a s o d r c . r o F u t is f unde upon a gene al fa t The e were , in th se m h c t wild times , speculative inds , w ich , rejecting the an ien r o r o belief in evelation , s ught to resolve thei d ubts , not indi re c t l o y , by application to the H ly Scriptures , but directly , o r r by interc urse with the world of spi its and with natu e , as , r for instance , Bacon of Verulam in England , and Ag ippa of IN TERN AL STA TE D URIN G REF ORMA TI ON 1 1 1 1

r m r N e t t e sh e im in Ge m any . Altho ugh free fro the vulga o m o f o rr o belief in the devil , they h ped by eans the c esp nd n c m ro c o m o r e e between ic s , the little w ld within man , and m c r o m r r n r o r o f a oc s , the g eat unive se , atu e and the w ld

r o ut r disc o v Spi its , to ﬁnd , either by aising spirits or by the e r o f r o w r r m m o f n y the sec et p e s and p i itive ele ents ature , r m t h e secrets o f the universe . It w as f o attem pts of this n r c r t o r m c o atu e , whi h gave bi th the most ext avagant is n c e t io n s t h e r o f o c o n p on pa t the pe ple , which were unte anced c r o o f by the le gy , Wh se credit had fallen , that the legend ro c r o f m i Faust a se , in whi h the hat ed the on ks aga nst the o r o f r a rt h av m invent p inting is evidently mixed up , that g m been als o asc ribed by the t o the devil . r o As the study of natu al phil sophy advanced , the devil c a o o and his agents were dis rded , alth ugh the h pe of ﬁnding out the se c ret of thei r o riginal co nnection with external nat o r o f r m m ure by the disc ve y natu al agic , of aking gold , and

r r . c m o r of the unive sal elixi , still prevailed Al he y , the art o f m w as r i r c o m m c aking gold , exe c sed as ea ly as the en e ment o f the ﬁfteenth c entury by so me pup i ls o f Basilius Val e n t in u s r c c r o o f m o ro , and ava i e he ished the h pe aking g ld f m ’ r m m r o r o o r a p i itive atte , the phil sophe s st ne , whence all the r r r c o fo r matte s we e de ived , whi h had been s ught by Basilius . r m o o o r o f m ro m Ba bara , the infa us c ns t the e pe r Sig und , was

r wh o r o r - m Jo v o n L aaz i n the ﬁ st etained a c u t alche ist, hn , h e r servi c e . He r exam ple w as fo llo wed at Baire u t h by A l b r c l o c o r o f r r w h o e t A hi les , and by J hn , ele t B andenbu g , , in the h o pe of disc o vering the p rim itive m atters o f which go ld o m r r m c c . c was c mposed , elted thei wealth in the u ible Al he y m m c . o r c be a e the rage Al st eve y ourt had its alchemist . Han s von D oern b e rg reigned at the c o nclusio n o f the ﬁf t e e n t h c r ro o r r r entu y with uncont lled p we ove Hesse , unde t h e d r r m Lan g ave Hen y and his son William . The atter r c o f o f c r even att a ted the attention the learned , the eleb ated o r c o m m o r T rit h e mius o f o A ri hist ical entat , the philos pher g p v o n o f o r w h o pa Nettesheim , and The phrastus Pa acelsus , ’ so n o t o o as ught, g ld , but the philos pher s stone . This art w 1 1 1 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

r r m E u rendered gene al th oughout Ger any by the emperor ,

o . w as e o f c d lph II , who t rmed the prince al hemists . T h e adepts ﬂocked to his court, and even princes vied w ith each

r . c o f o c othe in the search Augustus , ele tor Saxony , cupied o f his wh le life with this utile art ; Christian II . displayed o r Se t o n ius equal zeal and sentenced the unf tunate , who was r m o t o o gene ally believed by his conte p raries p ssess the secret , ’

. Se t o n iu s s Se n div o ius to the wheel sole conﬁdant, g , was , e c o ne r t o o r like his mast r, hased from cou t an the . He w as o o r o o f W urt e m b e r thr wn int p is n by Frederick , duke g ; all c r n o n the princes wanted gold , and the harlatans we e lo ger secure of their lives . The rage fo r d i sc o vering this sec ret was so ex c essive that a certain p o tter seriously asserted that go ld c o uld be extrac ted from the Jews ; that the b o dies o f

- r o twenty fou Jews , reduced to ashes , w uld produce one m o d . 1 5 83 r r o ounce of g l Tho as Liber, in , ﬁ st st enu usly r l o o o f o pposed the p evai ing superstiti n . S cieties alchemists r o r o m we e als natu ally f r ed , either for the thing itself or for ’ ar fo rm m r appe ance sake , the secret g an i resistible attrae o o t ti n ; and a mystical work was published , which set f r h o that the order of the G lden Fleece , instituted by Philip of r m o f al Bu gundy , had originally the object and the sy bols m n n o f che y . In the begi ing the seventeenth century , Valen n e s r tin A dr a founded , in Swabia , the order of the Ro ic ucians , who pro pagated the practices of the adepts and the m ystical o n r ideas o f Paracelsus . The hope of disc veri g the unive sal medi c ine and the elixir of life was c o nﬁned to some o f the phys i ci ans of the time ; the general thirst was m ore fo r gold o f than fo r p ro longation of life . It was asserted the adept m o r 1 6 09 Traut annsd f , , that he had prolonged his existence

- one hund red and forty seve n years . o c m r Astr logy was , equally with al he y , encou aged by the

o . W great and powerful . Rud lph II and allenstein were its r w as m p rincipal patrons . Pa acelsus ﬁr ly persuaded of the ’ influence exercised by the stars on m an s every action ; nor r m h ad h o w was Kepler free f om a si ilar superstition , which , ever , the good result of promoting his study of astronomy

1 1 1 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

o air r r b dy , here as water, , and ea th , neve theless corre s o n de d o p , and , consequently , there was n thing in m an that had not its great antitype in nature . Valentin Weigel o f x n 1 5 88 Sa o y , in , pursued a similar idea and founded an m w as extremely si ple system , which afterward impro ved o o c t up n by Spin za and S helling , the identity of the w o great l and universal antitheses , of the mind and body , of ight and

o o . r darkness , of g d and bad , etc , which , ever exte nally at

w ar r . t w o , we e united in God The Swabians , Sebastian

m o r o m w as A n ab a Frank and Gut ann , the f mer of wh an p t ist o r Kh un rat h , the latter a R sic ucian , and , whose mania for mystery led him astray in the c ab al ist ic s of the an c ient r Jews , are less clear and p ofound . In the se v enteenth o r o century , the M avian , Amos Comenius , pr duced a sys tem which re united the do ctrine of Weigel with that o f r t o t w o Pa acelsus , by an endeavor unite the universal an h t it h e se s o . w as r , b dy and mind , by a third , lig t He the ﬁ st

r r m r r who att ibuted g eat i po tance to light, both outwa d and r e o w e t o him r m inwa d . W also an account of an ext e ely r o m l h m r cu i us a ady , with which a Bo e ian girl , Ch istina m Po niat o v ia w as . h ad , visited She was a somna bulist and w r c c r visions , hich he has desc ibed with su h a cu acy as to leave n o d o ubt o f the co in c idence of the sym pto m s with

o o f m o r m m . c c v o n th se de n agnetis The elebrated physi ian , m o w h o e ﬁl u e n c e r u Hel nt , regarded nature as an of spi it al powers and reco g nized a pu re spi ritual cause in all her

o o f r c r . w rks , als lou ished during the seventeenth entu y

r m 1 5 35 . fo e Ag ippa von Netteshei , , stands alone The o f c o c m o f o o c o ro r r s h lasti is and the l gical nt ve sy , an utte h e h o t o t o r o m inﬁdel , ped attain highe kn wledge by eans m fo r h r o r r un of agic , and t at pu p se adju ed all ea thly and r r r earthly p o wers . Du ing his estless wanderings ove Eu saw n o r rope , he studied everything , everythi g , t ok a deg ee c o o r l aw in every faculty , practi ed the l gy at Pa is , the at h s io r r w c m r v Metz , p y at F eibu g in S itzerland , be a e p i ate t o c o o r h physician the queen of Fran e , and ﬁnally hist ri g ap er

t o r r st adt h o l de re ss . r Ma ga et, of the Netherlands He t av IN TERN AL STA TE 1 ) URIN G REFORMA TION 1 1 1 5

r o r c n e l l e d ove the wh le of Spain , Italy , F an e , and Engla d , “ r o seeking est and ﬁnding n ne , and at length published a “ work On the U ncertainty and Vanity of all Sc ientiﬁc R e

t o o r . e ar search , with which he bade adieu the w ld At an r o n o n c h e r lier pe i d , when resti g his hopes magi , had w itten “ ” n r o o S o f a work O Sec et Phil s phy , and , in pite his later o r fo r contempt fo r the w ld and all that therein is , he left “

o F oem in in i . another , entitled De N bilitate Sexus r o o r r Quite othe wise , unvisited by f rtune by lea ning ,

o r o r o o without kn wledge of the wo ld , b n beneath a l wly r of, t h e o h is o c r o f where he passed wh le of life , in the bs u ity a o f m r o c o S o m r o f little to wn and a ise able c upati n , the h e ake

o r o oe m 1 624 m l c o G e litz , Jac b B h e , , placed an i p i it c nﬁdence in Heaven and fo und the eternal wisdo m which the p ro ud f r r Ag rippa had vainly so ught o th o ugh o ut the world . The truths that escaped the percepti o n of the great phil o so pher r m c h al we e clear as day to his pure and childlike ind , whi , c w as r r r ro though untaught and un ultivated , ext ao dina ily p c o oe m f r found and com p rehensive . Ja b B h e stands a ab o ve r o f m r o m h as the est the ystics , all of whose va i us syste s he , r h m m o w n rm o m o o . i in his , fo ed int a ha oni us wh le In eet r r o f c m h c the three g eat founde s mysti is of the twelft entury, fo r h im are ro m o r r in united the he ic ality , the chival ic self

r . o r t h e r m sac iﬁcing love of Hugo de St Vict i e , ete nal har ony o f o o A u ust o de n sis and beauty of nature H n rius g , and the o r c r f r n rr hist i al wo ld o Rupe t v o Duiz . He also c a ied the o r o f r c r Go d i o r d ct ine Pa a elsus still highe , by seeking in h st y r r as well as in natu e . He was so wonde fully fertile in ideas t hat later philosophers have raised n e w system s o n m e re r m o n e f ag ents of the founded by him .

CCXVIII . Witchc raft

T HE burning of witches fo rmed o n e o f the m o st remark o f m able features the age of the Refo rm ati o n . It c o menced r r r c m r r c at an ea lier pe iod , but ﬁ st be a e a gene al p acti e in c the sixteenth and seventeenth enturies . The belief in witc h 1 1 1 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y c r r o aft , universal before the mig ations at the w rst period . of

o m m r o r f r the R an e pire , had disappea ed bef e the light o Ch is t ian it m o r c o r y , and was re particula ly dis u aged by the Ger R o t h aris o man wanderers . the Long bard , in his legislative c r o f r ode , especially prohibited the t ial witches , witchc aft ‘

m o . r m w as h being i p ssible Cha le agne equally enlig tened . 1 3 1 0 o f h n In , the belief in the existence witc es was co demned o r o by the c uncil of T eves , and the nightly expediti ns o f 2 witc hes was declared a fabul o us inventi o n . This belief t e r d was lit l gene al during the Middle Ages , but sud enly gai ned fo rce in t h e fifteenth century . r n o o o m Sp enger , a t rious D inican inquisitor, is accused of having first disseminated this fearful superstitio n in Co n c c o n i o f r stan e ; the exe uti ns at the stake , u til his t me are m h r m o c r o r . c u rence , beco ing t encef ward extre ely f equent “ ’ o r W m m r l Mal e fic a His w k , The itches Ha e (Ma leus r um r ro ), attracted gene al attention and inspired half Eu pe with a d read o f witch craft hitherto unknown ; he also pe r u t e d o n r r u se c witches p inciple , and is said to have bu ned p n ro h ward o f a hundred old w o m en . O being bitterly rep ac ed

r r b e o 1 485 fo his c uelty , appealed to the p pe , and , in , Inno r c cent VIII . , by a bull , afﬁ med the existence of wit hes and t h e nec essity o f th eir persecuti o n . It was in vain that Sig

r o f c ro t o r mund , a chduke the Tyrol , aused a p test be w itten by U l ric Muller o f Constan c e and declared the belief in the existence of witches a m ere superstitious delusi o n ; the v o i c e f o m o r o r o o the D inican , supp ted by the auth ity of the p pe , On o m o f o m was alone heeded . the c mencement the Ref r a

o w as r o r o n o t ti n , this belief ec gnized as a supe stiti n , but, Ol d o m r m o h o t o S r . wit standing , c ntinued p ead w en we e re fanati c ally persec uted as suspe c ted witches by the Luthe rans o o than they had been by the Inquisiti n ; the devil , in th se

masc am o c c i e re . N ull us p raesum at al diam aut an cill am quasi st rigam aut d i i e q uo d Ch rist ian is me nt ib us n ul l at e nu s c re de n dum e st aut po ss b l . 9 m l N ull a mulie r se n o ct urn is h o ris e q uit are c um D i an a de a pagan o ru v e ur Haec e nim c um He ro di ana in nume ra m ul ie rum mult it udin e pro ﬁt eat . — d I V daemo niac a e st music Manama Th es . A nec . .

1 1 1 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y ist s a doubt but that the belief in all this nonsense was m general a ong women , and that these ideas had become an i m i . ep demy , a contagious an a among them Was it no t natural that at a peri o d w hen the worst qualities o f the huma n heart had been excited and had actually gained the mastery , when men boldly cited the devil , that the wo rst portion o f t h e female sex Sh o uld also give w ay to horrid de — sires and im aginations The belief in the existence o f c o f wit hes was , however, evidently the offspring ancient r l st pagan supe stition . The night of the of May co inc ides was with the great festival of Spring , which anciently sol

e m n ize d o n . o f o the mountains The burning the g at , the

m r . sy bol of fruitfulness , is an ancient heathen sac iﬁce The transform ati o n of the W i tches into cats or wolves is als o a paga n n o tio n . r As this superstition gained ground , eve y imaginable m r o evil , such as scarcity , da age done by the weathe , l ss of

. w as t o cattle , sicknesses , robbery , losses , etc , ascribed the c c wit hes , and suspi ion generally fell on the oldest woman in o o r l the neighb rhood . Envy and unneighb rly g udge had ful f r o r o f r play , and revenge for su fe ed , fear future , evil , c eated a bitterness and rage which at o nce demanded and just i ﬁed

- r m . rc the ill t eat ent of witches The chu h , the state , and public opinion were generally unanim ous in declaring that n o m eans were to be left untried for the annihilatio n o f the o f m po w er of Satan upon earth . The form trial was al o st m w as t o o r everywhere si ilar . The accused subjected the w as r deal ; that is , her hair , even her eyebrows , enti ely ’ v o ff o c o r w o e sha en in rder to dis ver the devil s ma k , and ’ t o he r if a m o le o r a m other s m ark were disc o ve red . It was als o a popular noti o n th at by dep riving a witch o f her hair r r o the devil lost his p o wer o ve h e . The sec nd and m o re ’ celeb rated ordeal co nsisted in tying the witch s right thum b m h t o e to the left great toe , and the left thu b to the rig t , and m w as r th ro w ing her into the water . If she swa it a ce tain r w as p ro of of her being a witch . The thi d by weight, witches being believed to be as light as a feather. They were accord IN TERNAL STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 1 1 9 in l ri c r m r h i f ro t o o g y t ed by a e tain easu e , whic , it p ved o m m t o o r heavy , c nde ned the unhappy wo an be t rtu ed until

Sh e o do o m h e r t o ﬁre c nfessed , which inevitably ed the stake , being the m eans by whic h witchcraft co uld alone be totally ex t i rpated an d the wo rld be pu riﬁed fro m the incantatio ns o f the devil . o c o o r o r r r The suspici n , and the nfessi n , w ung by t tu e , we e T h m rm r t often equally ridi c ul o us . e o st ha less things we e a r r tributed t o the powe o f witchc aft . Luther o n c e advised h Si c c o f r o f w h o u n n at u t at a k hild twelve yea s age , had an - ral o b e ro o . r appetite , sh uld th wn int the Mulda At F euden c o m o r c c stadt, in the Bla k F rest , a nthly nu se was a used of h aving m urdered a hundred c hild ren and o f having laid

c r c r . r o r o n in hangelings in thei ibs At F ankf t the Maine , 1 5 36 r c c o f b c o rr o c h , a gi l was a used eing in esp nden e wit the o Sh e o o w o f devil , by wh m had been end wed with the p er ex

- r c o o m . Wi r c 1 5 6 2 t a ting g ld fr walls At ene is h Neustadt, in , the sexto n w as burned alive fo r having bo iled a c hild and Spread the plague by m ixing som e o f the earth fro m the in i r r m fe c t e d r b o . r g aves W th the th Du ing the sa e yea , a hail o rm at v r r c o o f c st Esslingen caused a se e e pe se uti n Wit hes , in whic h the parish p riest and the exec utio ner disco ve red equal zeal and bade deﬁan c e t o the m o re hum ane and e u

o . o r o r lightened town c uncil At H b , in the Black F est, in 1 5 78 o m r t o c o c , nine w en we e sentenced the stake in nsequen e i r o f a o m . r 1 5 89 h r a h lst At Quedlinbu g , in , a und ed and thi rty - th ree witches were burned in o n e day fo r having dan c ed o n the Bl o c ksberg and fo r havi ng em pti ed the c e l lars o f fo urteen o f the wealthiest pe o ple in the neighbo rho o d o f their wine o n the o c casio n : all we re put t o death exc ept o r o f m o o m f u the st beautiful , wh the devil , always in the Sh o f o o m an i s t o c rr ape a hands me y ung , said have a ied

. 1 5 95 r m o f o r away At Spandau , in , a g eat nu ber pe ple we e ro o n o m possessed , f m having picked up g ld , ri gs , butt ns , he p ,

. ro r u m u r n . a b o etc , d pped by the devil in the st eets At N g t h e 1 6 04 w as fo r ri i a b Saal , in , a witch burned dep v ng an s o f m in ent person of one his eyes by magic . At Hildeshei , 1 1 20 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

1 6 1 5 f m fo r , a boy suf ered the sa e death having transformed

m o . 1 63 3 b o w as hi self int a cat At Strasburg , in , a y also burned for carryi n g letters by night t o the Jesuits in a car

ria e r Six . 1 649 g d awn by cats At Solothurn , in , a woman was sent to the stake fo r having ridden on a wolf through ﬂ r n . 1 25 o i s w as the forest In 7 , a reward of ﬁve offered at t o c o b o l d Hechingen the captor of a , a nix , etc . ° o l n o r o Neither d age tender y uth es c aped . A t W o lfen 1 5 9 1 o m r Six r o f buttel , in , a w an a hund ed and yea s age d 1 6 88 w h o was burne ; in Augsburg , in , a girl aged twenty , was accused of having practiced magic since her sixth year ;

1 6 9 4 o m - S and , in , a w an aged eighty four , ince her tenth . These acc usatio n s were gene rally made fo r the purp o se e f o o r gain , either by conﬁscati n of property by perquisites . t o The trial of witches was equally proﬁtable the judge , the c o a advocate , and the executioner . A dea n of M yence caused upwa rd of three hundred people in the villages o f Cro t ze n burg and B u rgel t o be sent to the stake on a charge of witch craft fo r no o ther purpose than that of adding their pro perty o f to his cathedral . Exe cutions in the mass were frequent r c o f occurrence . Julius of B unswi k boasted having planted o o W u fo r e x e c u a Wh le f rest of stakes near olfenb ttel , the f o W . o c o n t he ti n of itches J hn , ar hbishop Treves , se tenced m m r 1 5 85 t wo wo en in such nu be s to the stake , in , that in c m 1 5 89 m distri ts but two re ained ; in , he conde ned Flade, e r r r i n the r ctor of the unive sity of T eves , as a sorce er, and ,

1 9 3 t o r. o o o f 5 , thirty wi ches at M ntabau Ad lf, bish p Augs

r in 1 6 27 c o r - t w o o m r o n bu g , , senten ed f ty w en to be bu ned o n e o c o r W h o f m c asi n , and , du ing the ole his govern ent , sent t o c r n w hundred and nineteen Wit hes and wiza ds , amo g which r o r o r o o r we e f u can ns , eight vica s , one d ct , eighteen little o r o r r schoolb ys , a blind gi l , an the gi l nine years of age , with f m r c n t o . o o o her infant sister , the stake The bish p Ba be g m n e rc r de d six hundred witches , the a hbishop of Salzbu g

- 1 6 78 o r ninety seven , in , to be burned , on acc unt of a g eat One o f r o f t he epidem ic am o ng the cattle . the curato s bisho p o f F re isin ge n extirpated almost all the women in

1 1 22 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y judge belonging to this district had condemned ﬁve hundred witches to the stake . o w ho Cornelius Lo s , the priest of Mayence , declared the r m im belief in witchc aft an error, was co pelled by close pris o n m e n t r to ret act , but , unable to overcome the dictates of his t a conscience , reitera ed his entre ties for mercy to ward the o m o n d wretched w en , wh se innocence he agai asserte , and '

o o r r . was nce m e inca cerated Tanner, the Bavarian Jesuit, was , on discovering a similarly humane spirit, denounced as

. W e ru s a wizard T he Dutchmen , y and Bekker, were unable o f to check the prevailing superstition the age . T he piles

m o r . 1 701 s ked until far into the eighteenth centu y In , seven c 1 71 4 wit hes and one wizard were burned at Zurich ; in , on S the Heinzenberg in the Grisons , a girl ixteen years of age su ﬂ e re d 1 725 r c n ; in , the e was an execution at He hinge ; in 1 73 1 i o r r O m i , n ne c pses we e burned at l utz owing to a not on o f r o their being vampi es , who sucked the blo d of sleepers ; in 1 744 r r o , ﬁve witches we e chained in a g eat tun , t rtured and r Ko l dit z o i n bu ned , at Tepperbuden , near , in L wer Silesia ; 1 75 0 n r o r U r , Renate Se ger, p i ess of the convent of nte zell

' i n W r w as a w it c h 1 75 4 urzbu g , beheaded and burned as ; in , a girl of thi rteen w as beheaded fo r a witch in Bavaria ; in

1 75 5 u . , another, aged fourteen , s ffered at Landshut In the m r i sa e year , twenty corpses were bu ned in Morav a , and , 1 83 Goel dl in t h e was in 7 , Anna , the last of witches , burned at Glarus in S witzerland .

r A r t CCXIX . Po et y a n d

ON o f o o the fall the H henstaufen , p etry declined , and the song of the Minnesinger ceased with the breath o f the n r n youthful Co adi . The enthusiastic feelings of the poet of olden times ill suited an atm osphere im bued with ego tism and grovelling policy . The German , since the days of the t o ro emperor Rudolph , had been reduced the p se of every day life . o o r At the cl se of the f urteenth century , chivalric poet y IN TERN AL STA TE D URIN G REF ORMA TION 1 1 23

T e ic h n e r Su c h e n wirt t w o o r c eased with and , n ble Aust ians , o n o attached to the c o urt . Hugo v Montfort and W lfen o ro are steiner the Blind , a n ble Ty lese , , up to the ﬁfteenth

o f o . r r century, the last this sch ol The Minnesinge s we e suc

c m - r w h o rr r c e e de d by the ivic aster singe s , ca ied on ve se m aking pro fessio nally in the c ities and reg ulated the art c r c r o f m r ac c o rding t o p resc ribed laws . The ha a te istics aste Si nging are pedantry and want o f taste wheneve r the p o et o r m o r r attem pts a m e elevated ﬂight, while it ever e nea ly attains excellen c e as it assim ilates itself t o the p o pular style . o ar r r M o st o f the p pul ballads that we e sung in the st eets , m o f c r m o f h i be an d so e whi h bea the i press igh ant quity , c am e general af t er the Refo rm ati o n o n the gradual d i ss o lu

o o f m r- S o v u l ti n the aste inging guilds ; these ballads , ften ar o o f o rm are g , but still ftener inﬁnite path s and ha ony , the m f r f m o r o f best speci ens o the p o et y o the age . The c o p se s v T o m o st of them were o bsc ure tra elling students o r so ldiers . t o m ro hese bel ng the lays sung by the Flagellants , and nu e us ac r r o r o r r ro m s ed songs , eithe iginal t anslated f the Latin , b o rro ro an c r w h o wed f m the Hussites d colle ted by Luthe , m o m r o a dded t o the s e ﬁne p o ductions of his o w n . The wh le o f t hese so ngs we re un restricted by the rules p resc ribed by

t he guilds . r v o n Mu l in The ﬁ st master singers , Henry g and Musca b l n t m r m r o o o r . o o , had nu e us f ll we s Al st eve y t wn had its r m o c r m o m r singe guild , and the st eleb ated a ng the aste s i m o o r m r h nvented el dies easu es , which they distinguis ed by m c m m c r po pous epithets , and whi h erely ai ed at the a cu ate

. o r e measurement of the syllables An inflated alleg y , a p dan t ic m r m o m m o r o al , enig as and s eti es ribaldry , f med their m r c o s . o f m o l o ntent The a tial deeds the time , even the st g r o n h o o f D it m arse s r i s , t se the Swiss and , we e sung in the sam e weariso m e m easu re and we re disfigured by the pedantic v e rsific at io n c o m o r b o t p sed in thei p raise . The S wiss allads W r o m c o o o f U r c v o n Vitus ebe f r an ex epti n , and , like th se l i f t o r r o f m o . Hut en later date , b eathe the f ee spirit the untains The T h e w rdan k o f Melc hio r Pfin zing p ro ves the utte r failure 1 1 24 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o f - the master singers in epic poetry . The idea o f describing m w as Maximilian , e peror of Germany , who ever helplessly o f entangled in the political intrigues the day , as a knight of o m the lden ti e of fable and romance , was an anach ronic affectation . False sublimity became for the ﬁ rst t im e in ’ m r herent in Ger an poet y . The peasants war , the feuds o f N r r o f W u rt e m b e r u embe g , those g, were feebly sung . The c n legends , in whi h the spirit of the Minnesi ger is still per c e t ibl e p , are somewhat better ; for instance , the Ap o ll o nius ’ T rl an dt r of y by Henry von Neustadt , the F ench King s o r r m Daughter by Buhler , the M o ish Gi l by Her ann von m Sac h e n h e i . c o , etc , above all , the colle ti n of amusing l e “ ” e n ds g under the title of T he Seven Wise Masters , and

. o r o f r those of Dr Faust, of F tunatus , and the Venusbe g , r- so characteristic of the age . The eve increasing lus t fo r Wealth and pleasure is well and tragically represented in

- these last mentioned legends . There were , besides these , r r m nume ous olde legends fro the book of heroes , of the holy

r . c o a G aal , etc , which were redu ed to pr se , and in this age p e are d o r s r p all the little p pula book , which , in homely p ose , repeated the c o ntents of the ﬁnest of the ancient hero ic bal o r r c lads . M de n oman es and novels in prose made their ﬁ rst

- c . o o c r o f appearan e in Swabia Nic las von Wile , t wn le k r o Esslingen , and Albert von Eyb were the ﬁrst t anslat rs or

- writers of love tales in prose , to which they were prompted

ZEn e aS o . by Sylvius , in imitati n of Italian literature Spee , o f r a lyric poet in the spirit the old Minnesingers , appea ed r at a later pe io d (1 635 ) in Bavaria . The transitio n t o learned poesy caused the Dutch Rede r ke rs r r c r y ( heto i ians) , who had al eady acquired a false taste l m c o c for c assical reﬁne ent , to omp se dida tic and satirical r m poem s in the spirit of the Reform ers . They fo med the ' e l v e s int o o t s chambers , which , for s me ime , had an ex o w as t re m e ly democratic bias . J hn of Leyden one of these e de r k r B m s fo r R e s. y Anna y , on the other hand , gained her s elf the title of t h e Sappho of Brabant by her c o arse satires h against Luther . Just van den Vondel was the best Dutc

1 1 26 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

o m ion . The Reformati n ca e and added force to the sar asm s r A l b e ru c hurled against the cle gy . s wrote the Alcoran o m of the begging monks ; Fischart, the R an Beehi v e . The r h latter t anslated Rabelais from the Frenc , with numerous in additions an original sty le , highly genial in the midst of its bombast . Ulric von Hutten was also the author o f sev eral excellent satires . Theolo gical coarseness and c om m on o v r r r o m a place , h we er , c ept in at a late pe i d , as y be seen in “ ’ ” A l banu s e t c — o c the Monk s Ass of , The time for p liti al n o t i c satires had yet arrived , the princes be ng exclusively c c u ie d o l o p with p litics , the people with re igion and m rality . o f m o o r The age the Refor ati n , c nsequently , p oduced merely o i c h as n o t one p l ti al satire , but one that been yet surpassed , m o Vo s b the fa us Reinecke de (Reinecke Fuchs) , a fa le , in o o u fo x which King Li n holds his c rt , and the cunning (Ital ian p o licy) c o ntrives t o manage affairs with su ch clever m al r are e r o ice , that ight and innocence ver opp essed , and vi lence r r and cunning ever triumph . The mate ials of this fable a e l r r m o d and a e de ived fro the heathen fable . They were r o o m ﬁ st transf rmed into a satirical p e , in the Netherlands , r r m r du ing the twelfth centu y , and were several ti es afte ward translated and revised ; but it was n o t until the six t e e n t h c r fo r r c o r r entu y when the taste sati i al p et y inc eased , ’ w as m r c o that it ade gene ally known , by Ni las Baumann s translati o n f ro m the Dutc h of William de Mado c into L o w rm o o rk — Ge an , when it became a nati nal w Sebastian Brand amusingly desc ribed all the f o llies of public and p rivate l i fe “ ” m r o r m in his ti e , in his celeb ated Ship of F ols , and E as us “ ”

r o f o . o r published , in Latin , his P aise F lly In L we Sax o n Ko r r o f o f wit y , the ke (the quive full shafts ) appeared , and Burkhard Waldis disting u ished him self by his fables ; r Pauli c o llected m e rry tales in 1 5 78 . Ag i c o la of Be rlin r o c o o f rm ro acquired g eat n te by a llection Ge an p ver bs . The hum anists also b ro ught im itations o f the ancient sati res ’ m r r w o . War as int vogue Ho e s between the F ogs and Mice , ’ “ ” fo r R o l l e n h a e n s F ro sc h m ae usl e r instance , copied in g , and ’ “ " in Schn urr s War between the Ants and Flies ; Rollen I NTE RNAL STA TE D URIN G REFORMA TI ON 1 1 27

” o t m n h agen , in his Italian Travels , als at e pted an imitatio “ of the fabulous narratio ns of Lucian ; The Merry Journey ” - rr m a o . in of the Spa ow hawk Knight, y als be cited The r o f S o n creas ing coa seness the ixteenth century , c sequent on o r o h the religi us contest , g adually infected satire with low “ ” sc e n it r F l e aad y , and the e appeared a Latin , a German “ ” “ ” F l e ab ait A SS- , an king , an Asinine Nobility and the ” ’ “ i u r m o f So w . Gro b an s T iu ph the , etc Dedekind s , a satire levelled against the coarseness and vulgarity of the Lal n o o k c r o . e b age , best des ribes this pe i d The celebrated

of 1 5 97 is a capital Satire upon the little im perial free towns . r R o se n l ut t h o . e The peasant y were even an bject of satire p , “ ” r- r wh o civic maste singe , ridiculed the Wealthy peasant , ro a R e it h art st ve to raise himself bove his station , and pub “ r l ish e d his m e rry F o lics with the Peasants . The peas o r o u re ac ants , h weve , t ok p the lash in their turn , and the o o f h i r c ti n peasant wit against the ghe lasses gave rise , in “ n o o r the ﬁftee th century , to the fam us p pular wo k The ” o c o o f o o Eulenspiegel , a c lle ti n witty , c arse , often bscene a o o o m a necd tes attributed to a waggish boor, wh se riginal y

pe rh aps have in reality existed . The force of this unp retend ing but cutting satire lay in the natural sagacity with which

o - o r o o the ver wisd m of the me chants , profess rs , doct rs , m judges , clergy , nobility , and princes were un asked and r l o w c c o m r l t h e de ided , and the mali e ntained in it is e e y nati o nal exp ressi o n o f a hatred naturally felt by t h e peasant

' r in his state Of deg adatio n . Theatri c al representations had co me into vo gue since the r council of C o nstance . At ﬁ st they merely consisted o f my s t e rie s an d i r r o , biblical scenes , allegor es ; afte wa d , of pr fane

T h - r r . e plays , during the ca nival master singe corpora t ion of Nuremberg parti c ularly distinguished itsel f in the

- . r R o se n l ut fl c r latter It was he e that p , or the y cat he , and r h h r o f N ure m . c t e o Hans Volz flou ished Hans Sa s , c bble r 1 5 76 wh o h im o be g , , left behind five foli volumes, chiefly fi c o m r r sur lled with dialogues , edies , and t agedies , howeve ,

. r passed all the rest He was a friend of Luthe , was replete 1 1 28 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

r c . with talent, and unshackled by p ejudi e Biblical and r o r m o o rm unive sal hist y , ancient yth l gy and Ge an legend ,

r - o r r o n eve y day life and alleg y , were the ich materials which he w o rked ; but in his pieces the scenes foll o w with startling o m m r rapidity , the dialogue is c paratively eag e , and the w h o le m o re resem bles a rapid suc c ession o f tableaux - vi v an s o o f than a play . With the excepti n the little and generally

-ﬁ n ish e d r o c c o n highly fa ces and dial gues , whi h ntai but fe w c r m h haracters , all his g eat historical pieces are si ply sketc es ;

r o m rm thei happy ch ice and manage ent , and the cha that r c w o r eve lay in the subje t, hether the comp sition we e more o r r o u less elabo ate , rendered them , nevertheless , highly p p m ar. l Sachs had nu erous imitators , the most celebrated of o m o c r o wh , t ward the close of the sixteenth entu y , was Jac b A re r r wh o r r n r n y of Nurembe g , , howeve , sha ed the i c easi g gro ssness of the taste o f the tim es and delighted in scenes of

o o o O T h e at ric um bl d and bscenity ( pus , Henry Julius , o r the poetical duke of Brunswick , his contemp rary , g eatly — ad v anced the Germ an stag e P o litical c om edies also to ok the place of the ca rnival farces in the republican - spi rited im d v o f Co r w as fo r in r r . pe ial f ee towns The epra ity the u ts , “ c r i n o r c o stan e , de ided the C u t Devil , the s h lastics , in the “ ” “ m c o f o Acade i al Devil , the sale dispensati ns , in the Tet ” l ram ia m c m m o o f rm ze o c , the inte peran e and i rality Ge an “

rm o . manners at that period , in the Ge an Glutt n Na t io n al histo ry was als o br o ught up o n the stage . The Siege ” “ ’ ” “ ’ r o r Wo m an s r o f Weinsbe g , Faith ; Luthe s Life the “ ” “ Christian Knight of Eisleben ; the Muntzer Peasant ” “ ” “ ar Cl au se n s t u rm o r o o f t h e c o W ; the , The Vict ry Ele t r “ r t h e m r r W Mauric e o ve E pero and a t agedy , allenstein ”

r r r . r and Gustavus , we e ep esented The Luthe ans ridiculed “ - r the Calvinists in a Calvinistic P o st boy . Du ing the thirty ’ ro m o o o f m o o years war , the p ti n unity a ng the Pr testants was “ ” “ r 1 647 c attem pted by a Swedish T eaty ; and , in , Pea e h m t o th e m o wis ing Ger any , an intimation a bassad rs at Os n abruck and Munster t o accelerate the p roclam atio n of

. t a peace , was publicly represented Pastoral poetry , in imi

1 1 30 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

f o h . o h t eir time Besides depth and strength of col ring , t ey ﬁ rs t gav e increased life t o their ﬁgures and ri c hness to their h c ro . c n g ups These brot ers were su eeded by Hans Hemli g, o f r in c an artist g eat merit ; the sixteenth century , by S ho r c v o n Gu in t in Me ssis m eel , Lu as Leyden , and , a s ith , who, ’ ’ fo r o f r th r art love an a tist s daughter, studied her fa e s , in h h h e . G o o w ich attained great excellence A igh erman sch l , c o in c r l sely allied with the Dutch , and whi h Albe t Durer r m r 1 5 08 1 5 5 4 in Nu e be g , in , Hans Holbein in Basel , in , c r r and gentle Lu as C anach , the stanch friend of the t ue o f 1 5 5 3 r o hearted elector Saxony , in , su passed all ther

o m r r r o . T he c nte po a y a tists , was f rmed at this period religious feeling of the age is impressed on the pro duc r tions of all these a tists , and the epic character of the c o f r r o m r pi tures ea lie date , which , cr wded with innu e able

w r - o c o r r r l d a f like f rms , ntained , like the ea lie theat ica rep re se n t at io n s o o r t o was , a wh le hist y from beginning end , g radually l o st . Painting o n glass was als o carried to perfectio n in the r w as ﬁ fteenth cen tu y . This art cultivated exclusively in

rm n m o r r c l r t Ge a y , e pa ti u a ly in the Ne herlands , whence the a rtists were sum m o ned t o ad o rn the dark dom es of other

ri r m r o . r w as 1 43 6 co unt es with thei agic c eati ns F anz , in , sent fo r from Lubeck fo r the purp o se o f o rnam enting the . c hu rc hes o f Florence with painted glass . ﬂ r w When art ourished at Nurembe g , hen Hans Sachs r r sang and Dure painted , sculpture was raised to a highe degree o f perfection by Kraft and Peter Vischer . t o rt The religio us struggle had been unfav o rable a . What ’ o o c r c r t h e . t h irt the ic n last had espe ted had , du ing y years o o o ro t h e so l war, alm st with ut excepti n , been dest yed by c art diery . The wealthy Dutch alone ultivated , but their m ro n style had beco e entirely p fane , and , ge erally speaking , r Off m o vulgar . Nature suddenly th ew the shackles i p sed by r r 1 640 the church . The g eat a tist , Peter Paul Rubens , in , ro r took his models f m life , gave warmth and vigo to his

- coloring , and preferred battle pieces and voluptuous scenes . I N TERN A L STA TE D URI N G REFORMA TI ON 1 1 31

o ro m i c o Altho ugh the f under of the p fane Fle sh s ho l , he sur passes all his succ esso rs in vigor and warm th . The art o f engraving w as invented ab o ut the middle of r Ge r the ﬁfteenth century , it is uncertain whethe in Italy or o f r r r t o many . Israel Mechlin was one of the ﬁ st eng ave s ; h im c c oe r r suc eeded Martin S h n ; the celebrated painte , Albe t r r w as r Go l Du e , also distinguished as an eng aver, besides

i ziu s r V . r . , Mulle , ischer, etc , and Me ian c o o o f m c o f r r o A s h l usi as well as painting , the p ecu s r to r o r o the g eat Italian scho l of the sixteenth centu y , was f unded r in the Netherlands in the fifteenth c ent ury . The g eatest r w as o Oc m Oc m w h o a maste J hn keghe ( kenhei ), died at m r m 1 5 1 3 . o o c o great age , in He greatly i p oved c unterp int him o o r r o o . p siti n Besides , Jac b H b echt and Bernha dt the rm w h o 1 470 t o r fl o ur Ge an , , in , invented the pedal the o gan , m m rm m i h e d . u s at Venice Since their ti e , nu bers of Ge an sic ian s c r fo r in ossed the Alps and taught the Italians , as , r rm rr o o - c o stance , Hen y the Ge an (A ig Tedesc ) , chapel dire t r r f rm n t o m . o Maxi ilian I In Ge many , Adam Fulda , He an Pau l m an n r m r Fink , and the blind , flourished at Nu e be g . c o m m c m o f r u In the en e ent the sixteenth centu y , the D tch r W r r c art man , Ad ian illae t , g eatly advan ed the by his com o o m fo r r p siti ns on a ore extensive scale voices , the fi st step

o r o . was r c o f t wa d the pera Italy , howeve , again the s ene r m h o r a r this t iu p , and , sh rtly afte w rd , Palestrina raised sac ed m c Mo n t av e rde o f o r t o r r usi , and that the pe a , thei p esent m r o f rm c r was r state , and the e it their Ge an tea he s obscu ed

br o f m . o m r r n o t by the illiancy their fa e G od aste s we e , t r n o m . r ro m withstanding , wanting in Ge any Luthe p oted m r c r o r . chu ch usi , and the p inces patr nized the ope a In 1 6 28 c c o m o r t rm o r , Sagittarius (S hutz) p sed the ﬁ s Ge an pe a, “ " r ro c o r o f Daphne , a t anslation f m the Italian , for the ele t

Sax o ny . The German c o urt s were at this perio d overrun S r - with Italian inge s and chapel directors. 1 1 32 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Histo rie n d Tr v CCXX . s a a els

T H o f art r E discovery the of p inting had , as early as t h e

r r r ﬁfteenth century , given a g eat impulse to histo ical w iting . The monk no longer wro te in his l o nely cell ; the p rinces took histo riographers into their service fo r the purpose of handing down their deeds to p o sterity or of eternalizing the renown o f their house and of defending its claims ; the cities luxu riat e d in their great records , and history was begun to b e taught as a science at the universities . Universal Chronicles we re w ritten in the fourteenth cen tury by John von Wintert hur and Albert of Strasb urg ; in E n e l h use n w D n t e r the ﬁfteenth , by g , Ed ard y , an English

r . Be l ic um man , author of the celeb ated Chron g Magnum , Go b e l im us r R o l e win k o Pe sona , Werner , J hn ab Indagine Sc h e de l St e in h oev e l u Cus in ian us (agen) , , , Na clerus , p ; in m v o n Z irikse e the sixteenth , by A andus and Sebastian

r . U o o r F ank , the Anabaptist The last niversal Chr nicle , n am e n t e d r r o with eng avings , a popula w rk , was written by m G o ttfried . The ﬁrst syste atic Manual of Universal His o r Cario n is r c r t y , the celebrated Ch oni on , also appea ed . Me ge rl e in o f Basel treate d univers al history in a religio us o f o ne point view ; Boxhorn , the Dutchman , in a political . He l m st ae dt r c r o Reineccius of , the ﬁ st historical itic , intr duc e d r o f t h the mode of histo ical writing , encumbering e w as r text with notes and citations , that afterward gene ally

- o f o ado pted . The co llections old historical works als began r Sc ri t o re s rm in the sixteenth centu y , the p Rerum Ge anica rum He rv a iu s r 1 5 32 , the ﬁrst by g , the Basel p inter, in , c o o o o f Sc h ardius R e ub e ru s whi h was f ll wed by th se , , Pis

‘ t o riu s U rstisius Wu rst ise n Lin de n b ro , ( ) , and g ; in the seven t e e n t h o o f o wh o r o century , by th se G ldast , w ote the hist ry f o f m r o o Swabia and on the affairs the e pi e , and Fr her, who r also reviewed all the German historians . Sepa ate portions

f r o r w . T rit h e mius t he o the earlie hist ies ere also revised , r s abbot of Hi sau , beside writing the Chronicle of his monas

1 1 34 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

“ Pe rse c ut io n is Bo h e m ic ae L t , the History of the eague , he “ W h War Sue dOi s o f S an h e im Laurel reat of , Le Soldat p , c - A rl an isae i r c Burgi Mars Sue Germanicus , a ma Sue ica , Lo t ic hius L u n do r ius Piase c ius L an wi t ze r Gualdo , , p , , g , and W affe nb e r m m o r g, who surna ed himself the Ger an Fl us . On r E bl anius F ederic k of Bohemia , see and the F rench m n Me oirs of Fontenoy ; on Ferdi and II . , the Status Regni

r . L am o rm ain o n W r o r Fe d and Father ; allenstein , P i ato

Pe rdue l l o n is h V ul t u rn u and the C aos ; on Tilly , Liborius s ;

on Gustavus Adolp hus , Burgus , Hallenberg, and the con r r m tempo a y Swedish historians . Vol ar wrote the Diary of o f the Peac e Westphalia . As early as the sixteenth cent Hase n m ul l e r o r ury , had written a Hist y of the Jesuits . eo m m There were , mor ver, innu erable pa phleteers . The grea t er p o rtio n of histori cal w o rks and by far the m r m o r ro r most i po tant a ng them we e the p vincial histo ies. On t h e Wo Austria , in sixteenth century , wrote lfgang Laz Cu s in ian u s au ius , De Roo , p Fugger, the o f r r r thor the Aust ian Mi ro of Chivalry , Pesel , that of the a — On i e Siege of Vienn Bavaria , n the fourt enth century , V o l c m ar t A v e n t in us T h urnm a e r A n ; in the ﬁf eenth , ( y ) , dre as r r w h i n Po l l in e n P esbyte , an unkno n c ronicler g , an o f r o ffm S W l r annalist Tege nsee and H an ; in the ixteenth , e se , R ade ru s c r r Hund , (Bavaria sa a) ; in the seventeenth , B un

ri A dl zre it e r V e rv au x . On ro t h e o ner a d ( ) the Ty l , in f ur t e e n t h n o Kirc hm a r ce tury , G swin ; in the sixteenth , y ; dur ’ r r Bur l e c h ne r ro ing the thi ty yea s war , g (The Ty lean Eagle), m o v o n t w o r o v o n Maxi ilian , C unt Mohr , and brothe s , Bar ns ’ — r Go l dast s Co l Wo . On lkenstein Swabia appea ed , besides O f r o r t r L lection Ge man Hist ians , in the ﬁf eenth centu y , y ’ re r s l o ro i o fabu us Swabian Ch nicle , a H st ry of Augsburg Go sse n ro t o n e o f t h e c o f n by p , and ity Ellwa gen ; in the ’ n r Crus iu s s r w ro sixteenth ce tu y , g eat S abian Ch nicle , a His o o f o r o o f o s t ry Augsburg by G sse , an ther of the city C n tance ’ r o f a — On r by Manlius , and Bebel s P aise Swabi Switze land r c Hae m m e rl in E t t e rl n w ote , in the ﬁfteenth entury , and y , “ F ri kh ard h Sc hil c published The Struggle wit the Despots , IN TERN A L STA TE D URIN G REF ORMA TI ON 1 1 35

h is m r a o o f r W ar ling, ad i able cc unt the Bu gundian , and us t in e r r ro c T sc h ac h t l an J g , the Be nese Ch ni le , continued by ; i n S t c r r r o o f the ixteen h entu y , appea ed the g eat Chr nicles m r f T sc hudi o b E sat o . and Stu pf, a Hist y of Berne y y , St V adian us o f r o b r Pac hal Gall by , the G is ns y Anho n , y , and v o n We ine c k o f b Wurst ise n ro c Guler , Basel y , and a Ch ni le — f r r. On o r o c o w e by Stettle the Hist y F an nia , ﬁnd , in the ' o r r R i e de fe l s o oe f u teenth centu y , Chr nicle of Hesse , K nigs ’ ’ o c Ge n s b e in s r r m b r h ven s Alsa e , admi ably w itten Li u g o c c r o o f o o f Co Chr ni le , the eleb ated acc unt the H ly City o r 1 49 9 l gue , p inted in ; and , in the seventeenth century , the h ro c o f r b h m c rk go o d C ni le Spi es y Le ann , and an ex ellent wo up o n T reves by Bro w e rus. r o r o f N r In espect to the hist y the ethe lands , appeared the r o f O r r h Cast e l l arius He u t e r us w itings livie de la Ma c e , , and

Pl anc h e r ' o n r o o f m Me e rus o n Bu gundy , th se de S et and y r o f Harae us r o f Sn o i Sc riv e rius Flande s , on B abant , and w ar r o r h on Ho lland . The of libe ati n in the Nethe lands as b r Bo r Le o A it ze m a r een elated by , Reydt , ab , Mete en , van

Ho o ft r Gu ic c iardin i o . Be nin a Ub bo , St ada , and Bentivogli g , m m Sic c am a w h o o f c E ins , and , published the Laws An ient

r o o F iesland , wr te upon that c untry , and , in the sixteenth h i m r r N e o c o rus o r o f t e D t a se s . centu y , published a Hist y r c o r o r o r The p in ipal w ks upon L wer Saxony we e , in the f u t e e n t h c r ro rm Co rn e ru s o f Lu entu y , the Ch nicle of He ann ’ b t h e Bo t ho s ro c o f t h e eck ; in fifteenth , Ch ni les Sassen , and ’ r Cran t z s o e t Albe t Sax nia Vandalia ; in the sixteenth , the o r o f D e t m ar m r b o c o f c o f Hist y and Rei a y K h Lube k , that b T e sc h e nm ac h e r h r i n h Cleves y , t at of B unswick the fifteent cen t ury ; that o f St adt w ig by PrO pe n dy k and the Luneburg r m u o . Po ari s c Me ibo m ius r Ch nicle , Reinec ius , and we e the his t o riog raphe rs o f Uppe r Saxo ny ; Albinus and Bro ut u ff ro o Misn ia h r r w te up n in the sixteent centu y , Spangenbe g o T o r uat us Po m arius m r up n Mansfeld , q and (Bau ga ten) u o r — In h c r Vo n p n Magdebu g the fifteent entu y , appeared ’ o h t h e R t e s adm i ra ble C h ro nicle o f Thuringia . In sixteenth r E i se n l o h e r o f b o r o f centu y , Breslau pu lished a Hist y Silesia, 1 1 36 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

h k Sc ic fuss He n e l ius . n and in the seventeenth , and . O Meck ’ l e n b ur M l iu s s o S r g , see y Hist ry in the ixteenth centu y , Hed ’ ’ r Lin de n b ro s erich s History of Schwe in , and g of Rostock . ’ On o K an zaw s r E u P merania , see ﬁne Ch onicle , a work by e n h a e n b Be rkm ann g g , an excellent Chronicle of Stralsund y ; r in the seventeenth centu y , the History of Pomerania by Mi r l n h c ae ius. O t e Prussia , in ﬁfteenth century , see John S R u n o v ius C von Lindenblatt ; in the ixteenth , , aspar Schutz , d — C m in r and Lucas Davi Livonia , the thirteenth centu y, D it l e b A l t n e ke R usso w e n Hiaern e von ; in the sixteenth , and ;

c Me n ius . in the seventeenth , Strau h and Kelch wrote a ’ r t r Chro nicle of D o pat . Pe e j us s Histo ry Of M o scow may also be included . The German travellers who enriched Germ any with their descriptions of distant parts of the globe next com e under i consideration . The Holy Land was at ﬁrst dil gently ex l f m r l o re d . R auw o p , Bau ga ten , Breuning von Buchenbach , Po rsius w h o o o war and , wr te an acc unt of a Persian in verse , e ne t rat e d in S r p h the ixteenth century , further eastwa d , some m Ge n t iu s of the as far as Persia ; in the seventeenth century , exam ined all the l i braries in Constantin o ple and fo r the ﬁ rst ’ tim e translated Saadi s Gulistan fro m the Persian ; there were Ol e ariu s o n m o w h o ro u also , the H lstei a bassad r , c ssed R ssia He l in r . e to Persia, Troilo , and St auss Pet r y g of Lubeck r r rr r l penet ated into Abyssinia , whe e he ma ied a nea re ative

t h e 1 647 . of king , and , in , translated the Gospel of St John — into the Am har tongue A t the close of the Sixteent h cent r r r N o o rt ury , the Dutch ﬁ st ci cumnavigated the wo ld , Van m 5 9 8 c o u 1 6 1 5 e t c . r c c in 1 , S h ten in , They we e a o panied by rm w h o o o f r o other Ge ans , often gave an acc unt thei v yages t h e fo r c G r v o n 1 6 1 4 to world , as , instan e , eo ge Spielberg in , o o and Deker o f Strasbu rg in 1 6 26 . These v yages r und the r r o mm r w o rld became , in the seventeenth centu y , regula c e fo r c o f V an c ial trips to the East Indies ; see , instan e , those

r Mat e l ie f Bo n t e ku r . m ro r de Brock, , , Saa , etc Nu e us othe r r r Wu rfb ain Of Ge man t avelle s , Nuremberg , a Baron von h o rt M k Man de l sl o e from Mecklenburg , von Boy of Frankf , er

1 1 38 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

founder and the ﬁrst governor of Valparaiso . Bartholemy W r t o in elser, g andfather the celebrated Philippina , was vested by the emperor Charles V . with the eastern coast of m A erica , in return for a loan of twelve tons of gold . Dal r o ﬁnger, hearing that an immense palace of pu e g ld had r rc been built in the interior of the count y , went in sea h of

x - o f it, during his visit e ercised unheard cruelties upon the

w as o is o rr natives , and , on his return , slain by a p ned a ow . Almost the whole of his followers fell victims to the Indians

t o . l and the climate The Welser, neverthe ess , retained pos session of Chili until the German colony w as drive n out by — i n the Spanish . Ph lip von Hutten of Swabi a a d Ge o rge o f

Spires , whose accounts are still extant , assisted at the same

i w h o u ! t me to conquer Mexico ; Schmidel of Straubing , p b ish e d s r l his extraordinary adventure , aided in aising Buen o s

1 5 35 . a r ] Ayres , The ccount given by the Jesuit , St obe , of n o o r m his sojour am ng the Patagonians , at the s uthe n ost M r r i . a a V i us po nt of America , is equally interesting gg wrote r w r 1 6 44 an account of the natu al onders of the B azils , in , l l n u r r A o o i s . and pp another of Flo ida and Pe u Fritz , the 1 69 0 o f German Jesuit , drew out, in , an excellent map the river Amazon , where he established the ﬁrst mission of his orde r.

The study of geograp hy was , in the ﬁfteenth century , o m o b i greatly pr ted y Schwe nheim of Mayence , whose charts 1 478 o a were published , in , by Bucking , in a Pt lem ean edi

m c r . tion at Ro e . They are the ﬁrst printed maps on re o d ’ Martin Behaim s glo be and maps of the world were ante rio r r m c r o to the disco ve y of A e rica . The sixteenth entu y b asted Bie n e w it z m Lo rit us of Apianus ( ) Ge ma , , Sebastian Munster , ut o f c m o w h o r b above all , the Dut h an , Mercat r , int oduced he m o v t division of aps into degrees ; the seventeenth , fClu er w h o e of Dantzig , greatly facilitated the study of ancient g

o ra h . i r 1 65 1 g p y Merian , the indefat gable eng aver of Basel , , w h o published copious acc o unts of the principal c o untries - w as of Europe , adorned with copper plates , the best topog raphe r of the age . A GE OF LOUIS THE FOURTEEN TH

F 0 UR T H PE R I OD

M O D E R N T I M E S

PA R T X X

T HE AG E O F L O U IS T HE F OU R T E E N T H

r CCXXI . L o uis the F o u teen th

HE century su bsequent to the peace of Westphalia is o f o r e distinguished as the age Louis the F u t enth , that m onarc h being the sun by which it w as illu mi d w as d o r ne , and whose splendor reflecte by all the c u ts o f Euro pe . The first revo lution against the Middle Ages w as o c t acc mplished in him , by his subje tion of the in erests of the aristocratic and inferior classes beneath his despotic “ ’ ’ m o i fo r r rule . He said with truth l etat c est , enti e c rm France , the ountry and the people , their a s , and even h . c their t oughts , were his The sole obje t of the whole na “ tion w as t o do the will of their sovereign ; c ar tel est notre r plaisi was the usual termination to his co mmands . The m c o f e agnifi ent chateau Versailles , the abode of this t rres i o se trial de ty, was pe pled with mistres s and a countless troop w im o v e r of parasites , on whom the gold dra n from the p e i hed and oppressed people was lavished . The nobility and n t o clergy , lo g subject their lord and king, shared the license o m r o s of the court and f rmed a nu e ous band of c urtier , while o f t h e o r r h ad men l wer classes , whose supe io parts brought o r e e them int note , we e attached as philosoph rs , po ts , and 1 1 40 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r i t o u o r a t sts , the co rt, the m narch extending his pat onage t o every art and science prostituted by ﬂattery . o The French court , although externally Catholic , was s lely t h n e w r guided by e tenets of the philosophy , which were sp ead ove r the rest of the world by the sonnets of anacreontic po ets

- m r and the bon o ts of court savants . This philosophy set fo th m w as that egotis the only quality natural to man , that virtues

. o were but feigned , or, when real , ridiculous Freedom fr m r u O f the ancient p ej dices honor or religion , and carelessness i n O the choice of means for the attainment of an bject , were regarded as proofs of genius . Immorality w as the necessary r acco m pani m ent of talent . Vi tue implied stupidity ; the

r . grossest license , the g eatest wit Vice became the mode , m w as publicly displaye d and ad ired . T he ﬁrst duty imposed o o t n up n knightho d , the protec ion of innocence , was excha ged fo r o r o r seducti n , adulte y , nightly orgies , and the highest r o ff w as t o e n ambition of the prince , the cou tier or the icer ’ r ric h the chro nique scandaleuse with his name . A cou tier s h onor consisted in breaking his word , in deceiving maidens o c m and cheating creditors , in c ntra ting enor ous debts and in

o o f n . b asting their remai ing unpaid , etc ; nor was this de i m o ralization c o nﬁned t o p rivate l fe . The cabinet of Ver i n r m o r o l o sailles , its t eat ent of all the European p we s , f l wed u o f o r o o S o w o the r les this m de n phil s phy , as h n in the c nduct r w i i of , the Pa isian cavalier to ard the c tizens , the r wives and

r o f o o r daughte s , by the practice rudeness , seducti n , r bbe y , I r r i n . t and eve ry disho orable art t eated laws , t eat es , and

r o i t s o w n in fal l i t uth with contempt , and ever insisted up n bil it y . T he doctrine that a p rince can do n o w rong h ad a m ag ical effect up o n the o ther s o vereigns o f Eu ro pe ; L o uis X I V. m o o t o m beca e their m del , and the bject which most of the

m him o f de iﬁc at io n o . aspired , the attain ent, like , up n earth m m o w r Even Ger any , i p verished and eakened by her ecent

r st uggle , was infected with this universal mania , and , in

“ r o f m n ur 1 6 5 6 , John George II . began to act the pa t a i iat e

. i . L o u s X I V , in starving and desolate Saxony A splendid

1 1 42 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

O f t h e longer be breathed into the dead body state , and n o m c c e peror , sin e Ferdinand , has sin e presided in person over — the diet This m onarch fell Sick and died shortly after of t h e o f o n e o f h fright, occasioned by fall his guards , w o had snatched up the y o ungest prince in order t o save him fro m a ’ ﬁre r t he that had bu st out in emperor s chamber. He was “ c o su ceeded by his son , Leop ld with the thick lip , who

‘ . c was then in his eighteenth year This prince , whose prin i pal amusement duri n g his childhood had been the erection o f o m o f miniature altars , the ad rn ent of ﬁgures and pictures saints , etc . , had , under the tuition of the Jesuit Neidhart, ro o g wn up a melancholy bigot , stiff, unbending, punctili us ,

o f r . and grave , devoid life or ene gy r The advantages gained by Louis XIV . , by the t eaty of W m r r h im fo r i estphalia , e ely inspi ed with a desire the acqu r sit io n o f still g eater . He even speculated upon gaining pos o o f r ro r sessi n the impe ial th ne , and , with that intent , b ibed r o r several of the p inces , the elect , Charles Louis , of the Pfalz w h o w as h r o U ( at t at time en aged at the l ss of the pper Pfalz , o e ar t o e rﬁdio u s and , c nsequently , lent a Willing the p coun o f F r o f o n e r o sels ance), with a gift hund ed and ten th usand o r r o o d lla s , and Bava ia , C l gne , and Mayence , with sums sim

l r m o . o r r o r la in a unt Sax ny and B andenbu g , h weve , with o o m rm c ro w w as st d the te ptation , and the Ge an n rescued ro m r r o o f o r o f the disg ace of ado ning the br w a f eign desp t , ’ ’ m m o r fo e o n o of Ger any s st invete ate , to be placed Le pold s r k m r fo r o o o f pe u e , a ise able substitute the g lden l cks the

H o henstaufen .

o r o rm 1 65 8 - r L uis , in evenge , f ed , in , an anti impe ial

o r c o r c . o v o n c nfede a y , the L we Rhenish allian e J hn Philip

r c o r o f c r - c o o f Schoenbo n , ele t Mayen e and a ch hancell r the m r m i r Bo in e b u r w h o r e pi e , and his inﬂuential niste , g , , b ibed o r o m r c r by every c u t , played a d uble ga e , we e parti ula ly r c o c o c o m e n a c tive in forwa ding his views , and ns ienti usly p sated France fo r the part they had taken in the election of

o r o . c o f the emperor, by the Rhenish c nfede ati n The ele tor

Cologne , the bishop of Munster, the princes of Brunswick A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 43

Lunebu rg and Hesse - Cassel were equally regardless of their

o o r r W u rt e m b er h n r, and with Ebe ha d of g (notwithstanding the o pposition o f his patrio tic p ro vincial Estates) c o u nt e r n an c e d the predato ry schem es o f the French m o na ch . The c o nduct of the Guelphs at that period was still more n o tori f r r u sl . o o o o y base The s ns Ge ge von Lunebu g , who had n Goe t t in e n su c c eeded him in Cale berg and g , and their uncle ,

r r c 1 648 r - ro F ede i k , in , in Lunebu g Celle , divided these p v

n e s m r i c between the , the eldest, Ch istian Louis , taking Lune

r - c o o r W m - Goe t t in bu g Celle , the se nd , Ge ge illia , Calenberg r w as r o u t o f o r gen . The latte gene ally the c unt y , in Italy r r c r m t h e o f o r o in F an e , whe e he i bibed all vices the c u t of ro r r r o t o o Ve rsailles . B o th the b the s we e d awn ver the Gall r r ro r r w h o papal pa ty by thei third b ther, John F ede ick , m ade a publi c pro fessi o n o f Catho licism at Assisi and held

c o r c r ro r 1 65 2 r . a nfe en e with his elde b the s , in , in Pe ugia I n 1 6 65 m rm r o , he ca e to Ge any and eceived Han ver, in ex

ro m o r W m . o o f c change , f Ge ge illia The Catholic f rm servi e was instantly re - established The Han o verian Estates were ”

m o r ro r m r o r . dis issed with the w ds , I am empe in y ter it ies He rec eived a m o nthly pension fro m Fran c e of ten th o usand ’

o l l r . r r r d a s The fou th b other, E nest Augustus , who after r c c t o o m o o w as wa d su eeded the wh le of the fa ily p ssessi ns , o n e the o nly faithful t o the imperial cause . The object o f t h e Rhenish allian c e was t o hinder the em pero r fro m i nter fe rin gwith the p ro jec ts o f F ran c e up o n the Spanish N ether f r o o u o . lands , and with th se Sweden p n Brandenbu g The o m o m o r o r attention of the y uthful e per r was , e ve , also at o o f r c o r c the instigati n F an e , ccupied with a f esh atta k on t h e part o f Turkey . Louis had thus spread his net o n all

sides . r o r o His ﬁ st acquisiti n was a po ti n of the Netherlands ,

c 1 65 3 t o r . w ar w whi h he annexed , in , F ance The bet een

1 Wh e n a o o r ri n h m rri in 1 5 8 o hia t h au h t e r o c e e a e . 6 S e f t he p p , d , p , d g w in t e r- in re e ric and o f t h e e aut i fu E isa e t h St uart W h o se ro t h e r k g , F d k , b l l b , b , h ar e s I a h A nd e t E rn e st A u ust us in h e rit t h h o e o f . w s e e a e e e w C l , b d d . y g d l t h e o sse ssio n s o f h is c hi e ss ro t h e rs an d h is so n Geo r e sh ort afte rwar p ldl b , , g , ly d moun t e t h e t h ro ne o f E n an d gl d . 1 1 44 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

F rance an d Spain had been renewe d with gre at vigor in

1 65 3 . é The great Cond , at that time at strife with the still m m o nipotent inister, Mazarin , and supported by the Duke of o r h ad L raine , had rebelled , been defeated by Turenne , and h ad ﬂed to the Netherlands , where he fought at the head of the Spaniards (as once Charles de Bourbon) against his coun m n t r e . y His invasion of Picardy was checked by Turenne . Spain robbed herself of a faithful con federate in Charles o f o r t u h L r aine , who lived rio ously at Br ssels , w ere he gained such popularity as to excite the jealousy of the Spanish au t h o rit ie s r ; this g eatly diverted him , and he purposely gave f F ue n de l sa n a o them of ence , upon which Count g , f rgetful of r the ﬁdelity with which he had long served against F ance , t i 1 caused him to be arres ed and to be sent to Spa n , in 65 4. o c L uis instantly rose in his defen e , attacked the Netherlands t a and entered in o lliance with Cromwell , who was then at the head of the English republic , against Spain . Condé w as 1 65 6 victorious at Valenciennes , in , but the empire o ffered n o aid to the Netherlands . The French besieged Dunkirk (which had fallen in to thei r hands in 1 646 and had been o f again ceded by the treaty Westphalia) for England , as ’ the pric e of C ro m well s alliance ; Condé attem pte d to was lieve the city , but surprised and defeated by Turenne in

1 65 8 . o the dams , The treaty of the Pyrenees f llowed , by r which Arras , Hesdin , and other towns were ceded to F ance , the Infanta , Maria Theresa of Spain , was given in marriage r n to Louis , with a dow y of three hundred thousand crow s of o n g ld , and the Duke of Lorraine , who aturally ever after

r t r w s r . wa d sided wi h F ance , a restored to libe ty Dunkirk ’ r h r fell to England , but, on C omwell s deat , was pu chased by ro rr o r Lo uis from Charles II . and st ngly ga is ned with F ench ; ‘ and Dunkirk, as the name proves , a genuinely German

1 Th e D un en o r ams are h i h ro a w a s o f san that ro t e c t t h e am , d , g , b d ll d p d p St a e s are run int o t h e ro un and n a ain st t h e v io e n c e o f t h e w av e s . ba k g l k g d , - n o sie rs ran c h e s and wi s s o f st raw are w o v e n e tw e e n t h em . Th e se a sa , b , p b — d ra ual se tt e s in t h e int e rs tic es and a se c o n a e r is th e n raise . Sea rass g d ly l , d l y d g , h i h ui S rin s u and in s t h e san with it s roo t s is t h en so wn o n the w c q ckly p g p b d d , al t o w l p.

