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Government and Irrigation in Burma: a Comparative Survey

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Government and Irrigation in Burma: a Comparative Survey GOVERNMENT AND IRRIGATION IN BURMA: A COMPARATIVE SURVEY JANICE STABGARDT THE REMAINS OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS IN CENTRAL Burma predate the earliest records of government. Within the period of recorded history, however, the concern of government with irrigation has been, on the whole, both sustained and emphatic. This study at- tempts to trace the history of governmental policies on iririgation from tbe earliest material available up to contemporary policies of extension and renewal, and to place them in the perspective of the general his- torical evolution of Burma. It is, therefore, comparative only in an in- ternal sense in contrasting the governmental attitudes and irrigation works of one era of Burmese development with those of another. The geography of Burma must have played a major determining role in the early development of irrigation techniques. Burma's river arid mountain systems follow a north-south orientation and focus on the Irrawaddy and Salween rivers whose many tributaries interlace the moun- tain folds of the east, north, and west. The lands of the Irrawaddy val- ley proper may be distinguished from each oher as the Lower Irrawaddy VaUey1 and Delta2 and the Dry Belt. Though Burma generally receives very high annual rainfall3 and is a well-watered land, the last area re- ferred to, "The Dry Belt," receives less than 26" annual mean rainfall.4 Moreover, this rain falls in a comparatively short period so that much would be lost through run off, if no measures to retain it were taken. It was presumably to compensate for this short rainy season and to ex- ploit the strongly favourable river system tbat jrrigation techniques were developed at a very early time in the heart of the Dry Belt. The Irra- waddy River itself and its great tributary, the Chindwin, have carved 9ut. many channels and courses which are dry, low or full, depending on the different seasons of the year. It would have been, initially, a comparatively simple matter, therefore, to dig channels connecting one course to another, especially in places where the pressure of water was particularly strong, and a channel flow ensured . • 1 Lower Irrawaddy Valley and Delta. 2 The dry belt of Central Burma, stretching from Thayetmyo and Yarnethin in the south to Ye-U in the north. · 3 Annual average rainfall varying between 79" at Myitkyina and 212" at Tavoy. 4 Annual average rainfall varying between 28.91" at Pakokku and 88.02" at Yamethin. 358 GOVERNMENT AND IRRIGATION IN BURMA 359 The earliest traces of irrigation systems so far uncovered, were found in sites where the natural conditions were overwhelmingly favorable and the short rainy season made the need equally pressing: just south of the confluence of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, in the region around Pagan; in the Kyaukse district due south of the point where the Irrawaddy today bends sharply westwards. The Kyaukse district is close under the eastern hills and benefits from the drainage from that heavy rainfall area. The Meiktila district benefits from the run-off of both the eastern hills and the Pegu Yomas, while in the Minbu district, the Irrawaddy runs close under the Arakan Yomas or Western Hills which compress its force and also provide substantial drainage. These are the sites of the earliest known systems of lakes and channels. In studying the earliest works, there are, so far, no available records to show who took the decisions to construct them and when. In the absence of written records, there are other sources of information. There are the various techniques of archeology, to which others have devoted some attention5 and there are the oral traditions of legend. It is to these last that attention will first be turned here, as they have some bearing on the relation between government and irrigation. Pagan originated as a cluster of nineteen villages, long before the rise of central authority. There were the Four Islands which were island villages in the Irrawaddy, the Five Villages, and the Ten Villages. It is likely that these groupings reflected geographic unity such as that of neighboring islands or that of villages served by, and serving, the initial irrigation net. Whether from the inception of irrigation, or orily later, this unity assumed also a political character. There was a Lord of the Four Islands, a Lord of the Five Villages, and a Lord of the Ten Villages. 6 Htin Aung, in his "Folk Elements in Burmese Buddhism,"7 refers to these lords because they were included in the list of "Thirty-Seven Nats"8 or lords, as recounted by the attendants of the Shwerigon Pagoda. Aung 5 See, Stewart, "Burmese Irrigation: A sidelight On Burmese History," in Journal of the Burma Research Society 1921, and "Old Burmese Irrigation Works," cited by G. E. Harvey, History of Burma from the earliest times to 10 March 1824, the Beginning of the English Conquest. London, Cass and Co., 1967, p. 320. 6 Maung Htin Aung, Folk Elements in Butmese Buddhism, London, Ox- ford University Press, 1962, p. 98 describes these lords as "all king's deputies who built up the new kingdom." It is, perhaps, more likely that they were Lords, local in origin, who accepted the King's over-riding authority and there- fore provided for the transition to a unified state. Their inclusion among the Thirty-Seven Lords would then be understood as a special mark of royal ap- proval, which w.as often the case in this cult. 7 Ibid. s Ibid. 360 ASIAN STUDIES describes them as "all king's deputies who built up the new Kingdom"9 at .the time of the emergence of Pagan as a seat of central authority over a wide region. It is likely, however, that these offices were much older than that pe:dod :..:.__ the tenth century - and of indigenous not royal origin. Like;; wise, the role of the Lords as the focus of local; animistic cults concern.:. ing crops, and authority would probably have had much older origins than the worship of the "Thirty-Seven Nats" which Anawratha reluctantly authorized towards the close of his reign, in the eleventh century.10 This hypothesis is certainly supported by what is known to have' been the case elsewhere. In the neighboring Kyaukse district, the Lord of the Nine Towns was worshipped as the local god of the irriga- tion works embracing the "nine districts." According to Aung, the cult to the contemporary period. It would appear very likely that the original significance of the worship of the three Lords of the Pagan district was of this kind; that it acquired an additional, political level when -later Lords acepted the central authority of the King of Pagan and that the two levels merged in the manner so common to Burmese legends. - · From these legends, one may see the intimate connection between government and irrigation works from the earliest times in Burma. Fur- thermore, it is clear. that the duties of government in irrigation partook of the religious or mystic significance that surrounded much- of the work of early authority in Southeast Asia generally. Indeed, irrigation seems to have occupied a position of central significance in the mystical nexus which linked authority to agricultural renewal At Angkor the initiation of a new irrigation work was the most sacred duty of each new King upon his consecration. In Pagan, where the Kings did not claim the pre- eminence of the god-king of Hindu ritual, but served as Kings under the law of Theravada Buddhism, they still accorded a high importance to irrigation. The second great King of the Pagan dynasty was Kyansittha (1084- 1112)-. Several inscriptions celebrating his origins, achievements, and de- si_ies for the future, survive. The.y are the Myazedi inscriptions at Myin- kab, the great inscription of the Shwezigon Pagoda at Pagan, and the s Ibid., p. 98. 10 Anawratha allowed statues of the ''Thirty-Seven Nats" (or Lords) to be placed in the court of . Shwezigon Pagoda, his great temple to the new Buddhism. The statues were grouped in attitudes of worship around the Buddha, symboli- cally ·represented ·"in the· form of a stupa. He made his grounds for this promise explicit by saying, "Men wm ·not-· come- ·for the ·new faith; Let them come and worship their old gods and they