1 1 46 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

fort une no sooner declared in favor of Sweden than t he wily elect o r ranged himself on that side and assisted Charles u i n r G stavus defeating the Poles near Wa saw, immediately aft er which he again offered peace and his alliance to Casi mir on condition of that monarch ’ s relinquishing his feudal

r . was right over the duchy of P ussia A treaty concluded , i n 1 65 7 W , to this effect at elan , and the elector, in order to secure himself from the vengeance of the Swedes , incit e d the Danes and Dutch to attack them and entered into alli ance with the emperor, Leopold, who despatched General Mo nt e c uc u li ne w to his aid , and the allies took possession of Swedish Pomerania, while Charles Gustavus crossed the t wo r n be Belt on the ice ( companies alone were d ow ed) , sieged Copenhagen and co mpelled Denmark to Sign a treaty 1 65 8 i of peace, in , which , on his return , was instantly n a ne w o fringed , Denmark ﬁnding and potent ally in H lland , h w whic beheld the naval po er of Sweden with jealousy , and o m o whose vict rious ﬂeet , co manded by de Ruyter , f rced its w ay through the Sound and almost annihi lated that of Sw e den under the eye of the king , who viewed the engagement fro m the fortress of K ronenburg . This disaster p roved fatal r f as o to him . T he t eaty o Oliva w c ncluded sh o rtly after

1 6 60 . rm n o t wit h his death in The te s of this treaty were , standing , favorable to Sweden and prove the respect uni v e rsal l h ( y felt for her power , Livonia , Est onia , and Esel remaining in her possessio n and the great electo r being com r pe l l e d to relinquish Swedish Pomerania . Cha les Gustavus had also succeeded in separating the Gottorp branc h of the r m Danish ( Oldenbu g) h o use fro m the royal line of Den ark .

h - n Christian Albert, duke of Sc leswig Holstei , formerly vas h sal to his cousin , the Danis monarch , raised himself, with ’

w S t o . S eden aid , sovereign power W m The Rhenish alliance , against which Frederick illia i had energetically and publicly protested , was inval dated by

o o o f . W i the c nclusi n peace Frederick illiam , in his man “ o festo , called up n the Germans to protect Poland as one ”

r . e of the bulwarks of the empi e His actions , however, littl A GE OF L O UIS THE F OUR TE E N TH 1 47 — acco rded with his words h e aided t o ruin that co untry fo r the sake of a triﬂing advantage . r h e r o r F ance , increasing in endeav rs to distu b the peace

r c r t o of Ge many , again in ited Tu key the attack , and in r r Kiu ril i r O 1 6 63 the g and vizie , p , penet ated as far as lmutz

Mo c o . o r in ravia , laying the untry waste as he advanced F t o r m o m r l une had , h weve , given the e per r an ad irable gene a Mo n t e c uc u l i o m r rm w as c o m in , by wh the Tu kish a y pletely

r . r routed in a pitched battle nea St G o ttha d in 1 6 64 . ’ “ Mo n t e c u c u li s o r o ih fav ite saying was , Three things al ne ” r c o r o o o ! an d m h e c e r su e vi t y , g ld; g ld , g ld by this eans i t ain l y suc c eeded in enchaining h e r t o h s banner.

- T e w iss P a CCXXII . h S ea s n t Wa r

’ T HE thirty years w ar had exc ited the passions of the Swiss without p ro duc ing any im m ediate o r Open dem o nstra ro fo r c r o ti o n . The wealth b ught se u ity int the Alps by the innum erable Germ an refugees had intro duc ed luxu ries am o ng m r r m o r S c the ountainee s , which we e favored by the e pe ula o f c wh o m o tive inhabitants the ities , lent the peasant ney o n his m him r o r c o n se land , and , by aking thei debt , and , r o ro o c rt q uently , pe s nally dependent, dest yed his p liti al libe y . ’ O n the te rm inatio n o f the thirty yea rs w ar and the c o n se r r o f rm r t o r c o r quent etu n the Ge an efugees thei native unt y , m m r r n o c m o r sc a c e , a d o o f ney be a e g adually e . the situati n m f t he peasantry m o re depl o rable . Jac o b Wagen ann o Su r “ ro r o c o r t o r see w te at this pe i d , nsequently , d iven despai , w ar appeared t o them to o ffer the o nly m eans by whic h they co uld at o n c e and co m pletely wipe o ff their debts . A pretext n t h was o l o ng wanti n g . They declared that t e p ro vin c ial o r o r w r t o o r c w as o m m c g ve n s e e seve e , whi h s eti es the ase , and that t h e laws fav o red the interests o f thei r rulers m o re ” c t h h f E n t l i uc h e c . T e o o b than justi e and publi weal pe ple , w h o r o n c r o o f m m we e dependent Lu e ne , and th se the E en w h o r b r t o r r m o r o r o thal , we e su se vient Be ne , we e , e ve , jeal us of t h e p rivileges enj o yed by their nearest neigh bors in Unter 1 1 48 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

t o m walden and Schwyz , which they clai ed , owing to th e ir m r o o n r o c si ila ity in descent and ccupati and thei cl se vi inity , an equal right . The prevalence of this feeling am o ng the people w as apparent o n the ﬁrst appearance of the E n t l ib uc h r m e n r insu gents , who were headed by three athletic , d essed c m W r a c r in the an ient costu e , as alther Fu st, St uffa he , and

Melchthal . r o r o ut 1 65 3 E n t l ib uc h o n m The ev lt b oke in , in , E men ’ r r m o egger s p otest against the dep eciation of the s all c in , o f Kre bsin e r t h e and on the threat g , president of the council “ r r r of Be ne , that he would place ﬁve hund ed invulne able ” r Italians on the necks of the rebellious peasant y . The c ut ’ rages co m mitted by the so ldie ry during the thi rty years w ar r s t h e m ds o m r were still f e h in in of the pe ple , and the i p es o ro r o c si n p duced by this threat is therefo e easily c n eivable . The ﬁrst o utburst o f their rage w as vented o n the Lucerne

. t o bailiffs , whom they expelled the valley They then ﬂew arms and struck such terror into the cit izens that messengers of peace were instantly sent to recall them to o bedien c e and “ r t h at t h e ir to rep esent to them authority was from God , to

K ru m m e n ac h e r o - r which , a p werful looking peasant , g owled “ o m Go d o u ac t out in reply , Yes , it is fr , when y justly , but ” c m from the devil when you act with injustice . The ity ade r some concessions and a reconciliatio n too k place . The a is t o c rac o f r m re y Berne , eve on the alert , had , eanwhile , p fo r war o r w m pared , and , by their ve caution , dre upon the selves the calam ity they sought to avoid ; the Bern ese , arrie r- ban refusing to take the ﬁeld against the pe o ple of E n t l ib u c h r o r , and thei disobedience aff rding the Be nese T o Mo d r o r fo r o . w peasant y an opp tunity rev lt parties , the

r t e r e a s (Linden) , and the Radicals (Ha ten) , sprang up ; the m m latte r for ed the selves into a provincial assembly , and u r m an o placed Niklaus Le enbe g , a of great el quence , at o r n o w their head . The arist c acy of Basel committed a blun der Sim ilar t o that of Berne by sending ﬁve hundred soldiers m t r . r across the Jura o Aa gau Thei nu bers , increased by h e rumor , spread terror throug the country ; the Aargau ros

1 1 50 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

The governments , hereupon , prepared in earnest for Op r position , and , taking advantage of a letter add essed by the r F ench ambassador to Leuenberg , in which he declared him in responsible case the Austrians seized the opportunity , pre b sented by the distur ed state of the country , to cross the no w frontier, converted the question , until simply internal r r and aristoc atic , into an external and pat iotic one , and des i nat e d t r g the peasants , not as foes to the aris oc acy , but as

- n . c traitors to their cou try The peasants , half cons ious of o being utwitted , were , consequently , more highly infuriated , and war was rendered inevita ble by the formidable prepara m r t o tions ade by Be ne , Lucerne , Basel , and Zurich , which r the peasantry on the lake caused g eat alarm . m b o c c u A stratage , favored y chance , opened the passes pi ed by the peasantry t o the governm ent troops and frus t rat e d their plan of warfare . The steward of a Bernese noble , whom curiosity had led too close to the scene of oper at io n s , was taken prisoner by the peasants , and , by accident, overheard a conference betwee n Leuenberg and his c o m - in - Sc h bi mander chief , y , and , on regaining his liberty , laid ’ h - m Sc yb i s well sche ed plan of battle before the Zurichers . o o r Ab ut six th usand Be nese troops , coming from Vaud , t o b r m being s pped y Leuenbe g at the pass near Gum enen , D u rh e im r o r r r , the Be nese provincial g ve no , craftily sp ead a rep o rt that Leuenberg and the wh o le of his troo ps had e m braced Catholi cism and that the sole obje c t of the insurgents ro was to betray the Bernese to the pope . The P testant peas r at r ants gua ding the pass , terrified this rumo , fled , and the o pass w as instantly occupied by the Be rnese . The g vern o f r l r i r ment Luce ne , with equa subtlety , etained the hold over their b i go ted Cath o l i c subjects by publishing a mani r c r w ar insur festo f om the le gy , in which the against the r b t o i gent peasantry w as declared ag eea le the Divine W ll . General We rdm u l l e r o f Z urich at length to o k the field at

o f o m - ro o b the head s e well disciplined t ps , with a ﬁne ody c r i i t but of aval y and a park of art llery , aga ns the numerous

- m Ot t m arsin e n ill ar ed peasantry . At g , in the vicinity of A G E OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 5 1

- a ur m bo Len b g , he ca e up with a body of a ut ﬁfteen hundred

m o b i . ar ed insurgents , posted in a w od , and strongly arr caded e rdm ul l e r e o m a W halt d his tro ps , and , so e of the peas nt lead “ o d Wh e rs coming f rward , he demande , y they had taken up ” “ arms ! They replied that peace was their greatest desi re ; that they wo uld instantly lay dow n their arm s o n the res t o rat io n of the privileges and rights they had enj o yed fo r a c r entu y past, and of which they had been deprived , and that D o they would o ppose violence by violence . eath c uld hap ” pen b ut o nc e l A pitc hed battle was fo ught a few days

afte rward at Wo h l e n sc hwy l . The peasantry defende d the r bu ning village under a heavy cannonade , until late at night, r T he r when both parties ret eated to their camps . peasant y, r n r o r s howeve , perceivi g thei inability to c pe with egular troop 1 65 3 m o f and artillery , acceded , in , to the ter s peace pro “ o n r p sed by the ge e al , which deceitfully provided that any t h r o r h c ing elating further to the government to t eir subje ts, S o f r m t hould , in default an amicable ar ange ent , be regula ed ” by the l aw . This article inspired the peasantry with t h e o c o f i f r vain h pe of an ami able adj ustment d f e ences , while it s r e t he re e ved to the citi s power of refusing , and also that of l re r aw i s . fer ing to the , that , to the penal code The peas - r t n ants were at first treated with great appa en frie dship , and r h e t e . L uenbe g dined in public with general Vengeance , rt rr neve heless , did not ta y . T h e r E n t l ib uc h c peasant y of , mistrusting the pea e , ad i s r h t o t he m v sed their Berne e b et ren not to accede ter s, m and, finding the selves unheeded , withdrew . Although s S m E nt urrounded on every ide , they defended the selves in l ib uc h i with most unflinch ng bravery , but were finally com e l l e d p to yield . Their leaders were thrown into prison . Some of the Bernese peasantry having m arched t o the as sist an c e E n t l ib uc h of their brethren in , but without taking o t h e o part in the c ntest , government seized the pportunity t o infringe the treaty o f Wo hl e n sc hw y l and t o take their re v e n o n h o h ad b r a ge the Bernese , w een g eatly we kened by t he a o f E n t lib uc h r st defe t the people of , and , in o der to rike 1 1 52 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r r v o n r m them with ter o , E lach arched with a considerable r m r m r force f o Be ne to Wangen , burning , urde ing , plunder

. k . ing , etc , li e a horde of barbarians Leuenberg instantly ro We rdm u l l e r w te a letter to , in which he called upon him to m aintain the treaty and charged him and Erlach with m the cri e of renewing the w ar. He then to ok the ﬁeld h ho m m a in st wit ﬁve t usand E enthal peasants g Erlach , - rm an d r o m r f but , ill a ed ove p wered by nu be s , the y su fered o w as r r a t tal defeat , and he sho tly afterwa d betrayed by a was peasant, who consequently pardoned , into the hands of h i s enemies . We rdm u l l e r o vainly endeav red to interpret the treaty , ’ b h im Wo h l e n sc hw l concluded y at y , in the peasants favo r ; o the city c uncils were intent upon revenge , and a fearful tribunal w as held in every place where the peasants had h . r r been captured To ture , anging , beheading , quarte ing , o u V al Splitting of t ng es and ears , slavery on the enetian g m lays , long i prisonment and hard labor, were the modes of

i m . pun sh ent resorted to Basel , although exposed to little d i anger during the war , acted W th the greatest severity , and S o lo thu rn with the greatest lenity i n te rmixed with base r o f n b ness , the lives of the peasant y that canto eing spared m f r o n m o f o r o . o c o o o pay ent an en us ﬁne The c un il S l thu n , r o f o r m r ever g eedy gain , als ente ed at that ti e into a sepa ate r r alliance with F ance . The popular leade s were treated with h bi i r . Sc peculiar ba barity The gallant y , a handsome athlet c

o r o t m . man , endured the severest t ture with u a mur ur Leuen ’ r c o f o r o be g s head was stu k , with the letter c nfede ati n , on o r r was the gall ws , and his qua te ed body hung up in four r o r pa ts of the c unt y . The treaty o f Wo h l e n sc h wy l w as partially recognized by o f r o o rm o r o a a c o urt arbit ati n f ed by the c nfede ati n , and t o w concessions we re assured t o the peasantry ; the diffe rent o r m r o m o g ve n ents , neve theless , delayed their c nﬁr ati n under E n t l ib u c h vario us pretexts . The patience of the peasantry m en who was at length exhausted , and the three Tells , the , E nt l ib uc h ed o n the ﬁrst ri sing of the people of , had personat

1 1 54 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

r we e alone allowed to enter English ports , caused great det m o ri ent to H lland , which at that time mon o polized almost

o c r c o n the wh le of the ontinental t ade , and a struggle se quently ensued between her and England for t he rule of t h e . w as o sea Holland still at the height of her p wer . She

-m o ne numbered ten thousand erchantmen , hundred and - - r sixty eig ht thousand sailo s . He r admirals we re the vet o r o m m e an Tr mp , the brave de Ruyter , who had co enced l i fe

W w h o as a poor sailor , the proud Cornelius de itt, had re n o u n c e d the mild doctrines of the Mennonites , in which h e had been educated , for the sake of thrashing a pers o n w h o n him had i sulted ; the brothers Evertsen and van Galen .

‘ m A ~ The English ad irals were Blake , Monk , Askew , and p r pl e t o n . The great naval war began in 1 65 1 . T o m p w as o ff o o o victorious D ver , de Ruyter off Plym uth , but b th were , i n m o r a third engage ent, defeated , wing to a disag eement between them and de Witt. In 1 65 2 Tro m p gained a b rill iant victory over the English unde r Blake and ﬁxed a bro o m m S r at his asthead , in ign of his having swept the sea clea n o r m from every foe . The English w exe ted their ut ost r r o o in st ength , and , in a f esh engagement , that t k place h r o r a m t e w s c . ensuing yea , vict y lai ed by both sides Van ff o c o o v o r o . Galen , h wever, suc eeded in beating Applet n Li n

w as - m He struck with a cannon ball and expired , exclai ing , “ ’ fo r o c o u r r t It is easy to die ne s nt y , when c owned wi h vic ” t o r ! r ro m r was de y The vete an T p , the fathe of the navy , r n r feated and killed o ff Dunki k . Eight captai s and seve al o m m is lieutenants , wh se negligence had ainly caused this o r u r r m o f f t ne , we e punished with republican seve ity , so e m r t h e m ih the being th ice keelhauled , punish ent always

ﬂ ic t e d by Van T ro m p up o n c o wards . was c o c 1 65 4 n l n Peace n luded , in , between E g a d and c o m m o r m t o o Holland , whose n inte ests led the pp o se the r n c i o o p inces , and the reigni g fa t on in H lland res lved , for

r r a o o f m r c fo r u the bette p eserv ti n the de oc a y , that , the f r n o o f Or u r o d o tu e , Prince ange sho ld ule as stadth l er ver Holland ; but on the resto ration o f the Stuart dynasty in Eng A GE OF L O UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 5 5

Or t ro o land , the ange par y se again in H lland , repealed the 1 654 c W r r decree of , and ele ted illiam as thei futu e stadt

r. o W r holde J hn de itt yielded , and dreading , at this pe iod t o o of universal reaction , dis blige the English monarch , de r o m wh o live ed up to him s me English embers of parliament,

had fo rmerly vo ted for the execution o f Charles I . The

ar r r . w , neve theless , again b oke out The commercial inter ests of the English and Dutch were oppo sed to each other v r r o f o o m m in e e y quarte the gl be , and the f r er , nu erically r o r r o o f c o supe i , egarded the c lonies the latter with a vetous m o a o t o o c r t o eye . These i p rt nt c lonies lay s atte ed be easily S o r w maintained . During the h t peace bet een Holland and r England , Charles II . , who had Wedded a Portuguese p in c o o r o c Ho l ess , br ught ab ut a t eaty with P rtugal , to whi h l r r m o f and ceded the B azils , afte losing al ost the whole her o 1 4 . 6 8 ﬂeet The Cape of Good H pe , colonized , in , by Rie m r beck , so i po tant for the trade with the East Indies , was , o n o t o r r the ther hand , raised a higher degree of p ospe ity , an d r o the Dutch , after extending thei trade al ng the Mala f r r o b ar o a o o f o . c ast as as Pe sia , t ok possessi n Ceyl n , etc o o r H lland , after the cessi n of the B azils , being unable to o o h e r o n o m r h res lve up n that of col ies in N rth A e ica , w ose w as w ar r b e possession coveted by England , again b oke out r n tween the rival powe s i 1 6 64. England seized the Dutch co l o nies o n the easte rn coast of North Am eric a an d c o nve rted N m r m the city of e w A ste da into that o f New Yo rk . Wase n aar o n n o o was defeated the E glish c ast, and his ship bl wn

o . a r int the air De Ruyter w s at that time absent in Af ica . o ro r r r The naval power of H lland se on his etu n , and a fea r 1 6 6 6 n m o ff ful evenge was taken , in , in an e gage ent the o o r h t he English c ast , which lasted f u days , and in w ich o m o o English , with wh the Pfalzgraf Rupert f ught, l st - r six o m e n l twenty th ee ships ; th usand . were kil ed , and ’ r m r r w a de R u t e r th ee thousand ade p iso ne s . This s y s o fﬁ c r r m c w as m st di ult and g eatest t iu ph , in whi h he aided ro m o r r by the younger T p and C nelius Eve tsen , the latter o m r c r o of wh fell and was epla ed by his b other J hn , 1 1 5 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

who had retired into private life , and whose father, son , o r ro h fo r and f u b t ers had already fallen their country , a i n fate he h mself shared in the next engageme t . In t h e e n ’ n o sui g year, de Ruyter and Cornelius , J hn de Witt s brother , s l t h e s o ai ed up Thame , laid waste the c ast almost as far as o th e n r L ndon , E glish having been driven f om the sea , and S h m burned several English hips at Chat a , taking possession of the T ham es from t he North Foreland and Margate as far n h as the N o re . The E glis were compelled to accede to t h e r o h e r te ms of peace pr posed by victorious rival , at Breda , 1 66 7 t h e in , and Navigation Act was suspended in regard to Dutch cargo es . e h e r h France beheld these disput s between neig bors , w m e m hich she sti ulat d to the ut ost in her power, with de l e o f n light , and , meanwhi e , proj cted the seizure the Spa ish

n . Netherlands . Spain was rapidly on the decli e The sys m t e p ursued by Philip II . had been productive of evil t o his m successors . T he onarch Slumbered in the arms of the h t e . church , navy fell to pieces , the army into rags The provincial Estates in the Netherlands had remained u n c o n

f h d . v o ke d Since 1 600 . The spirit o the people a sunk These h pro vinces were also ext ernally unprotected . The R enish

s e d o . o w o n o prince had be n gaine by L uis XIV , who als ver H o lland by fraudulently pro posing the partiti o n of the Span ish Netherlands , to which John de Witt as fraudulently as o n sented for the sake of gaining time , c nquests by la d not h is n being in plan , and a weak neighbor (Spain) bei g pre He ' ferred by him to a p o werful one (France) . has been gro undlessly ch arged with h avin g been actually in alliance r h m with F ance , w o he in reality merely deceived , and o r against whom he raised a p werful league , the t iple alli an d n ance between Holland , England , Swede , which in st an t ly opposed the attempted extension of the Fren c h t e r rit o ry on t h e seizure o f the Netherlan ds by Turenne under p retext o f the non - payment of the dow ry of the Infanta

r o o Ma ia Theresa , and L uis was c mpelled to accede to the

- - 1 6 68 treaty of Aix la Chapelle , in , and to content himself

1 1 58 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r v o n bishop of Munste , Bernard Galen , furnished t h e French r monarch with t oops , in which they were imita ted by John w h o o r Frederick of Hanover , to k a F ench general in t o his service for the purpose of teaching his subje c ts the French exercise and lived in his imp o verished country with t h e o f u senseless pomp a petty Lo is . Christian o f Me c kl e n - r c e m burg Schwe in was infe t d with a si ilar mania , made a ro o f a t r 1 6 public p fession Catholicism Pa is , in 63 , to o k the name of Louis and always subscribed himself knight o f r the orde of the most Christian king . Others among t h e m . r r German princes re ained neutral Fe dinand Ma ia , elec o f o m o tor Bavari a, wh Louis had surr unded with licentious

r o c r F ench c urtiers , and who was ompletely led by a b other W m an d Priv i n ian i of illia von Furstenberg by the Jesuit g , r Wu rt e m be r the c eature of France ; Eberhard of g , who sided h u o f Mu m e l ard and wh o wit France thro gh dread losing p g , , o n so n n o f that account, gave his the ame Louis and begged c bdfath e r c w r the Fren h king to stand g ; Mayen e , he e a h r m r f c o r w w isper f o F ance suf i ed to verth o the minister, Bo in e b u r w h o fo r m r m g , , a mo ent, appea ed to favor Ger any ; r o t o r a T eves , exp sed eve y att ck , and the rest of the petty r m n c . o o o e Rhenish p in es A C unt Sol s , the nly who refused r r f t o o o . e to yield , was beaten death by de Turenne Bitt r m r o . c plaints and sati es abounded , but Louis XIV had Ger m o o r t h e c t Co n rin man authors , a ng the s elebra ed g, in his pay , who lauded France to the skies , defended his claim o c r r o r r m up n the onque ed ter it y , and loaded Ge man patriotis r Lu b ko w it w c . c z ith ridi ule Finally , aided by the p in es of wh o c o o s c o m ( , like Li htenstein , Coll red , Galla , and Pi col ini , ’ t o o r r w ar w h o had risen n te du ing the thirty yea s , and held t h e c o f o m r prin ipality Sagan in fee) , wh he had b ibed , he o r o 1 761 re deluded the emper int an alliance , in , for the p r r r tended extermination of the he etics . This sec et t eaty w as r t o o r o f r r Sh o wn by F ance the elect Brandenbu g , pa tly with

w r n h im t r r r Of a V ie of s t iki g with e ro , pa tly with that dissi r pating his in clinati o n to ally himself with Austria. Ge m c o nﬁrm a any was , by these means , secured , and , on the A GE OF L OUIS THE FO UR TEEN TH 1 1 5 9

f w o r . o tio n of the alliance bet een L uis and Cha les II , king

o f o r . England , the fate H lland appea ed inevitable Louis , r t o o o r m in orde c l his designs , pretended to act in the na e of his b rother sovereigns and t o avenge the monarc h ic al

r c o n o r . m r c p in iple the ins lent epublic A edal was st u k , r r rep esenting Louis in a haughty attitude , and , on the reve se , “ ” m i c r m o o U . H lland hu bled , with the ns ipti n , ltor Regu r i o r o rm m Leibnitz , the g eat ph los phe , f ed at that ti e the whim si c al plan o f dive rting the F ren c h f ro m the c o nquest o f o o f o f r r r H lland by that Egypt, and p ese ving the t an m n m f rr quillity o f Ge r a y .by eans o a qua el between Fran c e i ri f r . o c o r o and Tu key J hn Phil p , the int guing ele t May r o o m m o f ff r c ence , unde t k the anage ent this a ai , whi h was r w r c o w h o o r t eated ith idi ule by L uis , laughingly bse ved “ that c rusades were n o l o nger in v o gue . The F rench king entered Ho lland at the head o f t w o r o m e n o o f r m hund ed th usand , while the bish p Munste ade a sim ultaneo us attack o n the o pp o site Side with a fo rc e t wenty

o ro o r r r . th usand st ng , which f und the states gene al unp epa ed o r r r o f o rm The f t esses we e in a state dilapidati n , an d the a y

rc m r o m e n . r c c o n sca ely uste ed twenty th usand The F en h , m ro r o o W h r sequently , ade rapid p g ess , t k esel and R einsbe g c o r t o r r (whi h , alth ugh appe taining B andenbu g , had been l o rr o c r ng ga is ned , as se u ity against the Spanish , by the u c c u t o o ff ro m m o r ro m D t h) , H lland f any aid that ight ffe f rm an d e re o o c c Ob e r sse l r Ge any, , l ng , upied y , Guelde s , and

U trec ht . The o nly o pp o sitio n o ffered by the Dutc h was at m o f o r r o é w as o . the uth the Yssel , whe e the g eat C nd w unded m rc r r c o m m r o The e enaries we e spi itless , their ande s ften r o r o r o f rm t ait s , the pe ple igno ant the use of a s and taken by r h r . W t e o m r t o o r su p ise In esel , w en efused all w thei hus ’ bands t o exp o se them selves t o the enemy s ﬁ re an d insisted

o c o . o f im w e e n o m m up n apitulati n The citizens N g , B el , De r o n o t h e r vente , and Elburg , the ther hand , displayed g eat c r r t o c o r o f est ou age , but we e unable , owing the wa dice their o ﬁc r w h o r t o m a m a f e s , dese ted , aint in the selves gainst the n rm besiegi g a y . Several unde c isive engagem ents also to o k 1 1 60 THE HI STOR Y OF GERMA N Y

t h e o f i place between ﬂeets England and Holland , n

1 672 .

h w h o fo r m t The D utc , had so long dee ed hemsel v es se

r o - cure from eve y h stile attack , were panic struck , and the “ ” r o o m cry of Holland is in dist ess passed fr m m uth to outh .

o o ro Their c urage , h wever , speedily returned , and , on the p p o sal o f a nego tiation with France be ing m ade t o the states

r o o f c m o gene al by J hn de Witt , some the ity deputies , a ng t de r o l others the burgomaster of Ams erdam , John von P l , V al c ke n ie r Hasse l aar ff c , Hop , and , made an ine e tual oppo m o n o t w t h sitiou ; the asse bled pr vincial Estates of Zealand , i

o - r re so l u t io n s z— r standing , passed the n ble spi ited Fi st, We ought t o and will defend our religion and our liberty to t he u m o ro o f o o t st of our ability and with the last d p our bl d . o W e wil l c o t o o n r Sec ndly , on no account nsent any c t act or n m a v r negotiatio , which y ha e been or may be ente ed into o o f by H lland or by any the other provinces with France . r o t o Thi dly , We will , without delay , send a deputati n our v r t h e r Or r h im t o a n so e eign , P ince of ange , ent eating aid d

. o far w e m a defend us with his allies F urthly , In so as y be unable to withstand the overwhelm ing fo rces of the enem y we prefer subm itting to the king o f England than to the o f r c e — m r o king F an This exa ple elect iﬁed the pe ple , and m defence was unani ously resolved upon . John de Witt lost all his inﬂuence and w as l o udly blam ed fo r having neglected t h e fo r e the defences of country , and having , shortly befor o f w ar o o o f the breaking out the , allowed the exp rtati n salt Ora ro m petre to France . His exclusi o n of the house of nge f o 1 6 6 7 Su o o o f the stadth ldership in , and his bsequent ab liti n “ ” b r c h ad c that dignity y the Ete nal Edi t, ex ited the enmity m Or w h o n o w m n of Willia of ange , i itated the revenge take

r r o n O . W by his ancesto , Mau ice , lden Barneveldt De itt

‘ was falsely accused of having acted up o n a secret under A n a m m t o standing with F rance . tte pt was ade assassinate him h o , and one de Graaf dealt him a wound w ich c nﬁned i him to h s sick ch amber. The people rose simultaneously ’ h fe l l t roughout the country ; de Witt s party , and every eye

1 1 62 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

ss France , had also e entially contributed to the evacuation of r m Holland by the French . The rep esentations ade by France and the pope to the emperor against his unconscienti o us union i i i f c W th heret cs , Brandenburg and Holland (as Fran e had h never soug t the alliance of both Sweden and Turkey) , were , v m ff Mo n t e c u c ul i ne ertheless , far fro ine ectual , and , although m o m sent to the aid of Holland , was regulated in his ve ents - o f o o by the orders and counter orders Lobk witz , the t ol of c o France . When on the point of forming a jun ti n with the o great elector and of driving the French out of H lland , he suddenly received orders to march to Frankfort and there to i remai n in a state of nactivity , upon which Turenne instantly m fo r o threw hi self on the left bank of the Rhine , the purp se of cutting o ff his communication with the Netherl ands and Mo n t e c uc u l i with Cleves . , however , also crossing the Rhine re at Mayence and threatening to invade France , Turenne crossed the Rhi ne with such precipitation at Andernach that a thousand of his plundering soldiery were left behind and r were killed in the Westerwald by the peasant y . w ar w as o m The seat of , by this means , rem ved fro Hol i land to the Middle Rh ne , Where the Rhenish league , in the w r fﬁ interest of France , thre eve y di culty in the path of r o the pat riotic elector . All the princes of the empi e , thr ugh r ro w hose territory the B andenburg troops passed, p tested

o an d . o against the vi lation demanded reparation Sax ny , u o supported by the elector of Mayence , leag ed with Han ver r and Sweden against Brandenburg , and the behavio of the m u w as so i perial co rt , at the same time , equivocal , that r o the elector , app ehensive of losing Cleves , was c mpelled o r to conclude peace at V ssem , without delay , with F ance

in 1 6 73 . m no w Louis , once ore conﬁdent of success , sent the Mar r r r o f shal de Luxembu g to the f ontie s Holland , where he

m r r. gave his soldiers license to plunder , burn , and u de The r m o st frig h tful atrocities were co mmitted . In the sp ing of 3 r n o o 1 6 7 , the F ench ki g t ok the ﬁeld in pers n with a design

t . u of completing the conques of Holland De R yter , how A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 6 3

r c c ever, beating the English ﬂeets in th ee su essive engage r l ia ments, Cha les II . was compelled by the Eng ish parl ment t o renounce his base al liance with France ; Austria also at length exerted herself ; L u b ko wit z was dismissed ; M o nte cuculi advanced to the Rhine , and , at Cologne , seized the i traitor, William von Furstenberg, who had mpudently as sumed the title of French am bassado r witho ut previously renouncing his allegiance to the em pire . Treves fell into r m the hands of the F en c h . An indecisive engage ent took c m O r Se n e f pla e between Willia of range and the F ench at , 1 6 64 n was t o U and , in , Turen e sent the pper Rhine , where r d o w h o the impe ialists un er Bourn nville , a Frenchman , was - fo r r either ill adapted the command or in the pay of F ance, were defeated at Ensisheim , before the elector of Branden ’ r n m On m bu g, who had agai ranged hi self the e peror s side,

o ro o . r o o o f could j in them with his t ps Cha les L uis , elect r a F rie dric ksb ur e the Pfalz , who , from his c stle of g , b held the smoking cities and villages wanto nly set in ﬂames by c o m r re Turenne , sent that mande a challenge , which was m r c fo r c o n fused , Turenne returning his custo a y ex use his “ al m duct, These things ways happen in war ti e . The r r vete an duke , Cha les of Lorraine , unaided , attacked and

r Cre c ui r 1 6 75 . defeated the French unde q , near T eves , in o f r o The duke Vaudemont, gove nor of Burgundy , also l ng ro o c and gallantly stood his g und in Besanc n , but no suc or fo o r being af rded to him that pro v ince was again l st. Cha les o f Lo rraine vainly implored the imperiali sts and B rande n burg to coalesce for the defence of the fro ntier provinces ; Bournonville refused to move until he was at length attacked o at Muhlhausen and thrown back up n the great elector, by r whom the F ench were defeated at Turkheim . The Swedes,

meanwhile , instigated by Louis , suddenly invaded Branden m burg, and the elector hastily returned to defend his de esnes. o rr o o Charles of L aine died of rage and s rr w . Mo nte c uc ul i n a , otwithst nding the absence of t he elector o f B was a randenburg , gain victorious on the Upper Rhine. Tu renne fell in the battle of Sasbach The F rench 1 1 64 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

re r a we d iven back on every side , and , being second time

o n r . defeated the Saar, etreated beyond Treves They de m Cre c ui fo r m fended the selves in this city , under q , so e time , but were at length c ompelled to capitulate . The greater n um ber of them were c ut to pieces on the entrance of the m r m o o o o f r i pe ialists , who ist k the explosi n some g enades for r c o r w as m an attack . A b illiant vi t y gained at the sa e time , 1 6 76 o o f , at the fo t Etna , by the Dutch ﬂeet over that of r w h o F ance ; De Ruyter, was killed in this engagement, was buried at Syracuse . T h e no w o French king withdrew his f rces for a while , o fo r leaving the f rtresses , remaining in his hands , strongly r o t iﬁe d . These ga ris ns systematically plundered and de

r r - st oyed the count y in their vicinity ; Berg Zabern , where m t he w Bruc ksal nu bers of inhabitants ere burned to death , , and num erous villages were laid in ashes . The c apture of r r m Philippsburg , one of the p incipal fo tresses , by the i perial ist s r o , merely incited the F ench to greater vi lence , and the r r n ﬂ year 1 677 O pened am id all the ho ro s o f w ar. Co agra rb ruc k o S r . . W Saa ti ns p ead far and wide St endel , , where the incendiaries were besieged in the castle , taken and slain ,

- Ot t Hagenau , Zweibrucken , Elsass Zabern , Buschweiler, w e il e r Lu t zel st e in W r ,_ , Veldenz , eissenbu g , and four hundred h r t o r . D ac s bu r villages were educed heaps of uins The g,

r . the strongest fo t in the Pfalz , fell by treachery The valu able library o f the Pfalzgraf of Z weibruc ken w as carried to o f was r . Pa is La Broche , the captain the incendiary bands , a taken by the imperialists and shot . He w s succeeded by

o n t c l as wh o m M , , after some bloody skir ishes in the neigh b o rh o o d o f r r St asbu g , crossed the Rhine , set thirty villages m o r around Breisach in ﬂa es , and t ok Freibu g in the Breisgau o by surprise , where he maintained his p sition , the emperor, o r o n deluded by his counsell rs , the tools of F ance , no l ger m mak ing any effort for the preservation of the e pire . The r S wiss , instead of aiding their German b ethren , restricted re them selves t o the defence of their frontiers , whence they

pulsed the duke o f Lorraine , who sought refuge within their

1 1 6 6 THE HISTO OF A N R Y , GERM Y

man . The gallant Landgrave w as pardoned for the rash ’ . o b s ness of his attack Brandenburg s equerry , Froben , e rv ing, during the engagement, that the Swedes aimed at the gray horse ridden by the duke , begged of him to change

was fe w o horses with him , and , a seconds after , sh t by the D e rﬂin e r enemy The elector and g were , in the ensu ing campaign , again successful ; the Swedes were defeated at Wolgast ; Stettin was taken afte r a dete rm ined resist r r W ance ; St alsund , which had so long esisted allenstein , and

. r 1 6 8 Greifswald , fell into their hands In the winte of 7 , the i Swedes invaded Pruss a , but were repulsed by the elector, who pu rsued them in sledges across the gulf of Courland and m m again defeated the in the vicinity of Riga , whence fa ine h im and the severity of the cold compelled to return . The u d o m D tch , un er the y unger Tro p , also beat the Swedes at W w as r sea , and ismar taken by Brandenbu g and by his w ar r n Danish allies . This , the esult of foreign influe ce in m r o n s Germany , again e ptied the vial of w ath the head o f h Ho w m m r t e people . ca e Stettin and Wis a to fight fo r a fo reign ruler ! o f The fall Ghent and Ypern , and the defeat of William O Or . . of ange at St mer, inclined the Dutch to peace This m ingratit ude filled their for er allies with disgust . The im b e c il e m m r r r e peror, in the meanti e , taught to ega d B anden o m his burg , who had c vered hi self with glory by successes o r in the North , as more dangerous to his rep se than F ance , b e rfid and supported y the futile p y of the Dutch , concluded , m r without regard for the critical state of the e pi e , a hasty m m 1 6 78 and sha eful treaty at Ni wegen in , by which Brandenburg was expressly excluded from all participation ‘ in the advantages of the peace . A useless but splendid o W m o o r vict ry was gained by illia at M ns , bef e the news of c m the concl usion o f peace reached the Dut h ca p . F reiburg

A m f Lo ui s X IV s t ruc o n t h is o c c asio n re re se n t s e ac e aec o m e a o . d l , k , p P , anie d ain and e asure e sc e n in fro m h e av e n an d Ho an w e co min p by P Pl , d d g , ll d l g h e r wit h o pe n arms w h ile t h e impe rial e agle v ainly at t empt s t o h o ld h e r back h e r ro e s by b . A GE OF LO UIS THE FO UR TEEN TH 1 1 67

u r o in the Breisga was , by this t eaty , ceded by the emper r, Bu rgundy and the twelve fro ntier to wns in t h e Netherlands r c r o r o rr by Spain , to F an e , who, on her pa t, rest ed L aine , o o c c which she , notwithstanding , provisi nally upied with her r r W m v o n r i t o o ps . The t aitor , illia Furstenbe g, nstead of being beheaded like the Hungarian rebels w h o suffered at h m o r m r o f r r o r t at ti e , was l aded with eve y a k hono , est ed

“ t o r r r r r libe ty , and afte ward ewa ded with the bishop ic of ’ Strasburg an d a cardinal s hat . Brandenburg w as co ndemned t o resto re his co nquests to r Cre c ui c in Sweden , and a French a my , under q , advan ed , ’ 1 6 79 r r o o , against the Danes , B andenbu g s allies , laid C l gne , r O r r c n r o o Julie s , and ldenbu g unde heavy o t ibuti n , with ut r t o ro t o m the empi e being able p tec herself fr the insult, and h r o r e m wit d ew , after c mpelling the elector , dese ted by the e ro r m r t o t o m p and the e pi e , accede the ter s of the peace o r m r and to rest e his Po e anian co nquests to Sweden . Had he and the gallant Mo n t e c u c u l i been at the head o f affairs in rm h o w ff v h e r ! Ge any , di erent might ha e been fate o n o w h i s o t o r r The elect r turned attenti n P ussia , whe e , l o b o as a Ca vinist, he f und the Lutherans , and , as an a s lute o r o ro E s s ve eign , the ancient n blesse , citizens , and p vincial r t him r a tates anged in o pp o sition o . His ﬁ st step w s the c o o f o r r o f r r ere ti n the f t ess F ied ichsburg , whose cannons

o m m o f o r h r i . t e c anded the city K enigs be g Rhode , p es dent o f c o f rm t o o o the ben h alde en in that city , zeal usly defend h e r was rr m ing ancient privileges , a ested and conde ned to c r r m m e m death , a senten e that was afte wa d c o ut d to i priso n f r ment o life . An o pp o rtunity w as o ffered to h im to ask fo r r o h t o pa d n , of whic he haughtily refused take advantage . ’ The Freiherr v o n Kalkstein violently o pp o s i ng t he electo r s r o f ro v measu es at the head the p incial Estates , was also a r o r r ested , but being all wed a ce tain degree o f liberty o n o t o W r w r h e w as r par le , escaped a sa , whe e p ivately seized ’ o r c rr t o m w r w as by the elect s agents and a ied Me el , he e he

executed in 1 6 72 . The elector w as also so m etim es fo rc ed by nec ess ity t o have reco u rse to arbi trary measures i n B ran 1 1 68 T HE HISTOR Y OF GERMA NY de n b ur r rr g , such as st iking a false cu ency , levy ing duties an d o o heavy taxes for the payment of his tr ps , on whom he r o f o depended for the prese vation his p sition in the empire . He was also compelled to suppress several ancient and dis tinct local priv i leges fo r the sake of increasing the unity and

m v strength of his do inio ns . T he excessi e intolerance of the r e n Lutheran clergy eceived a severe check ; the elector , r raged at thei obstinacy , compelling them to bind themselves o r o r r by ath to obey eve y elect ral edict without ese vation . c The chur h was , by this means , rendered subservient to r o n r eve y caprice the pa t o f the s o vereign . The Lutheran o r o o ne past r at Berlin , Paul Ge hard the p et , was the only am o ng the Lutheran clergy who p refe rred banishment to servil i ty . The intrigues carried on simultaneously by the great o w n r elect r with S ede , Poland , F ance , and Austria , and his s o despotic rule over his subject , are partly excused by his p r il sitiou and by the pe rﬁdy of his o pponents . F ederick W liam used his utm o st endeavo rs not only to raise the power b ut o r in ﬂ u of his house , als to free Germany f om foreign e h is ence . In his old age , actuat d by dislike of the Habs r o f burg , and guided by his second wife , Dorothea , a p incess r f r Holstei n , who so ught t o substitute her child en o the heir m r r be r o f c . o appa ent , he declared in favor Fran e The e pe , sides betraying him by the treaty of Nim we ge n and robbing o him of the fruits of his c ntest with Sweden , had , on the W Le i n it z r decease of illiam , the last duke of g , B ieg , and o i i c o m W hlau , deprived him of his r ghtful nheritance and pe l l e d h im to rest co ntent with the possessi o n of the district

- r u n o f 1 75 . r c r Schwiebus , in 6 F ederi k , the hei appa ent , r r f m r o able to supp o t the ty anny o his step othe , aband ned r o r w as the count y , and his d ting fathe induced to bequeath o r o the whole of his possessions , C u land al ne excepted , to the w as o n sons of Dorothea . His will , his decease , annulled by the court of Vienna , which had taken the prince under it s protection on condition of his binding him self to restore ’ Schwiebus on his father s death .

1 1 70 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

h t h e h lig t , put the city out of ban of the empire , whic was e xecuted by Mayence , backed by a French army , while Sax o n y was paciﬁed with a sum of money . The unfortun ate citizens opposed the Mayence faction within the city with Kn ie h o f t h e t h extreme fury , assassinated p , president of e Lim re c h t council , and beheaded p , one of the chief magis t rates , but were , after a gallant defence , compelled to capitulate . 1 6 65 i t o f In , Louis reduced the imper al ci ies Alsace ,

r . 1 66 6 Strasbu g excepted , to submission In , the Swedes , W m under rangel , made a predatory attack upon Bre en and r m bombarded the town , but withd ew on a protest being ade

. t h e m c by the emperor and the empire In sa e year , Frederi k William of Brandenburg annihilated the liberties o f the city of Magdeburg , the archbishopric having , on the death of

Augustus of Saxony , fallen , in consequence of the peace of

W . estphalia, under the administration of Brandenburg In 1 671 n u h ad R u , the ancie t city of Br nswick been seized by l W al l do ph Augustus , duke of olfenbuttel , and robbed of

. . 1 6 72 her pri vileges Most of the merchants emigrated In ,

Cologne was subjugated by the elector , the city having , at

o u h . an earlier period , fav red the D tc The citizens , tyran n ize d e o n r o d ov r by the c uncil depe dent on the electo , rev lte , but were reduced to subm ission in 1 6 89 . The rebellio u s o f o citizens Liege were also reduced , by the aid of the elect r o of Col gne , and deprived of their ancient privileges , in m r r 1 685 4 . c 1 68 A si ila insurrection aused , at B ussels , in ,

e o c . by the heavy imposts , was suppress d by f r e r i wh o In East F iesland , Count Rudolph Chr stian , had ’ r r d r r w ar been mu de e during the thi ty yea s , had been suc c e e de d r U i c o o o in by his brothe , lr , Wh se son , Enn L uis , had , ’ E nn h 4 . o s 1 65 , been created prince George Christian , brot er r and successo , was involved in a dispute , on account of the m o o heavy i p sts , with the city of Emden , and in a vexati us o n e o f r c suit with his niece , the wife of the p inces Li hten

Harl in e rl an d h . stein , who claimed g in right of her mot er This suit was terminated by the invasion of Friesland by an A GE OF LO UIS THE FOUR TEEN TH 1 71

r r r imperial army unde Berna d van Galen , bishop of Munste , m o f o m t h e who i posed a heavy ﬁne , by way c pensation , on n o r r 1 65 . O 6 count the death of Ge ge Ch istian , in , his o o f Wu rt e m b e r rr r wid w , a princess g , ca ied on the gove n m h e r r ent in the name of infant son , Christian Eberha d , r whose guardian , E nest Augustus , duke of Brunswick , ren r m r r r de ed hi self highly unpopula , and , on his depa tu e , the o o f r h ad r m bish p Munste , to whom the princess p o ised , by o f o m o m way c pensati n , a share in the city of E den , reap r rm r pea ing , the citizens took up a s in thei defence , but , sub m t rm o r o r sequently , ade e s with the bish p and we e supp ted r o r by B andenburg against the princess , wh se despotic ule r was fo rmally o p posed by the Estates . T anquillity w as re n o o stored o the accessi n of the y ung prince in 1 6 9 0 . m r n c 1 6 71 o n Ha bu g had bee a s ene of disturbance since , acc ount o f the narro w -m inded desp o tism o f the aristo c ratic c 1 6 73 r O o coun il , which , in , f audulently btained a decisi n , the in disc h raet z o o o wh o r W g c nvention , fr m the emper r, ebuked m m m the co mplaining citizens and reco mended the to sub it . rm r r m The syndic , Ga e , who had been p incipally i plicated in r o o r i m b e the affai of the c nventi n , int igu ng with Den ark , c am e suspected by the em peror and was com pelled to ﬂy

ro m m r 1 678 . r o m r w as f Ha bu g in The bu g aster, Meure ,

o . o w as r r als expelled The c nvention repealed , and Meu e r c r w h o was t w o o was eplaced by S hlute , assisted by h nest h n t r c n Sc i e ast ram . itize s , g and J The Danes , on the failure ’ o f Garm e r s r t o i m r i int igues , sought se ze Ha bu g by surpr se — and to annex that city unde r p retenc e o f its hav ing fo rm erly — m r t o . r appertained to Holstein Den a k The citizens we e , o r r t o h weve , on the watch ; Brandenbu g hastened their aid , r and the Danes were repulsed . The ancient a isto c ratic fac n o w ro Sc h n it e r Jast ram tion se and falsely accused g , and Schluter of a design t o betray the city to Denm ark ; the t wo r r r o o former we e qua te ed , the third was p is ned in prison ; r r c Win disc h raet z Meure was einstated in his ofﬁ e , and the g o r c c nventio n reinf o c ed . The an ient pride of the Hansa had r r me r fo eve fallen . In 1 6 67 the Dutch pursued the English 1 1 72 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y c h an t m e n up to the walls of Hamburg , captured them , and injured the city , which , in order to escape war with England , m fo r co pensated the English merchants their losses .

r r w as h o St asburg , the ancient bulwa k of Germany , , w t o i m ever, destined a st ll ore wretched fate , and , deserted by r r r r the German p inces , was g eedily g asped by F ance . T h e insolence o f the F rench monarch had g reatly increased since

m . 1 680 the treaty of Ni wegen In , he unexpectedly dec lared ro his intention to hold , besides the territory torn f m the em r pire , all the lands , cities , estates , and p ivileges that had r r the eto appertained , such as , for instance , all Ge man mon ast e rie s r r , which , a thousand years before the p esent pe iod , d ro had been foun ed by the Me vingians and Carlovingians , m all the districts which had , at any ti e , been held in fee by , o r a Bu r been annexed by right of inheritance to , Als ce , fo r o h gundy , or the Breisgau , and , this purp se , establis ed m r i four cha bers of reunion at Besancon , B e sach , Metz , and o m Tournay , composed of paid literati and lawyers , c m is sio n e d to search for the said dependencies am id the dust m of the ancient archives . The ﬁrst idea of these cha bers of

h ad n c r R av au l x ' t o reunion been give by a e tain Colbert , the

r c o o f r r F ench minister , and the exe uti n thei dec ees was com it e d t o i r w h o in r m t bands of incend a ies , , Alsace , the Nethe o o lands , and the Pfalz , t re d wn the ancient escutcheons and o f replaced them with that France , garrisoned the towns , r n m and exacted enormous cont ibutio s fro the citizens , with which Louis purchased three hundred pieces of art illery for the defence o f the territ o ry thus arbitrarily seized . o o f m The wh le the e pire was agitated , but , while a tedi ous discussion was as usual being carried on at Ratisbon , the French carried their schemes into execution and sud

l r r . de n y seized Strasbu g by treache y This city , according r r r m f o to h e histo ian , F iese , had ade every e f rt to maintain

r c . S r her liberty against F an e The citizens had , ince the thi ty ’ r . yea s war , lived in a state of continual apprehension , main r o f t ain e d and strengthened their fo tiﬁcations , kept a body i h ad regular troops , and , in the r turn , every third day

‘ 1 1 74 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMANY

t e rio r . of France , where he was long imprisoned He was , i a toward the close of his l fe , allowed to return to Str sburg , where he expired in 1 69 4 . His memory has been basely c al um nie d by many German historians . Numbers of French were sent to colonize Strasburg , Alsace , and Lorraine . Many of the towns and districts received fresh names ; the German was costume prohibited , and the adoption of French modes enforced . e n The elector of Branden burg , inﬂuenced by his wife , ’ tering into alliance with France , and the Turks, at Louis s instigation , invading Austria , that monarch found himself o without an opp nent , and , after conquering Luxemburg , de stroyed Genoa , w hich still remained faithful to the empire ,

1 684 . by bombarding her from the sea , in The emperor , t h e r w as harassed by Tu ks and abandoned by the princes , m 1 685 t o S again co pelled , i n , ign a disgraceful peace , by

h - whic France retained her newly acquired territory , besides

S trasburg and Luxemburg . Among all the losses suffered by the empire , that of Strasburg has been the most deeply s felt . The p o ssession of that powerful fortres by France t wo c U has , for almost enturies , neutralized the whole of p per Germa ny o r fo rced her princes into an alliance with their natural and hereditary fo e .

ien n a besie ed b the Ta r/cs CCXXVI . V g y

O U IS i m W inc e s L , while thus act vely e ployed in the est, sant l b m o y incited the sultan , y eans of his ambassad rs at ’ o t o l o n m . I n C nstantinople , fal up the rear of the e pire r t h e f Hunga y , popular disaf ection , excited by the despotic o f t h e m r t he rule e pe or, had risen to such a height that Hungarian Chri stians dem anded aid from the Turk against t h thei r German oppressors . A conspiracy among e n o b i lity

m sti s ad Oc c asum dum a ia ad Ort um in rue re R un io n u e t . See v1 e b at e p , l g e n im So ius so cio ﬁde m raes tare t Ga us e t T urca Ch rist ian issimus e t Ut c p , ll , A n tic h rist ianissimus no v us a e s at ue Ore st e s ar no i e amico rum in v e t ita , Pyl d q , p b l urat o rum unc t is c o n sil i i s anci i t i ma o Ge rmanism re mebant a te r Ga ica j , j p l p , l ll — ‘ 89 ﬁde Graeca a t e r. F ectalis Gallas 1 6 . , l , A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 75

s 1 6 71 w a discovered in , and the chiefs , Frangipani (the last r N adasdi X rin of this house raised by t eason) , , y , and Tat

t e n b ac h r e u st adt . X rin w as , suffered death as t aitors at N y r i e t h the grandson of the he o of S g . His wife died mad . No mercy w as extended t o the heretics by the t riumphant Jesuits

and by the soldiers of fortune educated in their Sch o o l . The r o r magnates we e induced by fear by bribery to recant . o r c r o r The pe ple and thei prea he s , h wever , esisted every ’ o r m fo r c o an d w as eff t ade their onversi n , a coup d etat the

t . 1 6 74 r w as c o n resul In , the whole of the Lutheran cle gy o ke d w as o f r c v to Presburg , falsely accused conspi a y , and t wo hundred and ﬁfty of their number were thro wn into

r o . r r r r o p is n These cle gymen we e afte wa d s ld , at the rate o o of ﬁfty cr wns per head , to Naples , were sent on b ard the r o f m r galleys and chained t o the o a . Part the we e set at rt rm A d libe y at Naples , the rest at Pale o , by the g allant r r miral de Ruyte sho tly before his death . The defenceless m m n o c t o co unes in Hungary were w onsigned the Jesui ts. o r r o n h The German s ldie y were qua tered t em , and the ex m m c o c m cesses co itted by them were untenan ed , as a eans r r f of breaking the Spi it of the people . The banne o revo lt

‘ r T o kOl was at length aised by the Lutheran Count y , but the unfo rtunate Hungarians lo oked around in vain fo r an ally r t o aid them in struggling for their ights . The o nly one at w as r O c n fo r hand the Tu k , who ffered chains in ex ha ge ‘ m r m c . r r hains The e pe or , ala med at the i pending dange , 1 681 r r o m o f c yielded , and in g anted f eed onscience to

Hungary , but it was already too late . o Louis XIV . redoubled his eff rts at the Turkish court , and at length succ eeded in persuading the sultan to send t w o hundred and eighty thousand m e n under the grand , r r r vizie , Ka a Mustapha, . into Hunga y , while he invaded the ro r m r r rro m rc western f ntie of the e pi e in pe so n . Te r a hed r m i rm in the Turkish van . The ret eat o f the weak i per al a y n o f o r r o m u der the duke , Charles L raine , unde wh the Mar r o o f wh o r r g ave , L uis Baden , afte wa d acquired such fame ,

r r . r se ved , became a disorde ly ﬂight The Turks eached the 1 1 76 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

Of o . ro r gates Vienna unopp sed The empe ﬂed , leaving the r c o m m o o n city unde the and of Rudiger, C unt v Stahren r w ho fo r t w o m u be g , , onths , steadily resisted the f rio us at o f in tacks the besiegers , by whom the country the vicinity was converted into a desert and eighty - seven tho usand of

r . St ah re n b e r the inhabitants were dragged into slave y g, o se v e re l ‘ w o un de d was alth ugh y , daily carried round the r o r r ‘ wo ks , gave de s , and cheered his men . The Turkish r mine s blew up the strongest part of the walls , and the wh o le city was surrounded with ruins and heaps of rub V bish ; still the iennese , unshaken by the wild cries , the fu rio u s m m attacks , and immense nu bers of the ene y , gallantly resisted every attempt . The wounded were tended by the i K o l o n it sc h B shop , who so zealously fulﬁlled his duty as to draw a threat from the grand vizier that he would deprive 1 h i m . i of his head The numbers of the garrison , meanwh le , as r rapidly diminished , and the strength of the citizens w wo n t h r n r out by incessant duty . S a e b e g w as compelled to punish n the sleepy sentinels with death . Famine o w began to add o r e to the ther mise ies endur d by the wretched Viennese , r who , reduced to the last extremity , ﬁred , during a da k f ’ i o ro c o o . n ght , a radius kets fr m the t wer of St Stephen s , as a signal of distress t o the auxiliary fo rc es supposed to be advancing behind the Leop o ld and Kahlenberg . The aid

so was r . c long awaited , fo tunately , close at hand The vi in ity and greatness o f the danger had caused an im perial army to be assem bled in an unusually short space o f tim e ; the e m e ro r m e n r r o f Lo r p had twenty thousand unde Cha les , duke rai ne ; the electo rs o f Bavaria and Saxo ny cam e i n person at r the head o f twelve th o usand m e n each . Swabia and F an

o . o n o conia sent nine th usand into the ﬁeld J h S bieski , the i i o f o r r ch valresque k ng P land , b ought an auxilia y troop of eighteen th o usand picked m e n fro m the No rth . The Ger man princes ceded to him the com mand o f their united

1 ara Musta h a w as su se ue nt st ran e o n ac c o un t o f his e fe at and K p b q ly gl d d , i s he a fo un o n t h e ta in o f e ra e w as se n t t o t h e ish o wh o su ie h d . d k g B lg d , b p , ll d i r n h is fame by h is c ruelty t o ward t h e Hungar an P o t e sta t s.

" 1 1 78 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

on the presen tation of some of the Polish n o bles . The Polish

o - o army was als ill provided for, and the P les evinced an in c l in at io n r h is to return ; Sobieski , howeve , declared intention t o m t h e m h a re ain , even if abandoned to a man , until ene y d o f r r been entirely driven out the count y , and unwea iedly t h e m pursued Turks , twenty thousand of who again fell r o m o at Pa kan , until they had c pletely evacuated the c untry , when he returned to P o land . r o f- o r o r Cha les L raine , aided by L uis of Baden , car ied

‘ on the war during t h e e n su in g y e ar and attem pted to regain n o f h Hungary . Still , otwithstanding the fate Kara Mustap a , ’ w h o m m r had , at the sultan s co and , been st angled at Bel grade , and the inability of his successors , who were either t o o deeply absorbed in the intrigues of the seraglio o r too unskilled in war to take the co mm and of a sec o nd expedi o r o r o s ti n , the Tu kish c mmandants and ga risons retained p sessi o n o f the Hungarian fortresses and offered a b rave and

r . O obstinate esistance Every attempt against fen failed , notwithstanding the defeat of the relieving arm y at Hand r m m zabek by Duke Cha les . Ibrahim , surna ed Satan , ain t in e d r o S c t h e a the city du ing a pr tracted iege , which ost

- —I n rm o 1 6 84. Ge ans twenty three th usand men , in the

m r r fie l d- m o f m r ensuing ca paign , Cap a a , arshal the i pe ial o rc r r o f e u h ause l c r b e f es , besieged the fo t ess N , whi h , afte r r o m o ing despe ately defended by Za ub , a B he ian n bleman h m r m m w o had e b aced Isla is and been created a pacha , was o r o c finally taken by storm . The wh le of the ga ris n , the pa ha T h e U r Ca included , fell . whole of pper Hunga y fell into ’ ' r o n T Ok o l was r pra a s hands . The unfortunate C u t y car ied o ff c r in hains by the Tu ks , and his valiant wife , a daughter c X rin o w o f R a o c z o n of the de apitated y and the wid a g y , l g defended her treasures in the ro c ky fastness o f Mu nc ac z. ’ r o r r t o M o st of her husband s pa tisans , h weve , went ove the m r r o r triu phant imperialists , and the greate pa t of the f tified — A bdurrha . O towns c apit ulated in 1 685 fen , defended by a o ro w h o r man P cha and by a garrison , ten th usand st ng , we e l favored by the inhabitants , al of whom were Turks , was A GE OF LOUIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 79

o r o f r again besieged by the elect Bava ia , while Charles of Lorraine marched against the Turkish army advancing to o r o n its relief . The c ntest was car ied on with equal fury rm r o f both sides . The Ge ans we e repulsed with a loss three

r m e n . r to fo u thousand The g and vizier was , meanwhile , O kept in check by Duke Charles , and fen , after a terriﬁc

r o rm 2 1 686 St uggle , was ﬁnally taken by st , September , , without an effort being made o n the part o f the terror

stricken vizier . The Turks defended themselves even in the r r m o f cou ts and apa t ents the ancient castle , where they were m r r o . slain togethe with , thei w en and children The brave

urrh am an . T w o o wh o A b d fell th usand men , had taken

o n e o f S r r . refuge in the castle qua es , alone received qua ter

The grand vizier ﬂed . A fearful reve n ge w as taken by the

‘

o r r . r emper upon Hunga y A t ibunal , known as the slaugh

- i s h e r o E e r e . t h use of p , was eld by General Caraffa Every

’ Hungarian suspected of having sided with T o kOly was thro wn r o r r m into p is n and c uelly tortured , and a g eat nu ber were n h u m executed . Ve geance fell upon all w o ref sed i plicit obedience to Au stria ; the nati o nal right of electi o n was an r r o o f nulled , and the he edita y right of the h use Habsburg r o n o r pro c laim ed th o ugh ut Hu gary . Charles f Lo raine was n o o r M h z agai victo ri us ve the Turks at o ac in 1 687. He o m r d was succeeded in the c m and by Louis , Marg ave of Ba en , wh o 1 69 1 m , in , again beat the Turks at Szalanke en , but was o t o o e d o r c mpelled yield his p st to Fr erick Augustus , elect of r Saxo ny . The inability o f this p in c e induced the em peror t o o m m r c o f o bestow the c and on Eugene , p in e Sav y , whom

. r o c r r h is m o Louis XIV had , by pe s nal ridi ule , ende ed st

m fo e . o m r i placable Eugene , wh se di inutive pe son , half con c ealed beneath an immense peruke and mounted on a o r o r m o ro o f tall h se , b e a st ludic us appearance , was one the greatest generals of his time and was idolized by his r n . I soldiery , whom he eve led to victory the battle of

Zenta , he entirely broke the power of the Turks ; he took r o f o Belg ade , and , by the peace Carlowitz, c nﬁrmed Austria o e R a o c z in the p ssession of the whol of Hungary . g y , in THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

1 6 9 9 , again set up the standard of rebellion in Hungary , but w as t o m m o I . reduced sub ission , and the next e peror , J seph , S sought to conciliate the people by a greater how of lenity .

F ren ch D e r CCXXVII . p eda tio n s

T HE o f revocation the edict of N antes by Louis XIV . dr o m o f had iven eight hundred thousand Ref r ers out France . Servile Switzerl and repulsed them from her inhospitable f rontiers , and they emigrated to Holland , England , and , r more particularly , to B andenburg , where they were per mit te d r t o by the great electo settle at Berlin in 1 685 . Their gradual intermixture with the natives produced the peculiarly boastful and sh rewd character fo r which the peo

r r l . m m c o n ple of Be lin are prove bia Louis , at the sa e ti e , t in ue d r his encroachments , seized Treves , harassed Lo raine ‘ Hun in e n and Alsace , and erected the fortress of g , opposite r to Basel . The Swiss murmured , but , ever mercena y , fur n ish e d him with all the contingents he required , and , during

r m o - the subsequent war , thei number a unted to twenty eight

m e n . V al c ke nie r thousand seven hundred , the Dutch envoy m to Switzerland , at the sa e time , succeeded in raising eight n r m e n ro m o rm n thousa d ﬁve hund ed f the Ref ed ca to ns . The po ssessio n o f the Pfalz had l o ng been the principal ’ m r object of Louis s a bition . The Pfalzg af , Charles Louis , h is who had been deprived of inheritance by French intrigue , labored throughout the w hole of his life to reconcile the v a

n c . r r ri o s religious se ts At Friedrichsbu g he built a chu ch , m h im o f o h ad na ed by the Temple C ncord , in which he the servi c e successively performed ac cording t o the th ree Chris o r r o c tian f ms of wo ship , the Cath li , the Lutheran , and the o r Calvinistic . He also ab lished the seve e laws against the

Ov e r t h e at e w a st o o t h e fo o win in sc ri t io n Lu o v icus Ma n us rex g y d ll g p , d g , ris tianissimus Bel ians Se ua icus Germ an icas ac e E uro ae c o n c e ssa Ch , g , q n , , p p , ” it Lo uis c arrie Hunin am arc e m so ciis t ute am h o stib us t e rro re m e xst rux . g , l , , d fo un e fo r t h i s fo rt re ss h is c o nt empt o f t h e Basel e se so far as t o h av e a c anno n d d , “ ” with t h e in scri t io n Si t u te remue s Bae e t e t ue . p , , l , J

1 1 82 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

b ’ ence , een presented with a cardinal s hat, had been elected arch bisho p of Col o gne by the bribed chapter and resided at

Bonn under the protection of French troops . The ci tizens of Cologne , however , closed the gates against him and were aided by Branden burg troops from Cleves and by the Bava

. T h e i t b m rians elect on was abroga ed y the e peror, the em t h e o b o m pire , and p pe , y wh Prince J o seph Clement of Ba varia was i nsta lled as arch bisho p of C o lo gne instead of the

. was i n 1 cardinal The great league , 688 , consi de rably streng t hened by the accession of William o f Orange to the

h i n h i s - 1 n - l a t rone of England the place of Catholic father w, w h o o James IL , t ok refuge in France .

. m Louis XIV , foreseeing the com encement of a fresh and r i i g eat struggle , hastened to ant c pate the league , and , in the m n o f 1 688 m e n autu , sent ﬁfty thousand , under Gene ral Mo n t c l as was to , into the Pfalz, which left tally un protected

b . y the empire The cities were easily taken ; Treves , Spires , W Of orms , fenburg , Mayence , and the fortress of Philipps o s burg , which ffered but a short resi tance , also fell . The electorates o f Treves and Mayence were ove rrun and pl u n b r dered . Co lentz and the castle of Heidelbe g alone with

S . o i i stood the iege L uis , meanwhile , unsat sﬁed W th occupy and w ing p lundering these countries , follo ed the advice of m o w as d his inister , Louv is , and , as far as in his power , lai waste the Pfalz and the rest of the Rhenish and Swa bian

- i frontier provinces , partly to avenge his non acqu sition of o o f these fertile territ ries , partly with a view hindering their M n t c l s o m . o a ccupation by a German ar y and Melac , the latte r of whom boasted that he would ﬁgh t for his king t h e r o f h o against all powe s of heaven and ell , zeal usly exe ’ m e m . o r r cuted their master s co mands W s , Spir s , F anken A l ze i Ob r thal , , erwesel , Ande nach , Kochheim , and Kreuz h r nac were reduced to ashes , the inhabitants mu dered or n dragged into Fra ce and compelled to recant . In Spires , t h e m O m i perial vaults were broken pen , and the re ains of the emperors desecrated . Similar scenes were enacted on the n L i . O r ght bank of the Rhine Ma nheim , ppenheim , aden A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 83

m r c burg , Weinhei , Heppenheim , Durlach , B u hsal , Rastadt, rm sh e im r h m b t he Ge , Baden , B etten , Pforz ei , were urned to ground . Heidelberg greatly suffered ; the castle held out . h h e c kar d The Frenc advanced t ence up the N , plun ered Heil w n o l un bronn , Esslingen , S abia Hall , t ok the Asberg and p but o dered the arsenal , were repulsed from G eppingen and

t he ~ Schorndorf , where women inspirited the men by their ex m r b . ample . Wurzburg , Bamberg , Nure erg , etc , were th eat m o r ened with destruction and h eavily ulcted . Frankf t on n r t h e the Maine , Rote bu g on the Tauber , latter of which was in m i surrounded by seventeen villages ﬂames , ade a val ant er o r Ul m m c . defen e Feuqui es was routed bef e , and nu bers n of t h e fugitive F rench were slai by the enraged peasantry .

w as . b Ehingen , in retaliation , burned to the ground Tu in Mo n t c l as w ho gen was taken and sacked by , was , in his r h i s b b r b turn , dep ived of ooty efore F eudenstadt y the

t he o r . r St ut t ard peasants of Black F est The autho ities of g , r r o r h n struck with ter o , pened the gates to the F enc agai st h m w o m . the wishes of the people , loudly de anded ar s Melac ﬁ re t he i w as b r attempted to c ty , but expelled y the infu iated r b r peasant y and y the Swabian Landwehr , un der Cha les , u h i fi o ff d ke of Baden , and succeeded wit d f culty in carrying his booty and the hostages h e had taken as security fo r the pay m h i m n r ent of the ﬁne imp o sed by upo the c ity . The F enc h

o U r i . also penetrated int pper Swabia and , bu ned Vill ngen r t he o rr o o f They ove ran L wer Rhine , laid the te it ries Liege ,

u l ie rs e t c . b b r r rac J , , waste , and urned Sieg u g , whe e they p

- i ticed every atroc i ty . A l st o f twelve hundred cities and r m i w as b villages , that still e a ned to be burned , exhibited y m n . o these brigand bands In the spring , the B he ia cities , r m T autenau , Braunau , Klattau , were co pletely destroyed , t he 2 l st o r o b and , on of June , f u hundred h uses were urned

i n u . r Prag e Five of the incendia ies were taken , and , before r o f c o n ﬂ a ra their execution , confessed that the autho s the g o r ti n , one hundred and ﬁfty in numbe , were accompanied by Bo m m h a he ian captain and by a erc ant , the secret emissaries L . t h of France Wi such tools did ouis work . He attempte d 1 1 84 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

W O - the life of illiam of range , the newly elected mo narch o f

1 689 . England , in The phlegmatic emperor was at length roused and hur

- ried the long delayed levy of imperial troops . The great t was u elec or dead , and his son , Frederick , nable to cause h i s i h W ll , by whic his possessions were divided among h i s other n children , to be invalidated without the co currence of the and emperor , openly declared against France ceded the dis

. triet of Schwiebus to the emperor The petty princes, a no w larmed for their ancient privileges , threatened to be b trodden under foot y the despotic French monarch , also fol e i lowe d the general impulse for defence , and h nce or ginated

b r the decree of the Ratis on diet, which , with unusual ene gy , 689 m expelled , in 1 , every French agent from Ger any and pro hibited the reception of French servants and intercourse i r of any descript on with F ance , the emperor adding these words , because France is to be regarded not only as the ’ o empire s most inveterate foe , but as that of the Wh le of

. L Christendom , nay , as even worse than the Turk eopold , fo r m the sake of promoti ng the unity of Ger any , even laid aside his ancient rel i gio us prej udices and bestowed the eighth r Bi un SWi c k electoral dignity upon E nest Augustus , duke of ro o o Hanover , which placed the P testant elect rs , Sax ny , b i i h Branden urg , Hanover , on an equal foot ng W t their Cath i b r : ne w ol c reth en Bohemia, Bavaria, and the Pfalz, the o br elector of the Pfalz , Philip , bel nging to the Catholic anch

e u b ur . of N g Wolfenbuttel, actuated by fraternal j ealousy , protested against t h e elevation of Hanover to t h e e lecto ral — m i re d i gnity . The e peror also turned to Sw tzerland and m o v iv e d the me ry of her forme r. connection with the empire ; h o w easily might she not have p revented the devastation of the R henish province by falling upon the enemy ’ s ﬂ ank !

But she no longer sympathized with her German kindred , and even threatened the emperor in case he refused to draw U she his troops o ff her frontiers to the pper Rhine , while continued to furnish the French king with his most valu wh o 1 6 9 1 able soldiery . Dr . Fatio , , in , raised a rebellion

1 1 86 THE Y . HISTOR OF GERMA N Y s Lu St e e n ke rke n hal de xemburg at , and the Frenc h under

' i o o u Cat nat were , at the same time , vict ri s in Savoy and b again penetrated into and devastated Swa ia, turning their u b chief rage pon Heidel erg and the s p lendid castle , com

h t he o manding t at city , residence of the Pfalzgraf, wh se mighty to wers were blo w n up and converted into the ruin n o w r the delight of the t aveller . T he incendiary bands then

. r r mounted the Neckar The duke , Cha les F ederick , the ad W urt e m be r n ministrator of g , was take captive ; his ransom ﬁ o i was xed at half a milli n l vres . The mother of the infant i St ut t ard duke , Eberhard , was threatened n g , which mainly owed i t s p reservation to the courage o f the peasantry ; the whole of the country was plundered ; the magniﬁcent mon ast e r i b ue n b ur y of H rschau , the cities of Calw , Mar ach , N g, m V . i n h aihingen , etc , were laid ashes , and nu bers of ostages , taken as sec urity for the payment of the enormous sums h a levied upon the inhabitants , were starved to deat on o

count o i the delay in the payment of the money . These r predatory incu sions were renewed in the ensuing year , and

Bak nan . . o Winnenden , g, etc , were burned Rheinfels , n bly l b w as . defended by the Hessians , long and fruit essly esieged

N u r . mbers of the F ench fell Louis , Margrave of Baden , t h e r r ro m un r t o t h e was now sent by empe o f H ga y Rhine , b ut o n m and that general instantly invaded Alsace , , atte pt i n i n 1 69 3 t h e im g to penetrate into the heart of France , m fo l perial troops , ore particularly the Saxons , refused to m Or l o w and w as . , he compelled to return Willia of ange o r e e r als suffe ed a second defeat in the Netherlands , near N il l r i wh n . V e o o o f o wi den f llowed in the steps Luxemburg , r T h h ad b o m barded and alm ost enti rely destro yed B ussels . e m 1 69 4 allies regained Na ur in , but, nevertheless , gradually

dis played less energy . r c r The F ench , on the other hand , made onsiderable p og t he ress in Spain , where , notwithstanding gallant defence

- rm o made by George , Landgrave of Hesse Da stadt , they t ok

Barcelona . Savoy w as also co mpelled to sue for peace . was u Mayence again attacked , and a popular ins rrection , A GE OF LO UIS THE FO UR TEEN TH 1 1 87

t he w ar c o caused by heavy taxes , took pla e simultane usly

m r 1 6 9 6 . w as c o n se at A ste dam in A disgraceful peace , 1 69 7 c o s q uently , concluded at Ryswick in , by whi h L ui b o r XIV . , esides L r aine , the Pfalz, Breisach , Freiburg , and b m Philipps urg , retained all his conquests , a ong others Stras

. i s o r o f m r c burg . It w thy re ark that the F en h language w as r o r , at this pe i d , made use of in t ansacting all diplomatic f h o r o ra u se a fairs , the Frenc ambassad rs no longe t le ting the

Of Latin . o c m m Philip of the Pfalz instantly enf r ed the axi , Cujus i o e us n e w o s o s e m reg , j his p s essi n and

u l at e d o . o r ro w ho L uis XIV in tyranny t wa d the P testants , m r m r o n i e ig ated in great nu be s ; and L uis , otw thstanding t he c ro o o Wu rt e m be r o f pea e , marched t ps int the g county Mum e l ard o r p g , where he established the Catholic f m of

in 1 69 9 . i re c o m service The Jesu ts , at the same time , me n c e d t he pe rsecution of the heretics in the im perial pro v m b i inc e s . , and nu ers of Silesians abandoned their nat ve soil The co m plete neglect o f t he im perial fo rtresses on the U h w as r r c pper R ine , afte such cruel experience , pe fe tly in

accordance W i t h t h e sp i rit o f the age .

CCXXVIII . Ger ma n Prin ces o n F o reign Thro n es

WHI L E rm w as r t o o s Ge any thus a p ey external f e , a m b o f r m i n ro c m nu er the eigning fa ilies Eu pe be a e extinct, r m o f i and , by a st ange whi fate , bequeathed the r thrones to rm r m r . c c w o Ge an p inces This ircu stan e , ho eve , far fr m r i b i rm m r o p ov ng eneﬁc al to the Ge an e pire , g eatly c ntributed t o estrange he r native p rinces and to render their hereditary ro v d r n p inces depen ent upon thei e w posse ssio ns . T h e h ouse of Oldenburg h ad long reigned in Denm ark it s o and directed p licy against the empire . Sc hleswig and as o v Holstein were , provinces subordinate to Denmark , g e rn ed by a prince o f this house i n the Danish inte rest simi l arl O 1 666 t h e er b be y with ldenburg , when , in , eld ranch a e t c m ex inct . 1 1 88 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Pfal zic r In Sweden , the dynasty , aised in 1 654 to t he

r - m o f throne , also pu sued an anti German syste , that Oxen st ie rn a fo r r t h e o , the agg andizement of N rth . Or w as 1 6 The house of ange no sooner seated , in 88 , on hr o f rm the t one of England , than the interests Ge any w ere r sac iﬁc ed t o those o f Great Brt ai n . r t o h o . F ederick Augustus , brother Jo n Ge rge IV , elector o o f o r of Sax ny , travelled over the half Eur pe du ing his

. o o in youth A giant in size and strength , he t k delight the dange rs and pleasu res pursued by the French gallants o f n hi i a t m . O s r that period arr val Mad id , he ingled with the

o m in b - ﬁ h t c batants a ull g , seized the most savage of the bulls h r h him t t h r N m by t e h o ns and das ed o e g ound . o wo an o o a n d r c withsto d his seducti ns , , afte es aping all the dangers i h h w as r W t w ich he th eatened by the j ealous Southerns , h e r t o o h r 1 6 9 4 eturned Sax ny , w e e , in , he succeeded his

r o . i h i b o h o n o o . w as s o r t er the elect al thr ne L u s XIV m del , f o r i o n o h ad he and , aided by his av ite , Flemm ng , wh m he

o w o t o b r o . st ed the title of C unt, he began su ve t Sax ny The extravagance o f his p redecesso r was eco nomy when c o m n e m i r o pared with his . O st ess supplanted an ther ; all co st Hi s o o as c mm i nc redi b le sums . h useh ld w pla ed upon an i ense o o c r c o r f ting; pala es , chu ches , retreats (as , for instan e , M iz b r t h e o o o o fo r i t s o u g , Sax n Versailles , n t ri us want n fetes) , ’ " we re e re c ted ; the m o st c o stly chef - d oe uvres were purchased ” o o f o r o f with t ns g ld ; the g een vaults , a collection useless c o f treasures , was swelled with fresh valuables and uriosities

r i h i s i i t r i . eve ry desc ipti o n . And for all th s l ttle terr o y pa d rm r o i t r N o t a m u u escaped the pe ple unt l the elec o , instead of m ro rm ro m o n raising his nu e us a y as usual f v lu teers , levied

r o r l 1 6 9 6 . l rec uits by f rce , and a evo t ensued in The rebe a r c r r o in ﬂ ic lion w s quelled , and the e uits we e f rced by the tion of torture to swea r fealty t o the colors . T he ens uing year found the elec to r at the sum m it of h is was ambition . He elected , by means of bribing the Wai wo de s and gaining Russia and the em peror of Germany

. u i was over t o his interests , king of Poland R ss a at that

1 1 9 0 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

While the Catholic prince , Egon von Furstenberg , the stadt holder during the absence of her sovereign , drained t he f t he r co fers of Protestants , and , these sources p oving insuf fic ie n t o , s me of the hereditary demesnes were sold , amo ng r othe s the ancestral castle of Wettin . Augustus was finally o reduced to the necessity of issuing a debased c inage . A l m t che ists were also had recourse o . One named Klette n fo r v berg , was beheaded failing in the disco ery of gold ; an o o other , B ettger , while imprisoned at K enigstein , invented r po celain , by the fabrication of which the elector realized — - immense sums . The loss of the inheritance of Saxon Lauen o 1 689 burg , wh se last duke , Julius Francis , expired in , o was severely felt by Saxony . The h use of Anhalt, a branch r t o o of that of Lauenbu g , had the first claim , but was weak t o c o mpete fo r its right . That of Saxony had been confi rm ed m o I . c n by the e per r , Maximilian , but John George , negle ti g t o w as o take possession of it, superseded by Ge rge William

r - o o of B unswick Celle , who ccupied the duchy with his tro ps , c and Augustus , too mu h occupied with Poland to assert his m o o ne clai , c nsented to receive an indemnity of million one hundred thousand ﬂ o rin s. On the death of the great elector of Brandenburg , in 1 6 88 h is i was so n r r c , w ll declared invalid by his , F ede i k , w ho m aintained the indivisibility of the territo ry o f B ran de n b u r o f m o g against the claims of the children his step ther, m ’ ro o m . Do thea , on wh he bitterly avenged hi self Frederick s o c mean and misshapen person , the c nsequence of an ac ident him r in his infancy , gained for the sobriquet of the oyal D an k l s r r o . e AE o p . His go ve nment w as at ﬁ st highly p pular r m wh o m r mann , his p ime inister, had for e ly saved his life , was severe but just . The elector had , however , a taste for w as o r o pomp and luxury , in which he enc u aged by his fav r ’ h i rm o w o . ite , von K lbe , placed his w fe in his master s a s This notorious person w as the daughte r of a public an at E m m e ric k , and , notwithstanding the title of Countess von r r o c o o Wa tenbe g , bestowed up n her by the ele t r, ften caused him extreme em barrassm ent by the coarseness of her man A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 1 9 1

w as h e r m ners . It by eans that her husband succeeded in m D an ke l m an n w as h is base achinations . suddenly arrested o o o and thr wn int a dungeon at Spandau , and K lbe succeeded m o r h i as minister, with unlimited auth ity , under the name m W r . o o of Count von artenbe g Ign rant and ean , he s lely retained his office by ﬂattering the weak vanity and am bi r o f m O tio n o f the electo . The elevation Willia of range to o o f o t o the thr ne of England, and of Augustus Sax ny that ’ o r o o f o o of P land , roused F ederick s jeal usy , which K lbe t ok advantage to inspire him with a desi re fo r the possessio n of c ro r o m o c o f r a wn , and the t ansf r ati n of the du hy P ussia , no o r a o fe o f o o m o th en l nge P lish , int a kingd was res lved o r c o o f m o f m il up n , and its e gniti n was ef ected by eans six ih c r lion do llars . The Jesuits Vienna re eived t w o hund ed

o . th usand They treated the petty kingdom with ridicule , o o f but Prince Eugene , who foresaw that the success rs this ne m o r rro w onarch w uld inc ease in power an d a gance , said, “ Tho se m iniste rs by whom the king o f Prussia has been reco gnized deserve t o be hanged . The p o pe als o strongly p ro tested against the weak co ncessio n made by t h e em pe ro r. A so lem n co ro nation and the c reatio n of the order of the

c o o 1 701 oe r . F r c bla k eagle t k place , in , at K nigsbe g rede i k c c ro o n o w n o o n o f pla ed the wn his br w , and then that his r r conso rt. This p inc ess favo ed the Pietists and had plac ed c r r o Or m the eleb ated F anke , the f under of the phan Asylu m r . w as o r at Halle , near her pe son He , h weve , dis issed by w h o c r o t o r re ro a the king, de la ed salvati n be the natu al p g r tive o f t h e kings of the earth . F ederick aped the stiff eti q ue t t e o f the Spanish co urt and surro unded his perso n and m o his palace with Swiss guards, while the cere nious attitude o f o i his c urt, l ke the altar service in the Catholic churches ,

r m r r p oclai ed the majesty of this terrest ial deity , who me ely l - o aid aside his dignity in his smoking room . The r yal dig it n o o . o wh o y cost en rm us sums K lbe , at the same time ﬁlled his t t h e own purse , inven ed most extraordinary taxes in order t o r m m o fo r o n ext act oney fro the pe ple , as, instance , wigs , dr ’ o . e esses , h gs bristles , etc Alchemy was also had recours 1 1 9 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

~ to . An Alchemist, who had assumed the title of Don D o

' m in ic o e o o s Ca tan , C nte de Ruggiero , and had gro sly de c e iv e d w as ina R m the king , hanged on a gilt gallows o an to ga made of gold paper. The fading beauty and increasin g impudence of the C o untess von Wartenberg also led t o ’ o t K lbe s downfall , and a dispu e arising between him and o n e r of his creatu es , Count Wittgenstein , on account of t he l s a ﬁ re - o ﬂi arge sum taken by the l tter from the insurance c e , the whole of his criminal proceedings were discovered , and he and his accomplices were punished . Kolbe and his in d a m t famous wife , however, escape with honor ble banish en

o f - o and a pension twenty f ur thousand dollars . A n e w pal r ace was built at Be lin , w here the citizens , whose taste was m e i in so e degr e inﬂuenced by the French settlers , v ed with the courtiers in luxury and splendor.

T e o r hern a r— h r es CCXXIX . h N t W C a l th e Tw elfth

ON o . the accessi n of Charles XII , in his seventeenth o s year, to the throne of Sweden , the neighboring p wer , m deeming the oment favorable , attempted to humble the e o . . 1 6 9 9 p wer of that kingdom The league ent red into , in , - u by Russia, Denmark, and Saxon Poland , was brought abo t Pat u l r o o r by k , a pat i tic Liv nian , who had been g eatly ill o f treated by the Swedes . The rights and privileges the r Livonians had been infringed by Cha les XL , and a deputa t e Pat ku l h ad ion from the Estat s, in which was included , ,

- notwithstanding the safe conduct granted by the king , been at ku l as e abused . P ﬂed and w sent nced to death in con m t um ac iam . a Peter, the czar of Russia , sent him as his

b assado r o - o a to Sax n P land , and took advant ge of the quar rel between Li v onia an d Sweden to extend his sovereignty — along the Gulf of Finland to the detriment of Sweden T he hostility of the Danes had been also roused by the voluntary

- . 1 684 annexation of Schleswig Holstein to Sweden In , an n ob s attempt made by Christian V . of De mark to reannex S le wig with Denmark was frustrate d by the intervention o f t he be c w - in neighboring powers . Christian Al rt of S hles ig Holste

1 1 9 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

ai n p g , notwithstanding the sharp pursuit of Augustus for R e in sc h il d four days by the Swedes under , from whom he

e a . ventu lly escaped Charles was , meanwhile , again com e l l e d p to oppose the Russians , who invaded Finland , and 1 705 Poland remained in tranquillity until , when he again e o ntered that country and t ok Warsaw , where he condemned Pat ku l the Saxon general , , who is said to have defended th at e city , as a Livonian by birth and a Swedish subj ct in the ser v o i e . o f ice the nemy , to death Had Charles , instead direct l u ing his attention almost so ely pon Poland and Saxony , turned the w hole of h is forces at ﬁrst against Russia and followed up the victory of Narwa by the destruction o f the budding creations of Peter the Great on the Gulf of Finland , h his fate , and probably t at of Europe , might have been more o o r fortunate . His thoughts were , h wever, s lely di ected to O f the elevation another sovereign on the throne of Poland , and young Sobieski having been su rprised by Augustus at O hlau in Silesia and carried into Saxony , Stanislaus Lesc zin sky was elected in his stead by the partisans of Sweden m and Poland . The Swedes were , eanwhile , kept in check at t h e o de r Punitz by Sax n general , Count von Schulenburg , u r w ho p rocrastinated the war by his skilful man oe v ing . His retreat a c ro ss the Oder is celebrat ed in the annals o f warfare .

The czar being again driven out of Lithuania by Charles , and n o m o Schulenburg , on advancing to his aid , bei g c pletely r uted R e in sc hil d d 1 706 by at Frausta t , in , Augustus fell back o m up n Russia , w hile Charles seized the opportunity to arch ro r w as rapidly th ugh Silesia into Saxony , whe e he hailed as r o f r the defende the P otestant faith , with an enthusiasm scarc ely inferio r t o that with which Gustavus Adolphus had ‘ formerly been welc o m ed .

A ugust us h ad re nd ere d h im self h igh ly un po pular in Saxo ny by h is ty ran ny i m t h e ro t e stant c h urc h He w as re re an d still mo re so by h is se c e ss o n fro P . p se n t e in a c aricat ure o f t h e t ime s rivin Sa o n into o an o n a wh ee l bar d , , d g x y P l d ro w . Th e o u ar so n p p l g , 0 du lie be r A ug ustin A lle s ist hin ” n ist w e P ol e g, a so e o n s to th is e rio l b l g p d . TE E N 9 5 A GE OF LOUIS THE . F O UR TH

r ro in This bold step st uck Augustus with ter r, and he t an t l o c m Pﬁn st e n ro m P0 s y sent his c un illors , I hof and g , f land with full p o wers to c o n c lu de peac e with the successful r w as o m Swede , and a t eaty hastily c ncluded between the

r o r r o o f i t h e and Cha les , which al ne equi ed the ratiﬁcati n h o m o rc . w o P lish na h But Augustus , had kept his allies in o r n c o f o h ad m ign a e the pending neg tiations , , eanwhile , been co m pelled t o aid the Russians in a n engagem ent at Ca l isc h o rm r ro n o r o against the Swedes , in which the f e p vi g vict i us , he entered Warsaw in triu mph and dec lared the rep o rt o f m c o h i r . peace having been ncluded by with Cha les , false r o r r i n o o f n Cha les was , h weve , al eady p ssession Saxo y , and Augustus was speedily c o mpelled by n ecessity t o aban do n his Russian ally and t o sue fo r the peace he had just m n d . o r t wo o c enied A c nfe ence was held between the ar hs , wh o se perso nal appearan c e c o ntrasted as strikingly as their c r r A c r o m ha acte s ; ugustus , giganti in pe s n , agniﬁcently but effem inately atti red in false and c u rling l o c ks and cloth o f o r r o ro g ld ; Cha les , less in statu e , but a th ugh soldier , with m t l s a s all hat on his cl o sely shaven head (a . s y e that w a r r m r r c r N o o afte wa d i itated by F ede i k the G eat and ap le n), r o o f c o r c o c o r o d essed in a c at a se blue l th with ppe butt ns , o rm o r as c o n with en us b o ots and a l o ng swo d . Peace w c r r c ro o luded at Alt anstadt . Augustus en o un ed the th ne f P o land and delivered up y o ung S o bieski and the un fo rt u n Pat ku l w h o o m n m ate , , alth ugh at that ti e Russia a bassa do r w as c m r v o at Dresden , lai ed by Cha les as a Li nian , a

w c r o t o r . S edish subje t by birth , and ba bar usly put the ack ’ r t o Pat ku l s o w n o v him Acco ding acc unt , Augustus deli ered up in revenge fo r h is having o nce v entured to reproac h him fo r r sum o f m o having spent a la ge ney , intended for the levy o f ro o n m o r c o f r . t ps , his ist esses and in the pur hase jewel y mm wh o o m r Fle ing , was als de anded by Cha les , knew his master t o o well t o trust h im and withdre w a while into

r . o r t o o P ussia Augustus , in rde appease the indignati n o n c o c o o f c displayed by Russia the n lusi n this pea e , r o Pﬁn st e n th ew his unfortunate councillors , Imh f and g , 1 1 9 6 THE HISTOR Y O F GERMA N Y under a false charge of having overste pped t heir author i r ity , nto p ison .

. 1 0 The residence of Charles XII in Saxony , in 7 6 , was hi s m rc . On very remarkable a h through Silesia, the perse o o t uted Pr estants in that country supplicated his aid . He e r r e ro o n t b h a nestly add essed the emp r heir e alf , sent four r m o r c egi ents up the country with ders , in case of ne essity, o c o f h rc c to retake possession by f r e the c u hes , of whi h the h ad o m Protestants been deprived by the Jesuits , and c pe lled t h e w h o e emperor, , at that time occupied with France , avoid d s n t o o n e rai ing a fresh a tagonist , restore hundred and twenty five c hu rc hes to the Lutherans an d to permit six n e w ones to r n o o e o r o be built ; but Cha les s oner quitt d the c unt y , in rder t o o e s penetrate int the st ppes of Rus ia, than Joseph published r o a seve e edict against the increasing ap stasy , on account of the num bers of Protestants who n o w avowed their faith and crowded to t h e new churches . Banishment for life and con fisc at io n were the punishm ents awarded to every ap o state — Ca tholic Charles fixed his headquarte rs at Altran stadt in r s o f t he h e Saxony , Whe e , as overeign country , levied con

t rib u t io n u e rm . W d s and recr it d his a y hile here , he receive r m h c a visit f o Marlboroug , the elebrated English general , h o r h im r t o rm w p e suaded to g ant peace Ge any , then har A n assed by France , and to turn his arms against Russia . o alliance between France , Sweden , and Turkey , at that peri d, would have ru i ned the empire . 1 09 r o r o In 7 , Cha les invaded Russia at the head of f ty th u s m e n o f o m ro and , most wh m had been raised in Ger any , c ssed h is t o r t h e Be re sin a (Napo leo n followed in s eps) at B issow , t oo k the Russian fo rtiﬁcati o ns at Ho l o w c zy n (Swi m m i ng the his c o rm river Wabis , in which he sank up to ne k) by st at m s o one time fell among the Cal uck , numbers of wh m he un sl e w with his own hand , and pursued the ﬂying enemy , til he was himself lost among the wide forests and m o rasses. m fo r The artil lery sank in the swa ps , the men perished want

r LOwe nh au t m h im of food . Gene al p , when atte pting to join f e d w as with a fre sh bo dy of tro ops rom Sw en , waylaid and

1 1 98 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

m o rt iﬁc at io n to whom , to his great , the command of the army

r o o c had not been int usted , gall ped impatiently int the amp , ’ t o but arrived too late hinder the czar s escape . F ro m this day dates the prosperity of Russia . The plans of the Swed

m wo r ish monarch were frustrated by a Ger an man , Ma tha ,

o f r - a native Rinteln in Esthonia , a Luthe an , the maid ser f m r vant o a clergy an of Ma ienburg . She married a Swed o c b e m ish drago n , was arried off y the Russians , b ca e su c ces siv e l S Sc h e re m e t o ff Me n ziko ff y lave and mistress to , , and the m r czar , and , under the name of Catherine , czarina and e p ess

r of all the Russias . With her jewels she bribed the g and r vizie to allow the Russians to escape . Her ring was after ward discovered among the treasures o f the m urdered vizier . o no w o Livonia and Esth nia , until bel nging to Sweden , o r o f alth ugh by right Ge man , fell , on the defeat the Swedes

Pu l t o w a . at , under the rule of Russia Riga capitulated 1 71 0 o ao in , after a heroic defence , and C urland was r r m r t he o f qui ed by Pete , who ar ied last duke that country him c r to his niece , Anna , and killed with ex essive d inking . On h im Dantzig , of whic he also coveted the possession , he p o sed a tribute of fo ur hundred thousand do llars . Peter next attac ked Po m e rania with a vie w o f co m pletely

o . m annihilating the p wer of Sweden Russia , Den ark , and o o P land , where Augustus had reascended the thr ne , again

- o f T h coalesced . An anti league , known as the alliance e m m fo r Hague , was for ed for the aintenance of peace and

r o n the p o tecti n of Swede against her neighbors , by England ,

o m ro . was o r H lland , and the e pe r Little energy , h weve , dis h o w played o n her behalf . The Danes w had invaded S eden

r r o m t o r o we e , it is t ue , c pelled retire , but we e all wed to take o r m possession of the bish p ics of Bre en and Verdun , in which c o o f c they were aided by an insurre ti n the inhabitants , o ca r sio n e d by the tyranny of the Swedish gove nors . Stade was o o f o o n burned do wn . The Saxons seized the wh le P land r r o f the depa tu e Stanislaus , who , abandoned by his parti

o r . 1 71 2 sans , to k efuge with Charles in Turkey In , the A GE OF LO UIS THE FO UR TEEN TH 1 1 9 9 allied powers of Saxony and Russia to o k p o ssession of Sw e

r W m o . dish Pomerania , St alsund and is ar al ne excepted t e nb o ck r r d si t S , who had b ought a f esh bo y of xteen hou m e n m sand fro Sweden , defeated the allies at Gadebusch , but incurred the detestation of the Germans by the cruelty w t 1 71 3 r with which , during the severe in er of , he bu ned o f o o t o m down the city Alt na , which bel nged Den ark , in f fo r r o . revenge the dest uction Stade The inhabitants , ten o m r r c e th usand in nu be , d iven out of the burning ity , wer m o f m r d denied a refuge in Hamburg, and nu bers the pe ishe t e n b o k o r r r t of c o ld and hunger. S c was sh tly afte wa d Shu up near T oen n in g by the enemy and forced t o yield . (Capit ul at io n Ol de n wo t h o of , The czar avenged Alt na, . on whose unfortunate inhabitants he bestowed a th o usand r r r rubles , by bu ning Ga z and Wolgast to the g ound and r r r h t reating thei inhabitants with ho rrid ba ba ity . T ese c r no w su cesses decided P ussia , until vacillating , to join the

- i n 1 71 4 w as r anti Swedish league , for which she rewa ded o f o by the promise the future possessi n of Stettin . o Turkey , although threatened by the rising p wer of the m r Russian e pire , was a prey to the petty int igues of the e o m o o f s ragli , and turned a deaf ear to the re nstrances

. r s Charles XII , who u ged the nece sity of carrying on the

war. r u He eceived a hint to quit the co ntry , but, instead o m r o of c plying , bar icaded his h use , which he defended r h o r m r o f o m against seve al t usand Tu ks , nu be s wh fell by w as rr o u t his hand , but at length seized and ca ied of the

r . W r m fo r s count y ith equal obstinacy , he e ained ten month

o . s in bed at Dem tika He had, notwith tanding, succeeded n c r o r r i su cessively overth owing f ur g and vizie s , and his long stay in Turkey w as fully justiﬁed by the h Ope o fplac ing h im s o f r r m r elf at the head a powe ful Tu kish ar y . Afte having exhausted every m eans of persuasion in his nego tiatio ns t o ff o m m o n r that e ect with the Porte , he nce ore ounted ho se c o o o ba k , and , s lely accompanied by C l nel During, made in r a sixteen days a ci cuit through Hung ry , Austria , Bavaria, W o r the Pfalz, estphalia , and Mecklenburg to Stralsund , in 1 200 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o der to avoid the Sax ns and Prussians , and passing on h is h way t rough Cassel , where , notwithstanding the marriage h ad a c o S r U that lately taken pl ce between his se nd iste , lrica

o r r r - Eleon re , and Frederick , he edita y p ince of Hesse Cassel , r he p rese rved a st ict incognito . The c o nduct o f the newly r r c mar ied pair, who had , du ing his absen e , deeply intrigued ’ o w h o r with the Swedish n bility , , in the event of Cha les s

' ro t h e e st ab l ishm e n t o f o death , p jected an ligarchical govern

r w h o r r ment , had g eatly displeased the king , had f ust ated ’ Frederick s hopes of succeeding to the throne by declaring ’ o o r r so n l the y ung duke of H lstein , his elde siste s , his awful r — r c r r h ei . Cha les rea hed Stralsund du ing a da k N o vem ber m n 1 71 4 . ight , in The city was at the ti e besieged by his o r numer us opponents , and , afte gallantly defending it for o m m o was m t o t o w s e nths , he at length co pelled ﬂy S eden .

Wism ar also fell . w ar r The was subsequently car ied on at sea , generally to r r m the p ejudice of Sweden , and Cha les made some atte pts

o N o r . oe m o wh o e n up n way G rtz , the inister of H lstein , t e re d o m int a close co pact with Charles , and , by his diplo

o - u matic arts , endeavored to diss lve the anti Swedish leag e , r r r o neve theless displayed the g eatest ene gy . The jeal usy of Denm ar k being ro used by a slight advantage gained by o r w o r t h e o the Russian ﬂeet ve that of S eden , G e tz seized p o rt u n it t o o o w r p y pen secret neg tiations ith the cza , and a treaty was set o n f o o t by which Russia w as t o retain her o n conquests the Gulf of Finland , and Stanislaus was to w as be replaced on the th rone of Po land . An alliance ’ o ro o r r als p p sed between Cha les and Peter s daughte , the f o ran dduc h e ss . o o G Anna The w h le the negotiati ns were , r o f w however , detected by the seizu e a S edish despatch m r r by the Danes . Den a k natu ally viewed an alliance between Sweden and Russia with dread ; Saxony beheld Po land slipping fro m h e r g rasp ; Han o ver saw the down h r o r r fall o f e projects up n B emen and Ve dun , and Prussia ’ that of hers up o n Stettin ; Charles s m arriage endangered alike the s uccession of Frederick of Hesse and that of t he

1 202 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

against the aristocracy , which ere long fell under Russian inﬂuence . Russia had n o w supplanted Sweden as the greatest north

. 1 700 t h ad ern power In , the ci y of Petersburg been built w h o r on the Gulf of Finland by the czar , had drawn thithe r art iﬁc e rs ro o l a number of Ge man , int duced a superi r sty e c o rm c r of dis ipline int his a y , and eated a navy . The Ger m an L iv o nians l , a so aided his endeavors for the extension

o r o f r r of the p we of Russia to the prejudice thei fathe land . m o o r o f Russian a bassad rs bent the c u ts Sweden , Denmark , and Poland to his interests . The Russian force under Menzi koff rem ained stationary in Germ any and pe rpetrated t h e f most shameful acts o violenc e . Hamburg w as compelled t o o t w o r L u pay a contributi n of hundred thousand dolla s ,

r o r m . beck one hund ed th usand silve arks In Mecklenburg , r r they seized Posto unde pretext of aiding the duke , Cha les

r o . Leopold of Schwe in , against his rebelli us Estates The nobility fled the country . A part of the Russian troo ps o m o f o subsequently returned h e , leaving a body sixteen th u m e n W o n o r was sand under General eide to vex the c untry , it until the conclusi o n of peac e in 1 71 9 that they were finally driven a c ross t he frontier by the Han o ve rian tro ops after an o o w as o bstin ate defen c e at Walsmuhlen . Charles Le p ld de o o r o c p sed and his br ther, Ch istian L uis , pla ed at the head of m o r . o r the g ve nment Charles fled to Dantzig , where he f ed ’ r n ro h h w as v a conspi acy agai st his b ther s life , w ic disco ered , r o f r and seve al his accomplices we e put to the wheel , hanged , r m t o re v o l u or beheaded in 1 724 . He afterwa d atte pted t i n iz o o r o r o e and regain possessi n of the c unt y by f ce , and fo r r o c o r o o f r that pu p se llected seve al th usand the peasant y , e ust adt o m but was defeated at N and a sec nd ti e expelled ,

1 733 . The issue of the No rthern war pro duced a mel anch o ly o r o o f t o reaction in Poland . The rest ati n Augustus the r r m i th one , by Russia , had g eatly i b ttered the Poles , and v m c r t h e Sax o ns fell frequent icti s to se et assassination . u r Augustus , in revenge , so ght to cu b the spirit of the peo A GE OF L O UIS THE F O UR TE E N TH 1 203

m o o ple by the ost vi lent measures , and placed them t tally

o . 1 724 o f u nder the c ntrol of the Jesuits In , the citizens Thorn being co m pelled to bend the knee duri n g a passing u w h m r o procession by the Jes its , by o some innocent pe s ns r m o r o r we e e ver treated with hor ible cruelty , the populace o r r o ro r rev lted , escued one of their p is ners , and dest yed pa t

t he s c . r o r oe r o of Je uit ollege The bu g maste , R sne , t gether

o f c it ize n s \ w e re in r with eight the , , evenge , sentenced to o c r m o r fo r r the bl k by a c i inal c u t, established that pu pose

b . o r r ro y the king The executi ne , tearing the hea t f m the “ o f o n e o f c m c m palpitating bos m p the vi ti s , ex lai ed , Behold ’ r r a Lutheran s heart . Eighty of the citizens we e th o wn o r o r rc int p is n , the Luthe an chu h was given up to the Jesuits ,

and a heavy contribution laid up o n the city .

T h e a n ish a r o u cc ess o n CCXXX . Sp W f S i

N war m O the Rhine , a fresh with France , ore fearful in r o f its r m c haracte than any p edecessors , was carried on si ul an e o u sl r t y with that in the North , which caused little distu b m r t h r c t o r . e an e Ge any Cha les IL , the last of Habsbu g r 1 700 t wo dau h dynasty in Spain , expi ed in , leaving g

r r r o r o . r te s , Ma ia The esa , c nso t of L uis XIV , and Marga etha m r r c o o o . The esa , nsort of the e pero , Le p ld I The Spanish ro r r o m th ne being he edita y als in the fe ale line , the agnati , m r o f r r c o the ale b anch the Habsbu gs in Aust ia , were , use c ro m o t o quently , ex luded f the successi n , which fell Maria r m o r The esa as the eldest daughter of the deceased na ch , but r o r t o h e r o o re she , p i uni n with Louis , having s lemnly n o u n c e d h e r t o n Ge r right , it passed her you ger sister, the m r r m r . o w h o man e p ess The F ench a bassado s and the p pe , c m o r r c n rm n e v e rt he on e e favo ed Fran e agai st Ge any , had ,

c - o c less , indu ed the weak minded Spanish m narch to de lare r o r n in his will the enunciati n of Maria The esa ull , and ’ d A n u r r o o . w as o Philip , duke j , his success This will p

m r r. r r tested against by the e pe o The Spania ds we e , even at r o t o o this pe i d , too degraded to give force public pinion and 204 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o lo ked on with indifference , while Austria and France strove m a for the rich prize , which , besides Spain , co prehended N S r ples , icily , Milan , the Netherlands , and a large territo y in m A erica , and a furious contest, in which all the powers of u r Western E rope declared , as their interests dictated , in favo

r c o r r . either of F an e Aust ia , ensued r n e England and Holland , the hereditary foes of F a ce , sid d m Or n u o with Austria . Willia of a ge ret rned fr m England x e 1 702 z o in ill health and e pir d at Loo , in , after eal usly forwarding the league against France . He w as succeeded h e on the English t rone by Anne , the sist r of his deceased o r o f c nsort, Ma y , one the daughters of the deposed king, m h m . o s e Ja es II The wid w of George , prince of Den ark , was already in league with the Protestant party and h ad no other al ternative than t o pu rsue the p o licy of her predecessor on the throne of England , by which she at once secured the

aﬁ e c t io n . of her subjects Marlborough , the husband of the ’ u d ff r q een s friend and companion , was at the hea of a ai s iu h o f o i n He in s s t e . England , and at h ead of those H lland Both o f these stat esmen followed in the steps of William of

r u i e l e O ange . Pr ss a was won over by Austria by being at e d t o o l v a kingd m , and Hanover by the gift of the electora o c wi e hat . Sax ny was too deeply oc upied th Poland to tak

r ar r h e r o r pa t in the w with F ance ; king , h weve , subsidized an d o t m r by H o lland England , sent tro ps wi h eag e pay into the ﬁeld and p o cketed the overplus . m o f o t h e Joseph Cle ent, elector C logne , notwithstanding o o n o his prot estati n of his chapter , and , this occasi n , also r m r bro the Maxi ilian Emanuel , elector of Bava ia , whom France h ad pro mised t o c on ﬁrm in the hereditary posses

o o f r m o si n the Nethe lands , un ved by the urgent entreaties

m r . t of his Estates, again e b aced the French cause An ony t o o f o U lric of Wolfenbut el , jeal us the electoral hat best wed

- o upon the house of Luneburg Hanover, raised tro ps for h France , in whic he was imitated by the petty duke of

. Gotha . Both of these princes were speedily disarmed The d a de Swabian an d Franconian circles, awe by Str sburg,

206 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

1 703 o ensuing year , , he was called int Hungary to take the ﬁ R a o c z eld against g y , and Italy once more fell into the hands r O f the F enc h . m In the Netherlands , which had , si ultaneously with Italy , c been invaded by the Fren h , the fortresses had been thro wn t o e rﬁdio u s a o open them by the p st dth lder, the elector of Ba

r o m m h i s ro o f o va ia , wh se exa ple was i itated by b ther Col gne . o They were , however , actively pposed by the English and ’ ro m m Dutch . Marlbo ugh s genius as a co ander was still in

. 1 702 o the bud In , he contented himself with the ccupatio n r o f 1 703 o o of the te ritory Liege ; in , with that of C l gne and

m . o f o with keeping the ene y in check The elector C logne , w h o 1 702 o r r , in , had overrun the upper c unt y with F ench tro o ps and boasted that not a single peasant exist ed within o o twenty miles in that pr vince , was compelled , after l sing

r . Bonn , to seek refuge in F ance h r r m On t e Uppe Rhine , the impe ial ar y , with which was ’ ro r so n m o w as c m the empe s , the Ro an king , J seph , o manded r r o r by the vene able Tu kish c nqueror, Louis , Ma grave of o o o f — Baden . The h n r taking Landau which had been forti ’ an s n e w m r ﬁe d on V aub plan , was deemed i p egnable by the — F ren c h and was defended by Mel ac was c ommitted t o the

r w h o c c o r o f young p ince , a ted a c ding to the advice his vet

r 9 t h o f eran ma shal , and the place capitulated on the Sep

m r 1 02 Ul m r c o te be , 7 , the very day on which was t ea her usly d seized by the elector of Bavaria , and a angerous diversion

m . O o r was created to the rear of the i perialists In ct be , the Hu n in e n r t o o r Fren c h crossed the Rhine at g , in o der f m a e o r o c j u nctio n with t h e el ct ral t o ps , but were beaten ba k at w h o c am Friedlingen by the Margrave , , in the ensuing

ai n h o f 1 703 c o m t o i p g , t at , again nﬁned hi self the defens ve and sought by his m an oe uvres t o p revent the invasion of Germ any by the French and their junction with t h e Bava

t ro o s a o m rian p , division of whom , under Count Arc , atte pting Hun in e n r r to advance up o n g , were forced by Gene al Sty um M s to retreat upon Waldshut . arshal Villars , neverthele s , as succeeded , in May, in stealing through the narrow p ses of A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 207

h e o r u o ~ t Black F est to T ttlingen , where he j ined the Bava r m rian army on its eturn up the Danube . Maxi ilian and m e t r Villars as ancient f iends , but the impatience of the Ge rm an elector was ere lo ng ro used by the a rro gance of the

’ r o o rc h e n F ench , and , alth ugh their united f es mig t have abled them to co pe with the imperialists and to invade r r o l o r o Aust ia , a sepa ation was res ved up n ; Villars unde to k w c m o m o f m r to at h the ve ents the i pe ialists , and the elector r r r V e n dOm e w as ente ed the Ty ol , through which Ma shal m rm ro . c o n o f r advancing f Italy The jun ti the F ench a ies , m m o r at that ti e divided by the Alps , was of the highest i p tan c e fo r t hei r m ut ual supp o rt and fo r b ringing thei r fo rc es i u r t o bear W th redo bled s t eng t h o n any given p o int . o r r ro In June , the elect ente ed the Ty l at the head of six f rr o m e n . o r r o r teen th usand The f t ess Kufstein su ende ed , was r o o c o m but bu ned with the wh le of the garris n , the n w h o ma dant , held the keys , being absent, and no one being

o u t . ruc ro able to get Innsb k , the capital of the Ty l , also and ro r r o uv io n fell , a squad n of Bava ians , unde General N , m l c o r m o arched thence up the Inn , whi e the ele t unted the

m - fir r B renner with the ain b o dy . Signal e s sh o ne du ing the h o n r m o r ro nig t eve y untain , and the b ave Ty lese , headed r K o il l o f K u t zb u h e l a n d m r by Ch istian the post aste , Auf r f r fl rm r m o W e d a e w t o . c o schneide , y , a s The st uggle h r r i m e n c e d o f t e U . St e rt z n e r in the valley ppe Inn Ma tin g , ’ h r ff c N o u v io n s dro t h e s e i of Lande k, awaited squa n behind o b o f Po n t l az ro m t o in br ken ridge , where the ad ounts the F m r st e rm u n zt h al . The Bavarians vainly atte pted t o c o ss the water and t o disperse the b o ld sha rpshoote rs o n the o ppo site h o r On w m o . bank , sp ead death a ng their ranks a sudden , a rr c c r w as r r m m te ifi ash heard to their ea , the ountains see ed o m r to be falling on their heads , and en r ous stones and t unks m o o r ro W of trees , set in oti n by the c ncealed peasant y , lled ith r u o r c o r frightful apidity p n their ser ied ranks , asting both h ses r m o and iders into the rushing strea . The peasants had als r c c n o f r ro fab i ated a nons , capable bea ing ten unds , out of

ﬁr- n m hollowed ste ms . Nouvio ﬂed with the re nant of his 1 208 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

forces , but found the bridge at Zams broken down and was m co pelled to yield . General Portia fell beneath the peas ’ — n . o r m a ts hatchets The elect had , meanwhile , arched up e o the Br nner along the highr ad toward Italy . But he w as a ro o waited above , behind their fortiﬁcations , by fresh t ps o f r fo r peasant y , and , before it was possible him to attack them , r r c h is r the news a rived of the insu re tion to rear . Gene al V e rrit o m o , who he had left at Hall , which he had str ngly o d ha d t o f rtiﬁe , been attacked by the peasants called assist in the works an d killed by the blows o f their ham m ers (he r having sp ead a report of his invu ln erability) . The who le v r of the Ba a ian garrison had been slain , an d all the other r r Bava ian p o sts t o his ear razed . The treasures in the c as ‘ o f c b e ac ke d tle Ambras , whi h the elector had caused to p m r n fo r r o r . n ready e val , we e retake by the peasant y In s

. o f c r m o o bruck revolted The loss the S ha nitz , the st imp r o f m tant the ountain passes between the Tyrol and Bavaria, c fﬁ n whi h was seized by an o cer , amed Heindl , belonging to m s the imperial ar y , with the a sistance of the Bavarians , threatened the electo r with the greatest danger . This pass h in o f and t at of Hall the valley the Inn , the only paths by r r a r c o r which he could et e t , we e l sed by the Ty olese , in the h o pe o f sh u tting him in and taking h im and his wh o le army r m e e r n prisoners ; but , after a te rible l e at Zi l , in which Cou t t o r o Arco w as shot close his side by a Tyrolean sha psho ter, h im o who mistook , wing to the richness of his garb , for the

e wa t o . elector , he succe ded in forcing his y the Scharnitz o Out of sixteen thousand Bavarians , ﬁve th usand alone V e n dOm e m r regained their native c o untry . had e ely suc de d r r w as c e e in eaching T ent, whence he repulsed , and the who le plan of the c am paign was thus frustrated by the r nati v e valor of the people . Had the ci cle of Swabia, Fran

o e n i c nia , the Rhine , and Burgundy risen masse , like the r h o w ih Ty ro lese brethren , speedily might not the French vade r have be en chased across the frontier !

Their example remained unfortunately unimitated , and u Villars was allowed unopposed to lay Swabia waste . Landa

1 21 0 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

1 704 . t we , as almost to annihilate him The French lost nty thousand dead and wounded ; ﬁfteen thousand under Mar shal Tallard were cut o ff and taken prisoners ; the Bavarians r alone escaping across the Danube towa d the Rhine . T he S wiss mercenaries under General Z url au b e n displayed ex m tre e bravery and repulsed three attacks . The General — was taken pris o ner afte r receiving seven wounds T h e news of this glorious victo ry spread j o y throughout Ger r many . Marlbo ough received the lordship of Mindelheim in was fee and created Prince of the German empire . Eugene

took possession of Bavaria . Augsburg and Ul m were liber

ated . The old Margrave marched t o the Rhine and retook V il l e ro i m . u Landau and Treves , retreating in dis ay Hagena was so actively besieged by Thungen that the French garri

- son ﬂed , panic struck , during the night . An attack upon

Breisach failed . U w nfortunately , ho ever, instead of , after the retreat of

the French depredators , conciliating the Germans and once

more reuniting them in their true interests , the Bavarians fo r r were cruelly forced to atone the guilt of thei prince . r Prince Eugene is , nevertheless , free f om reproach . He

- r expressly warned against every ill t eatment of the people . The empero r annexed all the country between Passau and r ro o f a Salzburg to his heredita y p vinces , left the rest Bavari c under the care of a regen y , and enrolled all the young men o in his army . The n bility and the public ofﬁcers placed t o themselves under the Aus rian rule , as the safest m de of

r r . e bearing the c isis , and we e consequently spared The whol ’ weight of the em peror s wrath fell upon the wretc hed peas an t r wh o t he y , , laden with exorbitant dues and ground to r o f dust with the heavy charge for the qua tering soldiery ,

assembled , and , in a public address to the diet at Ratisbon , declared th at they were c o mpelled by necessity t o take up

arms . The imperial government at Munich , on the other h r hand , declared t at eve y peasant, taken with arms in his “ w hand , should be punis hed with the gallo s and the sword , t he t h e banishment of his children , and the conﬁscation of A GE OF LO UIS THE FO UR TEEN TH w ho le o f his propert y that the vil l ages of the rebe ls Sh o ul d s h ad a n be burned down ; that parents , who e children t ke up

o ul a m em . arms , sh d sh re the punish ent awarded to th , etc Of the Bavarian recruits wh o m ight j o in the peasantry o nly “ r t e eve y ﬁfteen h man should , through special clemency ,

be put to death . T o Pl in an se r Me in dl o st m as w students , g and , and the p t er B r m l , i ner , eanwhile , led the peasants to the ﬁe d and were f ri r r o o . o a eve ywhe e vict ri us But , on the formation supe or “ ” d r council un e the title of defence of the country , they r o d u e t h e e e we e j ine by n mb rs of nobility, who merely b tray d an d ruin ed their c ause . It was in vain that the latt er too k Sc h ae rdin d m o e im s Braunau and g , forme the selves int r g ent r d o o o m r t o unde ifferent c l rs , and c pelled the Aust ians enter o n e f f r es into negotiati n ; the obles int r ered in the con e enc ; kept t h e pe asan t s either in the dark or attem pted to lead h d t em astray and into isputes among themselves , and played ’

n e ro s . d at i to the mpe r hands W hen the peasantry , enrage c r the procrastination , attempted to seize Muni h by surp ise, t e ffi ( r w h o hey wer betrayed by a public o cer , Ettlinge , had r i m T he a hypoc it cally set hi self up as their adviser. imperi l r Kri hb aum e c d . gene al , , was sent with all spee to Munich

r r t r h im . The peasant y we e , no withstanding, befo ehand with r o e n n Bal t h e s m The subu b Au rose in p insurrectio ; , the s ith, “ a t - o f cr o f a gi n , sixty one years age , under the y Save the ” r r c w h o child en (the Bavarian p in es , , it was believed , were t o t o rc c o ut be carried into Aus ria), f ed the ity gate , dashed t h e r o e b ains of the Austrian sentinel with his club , and p ned a wh o t h e o r a way for the pe santry , got part of city int thei ( E wh o t h e i o b e hands , but ttlinger , managed commun cati n e d r s l e twe n the principal bo y of the peasant y , purpo e y eith r t h l s c t h e wi he d or spread false new , in conseq uence of whi h party that had force d its way into the c it y w as left Wi thout r o rc t w as d tw o s b e einf emen s and soon place between ﬁre , in n g attacked in front by General We dt, who made a sally fro m w Krie c hb au m f l e the to n, while General e l upon th ir

r . i i n at sa an o n co n i a l d ear F ght g di dv tage foot, t nu l y charge 1 21 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

’ by the enemy s horse , they retreated to Sendling , where t he m m i survivors , headed by a French an , na ed Gautier, n u trenched themselves in the ch rchyard , which they defended to the last . Fifteen hundred were slain , last of all the brave m 1 705 . s ith , The wounded were dragged back to Munich an d left to freeze in their blo o d in the open street during

o f n r m r the Whole the wi te night , Christ as , as a ter ible ex ample t o all faithless subjects . Colonel T ruchsess o f t he imperialists had , meanwhile , taken the town of Kelheim by r n su prise and put the ma date into terrible execution . The main body of the peasantry was still of imposing strength , but had separated for the purpose of opposi n g the various

m m r divisions of the ene y ; several of the leaders , o eover , ’ Prie l m a r d ksfo rt r . O i were t aitors y , , Zelli purposely m s ﬁm n . Ho a b led their followers , being suddenly attacked y

K riec h b aum o uf r , l st his presence of mind and s fered a te ri r o ble defeat at Aitenbach , whe e f ur thousand peasants fell . Oksfo rt deserted to the Austrians and betrayed B raunau into m o f r th eir hands . The re ainder the divided and bet ayed r Pl in an se r Me in dl m peasant y , under g and , deemed the selves —A too weak to keep the ﬁeld and dispersed . fearful revenge w h o was taken . Eight hundred peasants , capitulated in Ch am w ere m o m r o f , . al st all cut to pieces , and nu be s the p riso ners were put t o a c ruel death . All the ringleade rs h w as were either anged or quartered , and a fourfold tax laid upon the whole country . m h ad The aged e peror , Leopold , , meanwhile , expired , m . o 1 705 His son , J seph L , com enced his reign with the o t o m restoration of religi us liberty Hungary , which had ore ’ effect in quelling R ago c zy s insurrecti o n than even the vic r r tories gained by Gene al Heiste . The implicit conﬁdence reposed by the empero r upon Eugene also put a temporary t h e r l c h stop to the disorders of cou t military counci , whi r rm u n had , up to this period , regula ly left the imperial a y o r provided with money , provisi ns , and othe necessaries, r o winked at fraud and negligence of eve y descripti n , and so carefully regulate d the movements of the commanders

1 2 1 4 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Italy , on condition of their garrisons , left in the fortresses , r being allowed free eg ess . Eugene instantly despatched

. o General Daun to the conquest of Naples The p pe , Clem h ent XL , violently protested against t is step , and even pro visionally excommuni c ated the whole of the German army ; r h the time when the papal anathema struck ter or had , o w

v o . m e er, l ng passed by The Ger ans entered Naples , where r r o the F ench and Spaniards we e equally unp pular, in tri m t he m r u ph , and wo en and gi ls presented each of the m e n o with a wreath of ﬂ wers and a goblet of wine . The Bohe ‘ Mart in it z mian , , became viceroy . An attempt, made by t r Eugene , to penetrate in o the south of F ance , failed , like

r o . its p edecess rs He laid siege , it is true , to Toulon , but w as unsuccessful ; the gallant duke of Go tha fell in the 1 708 o trenches , in , and he was , thr ugh fear of being cut ff m 2 o o . w as w , c pelled to retreat Italy , ho ever, maintained m by the emperor , and an attack ade by the papal tro o ps r rr nea Fe ara was gloriously repulsed . While the w ar w as thus energetically prosecuted by Eu o n t h e o w as gene ther side of the Alps , it but lamely con o o f ducted in Germany . L uis Baden , instead of joining r o n o r Ma lborough the M selle , p ocrastinated with the weak e ness of age , and the imperial army und r his command fell i o o o f a prey , owing to the ill will and nd lence of s me the

. On e Estates of the empire , to disunion and want prince

n n o t . On e re sent his continge t too late ; another, at all o r called his men ; an ther efused to allow his to advance . On e left the soldiers without food or clothing ; an o ther pro

N e a o it an i o mac h ad man ri ic u o us f ture A c co r in t o ancient p l d pl y y a d l ea . d g usa e t h e in s o f N a e s o n th eir inv e st it ure re se n t e t h e o e w ith a w h ite g , k g pl , , p d p p a fre On t h e re se nt o c c asio n o t h re t e n e rs h ar e s an d h i i e ndeav p l y . p , b p d , C l P l p , o re t o o tain t h is fav o r fro m th e o e w h o n o t arin t o ma e t h e e cisio n d b p p , , d g k d , r m t it r Th r n r refuse t o ac c e t t h e a f e fro m e it h e r c o e o . e e ch h e e u o n d p p l y p F , p , se c re tly in t ro duc e d a palfre y int o h is p alac e - yard and pre t e n d e d t h at h e h ad ac c e t e it a th o u h it h ad h is o r e rs e e n eat e n o ut o f t h e ar . p d , l g , by d , b b y d ’ r m a o e mn ro t e st 1 70 1 E n e ne s suc ce ss ut an e nd t o t h e se A us t ia a e s . d l p , g p o ie s f ll . 9 D urin t h e sie e o f e ne st re e h e c im e a t re e in o r e r t o t a e a S e tch g g F ll , l b d d k k h f rt re ss A annon - a arrie a a t h e o u h a ain st w h ich h e e ane o f t e o . c c w b ll d y b g g l d, b ut unmo ve t h e ac ci e nt h e ca m ﬁnish e t h e S e t ch e re h e esce n e . , d by d , l ly d k d d d A GE OF LO UIS THE F O UR TE E N TH 2 1 5

d fo r . c o n s e st e against the charge billeting Louis was , e o f quently , unable to maintain himself on the left bank the o n r o Rhine , and , c ossing the river , was instantly foll wed by r c l t the F en h under Villars , who again laid the Pfa z was e n r and Sw abia under contrib ution . Thungen alo e re c o ssed n the Rhine and pillaged the country to their rear . O the r 1 707 r death of the old Marg ave , in , Prince Eugene exe ted ’ his interest i n favor o f T h un ge n s nominatio n t o the chief o m m o f c m r c and , but the oldest the prin es of the e pi e , r r c Baire ut h Ch istian Ernest, Ma grave of Anspa h and , a

m an o f o . o known incapacity , was ch sen instead He all wed m t o r o m o f Sc h o l l h o fe n hi self be again d iven fr the lines , and o ur m r ten th usand sacks of ﬂo , de anded by Villars unde the threat of a renewal of the fo rm er scenes o f atrocity p ractic ed r c o o by the F ench , to be arried thr ugh his camp int that of the enemy . o r In the Netherlands , Marlborough gained an ther b illiant

o - V il l e ro i m victory ver the ill fated at Ra illies , where the r c o o o F en h l st twenty th usand men , killed , w unded , and

- r o r o 1 706 . p is ne s , and eighty eight cann ns , in The Dutch , o t n twithstanding , refused to take par in his projected inva o o f r c r m si n F an e , the reigning bu gher fa ilies deeming them selves al ready secure o n that Side and dreading the expen ses

o f w ar. r t o the Ma lborough was , consequently , reduced a o f c 1 07 m state ina tivity , in 7 , and occupied hi self with rr i o n o f r r r ca y ng neg tiatio ns o an impo tant cha acter . Cha les

’

. was r a . XII , at that conj unctu e , at Altranst dt The preven o n o f o r ti a danger us alliance between Sweden and F ance , and the acquisition of the aid o f the powers of Northern r w ar r in Ge many in the against the latter count y , were u w h o m trusted to Marlboro gh , fulﬁlled his ission with his

r . w as o m habitual success , and Cha les XII persuaded nce ore t o m r . r r r evacuate Ge any F ede ick I . of P ussia w as gained by Marlborough ’ s m ingling with his servants as he sat at ff o o table and o ering him the napkin , and Ge rge of Han ver by being n o m inated gene ralissim o of the im perial forces in r r Baire ut h the place of Ch istian E nest of , who had laid 2 1 6 TH E HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

t h down e command . The new generalissimo mad e his ap e aran c e i p with a br l liant suite , gave balls and wasted enor l mous sums in useless festivities , complaining meanwhi e that the o ther Estates of the empire contributed nothing toward the maintenance of the army . Matters went on in the old m r . o routine The imperial co mande , Mercy , gained a vict ry r fo r r r by surp ise , during a thick g , ove the F ench unde Vil

r 1 708 o « la s , in , notwithstanding which , Ge rge remained with m m the ain b o dy in a co plete state of inactivity . A juncti o n again ta king place between Eugene and Marl o h Ou v e rk e rk b roug , and , the Dutch general , being also i o us drawn nto their interests , the war reassumed a m re serio c t o c v u aspe t . Bo h sides assembled their f r es for a decisi e e a e m e n t o O g g , which to k place at udenarde , where , owing to o o r o the g d understanding between Eugene and Ma lb rough , ‘ n m a complete victo ry w as gained over V e dO e . B o th Sides o r again assembled their f rces , and , in the ensuing yea , a m still bloodier engagement , the most i portant fought during i w Mar! th s war , took place at Malplaquet, here Eugene and

o o V . s b or ugh were agai n vict rious over i llars The Prussian , “ ” o who f ught like devils under Dessau , decided the day , c r whi h was , on the side of the F ench , merely disputed by 2 o e the Swiss . In this battle , the killed and w unded amount d

- f n t o fo rty ﬁv e thousand . George still ef ected nothing o the r t o Upper Rhine , although Me cy allowed himself be sur prised and defeated at R umersheim . George resigned the

m 1 709 . co mand in the ensuing year , ‘ c o n o w Fran e , exhausted by c ntinual reverses, sued for o b ut peace and even evinced an inclinati n to abandon Spain , h e rm c o n c t Ge an abinets , rendered ins le t by su cess , impo

1 mean of a An at tempt was at t his t ime made t o re mo v e E uge ne by s uit s iso n e e tt e r se nt t o h im e it h e r t h e re n c h o r t h e e s . po d l , by F by J 9 ir o f c e rs Th is at t l e t oo ac e Se v e ral o f t h e Swiss re gime nt s lo st al l th e ﬁ . b k pl n e 1 1 t h o f Se t e m e r t h e da o n wh ic h in 1 6 9 7 E u e ne h ad eat en th e o t h p b , y , , g b

T ur s at Ze n t a and in 1 701 t h e re n ch at h iari . k , , , F C 3 n r Th e ene ra Ge rman a so an d articu ar th e R h e ish o v ince s. y l , p l ly p g l n r U e r Rh in e t o mise ry o c c asio ne d imme n se migratio n s o f P ro t e st a ts f o m t h e pp n i h o nie s Th e e ci t e i t t e atte nt i o n uri n t h e E nglan d and t h e E gl s co l . y x d l l d g c ommo tio ns o f t h e t ime s.

1 2 1 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

t i e e its - me r sid d in Spain , would have been well chosen com

mander, had not his nomination been opposed by E n glish

jealousy . He it was who , acquainted with the negligent h manner in w ich Gibraltar , otherwise impregnable , w as

guarded, and seconded by the united ﬂeets of England and o o t H lland under R ok , took that for ress , but was compelled t o S endure the hame of beholding the British ﬂag , instead o of that of Charles , planted on the summit of the r ck . A l n fresh troop of English auxi iaries , u der Lord Peterborough , r placed Charles , completely under the gua dianship of

England . Barcelona , where Prince George had some old w h e ii c e wa connections , and it s hoped to raise the whole of t h Catalonia against Philip , was besieged from e sea ; the r ﬁ st assault, led by George , was , however, unsupported , o an from a m tive of jealousy , by Lord Peterborough , d the

. l life of the gallant prince was sacrificed The town fel , r fi eventually , into the hands of the English , and Cha les g u re d r t o o the e as a phantom monarch ; but , anxious c nceal o his utter dependence upon Lord Peterbor ugh , he had the o t o r f lly ever oppose his wisest and most necessa y measures . r n o n S The F ench , take by surprise , were repulsed every ide , l m o f o m and the king , Phi ip , a ere puppet state , fled fr Ma ‘ t o r r o drid . Charles refused ente Mad id on acc unt o f the

- t h e want of a state carriage , and , by his folly , delayed per fo rm an c e of a cerem ony which would h ave made the deepest i mpression upon the Spaniards , an d the junction of the troops concentrated at Lisbon and Barcelona . The French again took breath ; Marshal Be rw ik was victorious at Alm anza in o 1 707 S . , and Charles was speedily hut up in Barcel na It was n o t until 1 71 0 that the allies again assem bled t heir m forces , the Ger ans under the gallant Count von Stahren b r t h e c am e g , the English under Stanhope , and reopened i paign . They gained a signal victory at Saragossa ; Phil p r n t was a second time put to ﬂight , and King Cha les at le g h n o f e tered Madrid , where the people , jealous his dependence

1 Th e S anish c ro wn iamon s an inc re i e num e r w e re o n th is o ccasio n p d d ( d bl b ) , ,

se nt t o aris and w e re sei e Lo uis in a ment fo r t h e aid rante h im. P , z d by p y g d by A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 2 1 9

him upon the English heretics received with ominous silence .

The po pe and the Jesuits secretly worked against h im . The moment when he would have been welcom ed with o pen arm s r had been irretrievably neglected . F ance sent reinfo rce

r V m . c r m o ments and her best gene al , endo e At this itical o ment , Stanhope separated from the Germans and all wed him self and the wh o le of his army t o be m ade p riso ners at h r n b e r m o m r r . St a e Brihuega g, for who Vend e had p epa ed m m r a Si ilar fate , kept the ene y , g eatly his superior in num c o r r ber, in che k at Villavici sa ; Cha les was , neve theless , m r m o r o ro Once o e li ited t Ba cel na , and the death of his b ther r c h im t o rm ur r 1 71 1 e alling Ge any , he ret ned thithe in , and m r r o o . o o received the i pe ial c wn at Frankf rt His c ns rt, St ah re n b e r t wo Elisabeth , and g remained for years longer r o m o at Ba celona , but were ﬁnally c pelled to aband n that u h o r town , and n appy Catal nia fell a prey to the c uel ven ’ r ge an c e o f Philip s adhe ents . Charles w as the o nly rem aining prince of t h e h o use of

r ro o i . Habsbu g , his b ther, J seph , having died without ssue w o f r He united all the cro ns Habsbu g on his head , and the o o f o f o f G rm h pe placing that Spain , independent the e an r r o o f o r c he edita y pr vinces , on the head a y unger b an h of m r i r m w as . that fa ily , , consequently , frust ated Th s ci cu

r o i f . wh o stance enti ely changed the aspect a fairs England , m o f r m o r m Ge r was i itated by the allies lesse i p tance , dee ed m any a n d Spain m o re dangerous when united under one t wo c head than France and Spain under , and unexpe tedly ’ c r r de la ed in Philip s favo . Torrents o f bl o od we re again S r ro fruitlessly hed , and F ance , aided by all the other Eu pean o r o o r p we s , nce m e grasped her prey .

l o o f o - o In Eng and , the p pular rights the Angl Sax ns had been fo rc ibly supp ressed by the Gall o - N o rm an feudal aris

t o c rac . c o m o o r m h ad y Sin e the Ref r ati n , the p pula ele ent , o r o h wever , again risen , a eacti n had taken place , and , in the r r c r middle of the seventeenth centu y , had p odu ed a g eat r o c c o r . h l o ev lution , whi h st Cha les I his ead , a deed of b od which raised enmity and engendered suspicion between his 220 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

s e o . descendants , the Stuart , and the p ple The Stuarts were e an d W o f O e t o t h e xpelled , illiam rang was called thro ne . m wh o m r A ong those , in the parliament and in the inist y , o t wo r r c ntended for the control of the state , pa ties had fo med , r o r al the To ies or ancient N rman feudal a istocracy , who , r r o though upholding thei a istocratic pri vileges , were dev ted t o o o f c m t h e the m narchy , whi h they ade use for suppression

W o r n o - Sa o of popular liberty ; and the higs , A gl x n freemen , r r t o b st i who, enriched by t ade , p oud of their mar ial deeds , n at e l t h e y defended their ancient rights , were ever on watch t h e o n o s for legal acquisition of fresh nes , and were le s de o t o v ted the monarchy , by means of which , in their turn , r they sought to overthrow the To ies . The Tories had n atu W l him rally befriended the Stuarts ; i liam , and , after , Anne ,

t Wh . n were , consequently , suppor ed by the igs Depende ce o w as o e on a p pular faction , h w ver , in this , as it has been in o r all ages , a r yal bugbea , and the Tories merely awaited a ’ ﬁtting opp o rtunity to eject thei r opponents from t he queen s privy council . This O pportunit y present ed i tself o n t h e death o f the em f t h e e ro r o e . r e o p J s ph The To i s , under pretext dangerous asc enden c y o f Germ any and Spain when united under one m e o n w h o head , ranged the s lves the side of France , rewarded their neutrality with c o m m ercial advantages that ﬂattered the mat erial interests of the people and reduced the Whig

O t o S . o pposition ilence They were , more ver , seconded by a f r in r . o court int igue The D uchess Marlborough , rende ed f o f o e solent by the ame and wealth her husband , whose n bl o o u d qualities were bscured by excessive covet usness , wo nde ’ the queen s vanity by refusing t o give h e r a hands o me pair a of gloves , to which she had t ken a fancy , and by other acts m Sh e o n m of i politeness ; was , in c sequence , dis issed , and had the barefaced im pudence suddenly to draw the Wh o le o f the

1 n t In u niso n Marlbo ro ugh p o sse sse d gre at ﬁnan cial as w e ll as military t al e . wit h t h e Jew Me ina fo r in stanc e h e se t u st o c - o in o r c o mme rc ia t ran s , d , , p k j bb g l ac tio n s w ith o v ernme nt a e r w h ich aft e rw ar ec ame e n e ra th rou h o ut Eu, g p p , d b g l g rO e h e mo reo v er efrau e t h e u ic tre asur o we rin the a of his p ; , , d d d p bl y by l g p y

t ro o s etc . p ,

1 222 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y to make peace by a speedy accession to the articles under bu t negotiation , were , nevertheless , compelled to purchase it m by a shameful hu iliation . The coachman of the Dutch v o n plenipotentiary , Count Rechtern , having bestowed a o n r box the ear on an insolent F ench lackey , the ambassa

- r r dors of the states gene al were forced to apologize in pe son . r m r The Ge man e pi e , although abandoned by England o m and H lland , ight still have compelled France to listen to reaso n had n o t her p o lyarchical government put every stro ng o ut and combined movement of the question . Prince E ugene vainly depictured the power of unity and conjured the Ger man Estates to rise en masse . He thundered at Mayence ’ to deaf ears . The emperor s exhortations to the im pe rial “ diet were equally futile : His Majesty doubts not but that every true patriot will remem ber that not exclusively the o but country and the pe ple , , in reality , the grandeur and a o f liberty of his f therland , consequently , the eternal loss his honor and rights and his u n resisting s ubm ission to foreign ”

S . insolence , are at take The imperial Estates remained unmo ved and tardily contributed the miserable sum of t wo hundred thousand dollars toward the maintenance of the r r o m o impe ial a my , while Villars continued to c llect illi ns on r r the Rhine and in Swabia . Van de Ha sc h al o ne distin g uish e d himself by the gallant defence of Freiburg in the

Breisgau . Eugene found himself compelled to enter into negotiation o with Villars . The French , however , were so ins lent in o wn their demands that Eugene , acting on his responsibility , quitted Rastadt, where the congress was being held , upon m which the aged despot at Paris , fearing lest rage ight at r m o re length rouse Ge many fro her t rpor, yielded ; Eugene turned and peace was concluded in the neighboring town of o f U c c o Bade n in 1 71 4 . The treaty tre ht was re gnized ;

Philip remained in possession of Spain , England in that of V L Gibraltar , etc . The emperor , Charles , on the other

- hand , retained all the Spanish possessions in Italy , Naples , e Milan , Sardinia, besides the Netherlands and the fortress s A GE OF LO UIS THE FOURTEE N TH 1 223 o f c h r o Kehl , Freiburg , and Breisa , and the ter it ry hitherto o f possessed by the French on the right bank the Rhine , for

m . which France was inde niﬁed by , the cession of Landau o f i The island Sard nia was , in the ensuing year , given by o f o Austria in exchange for Sicily to the duke Sav y , who

n . so v e r t ook the title o f Ki g of Sardinia The emperor , as i n o f r n o w co t e g the Nethe lands , ncluded a treaty wi h Hol o t o h th e e l and , acc rding w ich the fortresses on Fr nch fron tier were t o be garrisoned and defended by both Austrians r o a c . and Dut h P ussia came into p ssession of Neufch tel , as r o f kin t o r o f e m o urs m r nea est Ma ia N , its former ist ess , who was allied by bl o od t o that ro yal house . This peace was partially co ncluded by Eugene for the

o f . o r emperor , independent the empire The lesser p we s , r r ta in neve theless , acceded to it , F ance bru lly declaring her tentio n t o carry o n the w ar against all recusants . The elec tor t h e t o o m o U of Pfalz , wh the possessi n of the pper Pfalz had t e o been already assured , was frustra d in his expectati ns , the traito rs of Bavaria and Cologne regaining their possessions ‘ m b an f r o ro c o nse and being released fro the Ma lb ugh , o m o r o r quently , l st Mindelhei ; he was , h weve , rest ed to favor m r r in England . Prince Eugene e ely rega ded the peace as a

r t o . r necessa y evil , which he unwillingly yielded He clea ly r i o f c t o fo esaw that , nstead bringing se urity Germany , it “ o r e o m r w uld lead to f esh attacks and l o sses . W s ewhat e ” “ m e ro r o hi o se bl , he w te at that pe i d , a fat cow , w ch is nly o f so r o m made use long as she has a d op of superﬂu us ilk . ‘ ’ r o The word peace has an ag eeable sound , but nly differs

1 Th e o rde r o f t h e go ld e n ﬂ eec e w as e v en be st o w e d by t h e empe ro r upo n h ar e s A e rt t h e so n o f Ma imi ian E manue o f av aria In t h e uri u fo i . c o s o C l lb , x l l B l , “ ” F o rt it udo e o nina M x Em n u l i a . a e s u ish e at t h at e rio t h e e suit s l , p bl d , p d , by J , t h e sce n e is a e o ric a re re se n t e Th e im e ria e a e h an h is h ea an ll g lly p d . p l gl gs d d o o s o wn wit h ame nta e co n e sce n sio n o n t h e av arian io n w h o re ar s l k d l bl d B l , g d h im wit h inso e nt c o nt e m t A m n h e n r n it h h ic h t h is o r . o t e avi s w w w l p g g g , k a o un s th e re is o n e in w hic h t h e e nius o f t h e So cie t o f e sus is re re se nte b d , g y J p d wit h th e I H S o n h i . . . s re ast o ffe rin h is h um e t h an s t o th e st at ue o f Max b , g bl k . Em - anue l and po int ing t o a large d o nat io n plat e c o ntain in g t w elv e magniﬁc e nt e suit h o use s w h i i r m e c h t h e e ec t o r h ad u t fo t h e at t h e e e n se o f th e e o . J , l b l xp p pl Th e e e ct o r h imse f at tire in t h e im e ria ro es o f R o me sit s o n h o rse ac w ith l l , d p l b , b k an e no rmo us a o n H t r e e ru o n h i is c o un n n i o a sa . ll g p k e s h ead . te a ce s t h at f y 1 224 THE HISTOR Y OF GE R MAN Y

‘ ’ w ar t h e from as present does from the future . He whose w ar vocation it is , after , to collect the chips , alone sees t he w heaps of ood that have been fruitlessly cut. The best peace r with France is a mute w a . France will seize the ﬁrst o p o rt un it r p y to rend a fresh piece f om the empire . W hen the Netherlands shall have been reduced to submission , the Rhine will be m ade the frontier and the foundation of a r f esh peace . The abbess of Buchau wished me joy of the

. I c o n r blessed peace am , on all sides , persecuted with g at u l at io ns of this sort . Amid all my misfortunes it is often i ﬁ ” d f cult to refrain from laughter . 1 1 7 5 . In the following year , , Louis XIV , the vain , li c e nt io us o m desp t , whose tyranny over Ger any covered her with far deeper sham e than her submission to the genius

o r . d of Napole n , expi ed Anne , queen of England , also die , w as without issue , and succeeded by the next heir, George , o w as elect r of Hanover, whose mother the daughter of Fred o erick , king of B hemia , and of Elisabeth , the daughter of

o f . James I . England George favored the Whigs . Peace had , however, been unalterably concluded with France . Tranquillity had scarcely been resto red to the empire than she was again attacked by the Turks , and Prince Eu m r gene on c e o e to o k the ﬁeld . Supported by St ah re n b e rg l r W urt e m b e r and Cha les Alexander of g , he defeated them , 1 71 6 w in , in a bloody engagement near Peter ardein , where

’ 1 n in e e m ero r s se rvi e On o ne o c T his prin ce t urne d Cat h o lic w h e t h p c . ca sio n w h e n at e nic e t h e h au h t no e s oast in in h is h e arin o f t h eir su , V , g y bl b g , g , e rio r s tat e o f c iv i i atio n and ri ic u in t h e Ge rman s as ar arian s h e inv it e p l z , d l g b b , d t h em t o a an ue t o n t h e e e nin e h im fo r h is e art ure and av e th em b q v g fix d by d p , g t h e fo o w in t h eat rica e nt e rtain men t I t w as n i h t time a sin e am im ll g l . g ; gl l p gl ’ mere in t h e stre e t w h e re ic e ro s h o st w as se e n w an e rin u and o w n . A d , C g d g p d Ge rman t rav e e r e n t e re an d n in al l t h e o o rs c o se re w o ut his w atc h ll d , , fi d g d l d , d t o se e t h e h o ur t h e n a rin t e o o w it h w h ic h h e amuse h imse f fo r so me , p d b k , d l time and at e n th in h is im at ie nc e re o ff a ist o in o r e r to w a e t h e , l g , p , fi d p l d k ’ in I a ians ice ro s h o st ne w a v anc e e man e an e anat io n o f s e e t . l p g l C g d d , d d d xpl t h e w at c h th e rin t e o o an d t h e un o w e r e re sse h is ast o n ishme n t , p d b k , g p d , xp d o n n in g t h at t h e se g re at inv e n tio n s h ad e e n isc o v e re t h e ar ari ans o f fi d “ b d d by b b t h e N o rt h an d in uisit iv e eman e w h at th in s of st i re at e r im o rt ance , q ly d d d g ll g p ” t h e Ita ian s h ad inv e nt e if ar arian s h ad ist i n uish e t h emse v e s so h i h ! l d , b b d g d l g ly ” n He kl He kl s Th U o n w hic h a Sav o ar a eare c r i c e s l c e l fo r sa e . e p y d pp d , y g, l urtain ro e t h e rinc e was a rea o ne c d pp d ; p l dy g .

1 226 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

w - 1 729 (after ard Saxon Poland also) had confederated , in , at m Seville again st the Prag atic Sanction . Frederick William

L , who succeeded Frederick I . on the throne of Prussia , actuated by a feeling o f German nationality and by his r t o o o f re p ivate antipathy Ge rge , king England , alone mained true to the em peror and fulﬁlled the treaty concluded h im 1 72 6 with in , at Wusterhausen ; the accession of the other powers to the Sanction was purchased at an enorm o us r r r m sac iﬁce . F ance was p o ised Lorrain e ; Spain was b ribed l c with Tuscany , Parma , and P a entia ; England and Holland were gained by the abolition of the com mercial society o f O i t o stend, wh ch deal a fatal bl w to D utch trade in 1 731 . ’ Sl in e l an dt He in sius s The grand pensionary of Holland , g , u r powerful s ccessor, displayed g eat activity in the conduct

ff o f o - of this a air . Augustus Sax n Poland was gained over by the assurance of t h e succession of the crown of Poland to

. On . his son , Augustus III the death of Augustus II , in 1 733 , the Poles proceeded to a fresh election ; Stanislaus L e sc in sk r y again set himself up as a candidate for the c own , and , although the Polish nobility evinced little inclination o r m o h is to fav the youthful Augustus , the e per r , true to

m h . plighted word , exerted his ut ost inﬂuence in his be alf m o f o f o r The e press Anne , the widow the duke C u land , r the last but one of the house of Kettle , and niece to Peter m r r 1 730 . the G eat, had governed Russia since That e pi e had long harb o red the m o st inimical projects against Po 1 71 0 o land , an d , as early as , had proposed the partiti n of r r r o n t h e that kingdom to the empe o and to P ussia . Anne , r r Mu n n ic h p esent occasion , despatched her favo ite , Marshal , o o m e n o ur at the head of f rty th usand , to P land , for the p o i r o pose secu ing the electi n of Augustus , that tool of Rus in sian diplomacy . Her deep interest this affair and her contempt of Saxony are clearly p roved by the fact o f her m r having expelled Maurice the Strong , a shal of Saxony , l Co url and t h e who had been elected duke of , and bestowing

mi ie in 1 72 5 A n na h e r inan th e ast o f t h e e t t e r fa . t e F d d , l K l ly, d d , wi o w of h is re e c esso r re eric Wi iam ecame e namore o f Mauric e fo r d p d , F d k ll , b d , A GE OF L O UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 227

h e r r o r m duc al m antle on pa amour , Biron , , ore properly ,

r o . Bu en , the grandson of a h stler Stanislaus fled to Dantzig, r s c whe e he wa prote ted by the faithful citizens , but the city m Mun n ic h h e r o being b o barded by , escaped ac oss the flo ded r r c m r count y in a boat, in orde to save the ity fro utte de ’ Mu nn ic h s r r t wo struction , and departu e was pu chased with u million fl o rin s by the citizens . Stanisla s fo und a hospitable

c o r o f c W m I . was b e reception at the u t Frederi k illia , who r f yo nd the sphe e o Russian inﬂuence . c r Fran e , Spain , and Sa dinia (Savoy) now unexpectedly o n in r r declared war against Ch arles VI . acc o unt of his t e fe r f ar r en c e in favo o Augustus . W was not decla ed against m Augustus himself but against Russia . It was si ply an open pretext for again plunde ring the em pire . England and r Holland rem ained neutral . The Russians sent thi ty tho u m e n t o o f t h e m ro r wh o r sand , the aid e pe , actually eached t o o a c o n the Rhine , but late , peace having been alre dy m B r ik m . e w c o cluded The loss of the French arshal , , in the m e n c e m e n t o f m h the ca paign , before P ilippsburg , greatly ’ facilitated Eugene s endeavors (he was n o w worn out and m m past service) to aintain hi self on the Rhine . In Italy , n o w r m Villars , a vete an of eighty , gained , but with im ensely o c i r superi r for es , a battle near Parma , in wh ch Me cy , the

m r . K oen i se i pe ialist general , fell His successor, g gg, had the go o d fo rtune t o surprise the enemy on the Sec c hia near o t o c r m o r Quistell , and aptu e the whole of his ca p t gethe with

. w as o u n suc ﬁve hundred and seventy guns He , h wever, c e ssful m o in a subsequent engage ent at Guastalla, wing to r the want of reinfo cements and money . Don Carlos of

wh o se e ec tio n sh e at rst e e rt e h e r ut mo t i n u n I h n h s e ce . t so a e e o w l fi x d fl pp d , ev e r t h at Mauric e h ad at t h at t ime a iaiso n w it h A rie nn e l e o uv re u t h e , , , l d C x , e autifu arisian ac t re ss w h o h ad iv e n h im t h e w h o e o f h e r e w e s and fo rt b l P , g l j l n in r r u e o de t o furnish h im w it h t h e me ans o f fo rw ardin g h is in t e re st in Co ur ’ an - - ; h e , mo re o v e r se uc e o ne o f A n na s a ie s in w aitin w h ich so reat l d , d d l d g , g ly e nra e h e r t h at h e r o v e c h an e t o h at e an d Mauric e w as c o m e e t o fl e e g d l g d , p ll d fro m o ur an H . e w e n t t o aris w h e re his fait h fu an d e autifu A rie n ne C l d P , l b l d , t h e ar in o f t h e arisian s w as o iso n e a uc h e ss w h o h ad a so ec o me d l g P , p d by d , l b ‘ ’ ’ e n amo re of h e r h andsomenl ov er Se e E s a nac s Life o f Mauri nd o st r s d . p g c e a F e A u ust us II g . 28 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

1 734 Spain also went, in , to Sicily , and took possession of o t h e the wh le of kingdom of Naples . n o t t These circumstances were , as if by miracle , turned o n advantage by Fra ce , which would probably have been the

h . case ad not Louis XV . preferred mistresses and barbers to

. c military achievements A tru e was concluded , and the m for er stipulations made by the emperor were accepted . D o n Carlos retained possession of Naples; Tuscany and b Parma fell to Lorraine , which was estowed upon Stanislaus Le sc in sk 1 73 6 y in , on whose death it was to revert to

France . Stanislaus was named the benefactor of L o rraine ;

w as - m an o he a kind hearted and generous , who sm ked his pipe and w as the sincere well - wisher of the people amid whom fate h ad cast him on his expulsion from the throne

. 1 76 6 m h e nc efo r of Poland He died in , and Lorraine beca e r L o t h rin ian s ward F ench . The g had long and glorio usly defended themselves under their ancient dukes against the l French . They had been sham efu l y aban doned by the em r m pi e , and , without any blame attaching to them , been ade the vi ctims of family policy . They deserved a better fate than that of sinking into the in signiﬁ c an c e inseparable from

h l . a state half Frenc , ha f German u e m e ro r b The Genoese had remained tr e to the p h y whom f they were supported against the Corsicans , who re used to m r submit to the republic of Genoa , with a Ger an fo ce under l urt e mb e r wh o e Prince Louis of W g , , more by gentle m as o o o ures than by vi lence , rest red tranquillity to C rsica in

1 32 . On r 7 his depa ture , the contest was renewed by a Ger r r man adventure , Theodo e von Neuhof , a Westphalian no b m le an , who had been educated by the Jesuits at Munster, o n whence he had ﬂed account of a duel to Holland , and ,

after entering the Spanish service , had visited Africa , been o o s taken pris ner , and had bec me agent to the dey of Algier , by whom he was despatched at the head of a b o dy of troops i t to the sland of Corsica , for the purpose of libera ing the

r th e r t o Max E manue h o w as t a e n riso ne r at Pul to w 1 th e son of o . w B l , k p , ’ re e ric h ar e s E e rh ar Lo uis s un c e and uardian. F d k C l , b d l g

230 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y conquests in Turkey capable of repaying his losses in t h e

W . o e est Count Seckend rf , a Prot stant (the prototype of the t r w h o chattering oracles and busy specula o s , were , at a later

r l o o o r pe iod , ked up to as pr digies in Catholic countries , me ely n r o w as on accou t of thei being Pr testants), placed at the o f rm c head the a y , which was also a companied by Francis

o rr n ﬁ l d - m e . ur of L aine as volu tary arshal The T ks , ever

o m m r accust ed to ake the attack , were taken by surp ise . r 1 737 m r o f Seckendo f , in , took the i portant fo tress Nissa ; r o m but his furthe operati ns were so clu sily conducted , and t h e m army was in such a state of de oralization , that all

n . o c m r speedily went wro g Money and pr visions be a e sca ce , th e n failed altogether ; the so ldiery murmured ; the jeal o us Cath o lic generals refused Obedience to the P ro testant gen ral is im o x t e s . General D o a yielded Nissa without a blo w on the approach of the Turk s ; an o ffence for which he aft er

o . o r ward l st his head Seckend f , accused by his enemies , r r was recalled and th ow n into prison , and the empero , like '

r . W m Fe dinand II in allenstein s case , denied the com ands , o n r o imposed by himself his gene al , and threw the wh le blam e upon him alone . Seckendorf remained a prisoner ’ until the em peror s death . c m 1 738 w as o K oe n i se w h o The a paign of pened by g gg , , r o h r w as c unexpectedly penet ating int t e count y , su cessful o w as o r m at K rnia , but left without reinf ce ents and speedily

. W e recalled He was replaced by allis , who blindly obey d

o r r o f m r r - o l the senseless de s the ilita y cou t c unci , and , taking m r o m r up a ost unfavo able p sition , placed hi self in the powe o f r o m o r m o the Tu ks , who , c manded by French ffice s , a ng o w h o i others by B nneval , had been raised to the d gnity of

r r r a. pacha , c ushed him by their supe io numbers at Krusk w o m e n v He lost t enty th usand , and retreated in dismay , lea r o ing Belgrade , whithe he c uld have retired in perfect safety , r behind him . Gene al Schmettau hurried to Vienna and

f d r e . of ered to defen Belg ade , but exhorted to speedy measur s m r r r n o r K oe n i se The e pe o , however, trusted neithe him g gg ;

w h o r o r. in fact, no one discovered ene gy or a love of h no A GE OF LO UIS THE FOURTEEN TH 1 231

w as t o Suc c o w an Schmettau commissioned to bear General , fc r t o fic m o of i e utterly incompetent fill the of e , his confir ati n in the command of Belgrade . Wallis received full power to o t o neg tiate terms , and instantly offered yield Belgrade ; a step to which ne c essity alone could have induced the em peror m m o t o ac cede . I ediately after this the emperor sent a sec nd o e i e r o f o ambassad r, N pp g , who , ignorant the negotiati ns r W t o r ente ed into by allis , refused sacrifice Belg ade , and v r m r was , consequently , treated with e e y a k of indignity by

t h e r w h o S his o him t o . Tu ks , pat in face , supp sing be a spy o in c h o m r o o f N e i B und ains , in m enta y expectati n death , p r o o r c o f m o r t o r pe g als l st his p esen e ind , ffe ed yield Belg ade , an d o m o o f r c m o r , thr ugh the ediati n the F en h a bassad , the r n o m o c Ma quis de Ville euve , to wh Russia had als given arte o c o o c o f blanche on this occasi n , ncluded the scandal us pea e V r c r V al l ac h ia w r Belg ade , by whi h Belg ade , Servia , and e e

c m r t o r . Suc c o w n o t w it h st an d on e ore delive ed up Tu key , ’ Sc h m e t t au s in 1 739 ing remonstrances , yielded Belgrade , , r befo e the ratiﬁcation of the treaty at Vienna . Wallis and r r m r o m r o n c o Neippe g suffe ed a short i p is n ent , but we e , ac unt r r o r r o o m n i of thei connection with the a ist c acy , at that pe i d p t nt o o n d r r f o e t o a c . , sh rtly restored fav r einstated in thei o ﬁ es m r r Sch ettau ente ed the Prussian se vice . o o f r The h use Habsburg bec ame extinct in 1 749 . Cha les o uc r r m c nd ed , even in a g eate degree than his father , to sta p m o t h r the Austrians , re especially e Viennese , with the cha r c r acte by whi h they are , even at the p esent day , distin ui h r g s e d . The Austrians we e formerly noted for their chiv r c r r r o r al i spi it and still mo e so for thei constituti nal libe ty . During the unhappy struggle for liberty o f co nscience their c hara c ter became deeply tragical and parallel in dignity to o f that any other nation ennobled by misfortune , but, dur

r r . o ing the eign of Cha les VI , it to k a thoughtlessly good r o o m m o . o humored , f iv l us , al ost burlesque t ne The me ry of ’ r r r thei ancesto s rights had faded away , the ho rid butchery w as r o o f r fo g tten ; the education the Jesuits had , in the thi d r o d gene ati n , eradicated every serious thought, had habituate ‘ t h e the people to blind obedience , while y amused them , like r n i o child e , with sp ritual comedies , to which the great c medy ,

a w as c . cted by the court, a fitting ac ompaniment The per c was r r son of the monar h , it is t ue , strictly gua ded by Span r s ish etiquette , but his innume able crowd of attendant , fat te mn g in idleness and luxury , ere long infected the whole o r nati n with thei license and love of gayety . The court of w as r o n Vienna enti ely on a Spanish f oti g ; the palace , the o r pleasure grounds , the Prater , an imitati n of the P ado at r r o d Madrid , the ce emonies , even the d ess , n twithstan ing the ill accordance between the great Spanish hat and drooping feathers and the sh o rt m antle with the allonge peruke lately m introduced by t h e F rench . The e pero r w as beheld with distant awe as a being superior to the rest of m ankind ; he c rro o m r was , even in priva y , su unded by p p and ci cumstance ; h no t e n u t is name could be uttered without a g fl e c io n . He was surrounded by a cou rt co nsisting of no fewer than fo rty o m c m th usand individuals , all of who aided in the onsu ption o f of the public revenue . The six f ices filled by the lo rd chief t w r c C m r o s e a d , the lord hief ha be lain , the l rd chief marshal , r r m o f the lo d chief equerry , the lo d chief aster the chase , r m r o m and the lo d chief aste of the falcons , each of wh super an o o o o o re inten ded immensely numer us r yal househ ld , t k p o r fo r r e de n c e . e There we e , instance , two hund ed and tw nty fi h m l . o o six c a ber ains Then f llowed twelve f ces of state , the fi privy council (the highest government of ce), the military o f c council , the imperial council , three councils finan e (the

r r r r s cou t of confe ence , the excheque , and boa d of revenue ), a chief c o urt of justice (into which the p rovincial go vern o f r o r ment Lowe Austria had been c nve ted), and ﬁve espe c ial o m fo r r g vern ents Spain , the Nethe lands , Hungary , o m r d Transylvania , and B he ia , all of which esi ed at Vi ro di enna . T here were , besides these , the embassies , a p g r c t h e ious number, every count, p elate , baron , and ity of

. empire having , at that period , an agent at Vienna The h wh o le of t e year was unalterably prearranged , every court fete predetermined . Then came a succession of church fes

1 234 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

r m prevented immo ality , under the name of philosophy , fro

r c . supplanting eligion , as had been the case in Fran e Fri v o l it y was c o nﬁned to the limits o f a jest reco ncilable with r the established piety or rather bigot y , and thus came into o u St ran it zki L e o o l dst adt r v g e , , in the p theat e , by means o f this tone exc iting the inextinguishable laughter o f the po pu c r r m r la e , and Fathe Ab aham aking use of it in his se mons at Santa Clara . V m ienna , on the reconciliation between the e pero r and

n 1 772 . the pope , was erected into a bishopric i The em e ro r d w as p , like his pre ecessors , a slave to the priests and m o expended as uch upon church festivals as up n court fetes . o r r r w as l 1 29 The m st ext ao dina y splendor disp ayed in 7 , on

o . o v o n m t h e the canonizati n of St J hn Nepo uk by pope . The w as r festival , which lasted eight days , pa ticipated in by the r m o r o whole of the Aust ian na chy , nay , by the wh le O f

Catholic Christendom . Vienna was the scene of unusual ’ pom p ; the interio r of St . Stephen s was hung with purple ; c the courtiers and itizens vied with each other in splendo r . Alm ost the whole p o pulation of Bohemia pou red into P rague ; more than four hundred pro cessio ns of to wnships bearing r t o c A l t bu nzl au r offe ings , as a pagan sacriﬁ e ; with ga nets u K oe n i s rat z r w c r and r bies , g g with pheasants , Ch udim ith ys Czasl au r K au rzie m r r tals , with silve , with eve g een plants , Be c hin m r c r o with sal on , P a hin with pea ls and g ld sand , Pil m r o f r m sen with a white la b , Saaz with ea s co n , Leit eritz

o . o with wine , Rak nitz with salt, etc The wh le of the city m r m and its innu erable to we s were splendidly illu inated . ’ m m ro t o An i ense p cession marched Nepomuk, the saint s w m r o f o f Vir birthplace , ith nu be s ﬁgures and pictures the

‘ sain t s b an n e rs r m r gin and , and d a atic rep esentations , taken 1 —A t o from the life of the saint . that pious peri d lived the r Po n t ife se r w ho o Tyrolean Capuchin , Father Gab iel , enj yed o o f great repute as confess r to Maria Anna , queen Spain , f r o o . o c ns rt to Charles II , the last the Habsbu g dynasty ,

Se e Sc h o t t T h e ar o v in ian A e . ky , C l g g A GE OF LO UI S THE FO URTEEN TH 1 235 but wh o refused every p o st o f honor an d contented him self t m r n with erec ing a Capuchin onaste y in his ative town ,

o . a r Clausen , with Spanish g ld The queen do ned it with r in 1 0 . 8 9 valuable pictures , etc , part of which we e , , car m c . o ried to Muni h At that ti e als died , at Cappel in the Pazuau n t h al o o m m w as , the pi us past r, Ada Sch id , who so bel o ved by the peo ple that n um e ro us tapers are still kept ‘ burning aro und his tom b as aro und that of a saint .

T r er CCXXXII . he Co u ts Of G m a n y

U G U ST U S o f S o r 1 733 v r A ax ny expi ed in , lea ing th ee

n r ﬁft - t wo r m o o m r c hu d ed and y child en , a ng wh Mau i e , r o f so n ul known as the ma shal Saxony , the of the beautif 2 ro o f K oe n i sm ark hi m e x t rao r Au ra, countess g , equalled in din ar r h im y physical strength and su passed in intellect, but, r r as a F ench gene al , turned the talents which , under other c o t o r c o f cir umstances , he might have dev ted the se vi e his m u r n r . m o r min co nt y , agai st Ge many Fle ing , the p we ful i s m o r o f ster, also died , leaving ixteen illion d lla s , which he o r o f c o w as had r bbed the count y , and half whi h his wid w ’ o t o m o o r o o f c mpelled relinquish . The ost n t i us the king s o o d ro m him mistresses , C untess C sel , had rawn f twenty o r o r m o milli n dolla s . Sax ny had fallen a p ey to the st de rav e d o f o o m p b th sexes . The wh le of these sha eful acts are “ ” reco unted in the Gallant Sax o n o f Baro n v o n P o llnitz and m r r u h in the Me o i s O f the Margravine of Bai e t . The de sc ript io n s of the fetes given at Mo rizb urg to the C o untess ro v o n K oen i sm ark o r o r Au ra g in h nor of foreign p inces , his c guests , graphi ally depic ture the luxury of this royal de ‘ bauche . Myth o logical representations were perform ed on

mm - an i ense scale , festivals of Venus in the pleasure gardens, o o n festivals of Diana in the f rests , festivals of Neptune the

1 ’ e a We e r s T ro B d , b y l . Sh e w as co int ri uin an d usie h e rse lf as h e r Me mo irs sh o w w ith ld , g g , b d , , “ ” mo ne m at te rs . Sh e e c ame ro v o st e ss o f ue in ur fo r w h ic h as Uffe n y b p Q dl b g , , “ ach w rit e s in hi s T rav e s . h e r ﬁn e ar e ma e stic ure b ut no t h e r w e b l , l g , j ﬁg , ll ” kn o wn c h arac t e r w e suit e , ll d . 1 236 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o n c Elbe , which occasions a Venetian Bu entaur, frigates , ri i n b gantines , gondolas , and sailors dressed satin and silk o r o n st ckings , were pa aded ; festivals of Saturn in the Sax ’ r m mines ; besides tou na ents , peasants fetes , fairs , masque m rades , and fancy balls , in which the ar y as well as the

r . r o whole court sustained a pa t He kept Janissa ies , Mo rs , l He idu c ks w m n o w b o d uardsm e n , S iss , a na e signifying yg or r r m o o o m po te s , and put the com n s ldiers and c urt enials dur o in ing the celebration of fetes int such varied disguises , as , r r r r a certain deg ee , to t ansfo m the whole count y into a the ’ atre . In Wackerbarth s biography there is a description O f a ﬁrewor k fo r which eighteen thousand trunks of trees were o was used , and of a gigantic alleg rical picture which painted n r upon six th o usand ells of cloth . O e pa ty of pleasure at

Muhlberg cost six milli o n do llars . Architecture w as ren dered subservient to these follies . The Japan palace al o ne contained genuine Chinese p o rcelain to the am o unt of a mil o m o m r li n dollars , besi des su ptuous carpets c posed of feathe s . o m At Dresden , a hall is still sh wn co pletely furnished with r m r the ost ich and hero n plu es used at these fetes . Luxu y and a tasteless l o ve of splendor were alone fostered by this

r - O f r c w as m unhea d ext avagan e , and it erely owing to a happy chance that the purchase of the Italian antiques and o t o m r pictures , which laid the f undation the agniﬁcent D es

r r o i . ri den Galle y , ﬂattered the p ide King Augustus His p r r n vate t easury , the celeb ated gree vaults , were , like his

r o . im fetes , utte ly dev id of taste There were to be seen o o o m mense heaps of precious st nes , gold and silver, a r full ’ r c o m o f o r o o f of pea ls , lu ns striches eggs , cu i us works art , m r o f c o r clocks , and all anne toys , each of whi h cost en mous On f h r o r m . e o c c su s t ese ostly pie es , cleve en ugh , rep esents r o f a ha lequin cudgelling a peasant, each the ﬁgures being

rm o ut r m m . fo ed of a single pea l of i ense size This was , in o o f w p int fact, the only relation bet een the prince and the l r h r people . The cries of the peop e we e un ea d ; of the pro

A t t e n ants m t h e Hun arian c o st ume —Trams d g .

1 238 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

i t h e so mbecile , that his wanton consort , on birth of an ille i t im at e g child , paciﬁed him by declaring that the infant had

ro - V b ught with it into the world a gigantic bass iol , which r she had o dered to be made for him . The Saxon dukes o f the Ernestine line were divided into

. r W m r 1 736 several houses E nest, duke of ei a , , forbade his “ b r o o f c o o . r su j ects to eas n under pain rrecti n F ederick , o f o m duke G tha , gave the ﬁrst exa ple o f the sham eful r ffi r m t a c in men , afterwa d so often i itated , by selling , in 1 733 m , four thousand i pressed recruits t o the em peror for ﬂ o rin s 1 44 one hundred and twenty thousand , and , in 7 , three m regi ents to the Dutc h . He occupied Meiningen with his tro o ps and supported the nobles in their rebellio n against o o U r w h o m his c usin , Ant ny l ic , had persuaded the e peror ‘ o r ae r o m to bestow upon his c nso t, Elisabeth C sa , a hands e m r r o f cha be maid , the ank princess , and to declare his chil r d en capable of succeeding to his titles . The nobility tri m t h e r r u phed , and child en we e , by a shameful decree of the r o f c Estates of the empi e , declared incapable su ceeding to ’ r o o r thei father s p ssessions ; the h pes of Gotha we e , never t h e l e ss o U r , frustrated , Ant ny lric instantly cont acting a c o m r w h o o se nd arriage with a p incess of Hesse , br ught im m h a num ero us fa ily .

. r 1 726 . In Bavaria , Maximilian Emanuel II eigned until m He was the author o f great cala ities . It was entirely o t o r o owing to his disl yalty , the treache ous diversi n raised h im t o r o f m F r was by the rea the i perial army , that ance n o t c om pletely beaten in the c o m mencem ent o f the w ar of o r r m su c c essi o n . N was his close alliance with F ance erely r fo r m r t ansient , , in the ensuing century , his beca e the uling r rm p o licy of alm o st eve ry c ourt in Weste n Ge any . The r o o f r elector , perverted by V illa s and thers the F ench cour r o f r r tie s , solely made use the F ench tongue , and , sur ounded

’ re e ric Wi iam th e rei nin u e A n t o n U ric s e e r ro t h e r disa F d k ll , g g d k , y l ld b , p ro v e Of t h is marria e and o n t h e e ath o f E isa e th w h o h a i fo r h e rse f p d g , , d l b , , pp ly l , ie e ar a o w e h e r c o ffi n t o re main un urie me re s rin e o v e r w i t h d d ly , ll d b d , ly p kl d n On h is a h e as t r at e it h simil ar in i nit h is ro th e r h o sa . e t h w e w w d d , d d g y by b , h fﬁ n n i in i n it io n urin a ear left bo t c o s st andi g s de by side th s c o d d g y . A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 239

- r m v r by female singers and dancing gi ls , i itated e ery Pa isian c r r Cun i un da o f vice . His onso t , The esa g , the daughter o n o S bieski , the ble sovereign of Poland , ﬁlled with disgust m o f r m r at the licentious anners the cou t, beca e , unde the hm o f Sc ac ke . guidance the Jesuit , , a strict devotee The c o r o r t o r c r ele t , in der escape the rep oa hes of his Bava ian o f h o r o f subjects , chieﬂy resided , in his quality stadt lde the r r o n e o Nethe lands , at Brussels , whe e , in c ntinued maze of m r pleasure , he lavished on his ist esses and expended in o r o f n r c r h ses , which he kept twelve hu d ed , and in pi tu es , which he had a go o d o pp o rtunity t o co llect in the N eth er o r m t o r r t h e m o o o f lands , such en mous su s , as ende i p siti n r r triple taxes necessary in Bava ia . The p o vincial diet had

n o t 1 69 9 . so n r w h o been consulted since His , Charles Albe t ,

i 1 746 w as Of . reigned unt l , equally the slave luxury He was io o n m r pass nately f nd of hunti g , and kept, besides his ist esses , K s l r mm m o f o . e s e w ho r an i ense nu ber d gs y , , in the cou se r r r 1 729 of his inte esting t avels , visited Bava ia in , gives the “ o c o : r r m f llowing ac unt The electo ess , Ma ia A elia , a little o m r o and delicate lady , sho ts well at a a k , and ften wades up He r h o o t o her knees in a b o g while fo llo wing the chase . s t ing - dress is a g reen coat and tro users and a littl e white f r r . r o o c pe uke She has a g eat fancy d gs , whi h is plainly evident at Ny m phe n b urg by the bad smell o fthe red dam ask

carpets and beds . The little English greyh o unds are valued T m . h e c o r l rro ost highly ele t ess , when at tab e , is su unded o o m r o f o n e o n r h e r by a g d nu be them , and sits eithe side of , v r h r seizing e e ything within their reach . Near e bed a do g c o o n o n e has a little tent with a ushi n , and side hangs a bust — of Christ with the crown o f th o rn s The re is a co uch for ’ do c t o o r a re c o c fo r a g lose the elect s bed , and there u hes ” m o r - c twelve e in the ﬁne writing ro o m adjoining . The ele ’ t o re ss c o m o o f h e r m r rr be ing jeal us husband s ist esses , a te i

- r c r . ble quar el ensued , in which he physi ally ill t eated her o o n m S phia v Ingenhei was his fav o rite . He established t h e o r r m o f o l tte ies , so dest uctive to the orals the pe ple , in r Bava ia . 1 240 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

The other Wit telsbach branch in t h e Pfalz pursu ed a m r r r. m w h o si ila ca ee The elector, Philip Willia , succeeded

t o o r 1 685 1 6 90 . so n o h the g ve nment in , died in His , J n o r t h William , ﬂed , on acc unt of the disturbances du ing e w ar U r , from the pper Rhine to Dusseldo f , the capital of o o Max im i Juliers , where he f ll wed in the steps of his cousin l m ian at Brussels , kept a hare and made a valuable collee

io r . On 1 71 6 b o r t n of pictu es his death , in , his r ther , Cha les U sl e b e r t h e Philip , assisted by the Jesuit , , inﬂicted m o st l 1 42 t h terrible crue ties on the Pfalz and renewed , in 7 , e u s violent religious persec tion , while indulging in passion that r f t disgraced his years , until death elieved the af lic ed country m r o o o f o f Su l s from this onster , and Cha les The d re , the line h t o o bac , a sensualist of a milder nature , succeeded the g v

m - e rn m e nt . Z w e ib rii c ke n Gustavus Sa uel , duke of Pfalz , 1 69 6 had , in , during a visit to Rome , turned Catholic , in order to Obtain a divo rce from his wife and perm ission t o o f m m o o ff . wed a daughter one of his servants , na ed H an

Hesse gained the county of Hanau in 1 736 . The last

n o m ar~ count , Joh Reinhard , died ; his daughter , Charl tte , d n m w as n e v e rt h e rie Pri ce Louis of Dar stadt ; the county , m r . in t he less , divided between Da stadt and Cassel Dur g o f r o f s red r life William , Landg ave Cas el , his son , the he ita y

r e h . r h o w prince , F ederick , s cretly turned Cat olic His fathe , e o f o ver, frustrated the plans the Jesuits by conv king the r p ovincial Estates , demanding a guarantee from the Protes c h r tant prin es , binding the e editary prince by a will whereby t h e o s Catholics were deprived of all their h pe , and sepa r wh o r ating the prince from his sons , were b ought up in the

Pro testant faith . License was carried to the greatest excess in Baden - Dur a W h lach , where the Margr ve , Charles illiam , built Carlsru e o f o 1 71 5 m i o o f in the midst the f rests , in , and , in i itat n

- r the celebrated French deer parks , kept a hund ed and sixty r h im s m o f i ga den nymphs , who bore a countle s nu ber ch l s b o h im i n dren . The sc andal cau ed y this c nduct induced , 2 be 1 72 , to dismiss all except sixty or seventy of the most au

1 2 42 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

pe rform the marriage ceremony . This open bigamy scan r dal ize d both the emperor and the empi e . The departure of 1 n ist e d n Grae v e n it z w as s upo , but was refused by the duke o Of o m until the pr vincial Estates had , by way c pensation,

o r e . r v ted a sum of two hund ed thousand ﬂorin But , sca cely re c e l v e d m Grae v e n it z had the duke the oney than returned, n m rr W h o appare tly a ied to a Count urben , a Viennese , w m o r o had lent hi self for a c nside ation to this purp se , and o f ur who , after being created grand provincial governor VV

t e mb e r w as . n g, sent out of the country His wife , the gra d i provincial governess , remained for twenty years in und s ut e d o l n p possessi n of the duke , and governed the country m m his name . Her brother ﬁgured as pri e inister , and , as she fur n ished the court of Vienna with money and the king o f r r fo r r P ussia f om time to time with giants his gua d , she

r . was p otected by foreign powers She was named , and with

r r t uth , the dest oyer of the country , for she sold ofﬁces and m i justice , com uted all pun shments by ﬁne , extorted money o o m m o n o by threats , bestowed the most imp rtant c m ercial p ‘ l ie s o n o . o Jews , m rtgaged and sold the crown lands , etc ’ n — n She managed the duke s tre as ury a d her Ow . His was m r r ever e pty , he s eve full ; she lent money to the duke , who m f . o o o o f ri rep aid her in land By eans spies , the vi lati n p n r r vate correspo dence , and a st ict police , she supp essed the

r o . Osian de r murmu s of the pe ple , the churchman , alone

r had the cou age to reply , on her demanding to be included “ ‘ c w e 0 in t h e prayers of the hurch , Madame , pray daily , ’

r r . r Lord , prese ve us f om evil It was forbidden unde pain ro of punishment to speak ill of her . T he p vincial Estates attempting t o defend them sel v es from the en o rm o us e x ac “ ” tions , the duke threatened the individuals , in case the

asio n sh e sei e a uant it o f E n ish o o s fo r h er w ar ro e On o ne o cc z d q y gl g d d b , n o ro ca e in u ic On ano t h er o c ca and t h e duke w o re so me of t h e st o le g ld b d p bl . ’ i n a e rso n o ffe rin h er ﬁv e th ousan ﬂ o rin s fo r an a o th e car s ic en se sh e s o , p g d p y l , T r t o o t he mo ne av e a rec e i t b ut did no t sen t h e at e nt . h e e so n ca e k y , g p , d p p ll d m r Th e co unt e ss c o u n o t re ca t h e circ umstan c e o r e r t o fre sh n h e r me o . in d e y ld ll ,

eman e t h e re c e i t in ro o f t o o it aw a and did no t re a e ar. Th e erso n d d d p p , k y pp p n e no r th e ate nt in q ue stio n re ce iv e d neit h e r t h e mo y p . A GE OF LO UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 243

f m assem bly any lo nger opposed his dem ands . During the a 1 71 3 w r ine of , the peasants ere compelled to plant g eat part On o f their land with tobacco . the increasing discontent of m the people and of the Estates , which showed itself ore par t ic u l arl St ut t ard y at g , the duke quitted that city and erected n e 1 71 6 m a w residence , Ludwigsburg , in , at an im ense ex l o - n . On o pe se aying the f undati n stone , he caused such a quantity o f bread to be thrown t o the assembled m ultitude that several pe o ple narro wly escaped being crushed to death . r 1 71 7 The gene al want increased , and , in , the ﬁrst great m igration of the peo ple of W urt e m b e rg to N o rth Am erica m h r took plac e . The co untess at length de anded as e right as p o ssesso r o f the lo rdship of Welzheim a seat and a vote on o f m h the Franconian bench of counts the e pire , w ich being he r r d granted in her stead to brothe , a quarrel ensue , and r m he to o k part with h e ene ies against her . She also vent r m e r u re d t o treat the duke with ext e e insolenc e . H beauty o h had l ng passed away with her yout , and , on the presenta o m r c o m ti n of the beautiful Countess Wittgenstein , her e pi e l he w as m r r h e r im pl e t e y ended . S i p isoned and dep i v ed of

m m . On o ense de esnes the death of the duke , she l st still m o o f h e r - Je w Sii ss re ill gotten wealth , and the court , , her

o r ro . agent, als p ivately bbed her r s 1 733 n o Eve ard Loui expired in , leaving issue , and c c o c c o r r was su eeded by his Cath li usin , Cha les Alexande , w h o o f w as o fo r , although a distinguished f icer, t tally inept go vernm ent . He intrusted the helm of state to his c o urt Je w Sii ss O m wh o m r , ppenhei er, sha elessly obbed the coun “ ” t r . a o o y He established gratiﬁcati n c urt, where all the “ Ofﬁces of state were s o ld to the highest bidder ; a court of ”

c r c as t o . T ex heque , where justi e w put up auction o tho se w h o we re unable t o pay he lent money at the rate o f a g ro s ’ ﬂ o rin h ro . r s O per (the Jew s g schen) He also kept a la ge p, r m h t r ro f o whic he furnished the cour wa d bes , and estab l ish e d f r o r 1 . m r a lottery his p ivate ga n He , o eover, ex

m o f m o o o t o r ro c r c o f . tended the syste n p ly leathe , g e ies , fee t o o f h i t h e houses , even the cleaning c mneys , as well as 1 244 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

- right of pre emption , as , for instance , in regard to wood an d r o , lastly , bu dened the country , even f reigners during their residence in it , with a heavy protection , income , and

m t ax 1 736 : wa fa ily , in He also gave y to the mo st u n r b idled license , and either by fraud or by violence distu rbed — the peace o f familie s The patient endurance of the people and the exam ple o f the Pfalz inspi red the Jesuits with the h o pe o f re c at h o l ic izin g W urt e mb e rg by m eans of h e r Cat h o l ic duke . T he ﬁrst step w as to place the Catholics o n an

o in equal fo ting with the Protestants , and a conspiracy , Sii ss n o fo r o which took part, was entered i t that purp se . r o m r T o ps were expected fro the bishop of Wurzbu g . Orders

r r u rt e m b e r r we e p epared for the W g househ o ld t o o ps . The pe o ple were t o be disarmed under pretext of putting a sto p to h o c . w o p a hing The duke , , it was probably feared , might, r m m r if p esent, oppose severe easures , was to be te po arily as re moved . The ancient constitution w to be done away “ h r o r with ; The yd a head of the pe ple shall be c ushed , r R e m c hi n e n o w ote General g , one of the chief conspirat rs , to ’ - F ic h t e l t h e . ri , duke s privy councillor But, du ng the night o f 1 3 t h 1 737 i r the of March , , the duke suddenly exp ed , a r r r few hou s befo e the time ﬁxed for his depa ture . He was o t o m o ro l ng supposed have been assassinated , but, st p bably ,

o f . r o o died apoplexy His cousin , Cha les Rudolph , undert k o r r o r o f so n r the g ve nment du ing the min ity his , Cha les Eu

n w h o w as in . ge e , then his ninth year The Catholic con s irac t o r R e m c hin e n Sii ss p y fell the g ound ; g ﬂed ; the Jew , , ’ ro was exposed on the gall o ws in an i n cage . r o f o r The ﬁ st elector Han ver, E nest Augustus , who sud de n l y restored t h e p o wer of the divided an d im moral Guelphic

w as n o t r ro m o f . house , f ee f the faults the age Although o o f rm t h e champi n the honor of Ge any , he was a slave to c l French fashions , unprin ipled and licentious , faith ess and

T h e se gallo w s w ere made o f t h e i ro n w h i ch Ho n aue r h ad at t e mpte d to t urn Ho n aue r rst a o rne t h e m i n 1 5 9 7 t h e n t h e Je w Suss t h re e al o . into g ld ﬁ d d , , h emis t s Mo n tan i Musch e l c r and V o n Muhl e nfel s a St ut t ard i n c e n iar c , , , , g d y , t h ir r an d ast a t h i e f wh o h ad at t e m t e t o st e a e o n f o m t h e same a o w s . , l ly , , p d l g ll i th irt - six h un re ei h t an t e e o un s Th ey were very h igh and we gh ed y d d w g d w lv p d .

1 246 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

resident in Hanover, assembled every Sunday in the electoral

m - . o o r palace In the hall of asse bly st d an arm chai , upon ’ which the monarch s portrait was placed . Each courtier e l o w on ent ring bowed to this portrait, and the who le as se m b l awe - b m y , as if stricken y the presence of ajesty , con l o w r versed in tones for about an hou , when the banquet, a ’ an splendid repast prepared at the elec‘tor s expense , was m n o u nc e d . The cle ency whereby the fate of the subjects

disa of other states is sometimes alleviated , had , however, p e are d r t o m a p with the mona ch , and this y be attributed the rude arrogance of the nobility and t h e cruelty of the legis l at ure m , which , even up to the present ti e , retained the use m of torture . The exa ple offered by the people and parlia o ment of England might have been f llowed , but the Hano v e rian m r 1 65 7 m diet had slu be ed since , and erely vegetated

o . in the f rm of an aristocratic committee The minister, von w as r far Munchhausen , the ﬁrst who gove ned , as as the r t m spi i and circu stances of the times allowed , in a patriotic sense . He gained great distinction by founding the univer

sit Goe t t in e n o 1 73 . y of g , which he richly end wed , 7 Royal Hanover no longer condescended t o send her subjects to f He l m st ae dt the little university o in Wolfenbuttel .

- W o U r In Brunswick olfenbuttel , the aged duke , Ant ny l ic , who gave way to unb ridled lic ense in his palace o f Sal zdah l um w h o n o c , but promoted science by the exte si n of the ele ’ b rat e d r Wolfenbuttel lib ary , turned Catholic when nearly o rr eighty , in rder to testify his delight at the ma iage of his

- r m . g and daughter with the e peror , Charles VI His son , W m u r Augustus illiam , i itated his l xu y , and , guided by a rta v o n v t o o ce in Dehn , ga e himself up all the fashi nable vices of the day and persecuted Munchh ausen . He w as suc c e e de d r 1 73 1 o by his brothe , Louis Rudolph , in , by wh m n o was order was restored . He left issue , and succeeded , 1 735 o in , by Ferdinand Albert von Bevern (a y unger r o r o f U r b anch , f unded by a b other Antony l ic), a learned

r n ri m r manc e s and h is e e nsiv e I ta ian o e r Be t te t ha by h is w ea so e o xp l p a. A GE OF LO UIS THE FOUR TEEN TH 1 247

o o e c s w h o c ollec t r of scientiﬁc bj t , was shortly afterward h r is o n . succeeded by s , Cha les o r Of s In Mecklenburg , the scandal us gove nment Charle o c m r o f Leop ld was suc eeded by the ilde one his brother,

1 71 9 . Christian Louis , in r t h e In East F iesland , George Albert, son of Christian a Everard , continued the contest with the Est tes and the city c t o of Emden , and reated , in opposition the ancient Estates

m o s. w as s o r alcontents , fresh and bedient one Right in thi m instance again unprotected by the emperor and the e pire , an c ie t n n r by whom the p Estates were de ou ced as ebels . m s o o E den resisted , everal bl ody battles t ok place , but at ’ l n m o t h e e gth the Danes ca e to the c unt s assistance , ancient r an d o Estates were supp essed , the property of the malc ntents ’ r m o . o was c nﬁscated Cha les Edward , the c unt s son , arried , 1 727 Baire ut h r in , a princess of , and ente ed into an agree

t 1 44 . ment by which , on his dying withou issue in 7 , East

Friesland was annexed to Prussia . m r m k r . d o In Den ar , F ederick IV ar ie Anna S phia , the

R e v e n t l o w . E x t ra a beautiful daughter of his chancellor , v gant devotion was brou ght into vogue during the reign of h is r V L h is s o son , Ch istian , by con ort, S phia Magdalena , a r c o f Baire ut h h m e p in ess , and by her court c aplain , Blu m c e n The celebrated inister , Bernstorf , omm ced a o r i beneﬁcial ref m in the administrat on under his son , r Frede ick V . Holstein had severely suffered during the war and under r o r e xe c u the licentious gove nment of Count G rtz , afte whose tion the affairs o f state were con ducted almos t equally ill by m o f B e it z the fa ily ass w in the name of the youthful duke .

r a . 1 72 1 The nobility we e extremely cruel and intract ble In , a Ranzau c aused his elder brothers to be assassinated ; an i n 1 722 r r . other, , sta ved seve al of his serfs to death in prison m i r m Both were erely pun shed by a short im p iso n ent . A r o f o r 1 6 88 third membe this family had , h weve , as early as , o r ffe ed a very contrary example, by being the ﬁrst to liberate

the serfs o n his estates . A controversy am ong the pries t 1 248 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

1 708 hood caused the citizens of Kiel , in , to rise in open

. D it m arsc h r 1 4 insurrection The peasant y revolted in 7 0 , on account of the abuses to which the levy of recruits gave i r se . Le o pold of Dessau w as the only one am o ng the fallen o f wh o r princes the house of Anhalt ea ned distinction . He r r r reformed the P ussian a my , int oduced the use o f metal

m m o o m re ra rods and a rapid vement in cl se colu ns , and p pared Prussia for the great part she was hencefo rward to ‘ m ar perfor on the theatre of w in Europe . He was ex t re m e l r w as y ough in his manners , subject to ungovernable r was ﬁts of fu y , , moreover, a drunkard , and tyrannized over

. n r r the people of Dessau He , eve theless , lived in g eat har ’ o f r mony with the beautiful daughter an apotheca y , who r was reco gnized by the empe or . A c o l lateral branch o f the house o f Hohenzolle rn - B ran de n b ur g , the reigning one of Prussia , continued to reign in r r Baire ut h the Ma g aviates of and Anspach . Christian E rnest Baire ut h 1 71 2 r th e m K ro h n e m an n of , in , c eated alche ist , , r m bu t o p i e minister , sent him , nevertheless , to the gall ws

h is - c r o f m for ill su cess in discovering the sec et aking gold .

so n o r W m - m rm i His , Ge ge illia , founded the far fa ed He tage , r rm r whe e the he it passed his days in wanto n luxu y . His r rr r r r son , Frede ick , ma ied the celeb ated p incess , Frede ica o W m r r S phia ilhel ina of Prussia , sister to F ederick the G eat, m w hose Memoirs so graphically depicture the ti es . She has ’ unhesitatingly and unsparin gly described both her father s ’ and husband s court and related all the events of that peri o d the fact that a princess could th us speak of her o w n relati o ns r ro o is a st ong p f , were any wanting , of the prevalence of r h ad 1 743 o . He r French f iv lity husband , in , founded the

He was t h e ar in o f t h e sol i e r and t h e D e ssau marc h o n afte r h is d l g d y , , l g m l e d t h e Pruss1 an s t o ic t o r t i e v . , y 9 ’ A nna Lo uisa F o h se t h e a o t h ecar s au h t e r h ad st e a i refuse to , p y d g , d ly d m h i mi r H r main e o n h is si e fait hfu t o h e r urin h is cam e co e s st e ss . e e b d , d , l d g in t h e o v e rnme nt Sh e o re h im te n paigns and marrie d h e r o n suc c ee d g t o g . b i re n ﬁ h o m e re so n s Th ree fe and t h e o t he r t w o we re se v e re c h v e o f w w . ld , ll ly ’ o un e urin t h e se v e n e ars w ar w d d d g y .

1 25 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y t e nst e in w ho and Schillingsfurst), , as Catholics , tyrannized over their Protestant relatives , the Counts von Hohenlohe attempted to abrogate the consistory at ( E hrin ’ gen and to extirpate Protestantism . The Margrave s troops o m n o t w it h st an d c mpelled the princes to re ain tranquil , and , s ing the loud complaints of the Bavarian Jesuit , to make full restitution .

— CCXXXIII . T he E cc lesia stic a l Co urts T h e Sa lzburg E migra tion

T HE archbishops an d prince - bishops of the Catholic o f in church , instead being taught by the great lesson c ul c at e d r r by the Refo mation , emulated the temporal p inces

. o in luxury and license Clement of Cologne , br ther to the r o f electo Bavaria , had ﬁxed his voluptuous court at Bonn . was Here French alone spoken , and luxury was carried to such a height that even duri ng Lent there were no fe wer than twenty dishes on the archiepisc opal table . This gal lant churchman had a hundred and ﬁfty chamberlains and passed great part of his time at Paris , where he associated with the licentious courtiers and acted in a manner that in t

re n m . spi d eve the French with astonish ent Duclos relates , “ r re It was very st ange to see the elector of Cologne , who at in sided Paris , standing the royal presence , the king sit in ting an armchair, and , when dining with the Dauphin , n sitting among the courtiers at the lowest e d of the table . W r hen at Valenciennes , he caused his intention of p eaching r w as o n the ﬁrst of April to be proclaimed . The chu ch ro o n i Th e th nged the g ven day . elector mounted the pul r o t o pit , g avely b wed the assembly , made the sign of the ‘ o l cr ss , and exclaiming , April foo s all of ye descended amid

O f - o - the sound trumpets , hunting h rns , and kettle drums , and ” o m quitted the church . The city of Cologne was c pletely o n ruined under his government . The religious persecuti drove all the industrious manufacturers and trade rs into the neighboring country , and enriched Muhlheim , Dusseldorf, A GE OF L O UIS THE FO URTEEN TH 1 25 1

w c was and Elberfeld at the expense of Cologne , hi h at length alm ost solely inhabited by monks and beggars . o m and The bishops , to wh the venerable episcopal cities m c athedrals offered a silent reproof, withdrew, for the ore r undisturbed enjoyment of their pleasures , to more mode n

m . residences , where they revelled in agniﬁcence and luxury

o i f r v o l u t u B nn , Bruchsal , and D llingen severally af o ded a p r ous retreat to the archbishops of Cologne , Spi es , and Augs o W r o f burg . J hn Philip Francis , bishop of u zburg , a scion o the n ble house of Schonborn , held an extremely splendid a d r co urt . His palace n the buildings pe taining to it were o f are r built on the plan Versailles , and , even at the p esent ‘ f o o f m n . w as o o day, bjects ad iratio He , moreover, bish p t o Bamberg , where he held a separate court, which no less r o w h o than thirty chambe lains were attached . Father H rn , ventured to preach against ecclesiastical luxury and license , languished fo r twenty years chained in a deep dungeon at r 1 75 0 him o Wu zburg, until , when death released fr m his

r - suffe rings . The a chbish o p of Salzburg had twenty three o r a o f chamberlains and sixteen c urtie s , the ch teaux Mira Kl e ssh e im He l l b rii n n m o bella, , and , establish ents , c mpletely

m o - on a te p ral footing, with pleasure gardens , basins , foun r tains , g ottoes with statues of naked divinities , nymphs and

. was satyrs , a menagerie , orangery , and theatre Luxury here hereditary and w as transmitte d from one archbish o p to f r o . 1 69 9 o o o an ther In , instance , the archbish p , J hn Ernest, o o m entertained the cons rt of J seph , the Ro an king , with o fetes ; among thers , with a grande battue , in which bulls ,

. o bears , wild boars , deer, etc , were driven into a narr w cir o cle and torn to pieces by large h unds , and with a ball , on the conclusio n o f which he p resented her with a silver table o m and a c stly irror for her morning toilet . w as o o This example foll wed by numerous other bish ps ,

1 One o f h is re e c e sso rs e t e r h i i v o n Do rn ac h h ad in 1 6 6 9 t hro w n p d , P P l p b , , , t h e co m et E c h ar v o n Pe c ke rn a han so me o ut h w h o se at t rac t io ns w e re , k d , d y , , in t h e e e s o f a Ma ame v o n Po l h e im su e rio r to t h o se o f t h e is h o int o riso n y d , p b p , p ’ t st arv e h im to eat See Sc h rambe r s art ic e o n e rnin t h e fami o f d d h. g l c c g ly i)! rn ba ch . 1 25 2 ~ THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

. u princely abbots , and prelates of every description Aug stin , o o f A l t aic h abb t , had an annual income of one hundred th ou sa ﬂ o rins nd and expended three hundred thousand . The priests of the Teacher o f humility paraded in gilt carriages He iduc ks drawn by six stallions , standing behind , footmen running before , followed by a train of gay cavaliers , chased the wild - boar in their fo rests or lounged in luxurious bou do irs r a o , their fat ﬁnge s gleaming with di m nds , on soft h cushions , t eir mistresses around , a dainty banquet before them . Their luxury had long become proverbial . The epis copal cellars abounded with the good things of this world , and v o w u n h e sit at men , bound by a of denial and poverty , in l - t h e g y named their store places the cellar of God Father,

. T h God the Son , God the Holy Ghost , of all saints , etc e depravity , especially of the women , in all the episcopal de mesnes and cities was proverbial . The spiritual fath e rs took t heir daughters to their bosom and servility boasted of t h e h onon b e ne ﬁc e s O s h l The rich , the fﬁce in the cat edra s and other a r t h e est blishments , we e , like all higher civil and military

. In t he posts , monopolized by the nobility order to secure t h e o wh o exclusion of burghers , th se alone counted a cer tai n number of ancestors or who paid a considerable sum of

- money could be admitted . An ill successful applicant said , “ t h e v o w on one occasion , I am not rich enough to take ! ” of poverty The nobility , habituated from their birth to r luxury and license , continued the same p actices in the

establishments of the church . Deep amid the mountains of Salzburg dwelt a pious com m munity , which , since the time of the ﬁrst Refor ation , had

B d . secretly studied the German ible , and , unai ed by a priest

o o a . T h e h d , obeyed the precepts of pure and holy religion gradual extension of this community at length betrayed its 1 685 e rse c u existence to the priests , and , in , the ﬁrst cruel p T ffe re kert hal tio n commen ced in the e , and , on the failure of the most revo lting measures for the conversion of the wretch ed h and peasants t o Popery , t ey were expelled their homes sent

o t o to be exp sed during the depth of winter hunger and cold,

r r . n ﬁrm in o de to compel them to recant They remai ed . The miserable peas ants imagined in their simplicity that the diet w o uld exert itself in their favo r ! They still harbored a i t o f hope that the nteres s of the great German nation , whic h m in ! they formed a part , ight be represented the diet But their deputatio n found that in Ratisbon affairs dragged o o n i t h e r sl wly , and that wh le lawye s scribbled the bisho p r e acted . The P ot stant deputies , who had taken up the cause o f r m r the Salzburg peasant y, allowed the selves to be led ast ay r o n by the sophist y , evasions , and impudent asserti s of the

' ’ Zil l e rb e r F irm ian s Baron von g , subtle agent at Ratisbon . o w as o n u o The deputati n , its ret rn , thrown into pris n , and o rr r r the persecuti n was ca ied on with un elenting c uelty . c r f o r Physi al tortu e proving ine fectual , the archbish p t ied the effect of enormous ﬁnes . This measure proved equally c o m futile . Enraged at his ill success, he at length sent a t o o f c o n b e mission ﬁnd out the numbers the hereti s , and , r t O h ing info med that they amoun ed to twenty thousand , “ I t o f served , does not matter, I will clear the country the heretics although it may hereafter produce but th o rns and m thistles . The c o missioners asked the people whether they

m - were Luthe ran o r Z winglian . The si ple minded peasants r O f had never hea d either ; they had only studied the Bible , “ ”

are c . no w and replied , We evangeli al They were ir remediably lost . However , putting their trust in God , they formed a great confederacy at Schwarzach , August 5 1 73 1 o r , , and sw re to lay down their lives ather than deny r c thei faith . Each man , on taking this oath , stu k his ﬁnger l c w o r into a sa t ellar, hence the c nfederacy eceived the appel o Sal zb un d o o lati n of the of God , p ssibly a play up n the name o of their country or up n the biblical saying , Ye are the salt ” o of the earth , or , what is still more pr bable , in allusion to r o w h o t h e myste ies taught by The phrastus Paracelsus , had died at Salzburg and had reco gnized a divine prim o rdial fac St u l e bn e r Hii t t au u l t . y in salt The smith , l of , was the most remarkable am ong their leaders . He preached so eloquently A GE OF LO UIS THE FO UR TEEN TH 1 25 5 that the whole of his co ngregation generally hurried to em ro n brace him at the co nclusion of his disc o urse . A pa dy upo

his serm on s h as been published by the Jesuits . The peasants r c o r Lo in ac h e r o f we e also en u aged by their poet, p , one whose songs has bee n preserved by V ierthaler . o r c c The c nfede a y , in point of fact, possessed sufﬁ ient m o t o strength , especially in the untains , defend itself against r m o the a chbishop and his myr id ns , but the Catholics cunning l r n — r o y rep esented these peasa ts who we e neither Cath lics , n o r r n o r o e Luthe ans , Zwinglians , and consequently bel ng d to r r — o r none of the p ivileged chu ches as p litical rebels , in o der . t o dep rive them o f the pro tec tio n of the Pro testant prin c es ; w as r c o n c o n o t ro e n th u and it p in ipally this ac unt, if f m an siast ic o o f m o m n tion religious hu ility , that they f r ed the de rm o n t o o o o c o t o r te inati not pp se vi len e to vi lence , the g eat disc o m ﬁt ure o f r o f R 5 11 w h o r the a chbishop and , had al eady ‘ r r r pro m ulgated a ep o t of thei being in o pen rebellion . The o r r V L m m a o emper , Cha les , eanwhile , alar ed lest the cont gi n r m o w n c m might sp ead a ong his subje ts in the ountains , lent a willing ear t o the tale wh ich furnished him with a ready m r r fo r r . o p etext taking the seve est easu es The deputati n , t o fo r r r n c sent by the Salzburg peasantry beg his inte fe e e , was o r m r o r o m m , by his ders , i p is ned at Linz ; a dec ee , c and o u m r w as ing the unc nditional s b ission of the Salzbu g rebels , m e n r o o published , and six thousand we e sent int the m un

o r r t o o r o c . o r tains in de enf ce bedien e The s ldie s , incited by r O r n r thei fﬁce s and by the priests , fell upo the peasant y like o m r r m hounds up n the ti id deer . They we e dragged f o their m r o r h ho es , c uelly beaten , t gethe wit their wives and chil r r F r . o o f m o r d en , and plunde ed upward a nth , du ing Sep r O r 1 73 1 r m r o c tembe and ctobe , , these c i es we e c untenan ed rc wh o o r r o m m by the a hbishop , t tu ed the heads of the c unes i n p ri son while the villagers fell a prey to the license o f the

1 Th e arse nal at We rfe n w as pl unde re d d uring th e n igh t t ime ; it w as e re o n h o w e v e r c e ar ro r t h o i s A l ve to h av e b e e n o ne su o ne a c . l g , , l ly p d d by b d C l t h o u h as as aris re at e s all t h e e asan t r w e re i e t h e T ro e se sh ar g , C p l , p y , l k y l , p sh o o t e rs t h e un re sist in a o w e t h e mse v e s to b e isarme , y gly ll d l d d . 25 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r soldiery . The peasant y , nevertheless , still continued stead in o f r n fast their faith , and the king Prussia th eate ing to treat his Catholic subjects as F irm ian treated his Protestant

' a r ones , R ll became alarmed lest the w etched peasant might in the end ﬁnd a protec tor (the em peror also being compell e d on account of the P ragm atic Sanction to keep o n go o d t erms i ro rm n w th the P testant princes), and came to the dete inatio m c of expelling every Protestant fro the ountry , as , at the m sa e time , the most convenient method of contenting the o p pe , of extirpating heresy in the mountains , and of pacify o f m o ing the king Prussia , to who the c lonization of the wide un c ultivated tracts in his territo ries was an object of no small

r . c r w as o w r impo tance Re ou se , h ever , again had to eve y de fo r r visable method the conversion of the peasant y , in order r o o o to gua d , if p ssible , against the entire dep pulati n of the country by emigrati o n . The most sc andalous measures were

o t o . se n t e n c e o f m w as res rted , but in vain The banish ent r passed, and , although the laws of the empire assu ed free egress to all those emigrating on acco unt of religion to gether o r disre with the whole of their pr pe ty , they were totally r o m o o ga ded by the archbish p and the i perial tr ps , and the r r s peasantry were hunted d o wn in eve y di ection . Tho e at work in the ﬁelds we re seized and carried t o the fro ntie r o t o r fo r without being all wed retu n home , even the purpose m of fetching their co ats . Men were in this anner separated

r r r m . f om their wives , pa ents f o their children They were o o c llected in troops and exp sed to the gibes of the priests , t h e s r oldiers , and the Catholic inhabitants , who gathe ed n around them as they were hurried along . Besides bei g m r r thus co pelled to abandon thei homes , they we e deprived by the commissi o ners of any sum s o f m o ney they happened

m r r e insuﬁ to possess , and were e ely g anted a meagr and

cient allowance for the expenses of the journey .

These cruelties were , however, unfelt when compared n U r with the deprivation of their childre . pwa d of a thou m sa n d children were torn from their parents . So e of the

- o peasants , broken hearted at this calamity , forgot their ath

1 25 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

- ment . The Reck o r rack tower in the fo rtre ss of Werfen w as c e u destined ex lusively for heretics , w ho w re sl ng at an m m i ense depth by long chains . According to the assertion o f m L o it sc h e r e r a traitor na ed Vitus g , no fewer than t wo 1 743 hundred persons were , in , delivered to the Inquisi o ti n . r n o t A simila persecution , though to such an extent , be r r fell the sec et P otestants in Austria at about the same period . 1 The mountaineers in the Salzkammergut were , in 733 , ﬁrst treacherously exam ined under an assurance of liberty of conscience an d then carried away by the soldiery and trans ported to Transylvania . The twelve hundred ﬁrst sent away i n 1 736 . were , , followed by three hundred more B ut when , 1 738 in in , a great number of Protestants were discovered in K re m smii n st e r o the Traun district and , permissi n to emi grate was refused and some hundreds of them were shut up O f in a crooked position , exposed to the inclemency the

o f . 1 40 weather and miserably fed ; many them died In 7 ,

Count von Seckau banished eight hundred men , but retained t heir wives and families , whom he compelled to embrace

Catholicism . 1 6 60 In , the rebellion of the peasantry belonging to the 1 6 80 t he countship of Wied on the Rhine , and , in , that of

s - Bohemian peasant , against the heavy socage service , occa sio ne d its limitation by the emperor to a certain number of days . The people of Hauenstein in the Black Forest also refused to remain bound as serfs to the monastery of St. 1 72 1 730 o Blase , and , in 8 and , formed a secret confederati n , m under the na e of Saltpetres , for the recovery of their lib e rt an d d t h e a y , , in fact , purchase their freedom from bbot

1 738 . 1 75 7 r in In , the Styrian peasant y rebelled against the ‘ - . 1 665 heavy average service In , the citizens of Lubeck , in

1 On t h e 7t h o f Au ust 1 704 th e easant r at tac e t h e un o u ar o un t g , , p y k d p p l C v o n Wurm ran in his ast e in St ria ra e h im fo rth and mur e re h i m b d c l y , d gg d d d , e ach man e a in h im a ow in o r er that al l mi ht with o ut e c e tio n ar d l g bl d g , x p , p t ici ate in t he mur e r In 1 709 a n o l e c er was eaten to eat h with ﬁail s p d . , b l k b d t h e easant r Th e n o e s ti o sse sse suffi cie nt o we r t o t ranni e A by p y . bl s ll p d p y z . Count on Dro ste -Visch erin in t he B r l and ein o st ructe w h e n h un t in v g e g , b g b d g A GE OF LO UIS THE FOUR TEEN TH 1 25 9

' m r 1 720 o o f r O o 1 708 those of Ha bu g , in th se B ussels , pp sed r Of c o rc . the usu pations the ity liga hy , which secretly man " m r c r . I n 1 71 6 aged the govern ent and p a ticed usu y , the

' f e t h e ir b ish o . O . citizens Spir s again rebelled against p , who m r o n Of r th reatened t o . take su ma y venge ance one thei num

m o - ber w h o is said t o have sp o ken ill of hi . His fell w citi o his r t he o r m c and ‘ bish p f o exe uting zens t ok ‘ pa t prevented n r n his threat , until the peasa t y , at his instigatio , suddenly

' c it kil l e d m r attacked the y , nu be s of the citizens , and dis T m was m H r armed the rest . his artial bishop na ed en y

' Hart ard v o n Ro llingen . r r o r Since the g eat ev lt of the peasant y in Switzerland ,

' r m t o m o t o that p eople had , f o time ti e , vainly s ught shake r m o ff the yo ke o f the city aristocrac y . Afte a long fer enta

o r o d o c o ti n , Toggenbu g , so l ng enslave by the Cath lic ant ns '

t h e a o o f . o n t h e in t e rc es sio n and by bb t St Gall , was r r m Of o f Zuric h and Be ne , resto ed to the enjoy ent religious r o f c r o o r l i berty . The ent y the Zuri he s int T ggenbu g and t he acts of vio lence comm itted by the Refo rmers o f T o gge n c o ro t h e n b urg in a Catholi church , h wever , again used a

o . h o c o w ho h ad n cient religi us feud The Cat li populati n , rise b o r o m c fo r the a b t , tore their leade , Felber, wh they suspe ted

t o . Of treachery , pieces The anger of the Catholic cantons r h u . w o o was ro sed At Schwyz, the brave Stadle , sp ke in o r o f r o f t h e o Of o fav the ights pe ple T ggenburg , was b e m ro o ut . r r . ar r headed W b ke At B e ga ten , the vangua d of

t h e Cat h O lic s n rn . . o was beate by the Be ese The Cath lics , d o ubly enraged at this repulse and anim ated by the nuncio b m o m s o r m and y the nks , rose en as e and ve whel ed the Ber nese va ng uard at Muri ; th ree hu n d red of the Bernese we re burned to death in the church and o n the tower o f Meri sc hw arde n r m , whe e they had lo ng defended the selves ; the t o c o d c s wounded were rn t o pie c es by do gs . A se nd e i ive o 1 71 2 V m r c o n battle was f ught, in , at ill e gen , where a

b a mi un T r r m nd r s th h ad i t ra e t o t h e ro . h e o ie t o r c o ain e a e y y , z d g d p p pl d ' "

c ei v e d fu c o m e n sat io n fo r h is o ss b ut w as n o t a o we t o re ui d t he smit h . ll p l , ll d b l y S Mon m in an r ee tanus O en Ti e s e v e s d e . , ld Cl B g 1 260 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

h ad o m test f rmerly taken place for a si ilar cause . The m o r o . r r Ref ed cant ns were victorious The Be nese gene als , T sc h arne r and Diessbach , being dangerously wounded ,

r - F isching , the mayor, a man seventy four years of age , took the command and gained the day . The Cathol i cs left w t w o o bet een and three th usand men dead on the ﬁeld . r r Peace was made at Aa gau , and the confederati o n emained r m o o i X IV . unb ken , notwithstanding the atte pt made by L u s , h t w o n s ortly before his death , to divide it into indepe dent r o r r r pa ts according to their confession of faith , in de to ule n with greater facility over both . A dispute that o t long r w r o afte ard b oke out between Lucerne , ever so zeal usly

Catholic , and the pope contributed , no less than the defeat m r o o m r at Vill e gen , to promote t leration toward the Ref r e s . On the occasi o n o f the consecration o f the chu rch at Udli e nsw l 1 725 hi r m g y , in , dancing was pro bited by the cle gy an , A n de rn at t o m , but being all wed by the te poral authorities , A n de rn at t appealed to his spiritual superiors and p rotested against the permission . He was suspended and banished by ' n Passio ne i t h e the council of Lucer e , but was protected by , w h o o c nuncio , quitted Lucerne and rem ved his residen e to r u r Alto rf . The dispute inc eased in vir lence ; the pope th eat ened but the ﬁve Cath o lic cantons assem b ling and de c l ar o r w as ing in favor of the c uncil of Luce ne , he compelled

t o A n de rnat t i n 1 73 1 . yield , and remained banishment, l c r w a o f Shortly after this , the same counci of Lu e ne , by y o m o n o m an l u c pensati to the p pe , conde ned un cky peasant, c o c hmidl i o f n t h e b Ja b S Sulzig, for readi g Bi le and ex t o o r t o o pounding it the s , the stake and his h use to be

ro n 1 747 . levelled with the g u d , T h e o o m Swiss g vernments , at that peri d , relieved the sel v es from their disc o ntented subjec ts by sending them into o fo reign service . The higher p sts in the army were heredi tary in the aristo crat i c fam ilies and we re extremely luc ra r 42 t o 1 45 - t wo d tive . F om 1 7 7 there were twenty thousan in r w o Swiss serving F ance , t enty thousand in H lland , thir o teen thousand six hundred in Spain , f ur thousand in Sar

1 262 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

PA R T X X I

T H E R I S E O F P R U S S I A

F re er CCXXXI V. d ick William the F irst

HE Refo rmation had been converted by Luther i nto

a cause of the princes , but they knew not h o w to

improve the power placed by him in their hands . o r Saxony at ﬁrst took the lead , but speedily retr g aded , and m Den ark , the successor to her forsaken power, ever actuated m by an unholy otive , merely aimed , under pretence of pro

o v teeting religious liberty , at extending her sway er the o f r u cities and provinces Germany . A sepa ation , co se o w e quently , ere long again t ok place bet een her and Sw o d den , but the death of Gustavus Ad lphus gave a eath w t o o m o c blo every h pe , and Sweden i itated the mean p li y o of Denmark . The Guelphic h use , when scarcely settled m and pro oted to the electoral dignity , emigrated to Eng ’ land , and Luther s grand bequest was transferred solely to the house of Brandenburg .

I . o Frederick , alth ugh fond of pomp and luxury and o o f o f oftentimes misled , was fully consci us the value sow m o o ing for the future . The assu pti n of the r yal dignity was simply an external sign o f future and still un o btained grand ' m Of eur, a hint to posterity . The improve ent the Prussian rm o - w h o a y by Prince Le pold of Anhalt Dessau , beneﬁted r i n P ussia with the sc ence he had acquired under Euge e , m was whose ilitary creations in Austria had died with him , n of far greater importance , and no less so was the toleratio with which the king favored liberty of thought in the n e w THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 2 63

m a m o t o university of Halle , although , it y be , si ply wing his desire to raise its fam e by that means above that so long

enjoyed by the Saxo n universities . u o f t h e Leibnitz , although ind bitably the greatest genius o r age , was , owing to his w rks being written eithe in Latin o r r o o f o r in French , his high fav with the electo al h use o r o r Hanover , and his c u tly habits , destitute of inﬂuence ve fe l rn m e n o f m m e t the people . A w of the ea ed the ti es with better success in supplyi ng the real wants o f the peo c h w as r l ro o r o f ple , whi p incipal y done by the p fess s the r o f e o m r o h o f o m unive sity Hall , Th asins and F anke , b t wh T h o m asiu forme rly belo nged t o that o f Leipzig . s felt that Germ any must be ro used before she could be resc ued fro m h e r state of deep degradati o n ; he consequently rejected the r o o r r Latin pedant y hithert f ste ed by the unive sities , and demanded that the learned m e n of Germ any sh o uld again r rm r o r speak and w ite in pure Ge an , the ﬁ st step t wa d the o f o m o f c enlightenment the pe ple , the banish ent the an ient

r o o - o supe stiti ns , of the th usand f ld prejudices , and of the slav m r r r o r o . ish fea , by which his c unt y en we e a tificially b und He appealed t o reaso n and at the sam e tim e in c ulcated true r r fo r r m an Ch istian benevolence , espect the natu al rights of . T o his e q u e n c e w as it enti rely o wing that a sto p was al m r r n f c ost eve ywhere put to the bu ni g o wit hes . He spoke with equal warm th against to rture and the o the r prac tic es o f R o m rm r i n o m in the an law , by which Ge an libe ty was g l u n u io us y converted into slavery . But in this he was s c c e ssfu l r o r r ; priestly prejudices we e v lunta ily sac ificed , but th ose in whi c h tem p o ral ty ranny fo und an advantage we re r r r held sac ed . He no so one inte fered with p o litical m atte rs h . w as r t an he fell under the ban In Saxony , he the fi st w h o ventured t o reveal the base poli c y o f the lo ng de c eased Ho n Ho e n e v o e . ro r r t o gg Justly used to ange , he da ed

o r - c Masius maintain , in deﬁance of the Danish c u t haplain , , w h o c o m m r , like Pfaff in Tubingen , had re ended Luthe an ism o u c c o t o f i t s t o r c r o , a un servility , all p in es , that eligi n was o f t o o ho ly a nature to be degraded t o a mere political 1 264 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

t l . w as n oo This assertion the sig al for persecution . In Co en h a e n r r r b ’t he p g , his cont ove sial works were bu ned y hang

. an was t o e h is r man At Leipzig , attempt made s ize pe so n t h e r o and whole of his p perty was conﬁscated . He found

n r I . an asylum at Halle and a oble patron in F ederick , who gave his pen unshackled liberty . He was accompanied in his retrea t from Leipzig by the t h e ' fo un de r c t Or pious Franke , of the elebra ed phan Asylum ’ T h m iu s n . w as o as s a d n o t o at Halle He best friend , nly r s e h sha ed his view on ducation , but sought to realize t em by t h e o t he r m o f o o i o intr duction , for ﬁ st ti e , s lid instructi n nt o c o L o his rphan s ho l , where , besides the atin and the logical r Of s t o c al l n o pedant y the chools , whi h i structi n had been h t o u e s ither restricted , the German language , modern lang ag , m t c r r r mathe a i s , natu al philosop hy , and histo y we e taught . But F ranke w as also a p ietis t o r di sciple of the sc h o o l of

u r s piety fo un de d by Sp ene . So und human rea on and ge nu ine feeling had at that time leagued against the pedantry of w as r fo r s the schools , which as rema kable want of ense as

‘ it s es r r t he for cold heartl sness , and even a cu so y glance at im men se rev o lutio n effected since th is perio d by enlighten m m a n o s m o c m o ent and , it y be , le s by senti ent , at n e de n strate s t he i m po rtan c e of the protection grant ed by Prussia t o the ﬁ rst prophets of m o dern in tellige nce .

. w as u 1 730 so n Frederick I s cceeded , in , by his , Fred m f c m I . r o o eri k Willia , who , although an enemy to f eed ’ r r T h o m asiu s s c o r thought and the pe secuto of suc ess , the o Wo i o w philos pher , lf , whom he threatened w th the gall s and e w as c o e r m at e r l xpelled Halle , an ex ellent guardian v the ia Hi s t im m e di m . interests and orals of h is s ubjec ts ﬁrst s ep , o n h is c s o t o ro r o o f ately ac es i n the th ne , was the educti n his ’ h w s c r m m father s court , w ich a pla ed on an ext e ely si ple and

- o rm o e c o nomical fo o ting . Gold embr idered dresses and eno us T he r perukes were n o l o nger tole rated . king appea ed in a l o r o - ﬁt t in r - l o m r ittle bl nd pe uke , a cl se g da k b ue unif r tu ned u t re d s his o p wi h , with his word at side and a strong bambo nn i . t in h s hand The French , heir license , and their ma ers

1 26 6 THE HIST OR Y OE GERMA N Y t rav a anc e t fo r g , par ly that of concentrating the whole power o m of the state by the f undation of a large etropolis , he c o m e l l e d p the people to build new houses in Berlin , in the F ried ri “ c hsst adt . u r t The p rpo t of his decree ran simply hus , The ” fellow is rich , let him build . Simplicity of dress an d man ners , economy , thrift, public morality , health , honesty , and ' r truth , we e strictly enj oined . In his daily intercourse with the people , he praised industrious wo r kmen and clean h ouse wives , scolded the idle and dirty . House thieves were m e r c il e ssl - y hanged before the house door . In his o wn person h e O ffered an example of economy . W hile other prin c es gave expensive fetes to their foreign guests and ambassadors , Frederick William conducted them to his smoking - room and h invited t em to smoke and drink beer with him . This cham

o . ber was , often the scene of important neg tiations Even m Francis of Lorraine , who subsequently mounted the i perial

i m o - m f r throne , was a frequent visitor to th s s king roo o the purpose of gaining the vote of Prussia fo r the appro aching

. r election Still , the coarse amusements of this mona ch , who took delight in plying his foreign guests with beer until t o drunkenness ensued , and in rendering them sick death o m c o with the unaccust med fu es of toba co , his utter c ntempt i n m o f r of learn g , as shown by his treat ent the lea ned Gund ' r - r o ling as a cou t fool , and the b utal j kes passed upon him o o f o m and thers for the amusement his b on co panions , but t o o forcibly indicate a recurrence to the uncouth manners of the prec eding century . o h The army , excellently organized by Dessau , was the ’ e c t r m him al j of the king s greatest ca e , and it was fro (he ways w o re a unifo rm) that the whole state and populati o n too k the martial appearance still fo rm ing their strongest

1 Gundl in a th o u h c re at e a aro n a me m e r o f e v er c ou nc i o f st ate g , l g d b , b y l , and mo re o v e r re si e n t of th e A ca e m o f Scien c e s w as c o m e e to e rmit , , p d d y , p ll d p an a e re sse i e h imse f t o b e se at e at h is si e at t a e must ach e s t o be p , d d l k l , d d bl , in t e o n h i fa e t c e tc His o w as aft e r h is ec ease no t w it h s tand a s ce . . p d , , b dy , d , in t h e ro te s t o f t h e c e r urie at t h e ro a c o mman in a cas inst ea of g p l gy , b d , y l d , k d T i n m e th e ra n fo rt rofe sso r to (1 1 8 a co ffi n . h e kin on o n e o c cas o c o e s g , , F k “p ll d p - ut e wit h his c o urt fo o s o v e r t h e th e sis Savan ts are fo o l s . p l , THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 2 6 7

c m w as o characteristic , and whi h , at that ti e , al ne able to m l un o r . c enf ce respect Ger any had , for a entury , been p rm o r fo r dered by the fo reigner . A s al ne we e wanting her rro w ar o m r h defence , and the te rs of w uld again a c in her o rm m c o van . The f ation of an ar y was nsequently the grand r m r W m r o r ar deside atu , and F ederick illia may the ef e be p ‘ fo r o m r r c o m doued his P tsda hobby , his grenadie gua d , o o f m e n o f m o c ro p sed gigantic stature , who he c lle ted f m

v r o r e e y quarter of the globe , either received in gift carried r o f r away by fo rce . His ecruiting f icers we e everywhere noto rious fo r the underhand m eans by whic h they gained r r o o r rec uits , and we e ften exp sed to the g eatest peril when

m e n o . o o n e engaged in pressing int the service In H lland, r m i o o f m w as c e e o n e . the , sans , hanged Han ver threatened P russia with w ar on acco unt of the subjects sto len from her

. r m r f r o . o o te rit ry The e was , eover, a feud between the king o r o f c o Han Prussia and Ge ge , king England and ele t r of o r o f c ve , the latter having wedded the Margravine Anspa h , ’ o o f W a b e the bject Frederick illi m s affection , and having o him o ro stowed up n in her stead his sister , S phia Do thea , m he to who , like a good and steady citizen , nevertheless rem ained faithful . The sound sense that rende red this gallant m On arc h the i rrec o ncilable enemy Of France also guided him in his polic y to w ard Po land . Instead o f acceding to th e pa rtiti o n o f that m o f c o m f o kingdo , ntenting hi sel with her smallest divisi n , and o f expo sing the frontiers of Germ any t o the co l o ssal r o f r h r powe Russia , he endeavo ed to raise e as a bulwark h against the ostile North , and strenuously counselled the o o t o m n m r P lish n bility re ai united , to keep the selves f ee ro m o r ﬂ t o c o o n e o f f f eign in uence , and ele t as their s vereign r o w n o r r r r o m m thei de , no foreigne , least of all one ec ended by Russia . Well may Germany revere this n o ble p rin c e ! o was o f h e r o His p licy , as that all sovereigns ught ever to

rm . st rai h t fo r have been and to be , genuinely Ge an The g

1 He great ly e xt e nde d and beaut iﬁe d Po t sdam o n ac co unt of th e refusal o f th e e r ine se to mai nt ain too nume ro us a arriso n B l g . 1 268 THE“ HISTORY OF GERMA N Y w d o o f w as t d ar German h nesty the father , never heless , es n t o t o o s s n ti ed cede the f reign ta tes of the o . o r r w as r The young cr wn p ince , F ederick , ext emely beau

‘ t iful during his infancy and ear ly e vinced the rarest i nt el l i m gence . The ti idity inspired by the severity o f his fat her m r fo r r h was istaken by the latte cowa dice and ypocrisy , and e m o n m o r the t r s which they lived beca e daily w se . The so n devo ted the who le of his leisure to th e study of F rench w o rks; w n n s s w it r hich , owi g to their light e and , naturally p esented far greater attra ctions to hi s young and imagin ative mind m Of than the heavy Ger an literature the day , with the best h r t O f of whic he was , mo eover , unacquain ed , studies that ’ u r c r o nature being npat onized at ou ts , and Frederick s s le guide being the young and libertine Lieutenant von Katt , n w h o i itiated him in modern French philosophy . V o ltaire

at r r e . wit that time eigned sup em His ideas , his , his style , m m b rr e o f ra . o wer the delight his conte po ries Di inutive , i ’ r bly ugly , a devil s mask unde an enormous peruke , he was the ap e of o u r great Luthe r, and the effect he p roduced upo n r r u e m w c rm F ance , a ca icat r of the Refor ation in hi h Ge an dignity an d depth of tho ught were paro died by F renc h ﬂip

c r o . pan y and f i v lity Like Luther , he waged war with the th o ridic u l i n ' t h e ir r r m pries od , and by g dep avity uined the in f o at o o f . o the opini n the public But , instead c nﬁning his t o c h r tack the abuses in the hurc , he directed it against Ch is o f n t h e s o f t ianity itself . Instead seeki g to heal di eases the r dest ro ' al l r o f o chu ch , he attempted to y she still etained h ly , He s r m o r o r o o . sound , g d sought to replace the t ict and al p re c epts o f the ancient religion by a m o dern and friv o l o us o o m e n r t t o phil s phy , by which we e taugh disbelieve the m o e o m o f pro ises of the Savi ur , wer relieved fr every fear and r rm o r o w n et ernal punishment, we e pe itted to foll w thei an d inclinat io ns in this world . Virtue vice both disap peared and were replaced by wit and dulness . The w itling was m r never in the wrong , ight act as he pleased , and was eve h the more amiab le the more he laughed at others . Alt ough

m in b le c rim es an c l : guilty of the most abo a , he was ever ex e

1 270 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y compelled to witness the executio n of his ill -chosen friend

. w as i ff and counsellor , Katt Nor the lesson W thout e ect . On r his release , he passed g adually through the different f r m of ices in chance y , and ade himself acquainted with al l ae o f the minuti the business of the state . While thus o c c u o pied , he disc vered so much talent that a com plete reconcilia o o c h im w h o tion t k pla e between and his father , gave him R h e in s e r the p g for his residence , where , without neglecting political science , he cultivated the muses and carried on a correspondence with Voltaire and othe r celebrated French philosophers and poets . Both father and so n learned to r h m egard each other wit mutual estee , and the latter, on

m o - r mounting the throne , far fro recalling his f rmer ill t eat

r r ment, ever spoke with reverence and g atitude of the pa ent r h who so well p epared him for a period replete wit peril .

a ri T h eres CCXXXV . M a a

r C HA R L E S VI . expi ed in 1 740 . The inutility of the m Prag atic Sanction became instantly apparent, each of the r i r r o o pa t es inte ested in its ev cation f rgetting their oath , and t h e Habsburg possessio ns were alone saved f rom dism ember ’

r V I . s r o m n ment by Maria The esa , Charles daughte , a w a disting uished fo r beauty and fo r a character far s urpassin g in h e r vigor that of her father and those of many of ancesto rs . o o r Charles Albert, the licenti us elect of Bavaria , quitted Mo rav ika o the arms of his mistresses , and the C untess Fug e r o r o b g , in der to set up a claim to the wh le of the Habs urg n m ro r p o ssessio ns . He o t unj ustly aintained that if the p pe ty r t o o m r we e pass int the female line , his clai , as the di ect o f r o f r wh o r descendant Albe t , duke Bava ia , had mar ied a

I . was o o f daughter of Ferdinand , superi r to that Maria F o r o f . c Theresa herself the better success his proje t, he ‘ r fo e ente ed into alliance with France , the ancient , and , with

m o f r . Prussia , the odern rival of the house Habsbu g

1 He w ro t e in t h e ase st t e rms t o t h e re nc h in as fo r in st ance Je b F k g , , , r r i M t o u o urs o mme mo n seul so ut i e n e t mo n uni ue a ui Si u re a e a S. c . v o s g d , j q pp THE R ISE OF ’PRUSSIA 271

‘ a e x i 1 74 0 Frederick William of Prussia lso p red in , leav

' ‘ ' r m -dOl l ar in g t o his son Frederick II . thi ty illion s in the ex

' - . disci l in e d arm m n chequer and a well p y , a ounting to seve ty ' h . o t t w o t ousand men The m ment seemed p ropi ious , and i o r e v Freder ck , without waiting for Bavaria Franc , in aded ' u n de r ' re t e x t o o Silesia during the autumn , p of making g d his an c ient but hitherto unasserted claim up o n th e duchies of

L r a n d Jae e rn do rf. r iegnitz , Wohlau , B ieg , g The Aust ians

' “ N r b S r e e at Mo lwit z under eippe g , taken y urp ise , were d f ated r r n r m r nea B ieg by the Cou t von Schwerin , F ederick e ely ' T h e acting the part O i as pectator in this ﬁrst engagement .

' ' O f c c t re at at m h e n b u r t result this su ess was a y , Ny p g , wi h ‘ r h was so o and F rance and Bava ia , w ich al joined by Sax ny ; r of r m ro c m the electo Bava ia , with a nu e us Fren h ar y under Be l l e isl e o o R ut o wski t h e ‘ n at ural and a Sax n f rce under , son s o m a n d was o of Augu tus , entered B he ia pr claimed king at o as c se izin e Prague , the B hemians , Frederi k said , gladly : ‘ the o pp o rtunity to free them selves from the unpopular rule

. o of the Habsburg Even the Cath lic clergy in Silesia , whom

c r t t o a r . Frederi k g eatly ﬂat ered , were opposed the H bsbu g The Catholic church was not only permitted to retain ' the

' o h e r m r ro hib it e d b wh le of i mense evenue , but was p y Fred ' c eri k to send any p o rtion of it to Rome . The Catholic faith t he m m o c was , at sa e ti e , protected , and the Cath li s had r t o m o r eve y r eason be co ntented with the Prussian na c h . r r m Ma ia The esa w as exp o sed t o the ut ost peril . Hun r r o r o o g a y , whe e but sh tly bef re the s vereignty of the Habs b r o r m t o f o re u g had been c nﬁ med a id orrents blo d , alone r t o c o mained t ue her cause . She nvo ke d the pro ud m agnates to the diet and appeared among them attired in the Hun r c s m c o r ga ian o tu e , the sa red crown up n her head , the sab e

’ ’ me faite s mo nt e r s il é to it o ssi e sur c e t rcn e im erial e n ai oint de t e rme s , p bl , p , j p ’ ” ui uis se n t e rime r t o ut e l é ten due de ma ré o n no i an e He r mi e c ss c . o s q p xp p d, “ ‘ ’ ’ e t ach e rai t o u o urs a n ir le s u t eret e de e m ire a c e u de la iF rance - Je J j d l l p x . ’ v e rrai l e j o ur de mo n élév atio n de v e nir l é po q ue l a plus glo rie us e de no tre min — ’ Sc hl osser s Histo r o the Ei hteen th Cen tur y f g y . 1 Th e F re nc h kin g ha d th e imp ude n c e at t h e ! t im e t h at h e re cog ni ze d th e

e ec t o r as e m e ro r t o n o minat e h im his lie ut e nant r e ne ral l p g . 1 2 72 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

r gi ded to her side , radiant with beauty and spirit, and cal l ed m upon the , on their duty as cavaliers , to stand up in her m c . ause The whole asse blage , ﬁred with enthusiasm by “ rm Mo riam ur her cha s , exclaimed with one voice , pro rege ” r ! nostro , Ma ia Theresa (Let us die for our king , Maria ! o Theresa ) and to k the ﬁeld at the head of their serfs , thirty c r Pan du rs o thousand aval y , and wild hordes of and Cr ats ,

c r m d r whi h , leaving the French at P ague , ove upon Bava ia . The c ircum stance of the elector being at that conjunctu re at Frankfort ‘ for the purpose of solemnizing his coronation as

. r n Charles VII , emperor of Germany , inﬂamed the Hunga ia s

r . r w as r with still g eater fury Bava ia ter ibly devastated , particularly by Menzel , general of the hussars , a Saxon by i 1 742 m o n birth , who took Mun ch in , on the sa e day r which the elector was crowned at Frankfo t , revived all the ’ o ro r war o n h r s of the thirty years , and , the Bavarians “ t o r r o threatening ise en masse , gave o ders that all th se taken with arm s in their hands should be compelled t o cut ’

Off o . each other s noses and ears , and sh uld then be hanged

' Barn kl au m o r ro r Pe rc kl o ro v o n o n (or, e p pe ly , , Ba n Sch reuth) and Trenk with the Pan durs c o m mitted equal ex r r cesses , and the peasants , d iven to despai , rose against m i b r c u them . The inhabitants of Cha and Ma n urg we e t m an r o an d down to a , those of Landsbe g kept their gr und , those of T Ol z succeeded in depriving the Pan du rs of great kn r h ﬁe l d r o . L u e w o part of thei b oty , afterward became a m r r c m a shal in the French se vice , hieﬂy distinguished hi self m n m o r . n o w a a ng the Bava ians Seckendorf, an old and an r w as t o o m m o f r n Aust ian exile , raised the c and the Bava ia B rn kl au o o k o r o o f . a tr ps , but ef ected little t Ing lstadt, hithe to m K h e e n hii l l e r S S o deemed i pregnable . v hut up ixteen th u w h o m sand French , had , under Segur , ventured from Bohe ia

1 r n h am h ar s as ro w n e h is ro th e r o f o o ne . Be ll e isl e t h e e c C le w c d by b C l g , F b assado r a e t h e c h ie f art and fo rma t a in u o n h i mse f th e c h arac t e r , pl y d p , , lly k g p l o f ro t e c to r t o o re c e e n c e o f al l t h e Ge rman ri n c e s . p , k p d p 1 ” Wh e n t h e re n h c rie o ut ar o n Mo nsre ur l t h e h ussars re s o n e F c d P d , p d d “ ” i t h Mo re Mo re ! c ut o ff t h ei r h ea s at a o w stuc t h e m o n t he ir sa re W ! d bl , k b

ints and rrie t he m a o ut in t rium h. po , ca d b p

1 274 THE HIST OR Y OF GERMAN Y

h is standing bad generalship , he was victorious at Bettin ro ff h gen , not far f m Ascha enburg , over the French , w o r r m we e still wo se com anded by Noailles . In the ensui ng r o f year, Cha les Lorraine crossed the Rhine at the head of the Whole A ustrian arm y and laid Alsac e and Lorraine ‘ waste . These suc cesses were beheld with im patien c e by F red ' c r o o f eri k , who plainly fo esaw the inevitable l ss Silesia , o o o r sh uld f rtune continue to fav Maria Theresa . In Aus w as o t o tria , public opinion decidedly opp sed the cession of r t th at province . In o der o obviate the danger with which r o r he was th eatened , he nce more unexpectedly took up a ms r r r and gained a b illiant victory at Hohenf iedbe g in Silesia , r m h o o and another at So r in Bohe ia , W ere Prince L bk witz, m o r r n in atte pting to rally his tro ps , cut down th ee Aust ia

was . captains , but himself thrown down and cast into a ditch n o Schwe rin took Prague . The w venerable Dessau was again c o o o r was vi t rious at Kesselsd rf in Sax ny , and Ma ia Theresa o t h e r 1 745 m o c mpelled by treaty of D esden , in , once re to — cede Silesia to the victo ri o us Prussian T h e war with F rance h o f o m r was still carried on . The Marc ioness P padou at that tim e go verned Louis XV . and besto wed the highest Offices in r as t h e army on her param ou s . She w at length seized with a u o th e m whim to g ide the operati ns of ca paign in person , and to ok the ﬁeld with an im m ense arm y (am o ng which

- l t w o w . were twenty thousand S iss) , commanded by Noai les m m fo r The ca paign was , however, a ere fete the king and h is r an d m mist esses , nothing of i portance was in consequence r effec ted . The vanguard unde Segur was defeated at Pfaffen o o m rm r c u t t o c h fen , and s e ski ishing pa ties were pie es by the m o peasantry in the forest of B regenz . The ain b dy was de

i h ar e s V II I t w as me re o in t o a so ld six t h o usan d o f h s subj e c t s t o C l . ly w g fav o rabl e ch an c e t h at t h e unfo rt unat e He ssian s w e re n o t c o mp e ll e d t o ﬁgh t a h h r e c o t e . 1 T h e u t n Mah mu at te m tin t o ma e e ac e e tw e e n t h e c o n te n in s a . g k l d V p p b “ d g art ie s t h e re nc h am assa o r at Th e Ha ue re mar e T h e T ur s e in t o p , F b d g k d , k b g ” “ ” t h in i e h ris tian s A nd t h e h ris t ians re ie t h e ran e n sio nar k l k C . C , pl d g d p y “ ” F a e l act . no n e t h e e ss i e T ur s . g , l , l k k THE RISE OF PR USSIA t ain e d t h e S o f r t h e r h it o by iege F eiburg in B eisgau , W ere l st

o 1 744 . r . r twelve th usand men , Cha les VII expi ed in the r o so n ' an d c c o r Max im il ensuing yea , and his y uthful su ess , o t o r m o ian J seph , being inclined peace , Bava ia being , re o a o f o c ver, scene fearful des lation and Se kendorf neglected r r o f r r by the F ench , the t eaty Fussen , which resto ed eve y t o o o w as c c 1 745 b e thing its ancient f ting , on luded , in ,

i- tween Bavaria and Austri a - The F rench instantl y with drew fro m the U pper Rhine t o pro secute the w ar with o r r h r r red ubled fu y in the Nethe lands , w ere they we e se ved r c o n w h o r m by Mau i e of Sax y , had a theat e in his ca p and n m ade life one l o g fete diversiﬁed by vi c to ries . He was O pp o sed by the English under the Duke o f Cum berland and r m by t h e Dutch unde Waldeck . He defeated the at F o n t e n o o o h r r l o s y and t k G ent , B uges , and B usse s , where L ui r m r h m 1 4 . t e o XV . ade a t iu phal ent y in 7 5 In fo ll wing r r o rr h r an yea , Cha les of L aine entered the Net e lands with m r r o rc w as R an c o ux i pe ial auxilia y f e , but again beaten by ‘ m r r o o and Cu be land at Laffeld in 1 746 . Mau ice also t k A n r Maestric h t . d all these deeds we e done fo r F ran c e ! This c h ad r o ff r c atta k , like its p edecess rs , the e ect of placing a P in e t h r f n o f Orange at e head o f t h e a my an d o the state . O ’ W m o t o ro n h is illia s accessi n the British th e , and on dying w o t h e h o o f Or r ith ut issue , use ange was rep esented by a

- r c o W m r o h r o f r . side b an h , J hn illia F is , stadt olde F iesland

d ro n o m W m . He was w ed , and his p sthu ous son , illia IV ,

c 1 71 1 t o h r r h o r . suc eeded , in , the e edita y stadt lde ship r F ran c e al so at that tim e c reated a diversio n fo England . 2 r r r r o f Cha les Edwa d Stua t , the g andson the exiled king ,

m . r h o r o c o Ja es II , aided by F enc g ld , aised a rebelli n in S t

1 T h e French h ad t h e impude n c e t o speak o f h im as c c b rav e C o m t e de ’ ” Mauri Sa e ui av e si ie n ar sa v a e ur l a h o nt e et re n é A e man . ce x , q l b p l d ll d w ro t e a w o r o n t h e sc ie n c e o f w ar He i e in 1 75 0 an d w as urie at k . d d , b d St ras ur b g . 9 He aft e rw ar marrie th e o unt e ss St o e r so c e e rat e fo r h e r e aut d d C lb g , l b d b y , w h o un e r t h e t i tl e o f D uch e ss Of A an iv e unh a i w it h th is sim e , d lb y , l d pp ly pl “ ” rin c e . Sh e w as t e rme l a re i n e de s c oeurs o n acc o unt o f h e r ami a i it . p d , b l y Sh e w as th e frie nd of t h e I talian po e t AI 1 2 76 THE HISTORY OE GERMA N Y

’ land in the hope o f expelling the h ou se of Hanover from the t r b ut w as o in 1 4 h one of Britain , defeated at Cull den 7 6 . o w a l o o In Italy , the Austrians under Lobk itz so pp sed the r i o F ench , Span sh , and Neap litans , while an English ﬂeet ' h s o . n o t o 1 46 struck Naple with terr r It was , wever , until 7 , t hat the war 'w as de c ided by t h e arriv al of stro ng r einfo rce m r m u r r t o . w o o G en s f A st ia B o ne was vict ri us at uastalla , L s i at i r o n o ichten te n P acenza , and P ovence was the p int o f ' h o Of o t o being invaded , w en the populati n Gen a , hither c m r a r t wh o stan h i pe ialists , rebelled gainst Gene al Bo ta, 'h ad c o ndemned some Of th e citizens to t h e lash and had de m an de d a contribution o f twent y -ﬁ v e millions as well as all t r a r m o ro m r hei s , and, headed by a D ria , d ve the i pe ialists , ’ -a h l e l o ut after battle t at asted sev ra days , of the city , “ h rm D c b e 1 746 . T e w ar l t d b e em r , was at ength e inate y the

- - r peac e o f Aix l a Chapelle . Each pa ty remained in statu uo T r a o c i c q , Maria he esa l ne eding Parma , P a enza , and G h o o o f h uastalla to a Sp anis p rince , with the pr vis t eir ‘ ' reversi o n to Aust ria in c ase o f his dying without issue ; h er ‘ m r h q an d r c I . c o o , F an is , was re gnized e pe r by all the

r o w . On n o 1 746 Eu opean p ers his coro ati n , in , at Frank o r i n o r r t h al l o f rt , Ma ia Theresa withdrew de at the h nor m i c o n fe rre d ‘ u o n h im a o n a n d n o o r ' ght be p l e , s one was the r m o n o c t n o n th e o Sh e ce e y c n luded , han , steppi g balc ny , “ ” motioned to the peo ple and w as 'the ﬁ rst to cry Vivat !

‘ n w as rel i m r l Francis , evertheless , me y invested w th the i pe ia

' r h r r h e r u dignity , and Ma ia T e esa eigned alone , aided by s btle n r o l v o o f am r . ministe Kau itz F ancis , alth ugh tota ly de id t o u o r m l e i l n m u bi i , p ssessed g eat ercanti nc inatio s and a sed h a him self with sec ret l y transactin g m o ney b usiness . He d the merit o f refo rm ing the im perial h o useh o ld and of putting a stop t o the lavish e xpen diture that had been allowed un der

‘ Charles V I .

' l l n l I I . F rederick , after gaining laure s the ﬁeld , equa ly

m . i r . distinguish ed himse lf .as a states an and a bel esp it Like

' ' s fath a l in his o r r h m a hi er, bso ute s ve eig nty , he b oug t the i a e t o h is t o de chine o state , lone subs rvient will , a higher

11 278 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

- r ha d r ve ge Of ruin . He al eady burdened her with a debt o f ' ‘ fa 'h un dre d h e h ad wit h h e l d million dollars , for two years the

' ' ub lic s al arie s fﬁ i t p , and these measures proving insu c en , he

‘ so l d Sax o n t o E n l ish ‘ f ‘ had troops the Dutch and g , o r t he

' ‘ ' l e e o f o 1 75 1 . J r f def nc their c lonies , in osepha , p incess o “ ' o o e ars e arl ier e rr - Sax ny , had , f ur y , b en ma ied t o the French ‘ ' (D o r . o aup hin , to wh m she bore th ee kings , Louis XVI , L uis

' ' . zsad t m i XVIII , and Charles fa e gh t w e l l result " fro m the union of tw o courts govern ed by a Po mpado ur and

' — ‘ ( a . T h e t h e o t h e o n Bruhl deep dungeons of K nigstein , S n e n st e in t he Pl eisse n b ur o , and g were crowded with malc n

o c o t - ‘ tents . These horrors casi ned the re re at o f Co un t Zin

‘ z f t he w o rl d 1 722 s endorf rom , and , in , his offer of an a ylum

i e rrn h ut 1 t o io u sl ' i in the H persons equally p y d spo se d . He “ - t ermed hi mself the assembler of souls . He was ban ish e d 1 747 m as a rebel by Bruhl , but was , in , per itted ' ' hi i u to return and to co nt inue s p o s lab o rs . s o a t h e a The ri ing pr sperity of Prussi , superior t lents and

' statesmanship of her king and his un sparing r idicu le h ad ' fo r him m b t r s o e ga ined the en ity of all his ro he ver igns . ' The menti o n o f Silesia ﬁlled Maria Theresa alte rnately with r o an d h er su t m r m age and s rrow , b le inister ing atiated hi self ' ever the more deeply - in her favo r by his i u nw e ary i n g e n

d e a o rs t o ‘ re ain s o f't h at ' ric h r o v g posse sion and fe tile c untry . ’ E m -o f ' e r c lisabeth , e press Russia , enraged at Fred i k s biting

u l .w as h satire on her nbrid ed license , , notwit standing the little interest felt by R ussia in the aggrandizem ent Of Aus

. n . n t i h r d t o l e n d h e r . w as o ac c o u o f er t ia, rea y aid England , ‘ r a c . c A n ient allian e with ustria , ,p ointed out as a thi d ally .

.F r o n d w ar o n c c ance , the eve of eclaring with England a ount ’ 'o f o o o o m t o fo rm o c her c l nies , s ught, as f r erly , a c nfedera y i o l t o a . n with Prussi Mo s eur de R uil e said Kniphausen , the “ lPruSSian o r ambassad r at Paris , W ite to your king that he

ai . is t o e t must . aid ag nst Hanover ; there plenty g ; the

“ lkin g has on ly to make t h e attack ; he will hav e a go o d

i ul F re ri k h ad e r . . r h a . s de c l , howev , no intention to quar e ' t h e F ch t r h ad ' re c o with England , and before ren minis e v THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 2 79

‘ r o m u n e x ered f om his ast nish ent at the refusal , Kaunitz e c t e dl ro o w u r r c p y p p sed an alliance bet een A st ia and F an e , r w as c h e r and Maria The esa actually indu ed , in anxiety to m o o . o gain ver L uis XV , to send a c nﬁdential letter to Mada e

o m o r o o . r c de P pad u , wh m she addressed as her c usin F an e , o o m r independent of the c ndescensi n of the Austrian e p ess , t h e o n o r naturally lent a willing ear to pr posal , will she at any tim e refuse h e r aid t o one Germ an p o tentate against an o ther so l o ng as her interest is prom oted by c ivil dissen o m r sions in Germ any . The p o ssessi n o f a Ger an p o vince h w r n o t would again ave re a ded France had not the league ,

o . r withstanding its strength , been overthr wn Aust ia de priv e d herself o f her glo rio us title o f defender o f Germany r r o r o f ro c against F ance , and for the futu e l st the ight rep a h 2 o ing o ther states with thei r unpatri o tic p o licy . On the sec nd

’ 1 Princ e Kaunit z s p o licy t o raise Fran c e at t h e e xp en se of t h e empire ran e xac t ly c o un t e r t o t h at o f F re de rick William o f Prussia an d o ffe rs a rare e xample it aun it fo un e t h e ie n n e se ch anc e r o f st at e t h e h e e o f e rav . w d p y K z d d V y , l by n i o rnm n t as t urn e He w as t h e o ra e o f th w h ich t h e mec h a smo f g v e e w d . c l e “ ” d as o n t e rme t h e E uro e an o a h man He h o i omat ic w o r an w c c . w d pl ld l g d p , r i t e rman m e ro r o u h t a o t o b e e rman e v e r fo o t t h at th e o c of h e G e s G . , g p l y p g l He w as o n e o f t h o se Wise ac re s o f h is t ime w h o o v e r o o e t h e re a w ant s o w l k d l , p e rs and imit s o f t h e n atio n s un e r h is ru e and w h o fo rme arti c ia st at e s in , l d l , d fi l f n at ure o unt rie s a e rt ain in t o o n e ano th e r nat io n s simi ar in de e anc e o . d fi C pp g , l sc e n t w e re t o rn asun e r o t h e rs se arat e nat ure o r iffe rin in o ri in w e re , d ; , p d by d g g , u n n E nmit as n e t w e e n t h e mo st n at ura o itica a ie s ro n o c e o e . w so w p d y b l p l l ll , and t h o se w h o m nat ure h ad in t e nde d fo r o ppo n e n t s w e re j o ine d t o ge t h e r in alli~ an e Th e re at e r th e inc o n sist e nc t h e mo re in u it a e t h e t a e n t o f t h e di c . g y d b bl l l m t is t Kaunit was a t h o ro u e r n i n h i un n tura o ic He a h so i at o o f t s a . p o . z g p fi c l p l y e e n in h is e rso n a ri t ur Hi mire r H rm r re at e s o f h im w as v ca ca e . s a o a p d , y , l , “ He ne e r e n o e no r o u n r t h o n air If urin t h summe r h e at s v c e u e e e . e j y d ld d p , d g , w h e n n o t a e af s tirre h e c h an c e sat in h is armch air in t h e ch anc e r ar l d, , by , y g de n a o in i n t h e ast e i o r asse t h e nc e a fe w st e s furt h e r t o t h e a ace h e dj g B p d , p , p l , care fu uar e h is mo u th w it h h is h an e rc h ie f He a a s re sse ac co r lly g d d dk . lw y d d d in g t o t h e w e at h e r and h ad h i s ro o ms w e ll furnish e d w ith th e rmo me t e rs and r me t e rs I n a o . t h e aut o ra h ic in st ruc tio n s iv e n t o e ach of h is e c t ure rs h e b g p g l , ‘ e e o f t h e m ne v e r t o me n tio n i n h i s h e arin t h e se t w o w o r s e ath an d b gg d g d , d ’ ‘ m o Hi s a . s h i h e st e re ssio n o f raise w as e v e r M Go d ! I c o u n ot llp x g xp p , y ld ’ h ave o ne i t et t e r m se f d b y l . 2 e i t h t h e E n ish am assa o r did n o t fai t o re re se nt t h e in i uit o us c o n K , gl b d , l p q uct o f ran e ain t h e rm r h m r s Maria Th e re sa In c a s t Ge an em i e t o t e e e s . d F g p p , refe ren c e t o th e po ssibility t h at Fran ce migh t re pay h e rse lf fo r h e r allian c e w ith a ro v inc e o f We st e rn e rman M ri Th e re sa e c are h e r o i t o b e t h at G , a a c p y d “ l d p l y o f t h e h o u se o f Ha s ur no t th at o f Ge rman : I c an t a e i t t e inte re st in b b g , y k l l i stan t ro v in c e s I mus t c on n e m se f t o th e e fe nc e o f t h e h e re itar stat e s d p ; fi y l d d y , ” nd h a ut i n r a v e b t wo e ne m e s t o re a T ur e a d uss1 a. re e ric was in d d , k y P F d k , THE HISTORY OF GER MA N Y o f 1 75 6 t h e l May , , treaty of Versail es was concluded between

st . c t o t o f Au ria and France Ac ording the erms that treaty , France was t o bring o n e hundred an d ﬁve t h o usand men into the ﬁe ld and t o take t en thousan d Bavarians and Wur t em be r e rs nto h e r t r g i pay agains P ussia , besides paying an d e m o t o annual subsi y of twelv illi n francs Austria , in return for which she w as to h o ld part of the N etherlands with the T h e h arbo r of Ostend . rest of the Netherlands (Luxemburg ce w as w e o r c ex pted) besto d up n a F ench prin e , Philip o f m T he Par a . fo rtress of Luxemburg was to be razed t o the

u . t o gro nd Austria , on the other hand , was hold Silesia and rm r r Pa a ; Saxony , Magdebu g , the ci cle of the Saal , and r o o Halbe stadt ; Sweden , P merania ; P land , at that time in t S o t h e m o f o alliance wi h ax ny , kingdo Prussia ; Russia , C ur l land and Se m gai l . C eves was als o to be seve red fro m

- r s . w as o P u sia T his treaty , however, merely pr vis io n al . The alliance be twee n the t wo empres ses an d Fran c e (the “ ’ r m o e r r l al l ian Ma quise de Po pad ur), t rmed by F ede ick c e ro c w as n o m o des t is otillons , still by eans c ncluded . Nego

t iat io n s w . o l with Russia ere still pending Sax ny , a though i o f a c ha d no t e t e dest ned to play a part such import n e , y b en ‘ u . He r r h o f w as cons lted adhe ence , as well as t at Sweden ,

i H o m t of fac t as it t e Ge rm an in h is o c . e w o ul unh e sit at in h av e re p , l l p l y d gly

e al mo st suc c e e e in ruinin ea c h o th e r wh i e rance o o s o n w it h se c re t hav d d g , l F l k e i ht a are n t ai in o ne an d e rh a s st irrin u t h e o th er in o r e r t o ao d l g , pp ly d g p p g p d r te t h e o n fa o f o t h Wo u it w ere o ssi e t o re c o n c i e ru s s ia an d c el e a d w ll b . ld p bl l P A ustria an d t o t urn o t h a ai n st ranc e ! Se n se es s an d im o ssi e as this , b g F l p bl

ro e ct ma a ear it w as n e v e rth e e ss as sen t e t o re e ric II . in a c o n p j y pp , , l , d by F d k ” ra ue fe re nc e b efo re th e bat t le o f P g . 1 Th e p ro o f is c o n t aine d in t h e do c ume nt s c o n c e rn in g th e o c casio n o f the ’ n r 8 1 Wh e n n 4 6 l ai t h e e n e ars w ar Le i i T eub e 1 4 . A ust ria i 1 7 se v y ; pz g , , , , d r imi narie s t o an a l ianc e w it h R ussia a ain st russ ia in t o w hi c h sh e at p e l l g P , t em te t o raw Sa o n Saxo n refuse h e r artic i atio n an d w as c on s e uen t p d d x y , y d p p q ly n o t a mi t te int o th e n e o tiatio n s se c re tl carrie on at a l at e r erio A us d d g y d , p d, by i ran an d R ussi a T h e re v e atio n s as se rt e re e ric th e Gr eat i . t r a w th F c e l , d by F d k e ee n m a e t o him Me nt ze th e c e r o f t h e Sax o n cha n c er from to hav b d by l , l k y , ers o ut of th e sec re t ca in et w ere co nse uent no me ans th e rinci al pap b , , q ly , by p p

1 282 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

e lieve in the reality of the mano uvres he had simply foreseen.

His denunciation of a coalition , still formally unconcluded, a was instantly productive of the cat strophe .

England , deluded by a pretended alliance between France u and Pr ssia , joined Austria and Russia, an alliance th at was viewed with pleasure by George II . , between whom and r . w as Frederick a pe sonal dislike existed The deception , o so o n e r disc o v e re d r h wever , no than the Pa liament and the

r prime minister , Pitt , ranged themselves on the side of P ussia ,

- and the king was compelled to yield . Hesse Cassel , Bruns wick , Gotha , and Lippe also joined Prussia . The rest of the empire , seduced by bribery , sided with Austria and France . o f Bavaria, apparently the least likely all the Euro pean t o powers join with Austria for the destruction of Prussia, 1 750 o c ro had , since , received monthly fr m Fran e (f m the o secret fund) the sum of livres , am unting in all to

livres . The Pfalz also received Pfalz

Wu rt e m b e r o Zweibrucken , g, Col gne , n Baire u t h m Mayence only A spach , , Dar stadt about Liege , Mecklenburg , Nassau , some thing more , altogether even the petty principal ity o f Waldeck received The empire was in this manner bought . France had so much superﬂuous wealth d o f r that she also pai a subsidy liv es to Austria , t and ano her of to Saxony , toward the expenses of the war with Prussia .

“ ’ Th e ev en Yea rs a r CCXXXVI . S W

I N 1 5 6 r the autumn of 7 , Frede ick , unexpectedly and with r war o out previously decla ing , invaded Sax ny , of which he o m speedily took possessi n , and shut up the little Saxon ar y,

o n . o o f thus taken unawares , the Elbe at Pirna A c rps

Austrians , who were also equally unprepared to take the ro h ﬁeld , hastened , under the command of B wne , to t eir l st “ Oc o L o w o sit z relief, but were , on the of t ber , defeated at , r u k an d the fourteen thousand Saxons unde R t o ws y at Pirna. THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 283

o t o wn m were in consequence c mpelled lay do their ar s , the want to w hich they were reduced by the failure o f t heir sup plies having already driven t hem t o the necessity of eating

- II . hair powder mixed with gunpowder . Augustus I and Bruhl ﬂed with such precipitati o n t hat the secret archives r s were found by Frede ick at Dresden . The electre s vainly strove t o defend them by plac ing herself in front of t h e m r r r chest ; she was forcibly re oved by the P ussian g enadie s , and Frederick just iﬁed the suddenness of his attack up o n

Saxony by the publicatio n of the plans of his enem ie s . He m r t h o o f o r re ained du ing e wh le the winter in Sax ny , fu nish r o r o in g h is tro o ps from the es u c es f the count ry . It was r c m o t m t o he e that his ha berlain , Glas w , at e pted take him o ﬁ o n by p iso , but , meeting by chance one of the piercing o f t em glances the king , r blingly let fall the cup and con s c m m fo r fes ed his ri inal design , the induce ent which has m m ever re ained a ystery , to the astonished king .

The allies , surprised and enraged at the suddenness of o t he in 1 75 7 the attack , t ok ﬁeld , the spring of , at the head

o rm o o . o of an en us f rce Half a milli n men were levied , Austria an d France furnishing each about one hundred and o ﬁfty th usand , Russia one hundred thousand , Sweden twenty m m r o o . th usand , the Ger an e pi e sixty th usand These masses n o t m m o n m o were , however , i ediately assembled the sa e sp t , r m o mm r o we e , reover , badly co anded and far infe i r in dis

' c ipl in e t o the seventy th o usand Prussians bro ught against m i the by Freder ck . The war w as also highly unpopular and c reated great discontent among the Protestant party in the m n m r e pire . O the departure of Charles of Wurt e b e g for m m n o t wit h st an d the i perial army , his soldiery utinied , and , h r t h e l ing t ei reduction to obedience , general fee ing among t h e im perial tro o ps was so much opposed to the war that most of t h e troo ps deserted and a number of the Pro testant r soldie y went over to Frederick . The Prussian king was o ut o f t h e m r t h e r put of the ban e pi e by the diet, and P us sian am bassado r at Ratisbon kicked the bearer of the decree o f out the doo r . 1 284 THE HISTORY OF ‘ GERMA N Y

n i Frederick was agai the ﬁrst to make the attack , and , n the spring of 1 75 7 invaded Bohemia . The Austrian army r unde Charles of Lorraine lay before Prague . The king , resolved at all hazards to gain the day , led his troops across the m arshy ground under a terrible and destructive ﬁre fro m

. c o r the enemy His gallant general , S hwerin , rem nst ated ”

. ! w as with him Are you afraid the reply . Schwerin , w h o r had already served under Cha les XII . in Turkey and h ad grown gray in the ﬁeld , stung by this taunt , quitted his o r “ saddle , snatched the col s and shouted , All who are not ! ” cowards , follow me He was at that moment struck by several cartridge - balls and fell to t h e ground envelo ped in u the colors . The Pr ssians rushed past him to the attac k . t h e The Austrians were totally routed ; Browne fell , but city was defended with such obstinacy that Daun , one of Maria ’ t o Theresa s favorites , was , meanwhile , able levy a fresh

. r body of troops F ederick , consequently , raised the siege of u h ad Prag e and came upon Daun at Collin , where he taken r up a strong position . Here again were the P ussians led ’ i into the thickest of the enemy s fire , Frederick shout ng to o them , on their being a third time repulsed with fearful l ss, “ W o o f o uld ye live f rever Every e f rt failed , and Benken ’ s c o r m o dorf harge at the head of f u Saxon regi ents , gl wing with revenge and brandy , decided the fate of the day . The r c o P russians were c o mpletely routed . F ederi k l st his splen r did guard and the whole of his luggage . Seated on the ve ge o d of a f untain and tracing figures in the san , he reflected upon t h e m eans of re al l urin g fickle fortune to his standard .

A fresh m isfo rtune befell him n o t m any weeks later . c o r m E n England had de lared in his fav , but the inco petent o m m o n c o o f m glish c ander , nicknamed , a c unt his im ense o f m r o m size , the Duke Cu be land , all wed hi self to be beaten by the F rench at Hast e n b e k and signed the shameful treaty ‘ f o Se e e n r t o ro o . o Cl ster v , by which he ag eed disband his t ps

1 T h e Han o v e rian n o i it w h o h o e t h e re t o ro t e c t t h e ir ro e rt b l y , p d by p p p y, re im ic at e in t h is affair Th e we re sh o rt aft e rw ar we and e se rv e w e pl d . y ly d ll d dly

un ish e ein ai un e r c o nt ri utio n t h e rench . p d, b g l d d b by F

1 286 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

The booty chieﬂy consisted in objects o f gallantry bel onging n rather to a boudoir tha to a camp . The French army per ‘ fe c t l o m y resembled its mistress , the Marquise de P padour . r The Austrians had , meanwhile , gained g eat advantages ’ o f r to the rear the P ussian army , had beaten the king s o W r fav rite , General inte feld , at Moys in Silesia , had taken m o f m r the i portant fortress Schweidnitz and the et opolis , o m o f r Breslau , wh se co mandant, the Duke Beve n (a c o l r lateral branch of the house of B unswick) , had fallen into r d t n . hei han s while on a reconnoitri g expedition Frederick, m o im ediately after the battle of R ssbach , hastened into

Silesia , and , on his march thither, fell in with a body of two o Sc h e id th usand young Silesians , who had been captured in w b u t nitz , , on the news of the victory gained at Rossbach , had r i o ff found means to ega n their liberty , and had set to his

re n c o u n . c ter The king , inspirited by this reinfor ement, hur r r n ried onward , and , at Leuthen , nea B eslau, gai ed one of the most brilliant victo ries durin g this war o ver the Aus

t rian s . o Making a false attack up n the right wing , he sud “ urt m b r r de n l o . W e e e s y turned up n the left Here are the g , “ ” t h e r m ! said he , they will be ﬁ st to ake way for us He r t o c o o f ro o t usted the in linati n these t ps , who were zealous

ro o r. an d P testants , in his fav They instantly gave way ’

D au n s o f as ro . r line battle w dest yed Du ing the night, he w t w o r n o thre battalions of g e adiers int Lissa , and , aecom an ie d m f r c p by so e of his sta f , ente ed the astle , where , meet o f n r o ing with a number Austria gene als and fﬁcers , he “ u h m o n e r civilly sal ted t e and asked , Can get a lodging he e t o o ! r m r The Aust ians ight have seized the whole pa ty , so r r o r but were thunde st uck that they yielded their sw ds , the king treating them with extrem e c ivility . Charles of

1 Sei it w h o c o v e re h imse f w it h o r o n t h is o c c asio n w as th e e st dl z , d l gl y , b r e m n o f t h e da He is sai t o h av e o n c e ri e n un e r t h e sai s o f a w in h o s a y . d dd d l d i h n in mo ti o n On e da w h e n st an in o n t h e ri e o v e r t h e O e r at m w e . ll y , d g b dg d ran fo rt ein as e re e ric w h at h e w o u do if o c e u o n o t h F k , b g k d by F d k ld bl k d p b si e s t h e e ne m h e e a e w ith o ut re in in t o t h e e e c urre n t and sw am d by y , l p d , ply g , d p ’ h o re Th e ac Hu ssars w it h t h e eath s h ea o n t h e ir c a s ch ie i st in t o s . Bl k d d p ﬂy d i h m se e s urin th is ar gu sh ed t e lv d g w . THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 287

o o f - n L rraine , weary his unvarying ill luck , resig ed the com r o f m and and was nominated stadtholde the Netherlands ,

L e ut h e n nt - where he gained great po pularity . At t w e y one ’ r h r l th o usand Aust ians fell into Frederick s ands ; in B es au , o r f r r o which sh tly a te wa d capitulated , he to k seventeen thou

m o so r h is rm m . sand re , that his p isoners exceeded a y in nu ber Fresh sto rm s ro se on the horizo n and threatened to over m w h o b ro n whel the gallant king , , unshaken y the app achi g

r rm o o . r pe il , ﬁ ly st od his gr und The Aust ians gained an c l r t h e o o m ex e lent gene al in Livonian , Gide n Laudon , wh F rederick h ad refused t o take into his servi c e o n acc o unt r m wh o n o w r m o of his ext e e ugliness , and exe ted his ut st r m o r t o . r endeav s avenge the insult The g eat Russian a y , c h ad n o w r m w ar whi h until e ained an idle spectator of the ,

l o m o o . r r c c in r a s set itself in ti n F ede i k advan ed , the sp ing o f 1 5 8 o o r 7 , against Laud n , invaded M avia, and besieged O m o c l r l utz , but with ut su cess ; Laudon cease essly ha assed r o o f r h is t o ops and seized a c nvoy three hund ed wago ns . m r The king was finally co pelled to etreat, the Russians , F e rm o r r t he O m r r r under , c ossing der, u de ing and bu ning o n r ro c r t o thei ute , converting Custrin , whi h efused yield , f r i o . r nto a heap rubbish , and threatening Be lin They we e r h m e t by the enraged king at Zo ndorf . Alth o ugh but alf as m r o nu e ically str ng as the Russians , he succeeded in beating h m o f o n o f m e n t e , but with the loss eleven th usa d his , the rr n Russians standing like walls . The battle w as c a ied o with the greatest fury on b o th sides ; n o quarter was given ; m e n r m o t o and we e seen , when ortally w unded , seize each r o n r other with their teeth as they olled fighting the g o und . So m e o f the captured C o ssacks were p resented by Frede ric k “ t o o m o f r r s e his f iends with the emark , See , with what ” vagab o nds I am reduced to fight ! He h ad scarcely re c o v ered fro m th is bl o o dy victo ry than he was again co m pelled r wh o to take the field against the Aust ians , , under Daun and o h ad fo r o t m Laud n , invaded Lusatia . He , s me i e , watched m o m r the with ut hazarding an engage ent , unde an idea that they were them selves t o o c autio us and timid to venture an 1 288 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

. o t . r attack He was , h wever, mis aken The Aust ians sur prised his cam p at Hochkirch during the night o f Octo ber

h ' r — o the 1 4t . The P ussians the hussar tro p of the faithful r Ziethen , whose wa nings had been neglected by the king, — o alone excepted slept, and were only roused by the r aring i r o of the r own artille y , which Laud n had already seized and turned upon their camp . The excellent discipline of the Prus

n o h - sia s ldiery , nevertheless , enabled them , alf naked as they w r o t o e e , and n twithstanding the darkness of the night , place o m m themselves under arms , and the king , alth ugh with i ense

o . o l ss , to make an orderly retreat He lost nine th usand men , r many of his bravest ofﬁcers , and upward of a hund ed pieces rt h r r . o c t e o f of a ille y The principal bje t of Aust ians , that t aking t h e king prisoner or of annihilating his arm y at a

o w o r . r c bl , was , h wever , frust ated F ederi k eluded the pur o f c suit the enemy and went straight into Silesia , when e he r d ove the Austrian general , Harsch , who was besieging

. c Neisse , across the mountains into Bohemia The approa h

of winter put a stop to hostilities on both sides . f o During this year , Frederick received power ul aid fr m F b e erdinand , duke of Brunswick , rother to Charl s, the reign r o m m ing duke , who replaced Cumbe land in the c and of the t h e Hanoverians and Hessians , with great ability covered o f ru o right ﬂan k the P ssians , man euvred the French , under l i h m their wretched genera , Richelieu , who enr c ed hi self with

the plunder of Halberstadt, across the Rhine , and defeated ’ h r . Clermont , Richelieu s successo , at Crefeld His nep ew , c r u him o the rown p ince , Ferdinand , served nder with distin m o . o r o c r u n ti n T wa d the c n lusion of the campaign , an a y der Bro gli o again pushed fo rward and succeeded in defeat in r v o n Yse n b ur was t o r g the P ince g, who have cove ed o m e n r Hesse with seven th usand , at Sange hausen ; another body of troops under Soubise also beat Count Oberg on the o r Lu tterberg . The tro ps on both sides then withd ew into m n winter quarte rs . The French had , during this ca paig , l r also penetrat ed as far as East Fries and , whence they we e driven by the peasantry until Wurm ser of Alsace made terms

1 29 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y t ain , bristling with batteries , from the bottom of the valley o f O the der ; they obeyed , but were unable to advance ’ through the deep sand , and were annihilated by t h e enemy s

ﬁre . A ball struck the king , whose life was saved by the circum stance of its c bmin g in contact with an etui in his waistcoat p o cket . He was o bliged to be carried almost by ff l o o . force the ﬁe d when all was l st The poet , Kleist, after o rm r h i st ing three batteries and c us ing his r ght hand , took h is o r sw d in his left hand and fell , while attempting to carry a fourth .

i n Soltikow , fortunately for the k g , ceased his pursuit . o o f t h e u The c nduct Russian generals was , thro ghout this

. o war , often marked by inconsistency They s metimes left t h e ro i natural fe city of the r soldiery utterly unrestrained , at e others , enforced strict discipline , hesitat d in their move

’ m o n . ents , or spared their opp ne t The key to this conduct i was the r dubious position with the Russian court. The em r p ess , E lisabeth , continual ly instigated by her minister , Bes t usc h e ff , against Prussia , was in her dotage , was subject to daily ﬁts of drunkenness , and gave signs of approaching dis r h e r solution . Her nephew , Pete , the son of sister, Anna,

- o f . and Charles Frederick , Prince of Holstein Gottorp , the o o o m r o f heir to the thr ne of Russia , was a pr f und ad i er the u r o him hi s c r great Pr ssian mona ch , to k for model , se etly h im t h e o t corresponded with , became his spy at Russian c ur , and made no secret of his intention to enter into alliance with m r him . on the death of the e press The gene als , fearful of i m m o c o n render ng the selves obnoxious to the future e per r, ’ sequently showed great rem issness in obeying Be st u sc h e ff s m com ands . Frederick , however, although unharassed by ﬁ e r r m o su . the Russians , was still d omed to f esh ishaps His r h ad r r c ut b other , Henry , , with g eat p udence , off the mag ’ D au n s azines and convoys to rear , and had consequently

m . w as ha pered his movements The king , notwithstanding, o m disc ntented , and , unnecessarily fearing lest Daun ight still e ﬂ e c t in o o o succeed in g a juncti n with S ltikow and Laud n , his r o recalled b other , and by so doing ccasioned the very THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 29 1

movement it w as his object to prevent . Daun advanced ; r and General Fink , whom Frede ick had despatched against f t h h i o e t o s . him at the head h usand men , fell into hands t o o o r Shut up in Maxen , and weak to f rce its way th ough h r h e t e o w as i o . t enemy , wh le co ps taken pr s ner Dresden o c m t h e m m als fell ; S h ettau , Prussian co andant , had , up to r o u t o m this period , b avely held , n twithstanding the s allness r of the garrison , but , dispi ited by the constant ill success , he t o m r c at length resolved , at all events , save the ilita y hest , r m which contained th ee illion dollars , and capitulated on a r t r p ro m ise o f free eg ess . By his act he incur ed the heavy o f wh o i m o h im displeasure his sovereign , d s issed b th and 1 m r r . o r Prince Hen y Fortune , however , once o e fav red F ed eric k ; Soltikow separated his troops from those o f Austria and retraced his steps . The Russians always co nsum ed o r r ro r m m e than the othe troops , and dest yed thei eans of ”I r r subsisten c e by thei predato ry h abit s . Aust ia vainly o f fe re d go ld ; So ltikow persisted in his intention and merely “ ”

m e n o . r r n o w replied , My cann t eat gold F ede ick was t o ro enabled , by eluding the vigilance of the Austrians , th w m u o r fo r o o f o hi self p n D esden , the purp se regaining a p si tio n indispensable t o h im on ac count o f its p ro ximity t o Bo

b m r o . o h o w e ia , Silesia , the Me e , and Sax ny His pr ject, r o i r o m m o f eve , failed , n twithstand ng the te rible b bard ent t h e r disc o m ﬁt u re o n city , and he vented his w ath at this the l ‘ m o f r r c fo r gal ant regi ent Be nbu g , whi h he punished its want of success by stripping it o f every to ken o f mil itary r c o t r m r glo y . The nstant wan of eady o ney for the pu p o se r c m r w ar of e ruiting his ar y , ter ibly thinned by the incessant r c m h im rr E n fa e , o pelled to circulate a false cu ency , the glish subsidies n o l o n ger covering the expenses o f the war n o and his o w territo ry being o ccupied by the enemy . Sax ny

Fre de ric k t h e Gre at h as b e e n e v e r ch arge d w it h ingratit ude fo r t his t re at me n t o f h i r r r n uin ar Sch m e t t au is th e s o t h e w h o e i e urin t h e e s e . b , xp d d g g y same o f c e r h o a ri n t u i in t io n urin t h e ar it h T ur e ﬁ w h d se o s c h d st c d g w w k y . 9 re e ric re ie t o t h e o u c om ain t s We h av e t o do w ith ar arians F d k pl d l d pl , b b , fo e s t o h uman it We o u h t h o w e v e r rat h e r t o see a reme fo r t h e e v i y . g , , k dy l ” th an t o i m i n —K lOber v e w a t o a e n t at o s . g y l . 1 292 THE HI ST OR Y OF GERMA N Y

f t o hi consequently su fered , and was , owing t s necessity ,

t h e - o completely drained , town c uncil at Leipzig being, for i o nstance , shut up in the depth of winter with ut bedding, h ad o r light , or ﬁring , until it v ted a cont ibution of eight o o o e tons of gol d ; the ﬁnest f rests were cut d wn and s ld , t c . m w o f Berlin , ean hile , fell into the hands the Russians , who , h m on this occasion , be aved with hu anity . General T o ttle

r r ﬁ re u o o c o n ben even o de ed his men to pon the allied tr p , L asc sisting of ﬁfteen thousand Austrians , under y and Bren o fo r r rm tan , attempting to inf inge the te s of capitulation by plundering the city . The Saxons destroyed the chateau of C harlottenburg and the superb collecti o n of antiques con t ain e d r o art in it , an irrepa able l ss to , in revenge for the, de t t h e r s ruction of palaces of Bruhl by F ederic k . N 0 o ther treasu res of art were carried away o r destroyed either by — Frederick in Dresden or by his opponents in Berli n This m f t h e u n ex ca paign o fered but a single pleasing feature , e c t e d t h e p relief of Colberg , who was hard pushed by Rus m r sians in Po erania , by the P ussian hussars under General

Werner . Misfort une continued to pursue the king throughout the

m 1 76 0 . o ca paign of Fouquet , one of his fav rites , was , with n m e n r r o r o eight thousa d , su prised and taken p is ne by Laud n in the Giant Mountains near Landshut ; t h e mountain c o un t ry was cruelly laid waste . The important fort ress of Glatz

. w as fell , and Breslau was besieged This city defended by

r T au e n zie n m an r . c Gene al , a of great int epidity The ele m r r r b rat e d Lessing was at that ti e his sec eta y . With me ely t r h o r r o o f h ee t usand P ussians , he unde t ok the defence the o r o extensive city , within wh se walls we e nineteen th usand o n o r t o o t h e Austrian prisoners , and , Laud n th eatening st rm ’ place and n o t even to spare the child withi n its m o th er s “ m n o r wo b , he coolly replied Neither I my men happen to re be in the family way . He maintained the city until l ie v e d by Frederick . The king hastened to defend Silesia , ’ for which So l tiko w s procrastination allo wed him am ple d a opportunity . Daun had , it is true , succee ed in forming

1 294 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Prussian , whole regiments had disbanded , and the king was r wounded , when Ziethen , the gallant hussa general , w ho o ut w a n had during the night his y through the Austria s , wh o t were in an equal s ate of disorder, and had taken the heights , rushed into his presence . Ziethen had often excited ’ the king s ridicule by his prac tice of brandishing his sabre o f r o over his head in sign the c oss , as an inv cation for the n o w aid of Heaven , before making battle ; but , deeply moved , he embraced his deliverer , whose work was seen

r . w at b eak of day The Austrians ere in full retreat . This r w as bloody action , by which the P ussian monarchy saved , d 3 v e 1 760. took place on the of No mber ,

George II . , king of England , expired during this year. r His grandson , Geo ge III . , the son of Frederick , Prince of W wh o ales , had preceded his father to the tomb , at ﬁrst de c l are d in favor of Prussia , and fresh subsidies were voted to her monarch by the English parliament, which at the same time expressed “ its deep admiration of his unshaken forti ” tude and of the inexhaustible resources of his genius .

Female inﬂuence , however, ere long placed Lord Bute in ’ Pitt s stead at the helm of state , and the subsidies so urgently m n r de a ded by P ussia were withdrawn . The duke of Bruns w as h o o at h u wick , meanw ile , again vict ri us Billing a sen over

. On the French , and covered the king on that side the other r hand , the junction of the Aust ians with the Russians was effected in 1 76 1 ; the allied army amounted in al l to one hun ’ t m e n r r dred and thir y thousand , and Frede ick s a my , solely in consisting of ﬁfty thousand , would all probability have n o t m been again annihilated , had he secured hi self behind r ro o Bun ze l the fort ess of Schweidnitz, in the st ng p sition at B t t r in r w as m r . u e l witz , the Russian gene al , oreove little inclined to com e to an engagem ent o n account of the ill ness of the empre ss an d the fav o r with which Frederick was b e t held by the successor t o the throne . It was in vain tha

’ o t h e o r Laud n e x erted all p we s of eloquence , the Russians rem ained in a state of inactivity and ﬁnally withd re w . Lau don avenged himself by unexpectedly taking Schweidnitz THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 295

o f v - - under the eyes the king by a cle er coup de main , and h ad not a heroic P russian a rtillerym an set ﬁre to a po w der “ m v did so agazine , obser ing as he , All of ye shall not get ” into the town ! and bl o wn him self with an immense num b e r o f o a m Austrians int the air, he would h ve made hi self master o f this im portant stro nghold al m ost Wit h o u t l o sin g a

u . man . Frederick retreated pon Breslau m r The e p ess , Elisabeth , expired in the ensuing year,

1 76 2 w as . wh o , and succeeded by Peter III , instantly ranged o n r f w himself the side of P ussia . Six months a terward he as his o f o m assassinated , and widow seized the reins g vern ent w s n under the title of Catherine II . Frederick a o the eve o f gi v ing battle t o the Aust rians at Reichenbach in Silesia and the Russians unde r Cze rn it sc h e ff were under his command when the news arrived of the death of his friend and o f t h e m c o o o f ne w m w h o Cze rn it ini i al disp siti n the e press , sent r scheff instant orde s to abandon the Prussian banner. Such ’ r o v was , howeve , Frederick s inﬂuence er the Russian gen r r r eral , that he p efer ed hazarding his head rathe than aban do n at i t r the king th s cri ical conjuncture , and , defe ring the ’ i o n o f m r m publ cati the e press s orde s for three days , re ained i h r r quietly W t in the camp . F ede ick meanwhile was not idle , o m t h e 2 and gained a c plete victory over the Austrians , l st

o f 1 762 . m o m July , The attempt ade by a Silesian n ble an , o W r o o r m c m Bar n a k tsch , t gether with a p iest na ed S h idt, t o rr o ff ro m r r t r secretly ca y the king f his qua te s at S ehlen ,

. m r c o o Sc h w e id failed In the autu n , Frede i k besieged and t k t o h r nitz . The w most celebrated Frenc enginee s put their n e w o r c o v r fo r the ries into p actice on this o casi n ; Lefe e , the r Grib o v al r P ussians against the fortress ; , for the Aust ians ’ r r as r engaged in its defence . F ede ick s goo d fortune w sha ed r w h o m r o r by P ince Henry , defeated the i pe ial tro ps at F ei r in o f w bu g Saxony , and by Ferdinand Bruns ick , who gained e c s veral petty advantages over the Fren h , defeating Soubise T he at Wilhelmsthal and the Saxo ns o n the Lutterbach . spiritl e ss w ar o n this side w as ﬁnal ly terminated du ring 1 6 2 the course of this year, 7 , by a peace between England 1 29 6 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

l and France . Golz had at the same time instigated t he r was Tarta s in Southern Russia to revolt , and on the point of creating a diversion with fifty thousan d of them in F red ’ r r e ick s favor . F ederick , with a view of striking the empire r with terror, also despatched General Kleist into F anconia, r h i with a flying co ps , whic no sooner made its appearance n ’ N ure m b e rg and Bamberg than the Whole of the South w as r W u rt e m b e r seized with a gene al panic , Charles , duke of g, fo r St ut t ar instance , preparing for instant flight from g d . St urze b e c h e r h uzzars , a bold cornet of the Prussian , aecom anie d w ad p by a trumpeter and by five an d t enty men , v an c e d o as far as R tenburg on the Tauber , Where , forcing w a his y through the city gate , he demanded a contribution r of eighty thousand dollars f om the town council . The citi zens of this town , which had once so heroically opposed the ’ o h uzzar whole of Tilly s f rces , were chased by a handful of s into the Bockshorn , and were actually compelled to pay a o r h fl o rin s m f fine of f ty t ousand , with which the co et sco f in l t w o g y withdrew , carrying off with him of the town councillors as hostages . So deeply had the citizens of the r free towns of the empire at that time degene ated . ’ F rederi c k s o pponents at length perceived the folly of o ca rrying o n war without the rem test prospect of succ ess .

T h e o w . r w as necessary funds were , more ver , anting F ance weary of sacriﬁcing hersel f fo r Austria . Catherine of Rus w h o sia , had views upon Poland and Turkey , foresaw that the aid of Prussia would be required in order to keep Aus h r l o tria in check , and bot cleve ly and quick y entered int an ri c o n se u r . nde standing with her late opponent Aust a was ,

o m t o m . r quently , als co pelled succu b The est of the allied w as l p o wers h ad no voice in the matter. Peace conc uded at

m i n as me re a suc c e ssio n o f man oeuv re s and s irmish e s in Th is c a pa g w ly k , ’ h w h ich Lukne r an d his h uzzars c h ie ﬂy dis t inguish e d t h e mse lv e s agai n st ; t e n r H h ad at an e ar ie r e rio re nch w h o se se rv ic e Lukne r afte rwar e t e e . e , F , d d , l p d n A us t ria h e ade d t h e Bav arians agai st . ‘ 2 r i e re e ric o se rv e o n t h i s o c c asi o n fo e e . N urembe rg h ad ne v e r be y ld d F d k b d , Kleist h as snat ch e d th e maide n wreat h fro m th e g ray lo c ks o f th at ancient ” ir in V g .

1 29 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

m i r o . n e w sons grated to P ussia , the land of p tatoes The m o nopolies or regie we re more particularly unp o pular o n ao co unt o f the persons em ployed in their administration bei n g r r k brought f om F ance by the ing , who thus virtually ex posed the b rave victo rs of Rossbach to t h e chicanery o f their conquered fo e .

The army next oc cupied his attenti o n . In the autum n r sa o f r and spring he held g eat reviews for the ke p actice , and perfe c t orde r an d disc ipline were maintained during the wh o le of his reign . The faults in the internal organization

rm r r . r r of the a y we e fi st discovered after his death F ede ick , although perso nally a patron o f art and a promoter of civili zat io n r r , greatly dep eciated the p ogress of enlightenment in rm n o r r o o m Ge any , did he perceive that the bou ge isie , wh he o n c o t o r o in o f i no had , his a cessi n the th one , f und a state g r o n e rance an d discouragement , had g adually risen to of m W o m great moral and ental refinement , hile the n bility , who , at ru o r least in P ssia , he had f und , during his earlier yea s , simple in their habits and fitted fo r the duties of their sta o o m ti n , had , as gradually , sunk in luxury and bec e totally o m o o f incapable o f mental exerti o n . His exclusive n inati n n o bles t o all the higher p o sts in the army was at fi rst natu t h e c r b c o m ral , peasant re uits eing already ac ust ed , in their n ro t o o f o o ative p vinces , the sway the n bility ; but his t tal o r o o f o o f exclusi n , at a later pe i d , the wh le the citizen class , r was productive of im mense e v ils t o his suc cesso . The sys r h t e m of flogging was an o ther abuse . Seve e punis ments had form e rly been fo und necessary am o ng the infant ry on acc o unt o f the in c linatio n of the hom eless m e rc enary t o de sert his c o l o rs o r t o plu n de r ; but the inflic ti o n o f c o rp o real p unishm ent fi rst becam e general in the arm y o n the enrol r t h e ment of the peasant se fs , When system of flogging , m ro c r . prevalent in the villages , was int du ed into the a y m o m r r 1 This syste , c nsequently , e ely prevailed in P uss a and

r o ro o in . Aust ia , Slav nian p vinces l ng sunk the deepest slavery m r t o c r Other states fo ll o wed their exa ple , but we e unable a ry this system into effect wherever a spark of honor still glowed THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 29 9

‘ e u n suit in the boso ms of the people . The ret ntion of the a m r r o f o w ble ilitary d ess introduced by his fathe , pigtails , p ’

. w as o dered hair, tight breeches , etc , an ther of Frederick s

caprices. The simple and strict adm inistratio n of justice c o n t iriual l y f F ri r n um occ u pied the attention o the king . The Codex de ic ia o m l aw f r ed the basis of the provincial of Prussia , which was n o t v m m , howe er, co pleted until after his death , by Car er, d o r 1 79 4 . The injustice enacte in other c unt ies was viewed h im o r o by with deep abh rence , and never was his anger m re highly excited than he imagined that his nam e had ’ When been abused for the pu rpose of passi n g an iniq uito us judg m ro m . o c ent A wind ill , not far f m Sans S u i , obstructed the t o c t V iew , but the miller threatening lay a omplaint agains h im o w n c o h r in his court of justice , he h se rat er to endu e r the inco nvenience than to reso t to violence . Another m ill r o er, A nold , charging a n bleman with having diverted the o m m r water fr his ill , Frederick, anxious to act with st ict c ffi o justice , sent a onfidential o cer to the sp t to investigate fli r t o f . o c e o r the af air The , either owing negligence to o m r o r w h o s e p ivate reason , pronounced in fav of the miller, r r was actually in the w ong , and the king instantly dep ived th ree o f his ch ief - justices and a number of the l o wer o ffice rs of the l aw o f their appointm ents and detained the form e r for

o m m r o . o r r r s e ti e in p is n Still , n twithstanding his a bit a y o n o m o c o o r l aw and , s e c asi ns , cruel decisi ns , he inspi ed the r o m c o m m o o f o n e ofﬁce s with a wholes e fear, and by the issi n r injusti c e o ften o bviated that of many o thers . His t eatment o o T re n c k h o m c o of C l nel , an Austrian , w he detained a l se r o r r d m c p is ne at Magdebu g for eighteen years , ma e u h noise . This handsom e adventurer had secretly carried o n an inter ’ r r m m o cou se with the king s siste , had ixed hi self up with p li

Lo uis X V . at te m t e to in t ro uc e t h e russi an mi itar s ste m an d Wi th p d d P l y y , , it t h at o f o i n i n t o t h e re nc h arm b ut t h e so ie rs mut in ie sh o t t h e , ﬂ gg g , F y , ld d , su a t e rns w h o h ad v e n t ure t o use t h e c ane an d o ne o f t h e at te r o n e in b l d , l , b g r e re t i h h t o o ne f h riv at e s in s tan t ri e u h is o o v e t e as o t e o wn e . d d g l p , ly pp d p b lly T h i s fac t is re at e Sch u art at t h at t ime o ne o f th e ri h t e st o rname nt s o f l d by b , b g “ ” German wh o co nc u e s with t h e e c amatio n Wh at a i s rac e fo r Ge rman y , l d x l , d g y ! 1 300 THE HI STORY OF GERMA N Y

i h t cs , devised intrigues , and a barefaced indiscretion ad o c c asio n e d o r his l ng imprisonment , whence he was libe ated on ’ r — F ederick s death . The manner in which the king answered o all the cases and petitions presented to him , by a sh rt mar in al m g note , was extremely characteristic , his re arks and de c isio n s r being generally just, but Witty , sati ical , often cruel , c o and always badly written , on ac unt of his imperfect knowl edge o f his mother tongue . He was equally laconic in conversation and ab rupt in

- m . W r anner ith a la ge three cornered laced hat on his head, o rs rather sto ping shoulde , a threadbare blue uniform with o t d red facings and br ad skir s , a long pigtail hanging behin , t h e r c o r f c f ont of his waist at sp inkled with snuf , whi h he took in o r l o en mous quantities , short black breeches and ng boots , his sword buckled to his side and his celebrated crutc h - c ane

aw e . in his hand , he inspired all whom he addressed with o r art No one , however , p ssessed in a higher deg ee the of e o pleasing, wh never he happened to be surr unded by per o f r r sons congenial taste and pu suits , or that of acqui ing popularity . F rederic k exercised immense inﬂuence on the spirit of the r m n . times , the ge e al i pulse toward enlightenment The age had indeed need of assistan c e in its attem pts t o repel the o f r o r mists igno ance and superstition by which it was bscu ed . The pedantry of the sch o o ls had already partially yielded b e fo r T h o m asiu s t o r the attacks of , who had been the ﬁrst end t o r r asunder the veil an d admit the light , which , unde F ed ’

r . erick s administration , now pou ed freely in on all sides

1 ’ I nn r r r l h im D urin t h e se v e n ears war u e a e ane c o te s a e e at e o f . m bl d d g y , ro at aimin at h im fro m e hi n a ush h e o o e s te rn at h im sh o o h is a C g b d b , l k d ly , k m n ro ﬂ n e w h ich h e ca rrie e v e n w h e n o n h o rse ac at h i a d th e at e d. c a ( d b k) , C T h e pe o pl e o f Po t sdam h ad st uc k up a caric at ure i n wh ich h e w as re p re se nt e d ith a c o ffe e -mi in h is l a at t h e s t re e t c o rne r h e saw it as h e asse a o n w ll p, ; p d l g an d t o ld th e by st ande rs to h ang i t lo w e r do w n and t h ey w o uld se e it with g re ate r n i n —On e o f th e s u a t e rn s o f h i s uar e i n t o o o o r t o b u a w at ch c o nv e e c e b l g d , b g p y , n r it in h is o c e t T h is w as e rc e iv e b at tac h e d a bulle t t o h is c h ain a d wo e p k . p d y im i Th e o f c e r un in h o o n e da ur o se as e h i m w h at t e t w as. t h e k g , w y k , p p ly d “ ﬁ e t o e v a e an e o s re w fo rth th e ul e t sa in as h e did so M w at c h abl d xp , d b l , y g , y é ” in t b ut to o n e h o ur t h at in w h ich I die fo r o ur Ma es t . re e ric ih po s , y j y F d k

l r e n t e h im ith h is o wn watc h se t in ril ian ts. stan t y p es d w , b l

302 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

existence of a deity (atheism) , the adoration of nature and m m the ost extravagant sensuality (materialis ) . b e ne ﬁc e nt o The g vernment of humane sovereigns , wise r w as m gua dians of the people , de anded instead of the despot ism rt o r that had hithe prevailed , and the futu e happiness of the hum an race was declared to be the infallible result of b - in this lessed change the administration . On the separa o t ri r tion of the N r h Ame can colonies f om England , their parent country , and their formation into a republic , repub l lican notions began to spread ; they were , moreover , great y o fostered by the example of the ancients , whose hist ries were “ ” di s o f o ligently studied , and by the contrat ocial R usseau , which rep roduced the ancient Germ an political p rinciple o f a constitution based upon t h e union of free and equal m e m

r o n e w . r be s of s ciety as a discovery At fi st , the general o demand was for that best of all republics , the s vereignty li of virtue ; but , by degrees , the repub c became a matter of speculation for vices impatient of the restraint im posed by laws . 0 t The immorality hat, like a pestilence , had spread from France and infected the courts and the higher class e s in Ger m o o r o i any , t ok shelter beneath the new d ct ines humanism . O ro fl i ac c o b ut pen p g y was , it is true , dis uraged , the weak t e rfn e d r as nesses of the heart, as they were , se ved an excuse for the infraction of the Cath o lic v o w of celib acy and of t h e h stric t moral tenets of t e Protestant church . The tears of r the sentimentalist atoned fo the weakness of the flesh . An incredible increase in the productio n and study of ro mances o f t h e nat urally fo llowed . The unprincipled sen timentality m iddle classes was even more pernicious in effect than the

Open pro ﬂ igac y o f the nobility and o f the co urts . It w as o m o owing to this cause al ne that Ger any , at the utbreak of the French Revolution , at a time that called for energy and s o fo r the exertion of every manly virtue , contained many cowards . Good and evil advanced han d in hand as enlightenm ent

r . d a ro prog essed Men , confuse by the novelty of the ide s p THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 303

t o . pounded , were at first unable discern their real value r m t o m r m The transition f o ancient ode n ti es had , however , r w as r become necessa y , and g eatly facilitated by , the toler f r wh o an c e o the g eat sovereign of Prussia , , notwithstanding r fo r r c o o in c l i that, by his p edilection F en h phil s phy and his o r r o m r t o nati o n t wa d ati nalis , he at fi st gave a false bias the m o f rm r r moral develop ent Ge any , greatly accele ated its p og r t o ress . He gave his subjects full libe ty believe , think , say , m r write , and p ublish whatever they dee ed prope , extended his pro tec tion to th o se w h o sought shelter within his terri t r r m e rse ut io n o f r o o ies f o the p q the p iests , and enf rced uni On o n e o c o al o n e o n e r r o . ve sal tole ati n casi n , . that escaped o r o f o r r J r the bse vation the s ve eign , did the censo , usti , da e “ r r c to suppress a work , the Lette s on Literatu e, in whi h his o w n dull p roductio ns were severely criticised . The works p rinted in Prussia f rom 1 740 t o 1 786 o ffer a c o n v in c in g p ro o f o f the unparalleled liberality of this abso lute r m r r r s o vereign . The f eedo f o m rest ictio n greatly favo ed t h e ro r o f rm m o r so p g ess Ge an literature , but still e the f o f r ro m personal indi ference the king , which p evented it f H m c o m r . o w c o be ing se vile insignifi ant was Ramler, wh he

o o - ! h o w r wh o r app inted p et laureate g eat was Lessing , neve paid c ourt t o o r was noticed by h im ! r r w as h is o c rr F ede ick , in private h urs , hieﬂy su ounded ’ o r r : Mau e rt ius r d A r e n s l by f eigne s p , the Ma quis g , A ga o c m o r r tti , Mit hel , the English a bassad , Marshal Keith , a c o c m r r o f r S t h an , a prosc ibed pa tisan the exiled Stua t , such “ o - r m an r r o f him b o n a n ble hea ted that F ede ick said , Le ” o r m e o rc c ro r a r r Mil d f e de i e la ve tu , Gene al Lentulus , and ’ t h e o r n to i o us De la Me t t rie . He carried on a frequent c o r

Wh o w ro t e o e n th at t h e re is n o Go d n o immo rt a it t h at man is p ly , , l y , in t e n e t o fo o w e v e r n at ura im u se t h at se n sua e asure is h is o n aim d d ll y l p l , l pl ly in ife t h at v irt ue is a ri ic u o us re am e st ruc tiv e of e n o me n t an d t h at eat h l , d l d d j y , d ” is t h e e n d o f al l t h in s His e r r n i t e n t i h i g . d p av e d c o u se o f life w as c o s s w t h s rin ci e s . re e ric n e v e rth e e ss a o in t e h im h is e c t ure r Mit ch e re at e s p pl F d k , l , pp d l . l l t h at re eric a w a s S o e o f o t aire as a ro ue a t h o u h h e c o n tin ue t o F d k l y p k V l g , l g d c o rre s o n w ith h im h is t e m rh a s b e i . T t as a e h s c a ac c o un t e fo r p d y , p p , p y lly d ; imm ’ Z e rman n say s t h at durin g th e lat t e r part o f Fre de ric k s life h e c o uld n o t t o uch a ish w ith o ut rst se aso nin it wit h immen se uan t it ie s o f a e nne d ﬁ g q C y . 304 THE HI ST OR Y OF GERMA N Y

’ ’ V D A l e m b e rt respondence with oltaire and , the latter of whom he appointed president of the Royal Academ y of Ber

. t w o n lin Raynal and Rousseau , of the oblest of the French t t h e writers , ook refuge within his states , one at Berlin , other at a Neufch tel , from the persecution to which the freedom of h o m r t eir opinions had exp sed the . F ederick w as hi m self an “ author of no m ean talent ; in his youth he wrote an Anti ” c h t ma iavel , in which he recommended o princes a moral m an d r policy , never followed by hi self , seve al poems ; at a “ ” t r o O n la er pe iod , the Hist ry of his w Times ; that o f the “ ’ ” “ W ar o o Seven Years ; C nsiderations , Financial and P lit ” “ o n u o m r ical , the State of E r pe ; Me oi s of the House of ” r m r B andenburg ; besides nu erous spi ited letters , which were collected after his death . The fall of the Jesuits was the ﬁrst great res ult of t h e m n advance of enlighten ent . O e extreme is ever productive o f another . The dissolution of these guardians of igno rance was pe rhaps alone rendered possible by the existence of an equal degree of exaggeration on the side of their opponents . ih The policy of the times , moreover , favored the general n o c l in at io . The princes greedily grasped at the church pr p e rt y that had escaped the general plunder during the Ref l t h e o rm at io n . r o In F ance , Spain , and P rtuga , ancient r o fﬁ w h o c o n bulwarks of Catholicism , ministe s rose to ce , ’ n v i c e d of the excellence of Frederick s policy , kept pace with o l their times , and f llowed as zealous y in his footsteps as the

German princes formerly had in those of L o uis XIV . In so n o f r Austria , the Archduke Joseph , the eccentric Ma ia o U c Theresa , gl wed for a topia of liberty and justi e , and Kaunitz persuaded the o therwise bigoted emp ress to pursue the old Ghibelline p o licy by which the p o pe w as rendered

m . . subordinate to t h e head of the e pire Pope Clement XIV ,

1 i it t h e em ero r u ian t h e A o stat e w h o Vo ltaire c o mpare d Fre de r c k w h p J l p , r an ism He e n e ra c o n c u e h is c o n abo lish e d Ch rist i an it y an d re st o e d Pag . g lly l d d “ ’ ” i n it On n i t r i h th e w o r s e crase z l infame m ean in hris t a . ﬁde t al le t e s w t d , g C y ’ th e 24t h o f ul 1 76 3 h e w ro t e t o D Al emb e rt t h at sure ﬁv e o r six me n o f J y , , ly ars He ge n ius like t h em co uld o v e rt h ro w a re ligio n fo un de d by t w elv e begg . ’ n r in t h e ause gre at ly co mplaine d o f F re de ric k s w an t o f e e gy c .

1 303 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

e rﬁd w as t h e p y by which she ﬁrst convinced of immorality , t h according to their statutes , legally practiced by e members

of the Society . At t h e very time that Germany was delive re d from t h e e suit ism curse of J , the crime , termed by way of distinction m n the crime of the age , was co mitted against Poland, a d clearly indicates the moral principle by whic h the statesmen r r of that t im e we e guided . Vi tue was never the object of m o their policy , but simply a eans for the success of some p “ ” i l t o l it c al . scheme Do not ta k me of magnanimity , said “ ” r F ederick , a prince can only study his interest . Poland , r like Germany , owed the loss of her unity to her a istocracy ; o St aro st s n but the Waiw des and , instead of foundi g petty m n states , like the Ger an dukes and counts , and of allowi g m o f the for ation a civic class , became utterly ungovernable , t o o o l o f and , j eal us to p ace the crown on the head of one m m ah their own nu ber , continued , fro one generation to

h . other, to elect a foreigner for t eir king As long as P oland h still maintained a s adow of her ancient dignity , her choice r was free and unbiased and ever fell upon some weak p ince , as , for instance , the Elector of Saxony ; but, as her internal dissensions became more frequent, she allowed her potent i n ne gh bor to impose a sovereign upon her . O the demise o f

1 763 i . o f Augustus I II in , Cather ne II Russia effected t h e o n e election of of her numerous paramours, the hand some Stanislaus Poniatowski , a Pole by birth and her servile t ool . A foreboding of the dreadful doom awaiting their country was roused by t his stroke of Russian policy in t h e o o m t h e b s of some patriotic Poles , who confederated for pur pose of dethro ning the favorite of the foreign autocrat . o i t h e Catherine , h wever, sent one of her armies nto wretched country , which was by her orders , by the orders of the self m t ter ed female philosopher, laid waste with mos inhuman barbarity . Cannibals could not have perpetrated more cold blooded acts of cruelty than the Russians , whom the noble

ul a ski o o 1 76 9 . and gallant P w vainly pp sed in Catherine , o fearing fe e t th e Turks might aid the unf rtunate Poles, THE RISE OF PR OSSI A 1 307

d V att acke them also , and ictoriously extended her sway to t h e So uth . h e o f o r T e whole of the stat s Europe , alth ugh th eatened

o r r . by the increasing p we of Russia, emained inactive Eng o h e r m is land was occupied with her c lonies , France with

o r . tresses and fetes , Sweden was p we less Austria and m o m m r m Prussia, the st i inently th eatened , ight , if united , ro o r t h e have easily p tected P land , and have hinde ed advance o c b ut r of Russia t ward the Bla k Sea , they we e ﬁlled with l . 1 69 r r c . o mutual distrust In 7 , F ede i k II and J seph he d a r r r m ema kable confe ence at Neisse , in Silesia , when an atte pt n h o was made to place Gbrm an policy o a wider basis . W w as o o w could withstand , it said , a c aliti n bet een all the “ r o f rm ! r r powe s Ge any I think , said Frede ick the G eat , “ that we Germ ans have l o ng enough spilled Germ an bloo d m t r it is a pity that we cann o t co e o a bette understanding . Jo seph lam ented the unpatriotic allian c e between Austria an d r n r ro o F ance , and eve P ince Kaunitz , the p p under of r o o rr t o r c that alliance , decla ed that the cessi n of L aine F an e was a p o litical blunde r that never c o uld have taken plac e ﬁ r h e c . o f had been in of e at that pe iod And yet , in despite r o o r m t o n o r these decla ati ns , the s ve eigns ca e unde standing ; n o r o o r c was a sec nd c nfe en e , held in the ensuing year at

a r - o t w o M h isch Neustadt, n ithstanding the ﬁne pr testations 1

r o n c o o r ff . n f reite ated this oc asi n , m e e ective The wa t o ’ conc o rd w as entirely o wing t o Frederic k s disbelief in the r sinc erity o f Austria . Aust ia had already besto wed the o f o f o hand an archduchess on the king P land , and had tendered her aid to the overwhelm ing Ca th o lic party am o ng r r f the Polish nobility . Had P ussia united with Aust ia o r t h e o f o f rescue Poland , the inﬂuence Russia would , it is

1 re e ric o n se ein Lau o n w h o m h e h ad fo rme r e s ise o n acc o un t F d k, g d , ly d p d ’ o f h is u l in e ss an d w h o h ad it t e r e n o u h n h in su t amo n o se h s g , g av e ge t e , g b ly d l “ J p suit e t o o h im t h e arm and ace h im n e t t o h im at t a e— Sit o wn h ere , k by pl d x bl d , ” it o w n h e re I o u i t o m s w rath e r h av e o u at m si e th an o o s t e e . At d , ld y y d pp N e usta t re e ric is sai t o h a e o se rv e t o t h e e m e ro r w h i e rev ie in , d k v , w g d F “ d b d p l t h e asse m e t ro o s Th e mo st e t rao r inar t hin in o ur mterVLeW is t hat all bl d p , x d y g ” t hese t h o usands sh o uld fear us two ! 1 308 THE HI STOR Y OF GERMAN Y

i true , have been weakened , while that of Austr a would have been thereby strengthened , without her having gained the slightest advantage . These grounds determined Frederick n o t only to leave Russia unopposed, but even to make use of r h r her against Austria , and his b ot e , Henry , whom he sent r r o rr o n to St . Pete sbu g , acc rdingly , ca ied negotiations to

. r o w ar this intent The Aust ians , upon this , held a c uncil of , in which the question , whether it was advisable to declare war with Russia in case Prussia sided against them with

Russia , was agitated . The question was negatived in 1 71 o as 7 , and , from this moment, the partition of P land w m r deter ined upon . Austria , no longer desi ous of driving d r the Russians out of Polan , was me ely intent upon sharing o n r ro the booty, and, aband ni g her ancient cha acter as the p t e c t re ss - o r r of that ill fated c unt y , was the ﬁ st to make the c o m atta k by f r ally taking possession of the Zips , to which n o t w it h st an d she asserted her ancient right, before Russia , r ing her arbit ary rule in Poland , had formally declared the incorporation of the Polish provinces with the Russian e m m pire . Prussia , meanwhile , cleverly ade use of the recip ro c al jealousy bet ween Russia an d Austria to secure her portion of the b o oty . The three powers bargained with each m other for Poland like erchants over a bale of goods , and s Ru sia, the originator of the whole scheme and the ﬁrst ‘ o far t h e . p ssessor of the country , retained by largest share o 5 1 773 The neg tiations were brought to a close , August , ; n r o the Austrians and Prussians e te ed P land , of which the r o Russians had al eady taken possessi n , and proclaimed her “ ” r t h e r pa tition , in name of the indivisible T inity , to which “ o r o Catherine m re particula ly added , for the rest ration of ” o o f h the pr sp erity Poland . Russia seized almost the w ole r c of Lithuania ; Aust ia , Gali ia ; Prussia , the province of the

w V t h e m r . Lo er istula , under na e of Western P ussia The t h e rest of Poland was bestowed upon wretched king, Stanis

1 ’ Gre o r Or o w ath erine s fav o rit e w as o f o inio n t h at t h e R ussian min g y l , C , p ist e rs w h o h ad o ncurre in t h e artit io n e se rv e t o b e e rive of t h eir h ea s , c d p , d d d p d d fo r no t his mi tr ss h aving re tain e d th e wh o le of Poland for s e .

1 31 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

from falling int o the hands of Prussia . Frederic k re ve nged m e ufah rwasse r hi self by the seizure of N , the only navigable e a b t entranc into the h r or of Dantzig, and by h e imposition f o oppressive dues .

J s CCXXXVIII . o ep h the Second

HI S w h o T emperor , so zealously aided in the annihilation ’ of an innocent nation and thus repaid John So bie ski s no ble devotion with most unexampled ingratitude to his descend ants , who evinced such utter want of feeling in his foreig n policy , was , to the astonishment of the whole world , in his o w n d m e o inions , the great st enthusiast for popular liberty and t h e greatest promoter of national prosperity that ever

n . On r I . sat upo a throne the death of his father , F ancis , ’I 1 765 c o - r a l in , he became regent with his mothe , and , though at first merely intrusted with the w ar adm inistra e r tion , ere long int rfered in eve y state affair , in which he was especially supported by the prime minister, Kaunitz , who , while apparently siding with him against the caprice h im or too conscientious scruples of his mother, rendered his ’ t . ool The contradiction apparent in Joseph s conduct , the intermixture of so much injustice with his most zealous e n d eaVo rs to do right, are simply explained by the influence of h o n m w a hi . Kaunitz , , like evil spirit , ever attended For the better confirmation of the unnatural alliance b e

1 r ri II ri f t h is u e t so v e rei n Th e e m e ro r no t arin e e c . w te s o F d k p pp g p , d g t o int e rfe re in state mat t e rs amuse h im se f w ith t h e t ran sac ti on o f me rc ant i e , d l l usin e ss He ai ar e sums fro m h is Tuscan re v e n ue s in o r e r t o s e cu at e b . l d by l g d p l in t ra e He a w a s re tain e a c h emist s in h is se rv i c e e n a e in th e se arch d . l y d l g g d ’ fo r t h e h i o so h e r s sto n e and h e at t em t e mean s o f urnin - asse s to p l p , p d by b g gl isso e se v e ra sma i m n s in o n ar e o n e He e st a ish e man ufac t d l v l ll d a o d t o e l g . bl d ure s ent mo n e o n mo rt a e s an d un e rt o o t o furnish t h e Wh o e o f t h e im , l y g g , d k l ri rm ith unifo rm arm r an d iv e rie s In art n r h i i e a a w s s h o se s . e s w th a p l y , , , l p p c ert ain o un t Bo a an d a t ra e sman name Sch immel mann h e farme th e Sa on C lz d d , d x cust o ms an d in 1 75 6 e v en su ie t h e russian arm w ith fo ra e and o ur. , , , ppl d P y g fl A l th o ugh h is c o n so rt passio nat e ly lo v e d h im and w as a patt e rn o f c o nj ugal t e n r-r infid l itie s ith o u murmur Th e da b e e rne ss sh e o re h is ev e e currin e w t a . d , b g y fo re his eat h h e re se n t e his mist re ss th e rinc e ss v o n A ue rs e r w ith a d , p d , P b g, “ il fo r tw o h un r e th o usan fl o ri n s Th e v a i it o f a if i f t h is e sc ri tio n b l d d d . l d y g d p w as ue stione b ut Maria Th ere sa o r ere th e il to b e u h o nore d q d , d d b l d ly THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 31 1

r r o t ween Aust ia and F ance , Maria Ant nia (named by the ’ r r o an d F ench , Ma ie Antoinette) , Maria Theresa s l vely o 1 770 t o acc mplished daughter, was wedded , in , the Dau h e r r o r o . S e phin , afterwa d the unf tunate L uis XVI was i r r n c e v e d at St asbu g by the gay bishop , Cardinal Roha , with “ t h e o o re w rds , The union of B urbon with Habsburg must ” r sto re the go lden age . Seven hund ed and twelve people

t h e r . w ere crushed t o death during . wedding festivities at Pa is ’ m o r m o The e peror J seph , du ing his ther s lifetime , estab l ish e d o o f o r 1 774 beneﬁcial laws , ab lished the use t ture , in , U r r m h r ar and , by the publication of an ba iu , soug t mo e p t ic ul arly t o im p rove the condition of the peasantry . The c o llec tio n o f the taxes and the lo wer jurisdic ti o n were to be undertaken by the state whenever the n o ble was unable t o o f mi r o defray the expenses the ad nist ati n , and villages , m o r consisting of e than one hundred and twenty houses , were raised t o the im p o rtance o f country to wns and were m granted several im unities . The governm ent also entered into nego tiation with the n o bility on acco unt o f the gradually

- c r o . o o in easing pressure of s cage service The cauti us n bles , h r t o m r owever , decla ed the e p ess that they would not vol u n t aril o r y yield , but w uld submit were arbitra y measures

r . t o o reso ted to These Maria Theresa refused ad pt , and the o m o B he ian peasantry , to wh m hopes of redress had been o ut o o r held , r se in pen insur ection , which was quelled by

o r 1 775 . r r Jo r r f ce , in Thei leade , seph Cze ny , and th ee r r othe s were hanged , one in each of the four quarte s of the city of Prague . h w as o o c Josep , sh rtly after this c urrence , again seized ro m On with a st ng desire to extend his do inions . the death m o f r u in of Maxi ilian Joseph , elector Bava ia , without iss e , 1 777 r c r o , the next hei , the weak and li entious Cha les The o l o f c disin dore , of the c llatera branch the Pfalz , evin ing a c l in at io n to Bavaria on ac co unt of his predilec tio n fo r his r c an d c natu al hildren for his residen e , Mannheim , which he r b e aut iﬁe d r him had g eatly , Joseph pe suaded to cede Lower r Bava ia to Austria . This cession was, however, viewed 1 3 1 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

i with equal d spleasure by the next of kin , Charles , duke o f - r wh o Pfalz Zweib ucken , and by the Bavarians , still retained t heir ancient hatred of Austria . Maria Anna , the talented ’ w Of - ih l a idow Duke Clement, Charles Theodore s sister w , placed herself at the head of the Bavarians , support ed by GOrt z m r . o Count , who Frede ick II , who s ught at every r i hazard to p event the aggrandizement of Austr a , had sent

t o . r o her aid The opposing a mies to k the ﬁeld , but n o de o isive engagement was fought , and this war was jestingly t o b ermed the p tato war , the soldiers eing chieﬂy engaged in n m devouri g potatoes within the ca ps . Frederick the Great w ar said that the had brought him more hay than laurels , o o as it almost entirely consisted in f raging excursi ns . Fer din an d w , the hereditary prince of Bruns ick , maintained

r ro . W u rm se r t h himself in a st ong position at T ppau , e

r r Hab e l h r imperial gene al , su prised the enemy at sc w e t and gained a triﬂing advantage . Neither side w as in earnest ; — Frederi c k was old and sickly Maria Theresa so timid that ’ she secretly nego tiate d with Frederick behind her so n s bac k T h u u t wh o m by means of Baron g , had for erly been an o r

. F f phan lad rance was in a state o indecision . Austria is t o ro m said have p ised to cede to her a part of the Pfalz , w hi h o X V I t h e n r q L uis , on co t ary , aided with a subsidy ; m a r c m o but however that y be , F an e did not co e penly for

. r r Wh o ward Russia , on the other hand , th eatened Aust ia , o at length consented , by the treaty c ncluded at Teschen , 1 779 t o in , accept the province of the Inn and to relinquish r the est of Bavaria . l

r . o o Ma ia Theresa expired in 1 780 Joseph II . no s ner m o m o f rm beca e s le sovereign than he began a ultitude refo s .

1 Sh e w as remar a eautifu in h e r o uth b ut at e r in ife e came e x k bly b l y , l l b t remel o r u e nt and as is ure th e ma o Sh e re t aine h e r l i y c p l w d fig d by s llp x . d v e l in e ss o f is o sitio n t o t h e ast With t h e sam e s irit as wh e n at ran fo rt d p l . p F k , e amin W i t h e i h t sh e st e e u o n t h e a c o n an d w as t h e rs t to c r b g d l g , pp d p b l y fi y “ V iv at at t h e mome n t o f t h e o ro nat io n of h e r h us an did sh e in th e o ur c b d , B g t h e at re at ie n n a o n re c e ivin th e ne w s o f th e irth o f h e r rst ran so n aft e r V , g b fi g d , w ar t h e e m e ro r ran u s I I rise fro m h e r se at and ca o ut o fu in th e d p F . , ll j y lly , “ ” “ i e nn e se ia e c t t o th e art e rre de r Le o o h o t an ua u ! Leo o h as V d l , p , p ld B b p ld ” a b oy !

1 31 4 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

. Austrian bastinado He also emancipated the Jews . The

r o f - Ge man hymns the ex Jesuit , Denis , were introduced into

. r the Catholic churches Hieronymus , archbishop of Salzbu g , and the bishops of Laibach and K On igsgrae t z supported the l m o Mi azzi e per r ; but Cardinal g , archbishop of Vienna , and Bat h an Cardinal y y , archbishop of Gran , ranged themselves beneath the papal banner . Pius VI . , terriﬁed at these nu m e ro u s c e r o V innovations , rossed the Alps in p s n to ienna , ’ 1 782 fo r o f o r in , the purpose moderating the emper s zeal .

His path was lined with thousands , who on their knees re i d c e v e . r his blessing He was , neve theless , rendered bitterly sensible of the inopportunity of his visit by t h e emperor and by Kaunitz . The emperor did not h o nor the great mass per rm fo ed by him with his presence . No one was allowed to hi m speak with without special permission from the emperor, r and , in order to guard against secret visits , eve y entrance t o o f his dwelling was walled up , with the exception o ne which was strictly watched . Whenever the pope attem pted to discuss business matters with the emperor, the latter de c l are d e m r that he und rstood nothing about the , must ﬁ st consult his council , and requested that the affair might be conducted in writing . Kaunitz , instead of kissing the hand o h r o extended to him by the p pe , shook it ea tily ; he als neg ’ l e c t e d h im o n o to visit , and , the p pe s paying him a visit r under pretext of seeing his pictu es, received him in a light

- - r . obe de chambre The pope , after spending four weeks with f n out e fecting a ything , at length found himself constrained c m t o depart. The emperor ac o panied him as far as Maria t w o m r bronn , and hours afterward ordered that onaste y to be closed in order to show h o w little the pope h ad inﬂuenced

’ 1 Jo seph s w ant of t ac t w as n e v e r mo re truly displaye d t h an in his treatmen t f Mi azzi Th e an sen ist rie st Bl aarer o f run n e c omin an o e c t o f his o . g J p , , B , b g bj e rse c utio n o se h summone Bl aarer t o ie nna an d ma e h im su e rin t e n e nt p , J p d V d p d h e emin ri t s t h ith e rt o h e Mi azzi On t h e arriv a of of t s ar of e s a o s . y p , p ld by g l t h e o e at ienn a Mi azzi w as c o m e e t o uit t h e c it an d t o a t w o t h ou p p V , g p ll d q y p y n n h un rin rr tion fo r h a in carrie on an sa d se v e dre d ﬂ o s t o a h ouse of co ec v g d . il e a orreS nden e ith him l g l c po c w . THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 3 1 5

h The people and the clergy were , owever, dazzled by t h e appearance of the holy father, and Joseph , fearful of r n ir itating them too greatly , in reality put a transie t stop to m his refor s . The pope passed through Munich , where he was received wit h every demonstration of respect by Charles ’ t Theodore , and by Augsburg hrough the Tyrol , where a t monument , on the highroad near Innsbruck , ells to this day of the enthusiasm with which his presence inspired m m . On 1 783 the ountaineers his return to Ro e , , he was r o rep oached for having made so many concessi ns , and was persuaded to refuse his reco gnition o f the archbishop of m ’ a r a b . w s Mil n no inated y Joseph The emperor , in retu n , m unsparing of his threats , and unexpectedly appeared at Ro e in person in 1 783 . The archbishop of Milan was con m t he ﬁr ed in his dignity , and Roman populace evinced the r c r g eatest enthusiasm for Joseph , in whose honor the y , ” Evviva n o stro imperatore ! continually resounded in the

streets . o r The p pe , nevertheless , recovered from his terro , and created a n e w hunc iat ure for Munich as a bulwark of the r h hie archy in Germany , upon whic Joseph deprived the o f nuncios all the privileges they had hitherto enjoyed , o r which he bestowed up n the provincial bishops , mo e par t ic ul arl y upon those of Germany , Whom he sought by these

means to place in opposition to the bishop of Ro m e . In r c o n effect, Mayence , T eves , Cologne , and Salzburg held a r 1 785 E m s g ess , in , at the bath of , and declared in favor ’ m o r of the e per s principles . Frederick II . (Prussia and the - o e n ex Jesuits were at that time in cl se alliance) , however, c o ura e d o r e Cio fani g the p pe, th ough his ag nt, , at Rome , to

‘

. o Mii l l e r o make a vigorous opposition J hn , the Swiss hist

- rm rian , also turned his cheaply bribed pen against the refo s J attempted by oseph , whom he libels as a despot , and whose

1 He w ro t e t riumph antly t o t h e cardin als t h at h e h ad dispe nse d his ble ssing “ o c o unt l e ss th o usan ds from t h e w in do w s o f t h e same h o use w h e nce t e te rrima t ” i a A u ustana co nfe ssio h ad e en rst ro c aime d —A cts Hist Ecol nostri ll g b ﬁ p l . . 1 31 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

good intentions he cunningly veils . The most violent oppo it io n s w as that raised in Austria . In the m ore distant pro v in c e s , the clergy accused him of attempting the overthrow of

. l Christianity In Lemberg , a monk p otted against his life

o o . r Joseph had him impris ned in a madh use In Innsb uck , a popular disturbance too k place on account o f an alteration m o n e o f r r being ade in the chu ch alta s , the priests having ’ spread a report of the empero r s intenti o n to destro y all A t . r Lu altars Villach , a ﬁgure , intended to epresent Dr . o o n o ther , was carried ab ut a wheelbarr w and cast into the

- . o w Danube In several places , the Pr testants ere ill treated . r o f t h e m o v io F eedom the press being granted by Joseph , st lent and abusive charges against him were published by the W c V clergy and publicly sold by u herer, the iennese book ’ m r r . m seller , who ade a la ge p oﬁt by them Joseph s ene ies r io t o h im ri we e , however, less injur us than his false f ends , who incessantly loaded h im with praise and Sp read the m o st r m m o r Bl um au er unch istian , atheistical , and i al ideas ; , for o r o im instance , who wrote in imitation of V ltai e, and wh se r pudent and shallow works found a g eat sale . In many r i h places , this party ventu ed to treat church ceremonies w t o w as m t o ro open ridicule , and J seph repeatedly co pelled p test against t h e misinterpretati o n o f the edic t o f to leration n m o m and the unbounded lice se , by which eans , as D h well w as aw e observes , he no longer beheld with by the one party or with c o nﬁdence by the other . N o E m s twithstanding the congress of , he was opposed o r o e m not nly by the Austrian cle gy , but als by that of the o n r pire , which he had , moreove , made a violent attack, by r o i separating all the p o tions of the bishoprics of Passau , C re , L and Constance , and iege , lying within his hereditary states , placing them withi n the j urisdiction of the bishoprics within l m ii t z r an hi s territories . O was e ected into archbishopric ;

Briin n was formed into a new diocese . Joseph ’ s reforms extended to the state as well as to t h e

w m o o . His church , and every here met with the sa e pp sition o rm attempt to give unity to the state , to establish unif laws

1 3 1 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

I should be compelled to descend into my family vault and ” o f to spend my days amid the dust my ancestors . The nobility were also deeply wounded by the l aw empowering natural children to inherit the property of their unmarried r h ad n a fathe s , which bee est blished by Joseph as a proteo tion to the daughters of the citizens against their seductive o art iﬁc e s . He als ennobled a number of m eritoriou s citizen s r and even created F ies , the manufacturer , who had greatly distinguished himself by his commercial enterprise and pa

t rio tism c . , ount 1 785 In , he was , for a third time , led by his ﬁxed idea m o for the extension of his do ains , so little c nsistent with his o o r character , so n ted for humanity in all ther respects , to e n e w negotiations with Charles Theodore for the possession of

r . Bava ia A German confederacy , set on foot by Frederick t o r o II . , however , set a limit his p etensi ns ; and , in his dis r at pleasu e this frustration of his plans , he was induced by the intriguing Russian em press to join her in the co nquest of the East . A personal interview took place between the ‘ t wo . h powers at Cherson The partition of Turkey , like t at m of Poland , for ed the subject of their deliberations . A di

a . w version m de to their rear by Gustavus III of S eden , how e v e r h t o r o f ,L compelled Cat erine recall the greater po tion her f o . o tro ps Russia , since the days Peter the Great, had been t o a ﬁeld of speculation for Germans , who , the extreme det o o f riment of their native country , increased the p wer Russia by ﬁlling the highest civil and military posts . A Prince r - Cha les of Nassau Siegen , who served at this period as Rus sian admiral , was shamefully defeated by the Swedes , lost

fift - fiv e m e n w as o rc y ships and twelve thousand , and f ed to m f r i . r fly o his life in a l ttle boat The Tu kish ca paign was , o c c far owing to these disadvantage us ir umstances , from bril

1 r n r so ﬂ at He h ad in 1 78 0 v isit e h er at St . e te rs u a d h ad t re at e h e , , d P b g d t erin l th at o n h is o ffe rin t o iss h e r h an sh e t h re w h er arms ro un h is g y , , g k d , d H r o a h man ne Sh e t rav e e in t h e same c arria e w ith h im t o Smo e n s . e c c c k . ll d g l k o ast e o n t h is o c c asio n o f riv in t wo o w e rs fo r wh o m th e wh o e univ e rse b d , , d g p , l

as no t wi e e nou h in such a narro w s ac e . w d g , p THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 31 9

m k liant . The Russians erely took Oc za o w by storm and ﬁx ed m o the selves , as the Austrians sh uld have done in their stead, o o f close to the m uths the Danube . Joseph was even less r m m successful . The ext e e heat of the su mer of 1 788 pro

duc e d o ff t - a pestilence , which carried thir y three thousand c Austrians . The bad in lination generated am o ng the lower l o c rm c ass by the n bility and clergy had rept into the a y . At b ro o e wi Caranse es , the t ps wer seized th a sudden panic and o r t m w t ok to ﬂight , car ying the emperor along with he , ith m m an . o out enemy being in sight The Turks , c anded by r m F ﬁ r r o . rench of cers , we e seve al ti es victo i us Sick and n r V chagri ed , the empe or returned to ienna , and it was not until the ensuing year that the honor o f the imperial arms r o o wh o was est red by Laud n ( had fallen into neglect), aided

by t h e Duke of Coburg and General Cl airfait . He reto ok B l r r r o e g ade , but his fu the pr gress was checked by the nego

t iat io n o f . r peace Hunga y was in a state of disturbance , N the etherlands in revolt, the emperor ill , and peace with foreign powers indispensable . o c l r r m h u n The n bility and e gy t iu p ed , and harassed the — . fo rtunate em pero r wh o had returned fro m the Turkish cam paign su ﬂ e rin g from an illness fro m which h e never re c o v — rr o o ered c o mpletely t o death . I itated by their opp siti n and h r by t eir st ong position in the Hungarian diet , he dissolved m c r r o f r t o that asse bly , carried the sa ed c own Hunga y a o t h e o f c r Vienn , ab lished all privileges that ount y , and r rm placed t h e Magya s o n a level with his Ge an subjects . The peo ple were too dull of comprehension t o perc eive t h e d i o r t h e a vantage they thereby ga ned , were deceived by no b il it y and clergy , who described the emperor as a heretic , and declaimed against the violation of popular rights while skilfully concealing the interests o f their order beneath the o mask f the natio nal pride of Hungary . The chief points o b most sturdily pposed by the nobility were the liability , ith r o r t o o t erto unknown , of thei rde taxati n and the allevia ion ” r m r c o t ribu en s of the bu dens borne by the ise a n plebs, as ﬁ t h e Hungarian serfs were of cially termed . 1 320 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

The N etherlands were in a still more violent state of fe r ﬁ in . J c o n d mentation oseph , g in his alliance with France , ‘ r fo r which he had , at an ea lier period , visited the purpose o f his seeing sister Marie Antoinette , compelled the Dutch ,

1 81 t o - in 7 , annul the barrier treaty and to withdraw their r garrisons from the fort esses of the Austrian Netherlands . The occupation of the fortresses of a powerful em peror by h r m the Dutc , who , moreove , kept the in a bad state o f re was unﬁt t in pair, certainly wholly g , but they were equally o h neglected by J seph , who caused almost the whole of t em t o be razed to the ground as no longer necessary for the de fence of the frontier against France . He then dem anded from Holland the opening of the Scheldt . His dem and was by no means unjust ; by what right do the Dutc h clo se the o f r ! r c o n mouths the rive s of Germany Joseph , howeve , tented himself with threats and with sending do wn the river 2 t wo hi u ﬁre d. r s ps , upon which the D tch War was , neve

1 Th e e xt re me sple n do r o f t h e Fre n ch c o urt st ruc k h im w it h ast o nish me n t h e arn e t arn h is sist e r o f th e re su t Hi im ir n an d e s w e . s s e at t e as u e r ly d l pl , d t h e in c o nito of o un t a e n st e in h e v isit e th e u ic ui din s e t c an d g C F lk , d p bl b l g , . , min e w it h t h e e o e at t ract e univ e rsa a mirat io n He w as raise at t h e gl d p pl , d l d . p d e en se o f his c o r u e n t an d t hi c - s u e ro th e r-l n -l aw Lo uis X VI xp p l k k ll d b , A n o s yeux ét o n n és de sa simplic it é a e n st ein a mo n t r l a ma e st san s fast e F lk é j é . h e n o us ar uh h o n t e u c o n t rast e C z , p x ’ u a- t - il t ro uv du fast e san s ma e st Q é! j é .

o se h v isite sev era is tin uish e me n urin h i s st a in aris amo n o t h ers J p d l d g d d g y P , g , uffo n t h e reat n at ura ist t o w h o m h e sai I b e o u w i i v e me t h e Co B , g l , d , g y ll g py ” r n m ro th e r His ro t h e r Ma imi ian o f o o n e o f o ur w o r fo o t t e . y k g by y b b , x l C l g , “ h ad ru e refuse a c o o ffe re t o h im Buffo n w it h t h e remar I w i d ly d py d by , k , ll ” ’ b o u o f it Th e e m e ro r a so mo un t e t o R o usseau s w re t c h e arre t n o t ro . y p l d d g , w h e re h e fo un h im o cc u ie in c o in n o t e s fo r h e w as n o o n e r t h e io n of d p d py g , l g l t h e da On h is re tu rn to h is o minio n s h e n e e c te wh e n at Ge n e v a t o v isit y . d , gl d , , mm r it Th e h i o so h e r w as mo rt a w o un e o taire w h o se i o a h e e t e st e . V l , l y d d p l p lly d d i ro o f o f isre s e c t o se h o n t h e o t h e r h an did n o t fai t o h o no r t h s . by p d p J p , d , l e rt v o n Ha e r t h e e mine nt o e t and h sician with a v isit o n h is ro ute A lb ll , p p y , V o n E r ach t h e h i h o rn ma o r of e rne a so aw ait e h is ro u h e rne . t h g B l , g b y B , l d in h is c ast e with an t e c an n o n an d a re at is l a o f ma n i c e nce arriv al l pl d g d p y g fi , h imse f ann o un c e un er th e t it e o f o un t o se h h o w e v e r me re an d h ad l d d l C ; J p , , ly “ n t h im h is v er a e c use s th at h e w as t o o u st fro m t rav e in t o v isit such se b l x , d y ll g ” fin e nt eman A o o e sso n fo r t h e re u ic an s ! a e g l . g d l p bl 9 Kaun it z h ad v ainly att empt e d t o dissuade t h e e mpe ro r fro m t his sc h eme “ ” nd h ad a w a s sai Th e w i fire u o n th e m wh ich o se h refuse t o a l y d , y ll p , J p d ’ i Th e e v en t h ad no so o ner answ e re Kaunitz s e ec tatio n th an h e be l ev e . d xp

1 322 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

w t o e t b taken prisoner , marched to Ghent , were allo ed n er y t he the deceived garrison , and took city . The Austrians u nder General Bender alone retained possession of Luxem

. On 1 1 t h 1 79 0 h burg the of January , , the whole of t e N eth “ n U l m erla ds , under the name of nited Be giu , declare d

. n itself independent A dispute , however , arose amo g the

victors . The hierarchical faction , to which Van de r N o o t

o . w c bel nged , attacked the eaker demo ratical party , the V o n c kist s l V , so ca led from its principal leader, onck , which had countenanced t h e insurrection in the h ope of t h e estab l ishm e nt o f c a republi ; they were , moreover, followers of th e m odern French ph ilosophers and the avowed enemies r o of the priesthood . Thei h uses were plundered ; their gen r e al , Mersch , a devoted partisan of the democratical cause , was divested of the co mmand ; several persons were cruelly o murdered ; one , for instance , who mocked a processi n , had l ’ his head sawn off. Joseph s unpopularity in t h e Nether lands w as chieﬂy occasi o ned by his offer to cede them to r H l Bava ia . o w could his zea for the welfare of his subjects ﬁnd credence when he attempt ed to sell them to anothe r sovereign ! m m About the sa e ti e , the Hungarian nobility assumed c u o su h a threatening attit de , and found means to r use the o t o as pe ple such a pitch of excitement, that Joseph w com p e l l e d to revoke the whole of his ordinances for the welfare

r . On h of Hunga y hearing that even the peasantry , on w om h e had attempted to bestow such immense beneﬁts , had risen him “ m against , he exclaimed , I shall die , I ust be made of ” wood if this does not kill me ! and three weeks after ward r o m t rm fo he expi ed , after rev king his most i por ant refo s r t h e sake o f avo iding the necessity - o f having recourse to ex

. r 20 1 79 0 treme measures He died at Vienna on Feb uary , , ” r as Jellenz observed , a centu y too early , and as Remer

1 I n t h e in sur ent arm a a uch in w as t o b e se en w e arin a h i h ac ca g y, C p g g bl k p t o w h ich an e no rmo us c o c kade w as at tach e d ; in h is h an ds h e carrie d a sabre and a c ruc i in h is e o w ir e ist o s a nife and a ro sar h is o wn was ﬁx ; y ll g dl , p l , k y ; g

sew n u e t w e e n h is e s w hich w ere st uc are i nt o sh o rt o o t s . p b l g , k b b THE RISE OF PR OSSIA 1 323

o f so v e r said , mistaken by a people unworthy such a ei gh . r m J o seph II . (der And e) was handso e in his person ; his “ r m eyes we e blue and expressive , hence the saying I perial ” o r r a o . r c blue , in de to denote th t col r in the eye Frede i k o o f t o o r the Great thus sp ke him in a letter V ltai e , Edu at d r r m o h c e amid bigot y , he is f ee fro superstiti n ; abituated h is r to pomp , habits are simple ; grown up amid ﬂatte y , he ” is still m o dest . His bronze statue at Vienna bears the following just in “ : o se h o ae v ix it n o n din scription J p Secundo , qui saluti public “ l r o e . r sed totu Sho t y befo e his death , he wrote , Alth ugh rm r ro o o th ere ha v e fo e ly been Ne s and a Di nysius , alth ugh there have been tyrants w h o abused the power delivered t o m t is o n h the by fa e , it t at account just , under pretence ’ o fo r c r of guarding a nati n s rights the future , to pla e eve y m o m i aginable bstacle in the way of a prince , the easures of who se g o v ernment solely aim at the welfare of his subject s ! I know my own heart ; I am convinced of the since rity m m m o of y intentions , of the uprightness of y tives , and I r n o o t ust that when I shall l nger exist , posterity will judge more justly and m o re impartially of my exertions for the ” welfare of my people .

His brother and successor, Leopold III . , whose govern o f c r m r ment Tus any offe ed a model to princes , ade eve y o r t o c concession to the n bility and clergy , in orde con iliate re im e o his subjects , and restored the ancient g through ut

. r n o t Austria The whole of the monasteries we e , however , o o o w as n o t re pened ; in B hemia, b ndage reinforced ; and the r Luthe ans and Reformers were also tolerated . All the other r privileges of the nobility and clergy were resto ed . Tuscany d ’ o . r fell to Ferdinan , Leop ld s second son The Dutch we e granted an am nesty and the full enj o yment o f their ancient r m p ivileges , but they had already beco e habituated to the r t o independence they had asserted and efused submit . Gen ‘ r o r e al Sch nfeld , the leade placed at the head of the i nsur ru at r m gents by P ssia , ﬁ st aintained a haughty demeanor, 1 324 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o n ri but , the reconciliation of Aust a with Prussia at the con r c gress of Reichenbach , he appea s to have a ted under con t rary orders and to have made use o f his positi o n to ruin t h e

t t o . m cause he pre ended uphold Avoiding an engage ent , he marched up and down the country until the im perialists r r w t h e were reinfo ced , when he ret eated and thre up com

. o a mand General Kohler, who was app inted to repl ce him , r e ﬂed to B ussels , where his troops , assisted by the populac , o m st r ed the house of assembly , plundered the arsenal and m e t o agazines and decamp d , leaving the Austrians enter the country unopposed .

F red rick ill m CCXXXIX . e W ia the Sec o n d

“ ” OL D R I T Z t h e r m r r F , as P ussians na ed thei g eat mon

1 786 . arch , had expired in He retained his faculties to the last ; his eccentricities had , however , increased , and , m h e r in his conte pt for the whole human race , exp essed r o o r a wish to be bu ied am ng his fav ite greyhounds .

h . o His nep ew , Frederick William II , was an additi nal pro of of the l ittle resemblance existing between the different rc h f o . t e m o m na hs of Prussia He left achine government, r c r r m a rang ed by his un le , unalte ed , but int usted its anage c m m i wh o o r ment to weak and in o petent in sters , enc u aged fo n dhe ss fo r o t o r his the sex , his inclinati n bigot y , and his ’

. r r belief in apparitions Frederick s faithful se vant , He z h e m r re berg , t aged minister , was re oved f om ofﬁce and o c placed by W llner , a wret hed charlatan , who strengthened ’ the king s belief in ghosts by means of optical gl asses ; by r B o r r w h o o Gene al isch fswe der , a p iestly slave , pposed tolera L uc h e sin i o m r o m tion ; by and L ba d , weak dipl atists , who t h e o f r r unnerved policy P ussia ; by thei want of decision , their impolitic want of faith ; and by the t wo mistresses o f the

king , Madame Rietz , created Countess Lichtenau , and the fa ra o . F ulein von V ss , created Countess Ingenheim These v o rit e s were utterly devoid of talent and m erely rendered the

business of state a mass of inextricable confusion . Docu

1 326 THE HISTORY OE GERMA N Y

n in 1 75 7 h th e conq uest of Be gal ; , by the Englis , expulsion o f h r w as the Dutc f om the Indian continent planned , but 1 h the first outbreak of the war was occasioned in 780 , by t e public sale in Holland of English ships captured by N o rth m r A e ican privateers . A small D utch fleet and a number o f r h r Dutch me c antmen we e seized by the English . The weak r c h ness of the navy was , with g eat justi e , laid to the c arge wh o of the duke of Brunswick , had neglected it in o rder m o o to set the ar y on a better f oting , and he was c mpelled to n resig his authority . The Dutch , nevertheless , twice suc c e e de d i n repulsing the English fleet on the D o gge rsb an k and on its way to the Sound ; but they suffered t errible o r l sses in the co l o nies . They we e also abando ned by France w ar and Russia, the chief authors of the , and were finally o m o f 1 783 c pelled, by the peace Versailles , , to cede Naga m m pata , their principal settle ent on the Indian continent , m several African colonies , and even their ancient mariti e

v w a ﬂ a . pri ilege , hich protected the c rgo beneath their g This ill - starred peace increased the unpopularity of the heredi w h o o f tary stadtholder , was completely ruled by the duke m r u w . t c Br ns ick His open atte p s to usu p monar hical power , r o W t h e in which he was encou aged by his cons rt , ilhelmina , r i W . o o sister of F ederick ill am II , by C unt G ertz , the Prus r r c o e n sian ambassado , and by Har is , the mali i us English o o an d m voy , added to the p pular exasperati n , the stor , which m r 1 r o . the F ench had also greatly f ented , at length bu st forth On 4t h 1 78 6 G ze l aar o r c the of September , , y of D rd e ht de c l are d in the states general that all the evil that had befallen the republic took its rise in the bosom of the ﬁrst servant o f o the state , the hereditary stadtholder . These w rds were a fo r rm r r o signal revolt . The a ed bu gher gua d diss lved the o f c o Or U councils , all whi h fav red the house of ange, at trecht ,

1 Sin c air t h e c e e rat e Sc o t c h o it ical e c o nomist w h o w as at t h at t ime l , l b d p l , t rav el in t h ro u h Ho an e re s se h imse f st ro n a ain st t h e in t ri ue s o f l g g ll d , xp d l gly g g ran c e D ut h men e re ri e w it h mo n e re v io us o rro w e fro m th eir F . c w b b d y p ly b d c o unt r me n th e h o use o f t h e re nch am as sa o r w as a te m e o f e n us to y ; F b d pl V , w h om v irt ue w as sacriﬁ c e d ; abusiv e and immo ral pamphl e t s fo un d a l arge ’ sa e —Sinclair s L e l . if . THE RISE OF PR OSSI A 1 327

e e e tc . Amst rdam , Rott rdam , The province of Holland ﬁrst t he t h e o r declared deposition of stadtholder, who to k efuge in the fortress of Nimwegen and supplicated aid fro m P rus i w as r sia . Freder ck William hesitated and at ﬁ st unwilling o n m to have recourse to vi lence , upo which Wilhel ina , the imwe e n oer consort of the stadtholder, quitted N g , and , as G tz “ ” o - in his Memoirs says , to k the bold but well planned step of returning to Holland solely for the purp o se o f allowing herself to be insulted by the rebels in order to ro use the vengeance of her brother. The Princess was , in fact , stopped on the frontier and treat ed with little reverence by the citizen l so l die r w as hbwe v e r t o . y ; she , , restored liberty This insult f r of e ed to a Prussian princess decided the king, and he sent o f wh o h ad Ferdinand , duke Brunswick (the same distin ’ g uish e d himself when hereditary prince in the seven years 1 778 r c m war, and again in , by his gallant y in the a p of n o w Troppau , and who held the appointment of generalis s o i rm im of the Pruss an forces), with an a y into Holland , m o o which he speedily , and al ost with ut oppositi n , reduced h o o . w t submission Count Salm , had been charged with

o f U r w . c the defence trecht, secretly withd e The rea tion

m 1 787 al l ~ th e o o r - Or was co plete , and in patri ts anti ange men were deprived of their ofﬁces . u o c m Pr ssia was , in her foreign p licy , pe uliarly ini ical to

. c Joseph II Besides supporting the Dut h insurgents , she instigated the Hungarians to rebellio n and even c o nc luded ’ c m an alliance with Turkey , which o pelled Joseph s suc o t h e m r c Szist o wa cess r, e pero Leopold , by the pea e of , in 1 9 1 r o r e — o o f 7 , to restore Belg ade to the P t The rev lt the 1 789 o people of Liege , in , against their bishop , C nstantine r Francis, also gave Prussia an opportunity to throw a ga ri so n into that city under pretext of aiding the really oppressed c o o f citizens , but , in reality, on a count of the inclinati n the

. o r bishop to favor Austria When , not l ng afte this , Prussia

1 T h e o fﬁ c e r w h o m sh e h ad e e n arre s te re fuse t o uit h e r ro o m an d , by b d , d q re a e himse f with e e r and to c o in h er re se nce —Jac o bi Histor o the g l d l b bac p , y f

D istwrba/nces in the Nether lan ds. 1 32 8 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

i united w th Austria against France , the restoration of t h e o bish p was quietly to lerated .

r W . o o F ederick illiam II , alth ugh misled by W llner an d c h 1 788 ’ Bis hofswerder to publis , in , edicts of censure an d religious o rdinances contrary t o the spirit of t h e times and t t o i t h e o r o f m ab hreatening mpede pr g ess enlighten ent, o r n t o stained from enf ci g hem , and the French philos phy ,

o r r c . o t o r patr nized by F ede i k II , c ntinued p e dominate u nder

o f t h e r - the auspices of the duke Brunswick , g and master o f n m the Maso nic lodges i Ger any . The secret society of Freemasons had in the co mmence ment of this centu ry spread from England over Germ any r and g reatly pro moted the pro g ess of civilizati o n . In Eng r o o f m o land , the ancient co porati n stone as ns had insensibly o o c been converted into a l yal club , which no l nger pra ticed r r architecture , but etained its symbols and elected a p ince

- r of the blood royal as its p esident . After the execution o f m c o t h e h r I . Charles , Ra sey , pre ept r to c ild en of Charles IL , during his exile m ade use of the Scottish Masons in order to

r o r o f th e r . r t he pave the way for the est ation Stua ts Hi am , f o builder o the Temple of S lomon , under whose mystical o r c w as name the Savi ur , the builder of the Ch istian chur h ,

r r o o w as n o w o r r gene ally unde st d , supp sed to rep esent Cha les “ ” m r m . I . , and was honored as the urdered aste The Jes uits played a principal part in this Scott ish Maso n ry and transferred m uch that was jesuitical to M asonry (F re e m a

r o r . On o r so n y the royal art) the sec nd fall of the Stua ts , the n e w Hanoverian dyn asty established an English Pro t

e st an t lodge in opposition to that of Scotland and gave it , as

c o . r its prin ipal symb l , the letter G (George) in a sun F ee ro maso n ry n o w rapidly spread among the P testants , gained a footing in Ham burg (1 733) and in Berlin and ere

1 i ministe r w as e riv e o f h is o fﬁ ce r in Sch u n o w n as th e i t a , . In B e l , lz , k p g l d p d r 'l siast ical e ru e fo r a fash io na l e fo r v e n t urin g t o e xc h an ge th e stat e ly e e p k b o f h rist ian it Th e e ic t s w e re que ue and fo r pre ach ing R at io nalism in st e ad C y . d ir n un iatio n s no r w as t h e h o rro r t h e in s ire imi n ish e t h e b rut al in t h e de c , y p d d d by io ntain in th em ro cee e kn o wle dge th at t h e re ligio us an d moral regulat ns co ed p d d Li h t enau fro m t h e lac ke ys o f a c .

1 330 THE HI STOR Y OF GERMA N Y

constitution , that is , the initiated took the oath of un c o n di t io n al obedience to their secret superio rs . This fanatical conspiracy against religion no sooner became known t o the numerous free - thinkers of Northe rn Germ any than t hey sed ul o usl y endeavored to enter into connection with it, and , by ro v o n the intervention of the notorious Ba n Knigge , a Hano v e rian r Il l umi adventurer noted for talent and dep avity , the m nati became connected with the Free asons , and , by means

o U r of Nicolai , the Berlin bookseller, the edit r of the nive sal r r Ge man Libra y , they had a public organ at once bold and

. ah wary The Illuminati were , notwithstanding , decidedly t ipat h e t ic al to t h e great majority of Freemasons in Northe rn r Ge many . Ferdinand , duke of Brunswick , in his quality as

- grand master, convoked all the German Freemasons to a r Wih e l m sb ad 1 782 g eat congress at near Hanau , in , by wh ic h t h e contradictions that had hitherto appeared in e c l e c it was far re tic Freemasonry , as termed , were as as possible m o f oved . In the ensuing year , the great lodge the Three Globes at Berlin discovered far greater energy by declarin g every perso n who attempted to degrade Freemasonry t o a o f o r society inimical to Christianity incapable , becoming of m m re aining a me ber . T he society of the Illuminati in Bava w as t w o l r c ria , years ater , discovered and st ictly perse uted o ro Weishaupt ﬂed to G tha, where he was p tected m r . im by the duke , Louis Ernest So e of the membe s were

h f . o prisoned , deprived of t eir o ﬁces , etc This als served as o a lesson to the Freemasons , who were thoroughly ref rmed oe r m F e l zl e r by the celebrated actor , Schr de , in Ha burg, and , rm r fo e ly a Capuchin , in Berlin , by on the one hand checking o h the inclinati n to irreligion , on the other , by banis ing dis play and superstition and by restoring the ancient simple r re e rm anizin Anglican system , in a wo d , by g g gallicized

Freemasonry . h The society of the Illuminati continued , meanw ile , to U exist under the name of the German nion , and , as a proof Zim of its power , the innumerable satires published against m erm an n ad in Hanover on his raising its mask , may be THE RISE OF PR USSIA 331

h u e d. v o n d c In Mayence , the coadjutor of the archbis opric , a v Dalberg , had est blished an academy , which ri alled those r o of the Protestants . He e dwelt F rster , the celebrated dis He in se o o coverer , the witty , J hn Muller , the Swiss hist rian , h etc . , and it was here t at Illuminatism took refuge ; Dal berg himself took the oaths and entered the so ciety under

‘ r h n r the name of C escens . Weis aupt was amed Spa tac us ; n o m K igge , Philo ; L uis Ernest , duke of Gotha , Ti oleon ; w h o Ferdinand , duke of Brunswick , had refused entirely o r to renounce his c nnection with the Illuminati , Aa on ; von

a o A m e l ius . dem Busche , Bay rd ; B de , ; Nicolai , Lucian , etc — r im The society was , however, ﬁ st essentially raised in r o t po tance by its c nnection wi h Mirabeau , the talented but unprincipled French agent at Berlin and Brunswick ; and ’ r - o r r We ish au t s Bode , a p ivy c uncillo of the duke of Weima , p “ de m fo r successor , and von Busche visited Paris the pur ”

o f n . O pose illuminati g France Philip , duke of rleans , at

t - r that ime grand maste of the French lodges , received them with open arm s . Their path had already l o ng been sm o o thed m v o n ea by another Ger an , Hollbach , a w lthy nobleman of r V o l the Pfalz , who had fo med a secret society , of which taire was the honorary president and Diderot the m o st active wh o ss r member, and di ipated his wealth in orde to inundate the world with licentious and atheistical works . He was the ”

r c o o em r . autho of that s andal us w rk , Le Syst e de la Natu e

The deadly . hatred with which Philip of Orleans viewed the r o o F ench king, whose thr ne he coveted , the c ndemnation of the revolutionary prin c iples o f the secret so cieties by F reder ick the G reat and still more strongly by Frederick William m . m II , and , ﬁnally , the deep resent ent of the Illu inati , on o o o c acc unt of their persecuti n in Bavaria, caused the s iety o r to rest its hopes on p pular agitation , and , aided by F ench r o f Freemason y , it spread the ideas the liberty and equality m of ankind , of the establishment of a universal republic , of f o o . the fall of royalty , and of the ab lition Christianity The “ m n o favorite saying of the Illu inati was , The last ki g ught ” to be h an ged with t h e entrails of the l ast pri est . These 1 332 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

ideas , unable to take root in Germany , secretly spread and rankled throughout France , the native soil to which they r had eturned .

r CCXL . Ge ma n I nﬂ uen ce i n Scan din a v ia a n d R ussia

WHI L E Germ any was thus a prey to French influence in r r her weste n provinces , her native influence had sp ead to r wa d the east and north . Scandinavia had borrowed f rom her Lutheranism and fresh royal dynasties . The house of r Oldenburg reigned over Sweden and Norway . U nde Fred h V . t e v t v o n erick , Hano erian , John Hartwig Ernes , Count o rff m m 1 75 0 o Bernst , became pri e inister in , and best wed m t o r . grea benefits up n the count y Den ark remained , never t h e l e ss i o r o r m , faithful to her unne ghb ly p licy towa d Ger any , and to ok advantage of the conf usion that universally pre ’ vailed during the seven years war to extort a million from i n the citizens of Hamburg . Frederick V . expired 1 76 6 . o His son and successor , Christian VII . , a being b th mentally l o w r an d and physically degraded , the slave of debauche y o f lly , married Caroline Matilda , an English princess , to m i whose beauty and mental charms he , however, re a ned r m totall y indifferent . In the h o pe that t avelling ight wean h im w as t o m from his gross pursuits , he persuaded ake a

. On tour through Europe the journey , his private physi c ian St ru e n se e r m , a young man named , the son of a cle gy an

in a . of Halle S xony , succeeded in gaining his confidence n r i m O the retu n of the king , whose manners had not been o r St ru e n se e o o ri pr ved by his t avels , in culated the cr wn p nce m o m m m for the s allp x , and by that eans placed hi self on a ore w h o o h intimate footing with the queen , c nstantly watc ed by o f t h e the cradle her child , and they formed a plan to place king entirely beneath t heir influence and to govern in his l d m r an d o r o rff er . o name The iniste s , am ng them Be nst , w e removed ; the nobility lost their influence at co urt ; St ru e nse e ih n r n became prime minister , and , co junction with his f ie d t h e Brand , took upon himself the whole weight of govern

1 334 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y

’ St ru e n se e s w as saving life by a confession of adultery , which is said to ha v e been drawn from her by her compassi o n for him . She is also said to have fainted when confessing her guilt . That an innocent woman would th us consent t o her o w n dishonor is more than improbable , and the only infer r r m ence to be d awn f om the circu stance is , either that o f her u o g ilt or of the imp sition of a false confessi o n . St rue n se e was o , in consequence of this c nfession and o f the ch arge made against him of his fo rm er illegal assum ption of au t h o rit y , sentenced to be deprived of his right hand and of

. r h his head Brand suffe ed the same punis ment in 1 772 . The queen was separated from her husband and banished to Zelle , where , three years afterward , she died of a broken

t - hear , in her twenty fourth year, asserting her innocence r with her latest b eath The king remained , until

1 784 - , under the guardianship of his step brother, in a half

1 . r idiotic state , and died at a great age in 808 F ederick ’ VI . was . o rf his son and successor Peter Andrew, Bernst f s t o m nep hew , succeeded in rising the head of the govern ent, r in the conduct of which he displayed g eat talent and merit . He it was who ﬁrst abolished feudal bondage in Denmark

- and the slave trade in the c olonies . The cession of H o lstein to the Russian line of the ho use of Oldenburg too k place imm ediately after the catastrophe o f 1 772 . w c o In S eden , on the extin tion of the h use of Wittelsbach

r . in the person of Cha les XII , and after the ensuing disputes o f fo r o m for the succession , during which Frederick Hesse s e

t h e c r d o f - Go t time wore own , Adolphus Fre erick Holstein r c o f O r to p , a ollateral branch the house of ldenbu g , had m h o 1 4 . o r w mounted the throne in 7 3 The g ve n ent was , r r o f t h e o m eve , enti ely in the hands n bility , by who , on the o o f r death of Charles XII . , the h nor Sweden had been al eady w sold and the conquests had been ceded without a blo , and r r who , in pu suance of their own petty private interests , we e o Split into a French and Russian faction , the f rmer of which

o t he . was den minated the Hats , other the Caps Gustavus ’ - III . Adolphus Frederick s youthful and high spirited succes THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 335

sor , by a sudden revolution put an end to this wretched aristo cratic go vernment and declared him self so le s o vereign in r r o f 1 771 . His ﬁ st step was the resto ation the ancient glory o f Sweden by a declaration o f w ar with Russia fo r the rule of the Baltic . The war had been carried on at sea with r o o r 1 788 1 79 2 o va i us f tune since , when , in , the king was sh t o m o n e A n karst ro m ac at a masked ball at St ckhol by , an o r n complice of the n bility , who aided him by su roundi g the

r o c m . o r o f Sii de r pe s n of their vi ti His br ther , Cha les , duke m r o r m o r o f ania , unde t ok the gove n ent during the min ity his l m r o I V . r c nephew , Gustavus . Ad lphus Ge any exe ised no ro o c r o o o f cont l ver Sweden , whi h still etained p ssessi n Rugen H r r r and Upper P o m erania . e inﬂuenc e extended fa m o e w r r n e w idely ove Russia , where Peter the G eat had given his r o r r rm m r h ad met op lis , Pete sbu g , a Ge an na e , and whithe he invited great num bers of Germ ans fo r the purp o se of teach in r m g his wild subjects a ts and sciences , ilitary tactics , and m r r o . r o f navigati n A Ge an , the celebrated gi l Marienbu g , o m r t o his ro m o n h wh he aised bed and th ne , beca e , his deat 1 725 c r c t h e in , za ina and auto rat of all Russias , under the .

n m r . w as c c r a e of Cathe ine I She su eeded by Pete IL , the r o r o f o r g ands n of Peter the G eat , the son the unf tunate

. r t o o Alexis Alexis was , like his fathe , subject vi lent ﬁts of

r o . fu y , but was totally unend wed with his intellect Peter , n r ri m r o m h o n atu ally fea ng lest his refor s and egulati ns ig t , ’ o n o t o o c o his s s elevati n the thr ne , be h ked in the bud , con m n him r de e d t o lose his head fo r t h e go o d of his co unt y . Alexis had m arried the Princess Charlotte Christina S o ph ia

- o mi of Brunswick W lfenbuttel , whose history ght well form f m c o r ro . U a subject ance nable to endure his violen e , she gave herself out fo r dead and secretly escaped to N o rth ’ m r A e ica, where , on her husband s death , she married Lieu ’ D A u b an d r o m tenant , a man of great pe s nal erit, with whom i ao she returned to France , his nat ve country , whence she

1 ’ T h e be st acc ount of t his e v e nt is t o b e me t wit h in A rndt s Swe dish His —L i i 1 83 9 t or . e . y pz g , 1 336 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

t o companied him the Mauritius or Isle de France , where

o . On he held an app intment his death , she returned to

Paris , where she ended her adventurous life at a great age .

t o ~ Peter II . owed his succession the thro ne t o the in ﬂ u o f o l d m ence the Russian party a ong the nobility , particularly D o l o ro u k to that of Prince g y , by whom the Germans were n o f o regarded with feeli gs the deepest h stility . He expired 1 730 in , and , with the consent of Anna and Elisabeth , t wo r the su viving daughters of Peter the Great , one of his nieces was raised to the Russian throne . Ivan , the brother h ad t wo i of Peter the Great, left daughters , Cather ne , mar t o r o f r ried Cha les , the unworthy duke Mecklenbu g , and n r t o o f r r A na , mar ied the last the Kettler family , F ede ick l W Co url an d . c o n un c illiam , duke of Anna was , at this j

o o f . ture , a wid w , and the reigning duchess Courland She i n w h e r m r resided great privacy at ith para our , E nest 'Mitau o r von Bir n , the g andson of a hostler, whose wife she retained

near h e r pe rso n as a cl o ak to their intercourse . The weak ’ ness of Anna s c onduc t had pointed her out as a pro per tool t h e o to old Russian facti n , as a puppet in whose name they

r i . o r o r could e gn These expectati ns we e , h weve , deceived ; o n m i o o u Anna , ount ng the thr ne , disc vered the tmost energy de i o f m and cision , intrusted the admin stration the e pire to r i l m t h e o l d Ge mans d stinguished for ta ent , and hu bled Rus

n o . r 8 1 a faction am ng the nobility Biron , whom she c eated w as i s t r o h duke of Courland , , it rue , a bette l ver t an states m an b ut Sh e in t e l l i , repaired that weakness by placing an O m i w h o gent theologian , ster ann , a nat ve of Mark , had been h u w h o compelled t o ﬂee is country on account of a d el , and h d had been the instructor of her yout , at the hea of diplo Mii n n ic h n m O matic affairs , and , a noblema fro ldenburg , wh o had fought at Malplaq u et an d had afterward planned n r m rk the great Ladoga ca al at Pete sburg , a man re a able

1 o io n o f t h i s w e in e t e r th e Gre at h ad al l t h e warfs i n his On th e ccas dd g , P d - o u i e st ir e t e Th e re w e re se v e nt t wo o f t h e m. Th e t w immen se e mp e c oll c d . y gl o m l e t o marr and th e ceremo n was e rforme ami t he o es and w e re c pe l d y , y p d d j k m c o urt jee rs o f t h e asse ble d .

1 3 38 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

Charles of Sa xony h ad been raised by Russian i nﬂuence t o the government of Co urland . The favors showered by Peter t he m o f h upon Ger ans , numbers whom e invite d into t h e co untry for the purpose of bestowi ng u pon th em the highes t fi e m of c s in the ar y and in the state , rendered h im hateful to the Russian nobility . T he despotic t emper he had inherited hi fro m s grandfather and h is contem ptuous treatment of his c o s r n s - e rb 1 r n o t , Catherine , Pri ces of Anhalt Z st , ai sed ene mies around his person , and Catherine , an imperious an d e ambitious woman , plac d herself at the head of the con s irat o rs an d o o p , took him prisoner p is ned him , in She mounted t h e throne o f Rus sia under the name of Cath e s erine IL , surround d her elf with Russian and German tal an d mi a o r ent , , in i t ti n of Frederick the G eat, played the r i philosophe wh le enacting the despot . Her most celebrated minis te rs and generals were at the same time her l o vers ; t t s ill , notwiths anding her licentious manners , she had a

sh e c o rre s o n de d r highly cultivated mind ( , p by lette with s a o o f an d the mo t distinguished s vants and p ets Europe), r l as discovered equal ene gy and skil a diplomatist . By t h e r c o o n r partition of Poland , by f esh nquests the Tu kish fron tier, and by her encouragement of civilization in the interio r he r m r r a o o f of unwieldy e pi e , she inc e sed the p wer Russia

. t o r di fo r os an ext aor nary degree , and this purp e made use l m r of a mu titude of Ger ans , who unceasingly emig ated to m s r . o r Rus ia , the e to seek their fortune A ng othe s , her

o W u - o d c usin illiam Aug stus , duke of Holstein Gott rp , studie n t h e avigation on board the Russian ﬂeet, but, falling from

' A n allian c e h ad fo rme rly be e n at t empt e d t o b e fo rme d be twe e n him and A me ia t h e au h t e r o f re e ri c Wi iam I o f ru ssia b ut h ad e e n re v e nte l , d g F d k ll . P , b p d by t h e de c larat io n of t h at king t h at h e sh o uld de em h imse lf dish o n o re d by h e r a o tio n o f t h e Gre e faith d p k . ‘1 Sh e h ad o rne h im a so n wh o m h e refuse t o ac no w e e an d w h o rst b , d k l dg , ﬁ mo un te t h e im e ria th ron e as au I o n th e eath of h is mo th e r He mar d p l P l . , d . rie in 1 776 t h e rin c e ss D o ro th ea A u usta So hia o f Wurt e mb e r w h o on d , , P g p g, , er m rr r h h M r n h e b e h a ia e w as re a ti e th e G e e c urc aria F e de o w a. S g , b p z d by k , c ame t h e mo th e r o f t h e em ero rs Al e an er and Nic o as of t h e ran dduke s Co n p x d l , g st an tin e and Mich ae of Cath erine ueen ofWurt ember an d ofAnna rincess l , , q g, , P o ran e f O g . THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 339 m t h c in as ead , when sailing in the Balti , was drowned ,

« 1 77 1 . Noble German families from Estho nia and Courland t ook their place beside the ancient Russian nobility in al l m o fﬁces c ivil or military . Ger an savants guided the in t m r m ernal civilization of the e pi e , her acade ies , her mines , ’ r m that ever f uitful source of Russia s wealth . Ger an intel l ige n c e w as in every direction actively em plo yed in m o lding the rude natural p o we rs o f the country and o f the people into a fearful weapon against Germ any . The Germ an elem ent still c o ntinued to preponderate in rm o c o n c i o the Ge an pr vin es the Balti , Livon a , Esth nia , and o r c r r o r r r o C u land , whi h , eithe at an ea lier at the p esent pe i d , r r c r t he c fell unde Russian ule . The ivil p ivileges of ities ,

r u r o o w . pa tic la ly th se of Riga , s lely under ent a change The co nstitutio ns o f the free towns ill acc o rded with the Russian o o f o r m 1 785 o r m de g ve n ent, and , in , were f cibly exchanged f r o c o the p liti al and ﬁnancial regulations of the govern o rs . The nobility al o ne retained the who le of its an c ient p rivi o w t o r o m r o l leges , ing the p ed inance of the a ist cratic as wel r r as that o f the auto c atic p inciple in Russia . A revo lt o f r wh o m n e the Lettish peasant y , had i agined that the w

ro - m o m o r m in c wn tax , i p sed upon the by the g ve n ent, was tended t o liberate them fro m their anc ient obligatio ns to the m r o r 1 783 . native Ge an nobility , was suppressed by f ce , in o f m ro r r ro U h Even under the reign the e pe Alexande , Ba n r - t r r o o o ro o ge n S e nbe g , an Esthonian n ble , f ll wed the p fessi n o r- o f o l d m o f r of the r bbe knights , by eans false signals d ew s o m u r hips up n sandbanks and rocks , pillaged them , and

r o r w h o c r de ed th se of the c ew es aped d owning . He was at 1 o t o m length captured and c ndemned the ines .

1 i e et ri ic t ure s o f Li v o nia and Esth o nia a rich source o f info rmatio n V d P , P , co nce rnin th o se o un tries g c . 1 340 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

The r r CCXLI . M n o Ge m an Co urts

WHI L E Austria and Prussia pursued a new polit ical path un e t o f m der Joseph and Fr derick , the cour s ino r impo rtan c e r e c perseve ed for the gr ater part in their an ient course , or sought to heighten the luxury they had learned from L o uis

. b S XIV y imitating the military plendor of Frederick II . The predilection of the Prussian monarch for the French lan guage had , moreover , brought it, together with French man o r ners and customs , into vogue at all the German c u ts an d a r r mong the whole of the Ge man nobility . Eve y young o f t o t o o man family was sent Paris ﬁnish his educati n , to r o f be initiated into every desc iption vice , an d to acquire bon o f ton , as it was termed , all which they were assisted on their return in disseminating throughout Germany by Fre nch am b assado rs t , spies , eachers of French and dancing , barbers , ‘ u se and governesses . The of the German language was h considered a mark of t e lowes t vulgarity . French alone

o ra . r r was t le ted And it was by this perve ted , unpat iotic n obil ity that the weak p rinces were led still further astray and Germany was misgoverned .

. t Augustus III and Bruhl had , after the peace of Huber s f burg , returned to Saxony , where , unmoved by the su ferings of the people during the war , they continued their former re re luxurious habits . Their ﬁrst business was a splendid p o f T h al e st ris o m o r sc utation , an pera co p sed by the P incess 1 763 r o . e e Ma ia Ant nia Augustus was succe d d, in , by t r - s e Frederick Augus us, a p ince morally well dispo ed , whos s o sole noxious amusement was his pas i n for the chase , so o detrimental to the peasantry . He was als devoid of the ambitious pretension of grasping at the crown of P o land .

“ 1 t h e ir Ge rman u i s with ti o n v o us Th e Fre n ch gov e rne sse s re pro v e d p p l , , ” “ ’ rendroit our une A e man e o r sai in t h eir raise c e st un t r so r ue l a p p ll d , d p , é q ’ ” mo isel e E l e ne fait as nu mo t d Al l emand. D e l . l p

1 342 THE HISTORY OF GERMAN Y being consi derably increased by the badness of the govern

’ o - as ment . A Countess T rring Seefeld w the favorite of the c was r o r ele tor , who , moreover , gove ned by his confess , the

- u a ex Jesuit , Frank , who also cond cted the gre t persecution o r of the Illuminati . App intments we e shamefully sold ; brutality and stupidity were the characteristics of the rul r o ing powers ; the opp essi n was terrible . The elector was c o m pelled to undertake a petty campaign against a b o ld B robber , the notorious iesel , one of those spirits called fo rth by tyrannical stupidity on the part of a government —The

o o f - Zwe ib ruc ke n Pfalzgraf Charles , of the c llateral line Pfalz , o m m c only resided on the Carlsberg near Zweibrucken , where r he kept ﬁfteen hundred horses , and a still g eater number of m r dogs and cats , which required the attention of a nu e o us

- h o usehold . He collected upward of a thousand pipe heads

- and innumerable to ys . Every passer by was com pelled to o ff o n c m r d his hat o ing in sight of the Carlsberg ; a fo eigner, o o f l aw was ign rant the , , on one occasion , nearly beaten to death . W urt e m b er r n r In g , the duke , Cha les Euge e , reigned f om m 1 744 o 1 79 3 . w as , when he attained his aj rity , until He , in m m r c . any espe ts , extremely re arkable Learned , and gifted

was o f r c . with taste and talent , he the slave luxu y and vi e m n He spent en o rm o us su s o the army . He so ught t o unite

r c . o n r . L o uis XIV . and F ederi k II in his w pe son Educated r r r was o n in the academy of F ede ick the Great at Be lin , he , account of the excellency of his conduct , declared by that t o m monarch ﬁt assu e the reins of government , in his sev e n t e e n t h year ; but he h ad no sooner returned t o St ut t gard o m m m than , with his friend C unt Pappenhei , he co itted the m o c o f o ro st boyish a ts f lly , using the inhabitants with false rm an d o cries of ala during the night, thr wing hoops over t h e heads of those who ventured t o peep from their w in h im o . . r . o d ws , etc , etc F ederick II had best wed upon the his o o f Baire ut h hand of niece , Elisabeth Frederica S phia , notwithstanding which Charles embraced the im perial cause ’ during the seven years war , in order to bribe the empress THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 343 and the impe rial Aulic council to overlook the crimes com

mit t e d . t m by him against his country He also , at that i e ,

" m m t o ac cepted enormous su s of money fro France , trusting whose support he divo rced his guiltless conso rt on a craftily laid charge o f inﬁdelity . A certain Rieger led him t o expend imm ense sums on military show The best artists o f Rome m e l l i N o e rre V e st ris r h i o v s . and Paris , J , , , we e in pay He in b uilt the Solitude , which he placed a complete and sepa

h - a . rate establishment , with churc , etc , on a forest grown mountain , and rendered the whole year a succession of fetes ,

r a . . ope as , ballets , gr ndes battues , etc , etc Montmartin , the m r m r pri e minister, a F ench an , who treated the se vile Ger m s o o r t ans with the c rn they so richly merited , ext ted heir money by the most barefaced exactions of every description , of by taxes , by the sale public offices , and was faithfully Wit t l e de r r o t h e aided by , a Thu ingian , who had come int o r o r c unt y as a Prussian subaltern to give less ns in d illing , and had beco me director o f the ecclesiastical council and ro o f r enriched himself with plundering the p perty the chu c h . r c h o This w et h , who was aut orized to sell all civil app int t was e r men s , for which he to receive ten p cent , usually said “ c t fl o rin to the appli an , Give the duke five hundred s and me ” one th o usand ! In order to rende r th is source of revenu e m r o f n e w o still o e lucrative , he created a number app int ments and rendered affai rs so uselessly c o m plex that the W urt emb e rg system becam e henceforw ard a proverbial nuisan c e . Wu rt e mb e r h e r g still possessed ancient provincial diet , o c o m m but its p wer was sadly crippled . A select ittee had o o ff r t h e seized the wh le contr l over the a ai s of state , which it adm inistered in secret without rendering an account to the ’ o . Mo n t m art in s t o HOE pe ple order o the pr vincial collectors, Stalu dl in t o t o him o o f mann and , deliver up the wh le their o m r t o o . funds , first r used the pp o sition The duke , howeve , surrounded t h e h o use o f assem bly with his troo ps and seized n the whole contents of the treasury i 1 75 8 . The author of t he submissively couched protest of the diet , the provincial 1 344 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

l r o o counci lo , J hn Jacob M ser , the best head and the honest m an r r est in the count y , was ar ested , and pined unheard for r Ho h e n t i l m ﬁve years in the fo tress of v e . Mont artin dec lared

t o o - to the. Estates , that the duke was far lofty minded ever ” t o e m to allow laws b prescribed to him by people like the . o r 1 62 m He established a great l tte y in 7 , co pelled the peo t o r e t wo o ple pu chase tickets , and s nt hundred l ts for sale t o d r the diet , and , on its protesting against it , the awing o f the r w as lotte y , in deﬁance , ﬁxed to take place within the h o use

- . ro c of assembly He ﬁnally p je ted an income tax , which l d rew at least ﬁfteen kre u t ze rs annually fro m the most ih di e n t a o o g among the popul ti n , and r se at an equal rati o . f o f r Huber, the grand bailif Tubingen , p otested against this o f impositio n . A deputation the c itizens hastened into the ’ duke s presen c e and represented to h im the misery o f the “ c r . o w as o o r ount y His nly reply the exclamati n , C unt y ! ” what country ! I am the country ! and an o rder for the in m o f stant arch several regiments into Tubingen . Huber and the m ost respectable am ong the citizens were carried t o o o . pris ners the citadel , and the tax was levied by f rce The Estates carried their com plaint before the supreme court o r t o of judicature , and , wing to the ene getic support granted m r b . c the y Frede ick II , gained their ause . The duke was sentenced by the im perial Aulic c o uncil instantly t o liberate o o m o f o c n M ser, to desist fr every species vi len e , and withi the space of t w o m o nths t o enter into a c o nstitutional agree T h ment with the Estates . Moser was set at liberty . e duke o o o n St ut t ard instantly t k his revenge the city of g , which had 1 76 4 o sided with Tubingen , by migrating , in , with his wh le c r r m fo r r ou t to Ludwigsbu g , where he re ained seve al years , deceiving t h e Estates with m ock p rom ises while endeavo r m o m r o m fo r ing , by eans of M nt a tin , wh he despatched that

1 n i h mo n e —Trans A bo ut ﬁv e pe nc e E gl s y . 9 D an n o f T ubinge n an d o th e r me mbe rs o f t h e die t h av in g at t empt e d t o b ring t h e co mmitt e e o f th e E st at e s t o ac co un t fo r it s fo rme r se c re t an d arbit rary pro c e edin s c o n c e rnin w h ich Mo se r h ad it in h is o w e r t o iv e fu info rmatio n g , g p g ll , i r a i i r i n n ou il in h a e rev ente i th e c omm tt e e d e de d h s l be at o a d w ld w l gly v p d t .

1 346 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

a m he built the magniﬁcent ch teau of Hohenhei for his bride . o f o Records every clime and of every age were here c llected . A Turkish mosque contrasted its splendid dome with t he pillared Roman temple and the steepled Gothic church . The castled turret rose by the massive R o m an tower ; the l o w picturesque hut of the modern peasant stood beneath the shelter o f the gigantesque remains o f antiquity ; and imita o Ce st ius ti ns of the pyramids of , of the baths of Diocletian , - o a Roman senate house and Roman dungeons , met the ast n

- ish e d eye . The pious minded prince also established a n ew 1 787 u lottery , and , in in order to raise f nds , sold a thou o f w h o t o sand his subjects to the Dutch , sent them the fe r r w . r Indies , whence but of them etu ned They we e , more o f over , cheated of their legal pay . The sale public appoint

o m . 1 770 o c c u ments als reco menced The duke had , since , o h im pied himself with the Charles C llege , so called after , r r whe e the scholars , who were kept with milita y severity , received excellent instruction in all the free sciences . This r academ y produced many men of talent . The cu se of tyr u o f anny , nevertheless , lay over the co ntry , and one the students belonging to the academy , the great Frederick r Schiller, grew up in hat ed of the yoke and ﬂed . Schubart , w as r an older and equally liberal poet , t eacherously seized and conﬁned by the duke for ten years on the Ho he nas berg .

In Baden , the Margrave , Charles Frederick , became cele n ﬁ n b rat e d for the mildness and b e e c e c e of his government .

He ab o lished feudal service in 1 783 .

- r w h o In Hesse Cassel reigned the Landgrave F ederick , r t o o f sought to aise Cassel a residence the ﬁrst rank , erected a x - r palaces and ch teau , laid out pleasure g ounds , founded

m m . w as acade ies , immense museu s , etc , and ever in want n of money . Among other public nuisa ces , he established a

lottery , and , after draining the purses of his miserable sub

e c t s hi . 1 776 j , enriched mself by selling their persons In , he

co ncluded a treaty with England , by which he agreed to furnish twelve thousand Hessians for the service of her THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 347

’ - colonies . Hesse Cassel , at that period , merely contained r fou r hundred thousand inhabitants . English commissione s visited Cassel and exam ined the m e n purchased by their h ad m . c o government, as if they been cattle for sale The plaints of parents fo r the loss of their sons were severely m r o t o punished , the men were i p is ned , the women sent the fﬁ penitentiary . This human tra c was also carried on during ’ o m the reign of Ge rge Willia , Frederick s son and successor . The last Hessians sent to the colo nies were fo ur thou sand m in r 1 794 . r Se u e numbe , in The celeb ated relates in his “ bio graphy : N 0 o ne was at that tim e safe fro m the under t rafﬁc ke r f m n strappers of this in the bodies and souls o e . r r r r : o r Eve y means we e eso ted to persuasi n , cunning , f aud ,

o . r ro n vi lence Fo eigners of every sort were seized , th w into m ri o o . c c o ro p s n , and s ld My acade i al ins ripti n , the only p of ”

m m w as o c . am w as of y legiti ation , t rn to pie es Se e sent out of the co untry with the Hessians to ﬁght fo r England m r r against the A e icans du ing the war of independence . His r o f Ho rac e daily rec eation , the study , attracted the attention r r of his supe io s and he was made sergeant . An enthusiastic h e t o r wh o so republican , was compelled se ve against those — glori o usly asserted their freedo m a n d thei r rights Hanau o n e o t wo r W r also furnished th usand hund ed ; aldeck , seve al

r rm W urt e m b er - o hund ed Ge an slaves ; g, Saxe G tha , and the o f o r m bish o p Munster foll wed thei exa ple . L o uis IX . o f

- r m o o m Hesse Da mstadt, the best dru mer in the h ly R an

m r r 1 9 0 . e pi e , expi ed in 7 r Baire ut h o F ederick, Margrave of , expended the wh le

1 “ ’ Almo st al l t h e p rinc e s are marchands d hommes fo r t h e po w e rs t h at pay ” ’ t h em h i h e st fo r t h e me n and t a e t h e m o n t h e e asie st on itio n s —Mémozres g k c d . ’ “ de F eu uzéres f a th o usan e ar a o it a ai o T ri . A c o u e o s w s s f th e an s q pl d y g d y , ‘ ’ ‘ th at th eir me rc h an t r rin e W an a i h e ua t rut h o ur rin e s w e e c s . e c s w t c s p y q l , p h av e e come m e rc h an t s t h e o ffe r e v er t h in fo r sa e ran e co ratio n s t it e s b , y y g l , k , d , l , ’ “ l aw and ust ic e and e e n t h e erso n o f th eir u t s - Th e re is a He s v s s ec . , j , p bj sian rin c e o f h i h ist in c t i o n H h a m ni h e asant - re se r . e s a c e nt a ac e s v e s p g d g ﬁ p l , p p at Wil h el msb ad o e ras mist re sse s e t T h e se t h in s o st mo n e He h a c . c . s , p , , g y , mo re o v e r a h o ar o f e t s th e re su t o f t h e u ur o f h is sain t e fo refath e rs , d d b , l l x y d . Wh at do e s t h e princ e do in th is dile mma! He se ize s an unl uc ky fe llo w in t h e s t re e t e e n s ft o ars o n h is e ui me nt se n s h im o ut o f t h e c o untr and , xp d ﬁ y d ll q p , d y, e t s a h un r l m in n —H r e o ars fo r h i e ch a e . ue el nwr g d d d l x g g . 1 348 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y re e t d n re an venue of his p t y territory in buil i g , in theat s, d

- - t s . e o in l aw fe e Fr derick IL , his br ther , on viewing t he splendid plan of the Hermitage , observed , In this I cann ot ” e u . ed 1 763 q al you He di in , without issue , and Bai xa r reuth fell to Ale nder, Ma grave of Anspach , who was com l e t e l his s s p y governed by mi tre s , an Englishwoman , Lady e h is u Craven , and who sold ﬁfte n hundred of s bjects to Eng o On c s . t o m land for ol nial ervice their refusal arch , he sent f o . r them out the country in chains His f equent travels, in w w as c d hich he a companied by La y Craven , cost the c oun o o t r c r t l try en rm us sums , and he at leng h , ﬁ st se e y, then in h openly , ceded the whole territory , together with its abi

. n tants , to Prussia The Margraviate would , on accou t of

" n o f t c o the failure of legitimate issue , independe tly his essi n , h u T he have re vert ed t o t e Pr ssian line. excellent adminis t rat io n m e h ad i 1 792 c o n of the inister, Hardenb rg , , s nce , t he e s o soled p ople for the mi eries they had so l ng endured.

’ r s e s Cha le , duk of Brun wick , who reigned during the ’ war w as ic c o l in i se ven years , a spendthrift, paid N , the bal

- r u a d r s s ub let master, a salary of thi ty tho s n dolla s , old his

e c t s e m . j , and was ver on bad ter s with his Estates His t U wh o se bro hers , Anthony lric , espou d a niece of Anna, m o d n e press of Russia , and wh se son mounte the Russia r u a th one , Louis , who acquired s ch unpopularity in Holl nd , ’ t h e e and Ferdinand , the great leader in s ven years war, T o gained greater celebrity. w of his brothers also fell dur ’ w ar S r ing the seven years , Albert at orr, Frede ick at Hoch h r n o t o W e d ir . sa k ch His sister, Eli beth C isti a , was cons rt h r . s o n s w o erick I His and uccessor , Ferdinand , had g eatly

m o e d t m . distinguished hi self in the ﬁeld , intr duc a be ter syste His reﬁne d and cultivated mind and benevolent heart ren

’ m o f m o r dered h i the idol the Free as ns , who elected him thei

- c t t grand m ast er in Germany . His ourt was constan ly visi ed t o o r e . o by fo reigners of not He , h wever , evinced g eat par ‘ hi ial it fo r . a o s t y the French He lso sold , wing to connection

1 On o ne oc c asio n his tab ie ein so l e l o cc u ie re nch ue sts one o f , b g y p d by F g , n o rei ne r re se nt t hem impude n t ly t o ld him t h at h e was th e o ly f g p .

1 35 0 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

e o f D O thron enmark . ldenburg was created a duchy by sia di a the Rus n czar, and declared the here t ry prope rty of

u . Frederick August s , prince of Holstein Ge rmany suffered t he l e t o e another loss by reannexation of Ho st in D nmark. e t h e so n t he Pet r, only of duke , was torment e d by re ligious d scruples and ﬂed from his bri e , the Princess Sophia o f

i - a a . D rmst dt, on their wedd ng day He be came completel y d an d eranged , was finally compelled to yield the rein s o f government to his cousin , Peter Frederick Louis . The most terrible abuses were committed in the m i nor states , where they attrac ted less notice . Count Willia m von u - Scha mburg Lippe , who gained great distinction as fiel d marshal in the Portuguese service and w as in his own coun t r t he y honored as father and benefactor of his people , offers an honorable exceptio n . The rest of the petty princes imi t at e d f the extravagance of their more power ul neighbors. Frederick Augustus of An halt - Zerbst dissipated the revenue n of his petty territory in France , never returned home , a d f s t orbade , under pain of p unishment , petitions to be ent o h - o h im . t e e Haase , privy c uncillor, govern d in his ste ad, an d shamelessly defrauded the people by artfully multiply a d Sin t e n is o r ing his offices to such egree that , the auth , a m o r for inst nce , was co pelled to appeal fr m Haase, the p ivy r - o o r e councillor , through Haase , the p ivy c uncill , to Haas ,

- the privy councillor . He also sold twelve hundred men fo r u the service of the English colonies. Frederick Aug stus , on u e le arning the exec tion of the French king, refused to tak

- f . ood and died in great mental agony In Anhalt Bernburg, the peasantry rebelled on account of t h e devastation caused

b t h e i 1 752 . Wi y str ct protection of the game , Charles lliam s of Na sau beat a peasant, accused of poaching , to death o wn with his hand , and was in consequence banished by

Josep h II . for some years from his own dominions . s The follies perpetrated in almost all the petty countship , are several of which were gradually raised to principalities , a t perfect ly incredible . Barons of the empire even held pet y n t h e il c ourt a d aped the pretensions and titles , nay , m itary THE RISE OF PR OSSIA 1 35 1

show of their powerful neighbors . A Count von Limburg r c o ne Sty um kept a corps of hussars , which onsisted of

o f . col nel , six o ﬁcers , and two privates There were court c ouncillors attached to the sm allest barony belonging to the e r o mpire , and , in F anconia and Swabia , the petty l rds had

‘

r . t hei private gallows , the symbol of high jurisdiction These

vanities were however expensive , and the wretched serfs , wh o se fe w num bers rendered the slightest im post burden m fo r t h e so e , were compelled to furnish means lavish ex r l pe n dit u re of their haughty l o ds . The ecclesiasti c al courts had l o ng fallen into the lowest

m o r h ad r . depths of dep ravity . Their te p al luxury inc eased r c r o f m E rt h al o Frede i k Cha les , the fa ily of , elect r of May

Le o X . t ence , acted the part of a , patronized the ar s and sci e n c e s so o h is m , but lived penly with istresses that Mayence ,

c . m c m ih infe ted by the exa ple of the court, be a e a den of 2 r m famy . The ecclesiastical p inces plainly percei v ed the i o f o o f m possibility the rest ration ancient episcopal si plicity , r r and , unconscious of thei approaching fall , pu sued a com o f o mon plan , that rounding off their territories (C logne had ’ r W al eady annexed to itself Munster ; Mayence , orms ; Treves,

’ 1 i e t h e a o un t o f t h e se miniat ure c o urt s in We e r s D emo c rit us V d cc b . “ 9 n h e re in Ma e n e A ri I n c re i e t hi s t a e ac e c . e t h e sis in ro of d bl g k pl y p z , p o f t h e e c e e n c o f c e i ac h as ust e en ro o se a rin c e aro un w h o se x ll y l b y , j b p p d by p , d ‘ o n e st an t h re mist re sse s —Letters o a tr av ellin D ane I saw t h e e e t o r t hr d e . f g . l c in h is b o at t h e t h e at re surro un e a ie s in fu re ss w h o m I w as t o x , d d by l d ll d , ld ’ w e re ac t ua c o urt - a ie s c o urt - a ie s o f an arc h ish o l—On D alb e r s n o mina lly l d , l d b p g tio n as c o a ut o r t o t h e arch ish o ric a t rium h a arc h w as ere c t e in h is h o no r dj b p , p l d ‘ ” w it h t h e in sc ri t io n Immo rt al it at i in a t r n s are n c E i th er ac ci e nt a o r p a p y . d lly ur o se t h e e t t e r if in th e t h ir s a a o mit t e —Tr o a F r nch p p ly l d yll ble w s d . av els f e “ ’ E mi rant . On th e u icatio n o f Hein se s o sce ne ro man c e A rdin h el l o t h e g p bl b , g , ’ arch ish o sen t h im t w e n t ouis d o r an d a o int e h im h is e ct ure r A Je w b p y l , pp d l . at Ma e n ce e t a su sc ri tio n i rar fu o f th e m o st immo ra an d ic e n tio us y k p b p l b y , ll l l w o r s un e r th e ro t e tio n o f t h i — marks on a Jo r c e o c e . R e u ne rom Stras k , d p p l y f bur to th e Balti Th e r h ish o s re in un n n g c . a c b p w e k e pt c o t e a c e by t h e aristo c rat ic c an o ns w h o acc umu at e b e ne ﬁc e s t o such a e re e t h at o n e o f th e ro , l d d g p v o st s o f th e cath e ra fo r in st an c e a o unt v o n E l z re w an ann ua in c ome o f d l , , C , d l se v e n t -ﬁv e th o usan o en s fro m t h e h ur h Th e av o rit e a ch at e au ui t in c c . y d g ld F , b l ’ t h e re n ch st e w as erect e t h e e e t o r L t h ar ranc is v o n St a ion - L an c o . s F yl , d by l F d g Trav els on the R i e 1 8 5 h n , 0 . 3 In th is city t h e re w as n ot a p re tty girl w h o h ad n o t b e e n e ith e r niec e o r ” sist e r t o so me e cc e siast ic Th e e asan t s h e re a so re e e o n a n l . p l b ll d c cou t of t h e ame - a mi r n w s. i e T rav e s o f a ema e E a t g l V d l F l g . 1 35 2 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

‘ r st Augsburg , and Wurzbu g , Bamberg), and , as a next ep , e d claring themselves, like the Gallic church , independent of

. e t h e Rome Sinc expulsion of the Jesuits , they had the im ’ h u perial o se (in Cologne , Joseph s brother Maximilian be c 1 80 ame , in 7 , coadjutor and shortly afterward archbishop e m lector) and the enlighten ent of the age , moreover, on their

- i e . 1 76 3 m t h e ff s d As early as , Honthei , su ragan bishop of F e b ro niu Treves, had , under the name of Justus s, published a work concerning the state of the church and the legal power of the pope , which had excited general attention , 1 785 c r and , in , the German ar hbishops in the cong ess of

Bad Ems had , notwithstanding the opposition raised by m at r Pacca , the papal legate (the sa e who , a late period under Napoleon , accompanied the pope into exile) , attacked t h e l r al l the primacy of Rome , false decreta s of Isido e , and t he rights so long exercise d by the pope over the German ’

. E b e l s church , on the grounds set forth in that work y “ ! ” work , Quid est Papa was condemned by a papal bull . s m The ecclesiastical states were , if possible , wor e ad in “ ist e re d than the te mporal ones . The proverb It is good ” t h to dwell beneath e crosier was no longer veriﬁed . The pe ople were o ppressed and reduced to the most abject Po v rt o t r e y. The bish p of Munster sold his subjects o h e etical

. r r r c W England And yet this bishop , F ancis F ede i k illiam 2 n von Furstenberg , was celebrated for his learni g and 1 773 founded the Munster university , , at the time of Brab e c k the expulsion of the Jesuits . The Baron von , a member of the diet, opposed the bad government of r t v o n r F ancis Egon , Coun Furstenbe g, of the Swabian line ,

o . Bishop of Hildesheim , but was persecuted as a rev lutionist o f w h o h The bishop Spires , was on bad terms with his c ap

1 A gov ern or o f Augsburg arre ste d all pe de strian trav e lle rs and so ld th em — hl6 zer i in r ant s Sc . t o th e Prussian rec ru t g se ge . 9 ian aronia fami He u ish e t h e Mo nume nt a a er Of th e We st ph al b l ly . p bl d P d r r o rn Schl iizer b ornen sia imme diat ely o n h is nominat ion t o t h e bish o p ic o f Pad e b . io u is o a re scri t of 1 783 concernin th e re servation of ame quo te s a c ur s e p c p l p , g p g m nt of oa h ers and t h e punish e p c .

1 354 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

and nuns feasted on the sweat of the people . In t h e Cl arisser nunnery we re found nine hundred and nineteen casks of m r wine , in the Do inican nunne y at Imbach three tho usand six ﬁft -ﬁ v e hundred and y , and in the establishment of can o n e sse s at Himm e lpo rt e n as many as six thousand eight hundred . The pe o ple in the ecclesiastical states were totally

. 1 789 uneducated , stupid , and bigoted In , the populace o f Cologne attempted to assassinate all the Protestant in h ab i tants on account of the intention of the imperial Aulic c oun e — cil to grant to them liberty of conscienc Frederick , duke

. d w as of York, the second son of George III of Englan , , 1 764 in , when six months old , created bisho p o f Osua w as bruck , which alternately governed by a Catholic and

r . m i r a Luthe an bishop During his ad in st ation , a so c man was condemned t o draw the pl e ar for life fo r having ven ’ t ure d to box a steward s ears for taking his afﬁ an c e d bride ‘ o from him by f rce and bestowing her on another . Alsace and Lorraine fell beneath the intolerable despot ism exercised by the Fre n ch court in unison with the de

‘

r . r w as m o gene ate clergy and nobility St asburg , in the st m o l in l in K . On sha eless manner, plundered by the pret r, g

X V . 1 744 t o t m the visit of Louis , in , hat city , he co pelled t o m o the citizens paint , orna ent , and illuminate their h uses , e c r o o rm c c o r t o r to w ar u i us unif s , a ding their rank and t ades , arranged the women and child ren in fantastical tro o ps of shepherdesses and Swiss , caused the fountains to ﬂow with r r wine , and st ictly p ohibited the presence of sick , diseased , o o m o r or p or persons , for the purp se of impressing the na ch in r . Sc h o ﬂ with the wealth and prospe ity of the people p , the o o f A lsa tia ill ustra ta o c o auth r , had on this casi n the mean

r - r o ness to add ess the cowardly , dull witted , luxu i us king , o f o n c o n who , to the scandal his subjects , was pe ly ac mpa ied o u n by his mistress , the Marquise de Pompadour , and wh se principled government mainly brought about the F rench “ t he Revolution , as the father of the country , the patron of

’ Se e Sch l o ze r s St at e A rchiv e s . THE RISE OF PR USSIA 1 355

muses , the liberator of Alsace , and a great hero . Friese , e e r r m in his exc ll nt histo y of St asburg , exclai s , The fine , h o nest charac ter of the people of Strasburg had within the l ast sixty - three years (the period of their subm issi o n t o the ” Fren c h y o ke) indeed deeply de ge n e rat e d l The wh o le of the festivities o n the o ccasion of t his royal visit were at the t h e m c o o expense of i poverished city , whi h , m re ver , paid an t h e annual tax of one million livres to royal exchequer . Kl in l in i re g and Paul Bek , the admin strators of the public v e nu e s r t h e o ro r , also filled their own pu ses , sold t wn p pe ty, t h e d the forests , appointments , and justice to highest bid er, and were at length only dism issed from office by t h e skil l h b r m r with w ich Gail , the mayor , Fa e , the chief agist ate , o o o f b e and ther patriotic citizens, to k advantage a dispute ’ d A r e n so n tween the minister , g , with Sillery , the intendant K lin l in r o 1 5 r . 7 3 of Alsace g died in p is n , ; Bek was b anded and sent to the galleys . o rr o L aine , Alsace , Switzerland , and H lland were not only c o m a ex luded fr the rest of Germany , but the states still p pertaining t o the empire were also cl o sed o n e against t h e ‘ 2 ~ r. o ro othe Bad roads , a wretched p stal system , senseless p ’ hibit io n s in regard t o emigratio n o r t o m arryin g out of the fo r o o f country , as , instance , in the bish pric Spires , and , l m i more than all , the incredib e nu ber of inland dut es , rm r m c hec ke d the natural interc ourse of the Ge ans . F o Germ ersheim to Ro tterdam there were no fewer than twenty

m - o f c r o fo r nine custo houses , at all whi h vessels we e st pped o r dues ; between Bingen and C blentz al o ne the e were seven .

1 ’ rom St ut t ard t o T u in e n n o w h a f a a s o st t w o a s w ere fo rme r F g b g , l d y p , d y ly re uisit e e o e re are w ith th e re ate st an ie t fo r a o urn e to t h e n e ar q . P pl p p d g x y j y e st t o n s Bad ro a s and o v e rt urne carria e s a a ro mine nt art in t h e w . d d g pl y p p r man f t h e t ime o c e s o . 9 ’ V i e t h o m in rnin i i h l o ze r st t e - a e rs d e c pl a t s c on c e g t n Sc s a p p . 3 F o r in st an c e in av aria Wh o e v e r atte m t e t o in uce o t h e rs to e mi rate , B . p d d g h an 64 —Histor o ur mb was e 1 7 . N e er g d, y f g. 35 6 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

T e CCXLII . h L a st D ays of the E mp ire

T HE d o m issoluti n of the German e pire approached . The o r o r m princes , powerful weak , great petty , had each assu ed r sove eign sway . The bond of union between them and the m c m o r m r o . o al e pire be a e daily m e and e fragile Ratisb n , u o f w as tho gh still the seat the diet , no longer visited by the m ro ff e pe r or by the princes . All a airs o f m o m ent were t h e f o c e t c . transacted by courts Vienna , Berlin , Muni h , the members of the diet o ccupied them selves with empty at rm formalities , such as precedence table , the color, fo , and o r r p sition of thei seats in the diet, conce ning which no fewer h o f a t an ten ofﬁcial documents , in settlement a dispute , p

e are d 1 748 . o r Off 1 740 p in At a c ng ess held at enbach in , the petty princes made an unsuccessful attem pt t o place themselves o n an equality with the electo rs and to interfere m o m o f im w ith the election o f the e peror . The c llegiu the r o r o pe ial free t wns , whenever it ventu ed upon opp sition , was generally o utvoted at the diet by those o f the princes and

o r . W elect s , and had lost all its inﬂuence etzlar was still the r m w as o r seat of the impe ial cha ber , which als far f om guar an t e e in o t o rm o g the slightest legal protecti n the Ge an pe ple , and which becam e gradually m o re c o m pletely abso rbed with m fﬁ formalities , in proof of which a single exa ple su ces , the o o 1 5 49 c o f Ge l n lawsuit br ught bef re it , in , by the ity

c rm 1 734 . r hausen , whi h was not te inated until C amer has ﬁlled one hundred and twenty - eight vo lum es (Wetzlar Leis u r - m m r m r e ho urs) with the ost i po tant lawsuits of the e pi e , whi c h are only s t riking o n acc o unt o f th eir extreme u n o r m m a m r c imp tan c e . The sa e y be said of the i pe ial Auli m r o . r c o r o c uncil at Vienna P in e Coll ed , the i pe ial vice r c o m chancello , when mplaints against the unjust i prisonment o o d Wu rt e m b e r of M ser, the councill r of the iet of g , were c m brought before the imperial ha ber , sent directions to m r l Wetzlar for their suppressio n . The i pe ial Aulic counci

Mo ser o litica Truth s. , P l

1 35 8 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

o were either sold or farmed , which c nsequently gave rise to m r r o f fi a co petition , that aised the p ices the of ces , between o r m the g ve n ent and the officers , who sought to reimbu rse m o f the selves by increasing the burdens the people . In Ger o r many , the m e honest, but at the same time more trouble m m o f r . so e , syste control p evailed The sy stematic l o ve for de tail characteristic of the Germ an gave rise to that art ifi ' c ial o f o bureaucracy or supremacy the clerk s ffice , which , m h as under the na e of the strictest justice , perhaps pro ved t the mos oppressive of tyrannies . The ministry , actuated

o f n by a pure love justice or by paternal solicitude , ere l o g sought to know and to guide everything from the palace ’ do wn to the lowest peasant s hut ; the want of money also

d t o obliged them to make themselves acquainte with , watch , and t o tax the sm allest source of private revenue ; these sys t e m at ic heads were ere l o ng merely occupied with regulating r i and ﬁlling in their registe s , as if the state solely ex sted in t r c o hei tables , and ﬁnally , increasing politi al agitati n height o o f m t h e ened the p wer the police , by who system of espi o n r m age w as carried to the greatest ext e e .

n ew - h Besides the and Argus eyed governments , s adows

W urt e m b e r r of diets still existed in g , Saxony, Mecklenbu g ,

. o b r r r Anhalt , Lippe , and Reuss The n ility we e eve ywhe e m r b ut m o f still extre ely powe ful , solely by eans the p o sts o r o m rm held by them at c u t , in the g vern ent and a y . Their personal privileges had increased at the expense o f th eir politi c al and corporate rights . The cities had also l o st all r political powe , but the citizens had begun by their talents to gai n an inﬂuence in the service o f the state . The peas autry were almost more oppressed by the n e w system o f tax n o r ati o n tha they had f rme ly been by the nobility , and were r o o n e v e rt h e unive sally p r and harassed ; the government , u m r m ro less , grad ally released the f o their feudal bonds , p o re moted the progress of enlightenment, and by so d ing p m fr m r pared them for a complete e ancipation o t h e i yoke . ’

T he church played a most lamentable part . While in the e Catholic , more particularly in the petty states , the inﬂuenc THE RISE OF PR USSI A 1 35 9 of the Jesuits was preserved by the childlike piety and su e rst it io us c o p belief of the people , by fetes and pro essi ns , t h e c c r mummeries , ec lesiasti al p inces , as has been r w t o m o o ro ﬂ i ac al eady sho n , gave way the st pen p g y , and R o m e was dep rived o f her ancient supp o rt i n the Ge rm an m r o f o o f o rm e pi e by the abolition the rder Jesus , by the ref s f m r E s . J . c o o of oseph II , and by the ngress The chu ch had

- c r never been so powerless . The princes exer ised inc eased ju risdicti o n o ver the Luthe ran and Reform ed churches with r m in their dem esnes . The sove eign p o ssessed the j us ajes t at ic um l i u r iam l r o f circa t g , that is , the trip e right ; ﬁ st, granting the free exercise of religio n a c co rding to a certain o o c o n c e de ndi c o o f r c nfessi n of faith , the jus ; se nd , inte nal in s ec t io r r o adv o inspection ( p ) ; thi d , of exte nal protecti n ( catio ) . r o o In Luthe an Sax ny , where the s vereign belonged to t o c o r the Ca h li , in Lutheran Prussia , to the Ref rmed , chu ch , r nc o m t m r r m o m o these p i es for s e i e g anted , f o a p litical tive , r r o t o o full libe ty to the Lutheran cle gy , and , in rder av id r c m m o o raising any unnecessa y ex ite ent a ng the pe ple , but r r ff r n m little inte fe ed with ecclesiastical a ai s . The e w syste

1 Th e large st c o lle c tio n o f t h e se re ligio us m umme rie s is t o b e m et w ith in t h e ’ “ ” n ume ro us w o r s o f th e I uminat i an d in We e r s Ge rman R e i i o n h ad k ll b y . l g e e n e rat e t o c h i ish c e re mo nie s Th e Mo th e r o f Go d w as re sse u i e a d g d ld . d d p l k o in o r e r t o a e ar in a a o n fe st iv e o c c asio n s re t t ir s a e are o n d ll d pp g l . P y g l pp d asse s in ro c e ssio n s as iv in Ma o n n as an d o v e s we re l e t o o se in t h e ch urc h e s p l g d , d l as iv in re re se n tat iv e s o f t h e Ho Gh o st On t h e re at i rima e s o f t h e l g p ly . g p lg g e o e o f Ma e n c e u a an d E ic h sfel d to Wal dth ure n t h e rie st e arin t h e p pl y , F ld , , , p b g w as re c e iv e w it h due so e mn it a w e - re sse an e w h o e iv e re an pyx d l y by ll d d g l , d l d ’ o rat io n - Sct zer S Sta te A rchiv es I n 1 79 0 t h e ro c e ssio n o f o o an an . . , p bl d , c ie n t c e rem o ny pe rfo rme d by al l th e auth o ritie s and inh abit an t s of t h e n eigh bo r h o o w as so emn i e at o n st anc e sev e n t h o u san h o rse men e arin na e d , l z d C ; d , b g k d ’ s w o r s an d ro sarie s ac c o m anie a ro o f th e Sav io ur s o o aro un t h e e s d , p d d p bl d d ﬁ ld fo r t h e ur o se o f re se rv in t h em a ain st in ur fro m t h e w e at h e r i e Sw a p p p g g j y . V d ian Me rc ur 1 8 3 8 R i io u me ie s it h a e o ri r r n io n s il . e s c o w c a e e se t at b y , l g d ll g l p , p rima e s ro c e ssio n s o f ro th erh o o s in h o n o r o f art ic u ar saint s w e re al l c al g g , p b d p l , c ul at e d u o n as me an s o f w o r in u o n t h e se n se s o f th e m u t itu e w h o o n p k g p l d , , t h e se o ccasi o n s u sua i n Th e i rima e s w e re av e w a t o un o un e c e se . , lly g y b d d l p lg g e s e c ia n o t o rio us fo r immo ra re su t s Th e num e ro us w e - fe d an d i e c e r p lly l l . , ll , dl l gy c o n t riv e d by mean s o f c e remo nie s o f t h is n at ure t o c re e p in t o h o use s an d t o se uce t h e in n o c en t and un w ar N 0 o m e st ic affair c o u b e arran e w it h o ut d y . d ld g d t h e int e rfe re n e of a rie st T h e e sse th e st a e t h e t a e and th e b ed th e c . p y bl d bl , bl , ﬁe i fo o et c e t and t h e c att e e v en th e a . c . ld l , d ly d, , 1 360 THE HI STORY OF GERMA N Y h ad i , however , scarcely come nto play , than Frederick Wil

. u c o r liam I made a powerf l atta k up n the chu ch , co nv o ked o s 1 73 a synod of the wh le of the Prus ian clergy , 7 , at K Oslin c a , regulated th e Lutheran servi e by c binet orders , fo r c o abolished the use of tapers , white dresses the h risters ,

. t h e etc , collection of money within the church ; placed re t i m r o o c r s rict ons on the ad inist ati n of the h ly sa ament, as , c t o r c i for instan e , the impenitent , and even p es r bed rules for preaching . The whole of his decrees were calculated for the m . so n r r promotion of religion and orality His , F ede ick II . , r acted with equal despotism but with a contra y purpose . e t o n o t o His obj ct was relax , to heighten , religi us austerity . r o n e o o f With this intent , he neut alized confessi n faith by the other by tolerating them all and by en c o uraging m o dern

French inﬁdelity by his kn o wn p rinciples and by h is writ ~ ’

s. ing With this intent , he abolished his father s ordinances , permitted all who chose to carry t apers and t o wear white o h is robes , while all c nfessions were equally the objects of

On n e m - o . w ridicule the introduction of a psal b ok , against o o t o which several of the communes pr tested , by the c nsis ry “ 1 780 r o do i n in , he wrote , E ve yb dy may as he chooses this ‘ m r r o n e is N o w m a fo r atte ; eve y at liberty to sing , y all the ’ ”

r o r r m a . ests est , any othe silly thing that y suit his taste h i n With t s i tent , he abolished public penance in churches , and essentially restri c ted the p o w er of the church in award h m m . ing punish ent in cases of i morality With t is intent , he m o diminished the nu ber of church festivals , n twithstanding fe m o t o r the w that still re ained , and , in rder p event the r clergy from eve again becoming an obstacle in his way , n e w o gave them a constituti n , by which their collegiate ties c o m t h e were dissolved , whi h is lated and placed the under control of a supreme c o nsisto ry entirely dependent up o n the r r crown . The lower cle gy we e also utterly demoralized by n the system o f patronage . The ca didate served for years as o r a tutor, b e every species of humiliation , and was ﬁnally rewarded by the gift of a living on the property of his noble patron . The new pastor was often compelled to bind himself

1 3 62 THE HI STORY OF GERMAN Y

philosophy . Halle became for this second period of the e W nbe R formation what itte rg had been for the ﬁrst . As Luther fo rmerly struggled against the monks and m o nkis h s 1 728 super tition , Thomasins , in , combated Lutheran o r t h o do x y, overthrew the belief in witchcraft, and reintrod uced m t the use of the Ger an language in o the cathedral service ,

. u whence it had long been expunged He was s cceeded , in 1 75 4 o h , by the philosopher , W lf , the sc olar of the great e Leibnitz, who b neﬁcially enlightened the ideas of the theo

l . o u logica students Before long , neol gy or the critical st dy

‘ i i of the Bible , and a posit ve d vinity , which sought to unite

t h e . r o f h Bible with philosophy , prevailed The founde s t is o o i sch l were Michael s at Gottingen , Semler at Halle , and o i r E rne st i at Leipzig . M she m at Be lin and Gellert at Leip

l zig greatly elevated the tone of morality . Spal ding already attempted to chec k the erratic progress of enlightenment . ’ V o ltaire s lam poons against Christianity h ad at that pe riod r sp ead over Germany , and Berlin had become the elysium

- of free thinkers . Besides Frederick , Lessing exercised great N ﬂ . in uence on this party icolai , the noted Berlin book r in U r m r r selle , his nive sal Ger an Lib a y , began a criticism ‘ rm upon all the works published in Ge any . Shortly befo re T h u m m e l at o o r this , had , also Berlin , br ught f rwa d the de graded state o f the Protestant clergy in his excellent poem W m ” ilhel ina ; Nicolai continued the subject in a romance , Se b al dus N o t h an ke r v de sc ri , in which he ga e a masterly p tion of the state o f the P ro testant church at that time and excited a feeling of h at red and co nte mpt against the reign o r w as ing c nsisto ies , with which the wearing of perukes ,

m o o o a . h a ng ther things , a point of high imp rt nce The Cat olic clergy had disdain ed thei r ado ption ; . their P rote stant m brethren , however , opposed the in this as in all other mat

o h n o ac h im S a i n a c e e rat e Sw e ish iv ine an d aut h o r o rn 1 7 1 4 . J J p ld g , l b d d d , b “ ” He w ro te se v e ral able wo rk s : t h e D e stinat ion o f Man ; R e li gio n t h e Mo st ” ’ D i 1 804 —Maund r s Bio ra hical in t e . e I m o rt ant A ffair o f Man e c . p k d , d g p asur Tre y . 9 T h is w o r was c o n tin ue fo rt e ars th o u h N i c o ai c e ase t o e i t it at k d y y , g — l d d t h e e nd o f t h e h un re an d sev e n th v o ume in 1 79 2 . Trans . d d l , THE RISE OF PRUSSI A 1 3 6 3

k ters , and no Lutheran preacher consequently durst ma e his r r appearance in public unperuked . Heaps of cont ove sial —M o r . auv il l o n W w ks were published on this subject , unsch , o o r m and , more especially , Paalz w , wr te with g eat fanaticis r m m r against the Christian eligion . Schu el , at B eslau , “ r - m wa ned against free thinking in a ro ance , entitled The o r Little Voltaire , which aff ds a deep insight into the wild u o o f m conf si n ideas at that ti e prevalent, and describes the

- r an d r o f r . w itings , secret societies , int igues the free thinke s r m o f o o r m Ba th , at Halle , by eans his p pular w ks , atte pted t o spread amo ng the peo ple the ideas at th at tim e convulsing r o r w as o m the lea ned w ld , but with his Rati nalis , which he o t o o t o r t o o o w s ught set up in oppositi n Ch istianity , shall o t o r c and c arse be att a tive .

r o t o r - Libe ty of th ught had degenerated f ee thinking , and ,

r r o . r like eve y abuse , speedily produced a eacti n John A ndt , “ o f o On r a native Anhalt , published his p pular treatise t ue ”

r o f r . Ch istianity , in the beginning the seventeenth centu y r i r r t o The lea ned d vines we e , notwithstanding , ﬁ st led teach o f r o f c m r a religion the hea t , instead incul ating a e e dead r w h o 1 6 70 o m letter belief , by Spene , , in , founded a c llegiu ie t at is r o r o n 1 705 p at F ankf t the Maine , and , in , was appointed chaplain to the co urt at D resden and p ro vost at r l o n h r r . o e o Be lin He rep aced Christian l ve ightful thr ne , and to h im is the P ro testant c hurc h far m o re deeply indebted t o t he o o r o f o than phil s phe s the day , alth ugh his ﬁne and o m r c prehensive ideas were carried but little into p actice . He dem anded toleratio n o f every confession o ffaith and thei r union by Christian l o ve ; he rejected the so vereignty assum ed by the state o ve r the c hurch as well as the auth o rity o f the o r o c nsisto ies and faculties , and aimed at the emancipati n of ‘ r mm h . t e the Ch istian co onwealth His followers , Pietists , wh o n r r have bee greatly calumniated , were g ievously pe se n e f c ut e d on acco unt of their extravagant tendenc ies . O o Gic ht e l o r m r their number, , the proct of the i pe ial chamber, H b u r E n e l sb rude r. o founded the sect of the g g, the Ana

i e R o ss ach S e ner V d b , p . 1 3 64 THE HIST ORY OF GERMA N Y

- u n baptist , Petersen , the polygrapher, the ill fated K hlman , e m t o r i who att pted blend all el gions into one and was burn e d . 1 689 alive at Moscow , in , and several female seers dre w

o . general attenti n Franke , the worthy founder of the o r ’ o o phan scho l at Halle , foll wed in Spener s steps . Pietism o o o rr t k a peculiar f rm at He nhut , where Count Zinzendo rf n e w c o m founded a chur h of l ve and fraternity , the me bers o r r of which beyed pa ticular laws and wore a particula dress . The gentleness and simplicity of this community strongly contrasted with the wild license prevalent i n Saxony during o the reign of Augustus , the reacti n to which had given them m birth . They termed the selves the Moravian Brethren , som e remnants of the ancient Hussites hav ing passed o ver r to them . T he accession of numbe s of Bohemians belonging to the Lichtenstein esta tes drew a reclamati o n fro m the m Sax o n government . A nu ber of the Bohemians to o k ref w as uge in Prussia , and Zinzendorf , who banished from o m Sax ny for ten years , established hi self in the ancient

Ro nneburg in the Wetterau . By his conference with F red r m him I . erick William , who lea ned to estee highly , by his conne c tion with several other religiously inclined persons of o high rank , the Counts Reuss and Dohna , the l rds of Seidlitz

. a in Silesia , etc , by his frequent tr vels and his extreme pru

‘ de n c e h e s , , nevertheles , speedily succeeded in regaining his h i r . 1 733 former footing As early as , e sent numbers of p lg ims into distant countries for the purpose of propagating religion and of converting the heathen . He twice visited the savages of North America as a missionary . The resolute piety, which induced so many homely art iﬁc e rs to quit all for the sake of propagating the gospel amid the snows of Greenland and o r r n Lapland , in the bu ni g climes of the East, where they succeeded in converting great numbers , affords at once a touchi ng and instructive lesson . By means of their colonies , they formed important commercial connections, created a market for home produce , and , by the credit they acquired by their reputation for the strict uprightness of their deal ings , gained immense riches . Their prosperity put their

1 3 66 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

to the great delight of the pedants . Salzmann , in his ac ade o f my Schnepfenthal near Gotha , stands almost alone in his plan for uniting physical exercise with mental improvement for the attainment of practical ends , for rendering the stu a u dent usef l citizen , not a mere bookworm . Rochow pub “ ’ ” l ish e d . r his celebrated Children s F iend , which , together ’ r o with Gellert s Fables , became a favo ite b ok fo r the inst ruc m tion of youth , and involuntarily co pelled teachers not merel y to inculcate blind belief and to enforce the study of ’ n the dead la guages , but also to form their pupils minds by awakening the imagination and strengthening their moral

. r m feelings by good examples This lite ary atte pt, however, speedily degenerated ; Weisse published at Leipzig a large “ ’ ” - m Children s Friend in twenty four volu es , for children m of good families , full of unchildlike absurdities . Ca pe , ” n by his New Robinson Crusoe , estranged the risi g gen e rat io n h o u in t eir early childhood from their c ntry , and r r o f inspi ed them , pe fectly in accordance with the spirit the m o f r ti es , with a love enterprise and a desi e to transfer their

r - l u energies t o some foreign o far distant and . F nke taught r m o r everything by ote , and s othered iginality by assiduously

h o w t o . teaching everything, even play In the popular m l m r schools , the catechis , and in the earned acade ies , g am

m at ic al r . pedant y , were , nevertheless , still retained The o best description of the state of the sch ols in Germany , t he o during latter part of the past century , is to be f und in ’ “ n e c Sc h u m m e l s Pointed Beard . The w plans of edu ation adopted by a fe w private establishments and rec om mended in the nume rous n e w publications on the subject more par t ic u l arl o t o r y wed their gradual adoption the tuto s , who , in r r r o f c o n their f ee sphe e a ti n , bestowed their attention upo r the arts most useful in p actical life , and , out of respect for r m m the pa ents , introduced a ore hu ane treatment of the “ T h e o K asko rb i children . bi graphy of Felix , a tutor aged o r r t h e r f ty , g aphically depictures to ments to which he an d

n h o u ar o r of D efo —Trans Wh ic h w as fo un de d o t e p p l w k e . THE RISE OF PR OSSI A 1 3 67 his colleagues were often exposed in their ardu o us and useful

calling . r r o P ivate and individual effo ts would , h wever , have but little a v ailed without the beneﬁcial refo rm ati o n that to o k c c m . o f place in the publi a ade ies In England , the study t o c r t h e an c ient classics , so well suited the stern haracte and

r r o f ro m e n o fo r libe al spi it the people , had p duced n ted depth r m r an of lea ning , by whom the hu anities and the spi it of t iq uit y were revived . Their influence extended to Hanover. o o o o At G ttingen , Heyne created a scho l , which pp sed the S r t o t r o f c pi it the dead , and , in the study the lassics , .le te sought n o t m erely an acquaintance with the language but o o f m W c m als with the ideas ancient ti es , and in kel ann visited Italy in o rder to furnish Germany with an a c c o unt of the relic s of antiquity and to inspire his c o untrym en with o f a n o ti o n o f their sublim ity and beauty . The attenti o n n t o m o o r the student was draw yth logy, to ancient hist y, and an a c quaintance with t h e lives o f the an c ients led t o the m r o r kn owledge of ode n hist ry and geo g aphy . f r m o The study o histo y bec a e universal . The hist ry of o c o m o r c the w rld su ceeded to the rec rds of naste ies , ities , and m r r m . o f o states The first anuals unive sal hist ry we e , it ust c o dr r r be nfessed , extremely y and uninte esting, while the g eat ‘ r r f f o o o e t c . o c o o hist ical dicti na ies Iselin , , and the c lle ti ns r o o f r r r o r histo ies of all the nati ns the ea th , eithe t anslated ‘ ro m Sc hl o ze r r continued f the English , in which al eady dis c c c r o n o r overed excessive s epti al severity , we e , the the hand , r r abundantly c o pio us . Ec c lesiastic al histo y w as also b iefly o r c o i and clearly reviewed by Spittler, and elab ately nt nued ‘ o m Sc h ro kh r u e t c . by M shei , , Plank , A nold p blished an o f r ff r excellent history the he etics and o f di e ent sec ts . The fi rst geo graphical antiquities are collec ted in t he Chro ni c o n Go t t w ic e n se ; the best m aps were given by Ho mann . The o o r systematic bo ks of instructi n in geog aphy by Hubner,

1 rofe sso r o fhi st o r and ant i uiti M r ur o rn at a l 8 1 — e s at a . se 6 Trans P y q b g B B l , . 9 ro fe sso r o f h i o so h an d o i t i t Go t t in e n o rn 1 3 7 —Ibid s a 7 . P p l p y p l c g . B 3 rofe sso r o f o et r h ist o r an d rh e t o ric at A t o rf o rn 1 6 2 7 —17nd P p y , y , l . B . . 1 368 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y

Busching (t o who m the scie n ce o f statistics is greatly in Man n rt e . r w o debted) , Hassel , , etc , were afte ard c ntinued on m a ore extensive scale . The newspapers also increased in importance . T he Frankfort Journal was com m enced in 1 6 1 5 m w as o o Po st a i by E el , and f ll wed by the v se and the o st r u r m r Fulda P e t e . The Ha bu g Correspo ndent was ﬁrst o published in 1 71 0 . The hist ry o f the day w as continued m 1 6 1 7 1 71 7 E u ro e u m o m fro to , in the Theatrum p , c menced m a o f E l isius r by Gottfried ; in the Diariu Europ eum (Meye ) , 1 65 7 1 681 V al c ke n ie r v e rwae rd from to ; het Europa , from ’ 1 6 64 1 6 76 . r m r to , continued by A Muller ; C a er s Histo y , ’ o m 1 6 9 4 t o 1 69 8 L am b e rt s o r o 1 00 1 fr ; y Mem i s , fr m 7 to 71 8 ; r r Bo u sse t ro m the Mercu e Histo ique , , recueils des actes , f

1 71 3 to 1 748 . The Frankfort Reports and the n e w His t o ric al Gallery o pened at Nuremberg betw een the thirty ’ r and seven years wars . The g eat c o llecti o n o f treaties o f D u o ro 1 73 1 1 800 t h e r o f M nt, f m to the year ; lesse one Sc hm auss t o 1 772 o m ; that of Wenk up ; the Eur pean Fa a , ’

t o r w ar. m 1 5 0 up the seven yea s Schulz of Ascherode , fro 7 ’ to 1 763 ; C o unt Herzberg from 1 75 6 to 1 778 . D o hm s Mem o rab il ia r 1 778 t o 1 806 r 1 79 2 , f om ; Gebhard , recueil des t aites de

’

Sc h b l l o t o 1 1 . 1 79 5 . o 8 5 to K ch and , hist ire des traites , up F o r Germa n histo ry in particular much was d o ne ﬁ rst of all by the g reat collections o f the ancient unprinted c h ro ui “ ” Sc ri t o re s r m Ge rm an ic arum m E c cles , the p re u , ade by Lii ni Lu n do r Me ic h e l b e k card , Hahn , Leibnitz , Ludwig , g , p, , Sc h an n at Sc hil t e r Sc h o t t e n K re usi Menken , Rauch , , , g and g,

r m . b o r r Senkenbe g , So mersberg , etc ; y the gl ssa ies of Sche z Hal t aus i o f rm o r and , by the collect on old Ge an laws by Ge g r b a c . is h , etc ; by the histories of the empi e y Struve , H ber Piit t e r o o r o f rm n lin , , etc . The ﬁrst v lumin us histo y Ge a y

c o . Masko u was written by S hmidt , an enlightened Cath lic pro duced an excellent work on the ancient histories o f Ge r b r h o f o many . The est provincial histo ies were t at Cr atia by V al v aso r Me ise r a r o f , of Carinthia by g , of Styria by C sa ,

’ Sc hl cize r l Bohemia by Pelzel , of Transylvania by , of Si esia K l Ob e r Bac zko by , of Prussia by Petri and , of Saxony by

1 3 70 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMA N Y il . Co c c e i l in Gu nd . y imitated by the Prussians , j and g J . J . Moser took a still more independent view of the reigning m Sc t ze r w as political evils in Ger any and , shortly anterior t o his - the French Revolution , equally liberal in state papers . The learned Putter at Gottinge n was more a historical than o r a p litical writer , and , gene ally speaking , the literature of the day rarely touched upon the political misfortunes of Ger m many . In proportion as the e pire l o st one p rovince after another were the people gradually deprived of their ancient v o n e o d pri ileges , still no sp ke , and the additional bur ens on r m e n the peasantry , the inc eased taxation , the sale of for in o f o service the Indies , the inactivity the pr vincial Estates , x . c m etc , e ited as little discussion as the i pudent seizure of — . He in e c c ius m o Strasburg and Boh er, in Austria , S nnenfels , h m w o . r r w aided Joseph II in his efo s , ere distinguished pro f o rs e ss of jurisprudence . The study of m athem atics was greatly prom oted by Lei b n ff was nitz , the inve tor of di erential calculus , and carried to o b m higher perfecti n by Lam ert of Alsace , by the fa ily of

o f r . Bernouilli Basel , Eule , etc The Germans made great r 1 discoveries in astron o m y . Scheine ( 65 0) disc o vered the sp o ts in the sun ; He v e l (1 687) and Dorfel fo und out the paths of the com ets ; Eim m art o f Nuremberg m easured

r l . r o 1 740 seve a of the ﬁxed stars He schel , b rn in , died 1 822 o in , disc vered , with his giant telescope in England , 1 781 U o r in , the planet ranus , nebul us stars , planeta y neb L w e nh o k ae e t c . ro o o e ul , Huygens imp ved the telesc pe , and

Ho n t so e c ke r the micro sco pe (in Holland) . Lieberkuhn of r o r T sc h irn h au se n B eslau invented the s la microscope ; , burn

- ing glasses ; Snell disc o vered the laws of refrac ti o n . The study of physi c s w as g reatly pro m o ted by Otto von Gue c r o o f r 1 6 86 ri ke , bu g master Magdebu g , , the inventor of t h e - r m c air pump and of the elect ifying a hine ; by Sturm , 1 703 r r , the founde of expe imental physics ; by Fahren w h o 1 1 4 o m r h heit , , in 7 , invented the therm ete ; by Kirc er, Han se n W the inventor of the speaking trumpet ; by , ilke , Cun aus Musc h e n b ro e k , , who improved the electrifying ma THE RISE OF PR OSSI A 1 371

o c m r c m chine . Am ng the he ists , befo e whose science al he y ﬂ e d w h o t o , Glauber, gave his name a celebrated salt , Becher, r m Stahl , Brand , the discoverer of phospho us , and G elin , n r r o merit particular m entio . We ner acqui ed great n te as a m ineralo gist in Saxo n Freibu rg at the cl o se of the eigh r t e e n t h century . Botany was indust iously studied by Haller ’

r V o l c kam e r o f m r . m of Switze land , Nure be g , etc ; Ru pf s “ ’ ” Herbarium A m b o in e n se c o n tai ns the m ost valuable bo

t anic al c o c o o f . o r r lle ti n this period Klein , the n ted t avelle s m c r l zo Pallas , Blu enba h , and Bechstein , we e ce ebrated as r r o r o l o gists . The first g eat physiological pe i dical wo ks were m r a r n in c r o . . the u i us Medic Phys Ep he e id e , w itten in Lati , r c r which Ch istian Mentzel , the eleb ated linguist and nat u ral ist r c t o r c o r re , p ivate physi ian the g eat ele t , diligently “ corded his o bservati o ns ; and the B resla u C o llec ti o ns . Geo graphy and natural histo ry were greatly p ro m o ted by r r o travels unde rtaken fo scienti fic pu p o ses . Reinh ld and Ge o rge F o rster ac co m panied Coo k ro und the wo rld in m r 1 772 . r a The noted t aveller, K pfe , went with the Dutch h f t o 1 71 6 . o e u o . c o Japan in M ntanus , N , etc , wrote a c unts t o c o rm of the Dutch embassies China , whence mu h inf a ‘ o o m o T ie ffe n ti n was als sent by the Jesuits , a ng whom , m m m c thaler, the Tyrolese , gained great fa e at the co en e m o f c r an d ent the eighteenth entury by being the fi st , , up t o r r o o r w h o r o r the p esent pe i d , the nly Eu opean t avelled ve ro m n t o r sa w r land f Chi a India , and who fi st the Dawalagi i , m o r ie b u h r w a the highest untain in the w o rld . Ca sten N s t h e m o st c elebrated am ong the travellers in Pe rsia an d r m m A abia ; Pallas and G elin explo red Sibe ria . Sa uel The O h il u s m r w t o t h e o p G elin , the noted natu alist, nephe ab ve o o o r fo r m r menti ned b tanist and ge g apher , travelled the e p ess h r . . W 1 774 T ar Cat e ine II of Russia hile travelling , in , in a r r o o n e o f c wh o t ry , he was th own into p is n by the hiefs , d m o fo r o m e anded thirty th usand rubles his rans , which

1 e suit s hav e c o ntin ua istin uish e t h e msel v e s at e in as Man arins J lly d g d P k g d , uar ians o f th e o serv at o r an d re si e nt s o f an ac a e m o f sc ie nc e s as fo r g d b y p d d y , , in tan isl 1 1 and a ain in 1 80 r H r s ce Go e 77 7 ath e a e stein o f Swa ia. , gg , , g , , F ll b 1 372 THE HISTORY OF GERMA N Y

se Catherine refu d and he died in prison . Egede and Kranz, m a v t ic Herrnhut ission ries , ha e given an accoun of y Green D o b rizh o fe r t o o r e t c . land , , the Jesui , an ther of t rid Paraguay , In pharmacology the Germans have done more than any o m e c . l m other nati n ; aft r the , the Dut h He ont, altho ugh n o t m c c free fro the al hemi al prejudices of his age , did much o t al i c o h im go d by his die ary method , diseases , ac rding to , o c r m . o r pr eeding f om the stomach Her ann B e haave , the

n a t h a most eminent physician of his time , e cour ged by e n at o s Lo w e n ho e k r mical di coveries of and Ruysch , ca efully inves tigated the internal formation of the human body in e r w as a s a ch of the primary causes of diseases , but led astr y by the mechanic al notio n that all diseases originated in the improper circulation o r diminution of the hum o rs of t he ‘ o . r r c w as b dy In Ge many prope , medi ine not brought to r r any degree of pe fection until a later pe iod . Frederick

f o f m r Ho fman , in pursuance the syste of Leibnitz, asc ibed al l a m o o r m dise ses to ti n and treated them simply as c a ps . o r o f o o His suggesti ns g eatly advanced the science path l gyo a o o m r St hl , the Pietist , pp sed this echanical theo y and m c o founded a mystical syste , which re ognized the s ul as o rm r o rn f ing the st ength of the body , the blo d as the ete al foe o f o r o r re c the divine p wer inherent in man , and the ef e o m m e n de d it s co nstant restriction and p u riﬁcation by m eans

n . b of bleedi g Al ert von Haller, the poet and naturalist, brought forward the system of nervous pathology , which w as r ffm carried still fu ther by Christopher Louis Ho an , w h o ascribed all diseases to the disso lution of the solids by i o o the corruption of the humors . Stoll , the emp ric , pp sed o t h e the wh le of these theories , and was the ﬁrst who noted impossibility o f acco unting for the diseases by which nations o m d were visited in vari us cli es and at various perio s ; he , o r nevertheless , chieﬂy c nside ed the gall bladder as the seat o f e m of infection , which he sought to palliate by the use et

’ 1 B o e rh aav e s n ume ro us wo r s are ne v rth e e ss sti re ar e as t e t - oo s k , e l , ll g d d x b k h t h e rofe s sio n his n o w e e as an anat o mist c h emist and o tanist , as wel l. y p ; k l dg , , b — as of th e causes nat ure and t reatmen t o f iseases was unri va e d Trams. , , d , ll

1 3 74 THE HISTOR Y OF GERMAN Y

the increasing Similarity between it and heathenism were in r S o f . 1 6 77 i o acco dance with the pirit the age In Sp n sa , the u Je w e it D tch , reproduced , with subtl w , the old doc trine of the mystic , Valentine Weigel , concerning the o riginal con t radic t io n s r h d n appa ent in the world, whic he explaine , o t b o f m ‘ y a Christian idea love , but by a mathe atical so lutio n .

m f m Bil ﬁn e r Leibnitz had nu erous ollowers , among who , g

attempted by pure mathematical reasoning, unaided by re v

t o r elation , explain its most inexplicable sec et , the origin of ’ evil , and Wolf converted his master s theories into a con v e n ie n t h s e sc olastic ystem , complet ly devoid of mysticism and merely retaining the ideas consonant with the do ctrine c o of omm n Rationalism . He gained immense fam e by his o t o o o opp sition the rthodox the logians . Mathem atic al rea soning was certainly use ful for the pro per arrangement of o f ideas , but was essentially devoid purport . In England , it led to mere scepticism , to a system of doubt and negation , n u o whence , instead of retur ing to the st dy of theol gy , the English philosophers turned to a zealous research in psychol o c r m i gy , in whi h they we e i tated by the Germans, Platner,

e t c . Reimarus , Mendelssohn , the physician Zimmermann , all o f o m r 1 804 o r wh we e surpassed by Kant in , at K nigsbe g “ r t h e o f in his C itical Inquiry into Nature Pure Reason , c which contains a critical analysis of every mental fa ulty . o m His inﬂuence ver his fellow country en was unlimited , owing to his placing reason above all else , while he , at the o d same time , str ngly marke the moral necessities and duties of man , and paid homage to the enlightenment , then in gen r o m r n o e al v gue , and to o al sobriety , the permanent ati nal characteristic of the German .

1 ino re no un c e th e e w ish re i io n fo r t h at o f a v in He afterwar Sp sa d J l g C l . d e c ame a Me nn o nist and at ast fe into t h e mo st an ero us sc e t icism if no t b , l ll d g p , o nri ism —Trans d w gh t ath e . .

E N D OF VOL U ME T HR E E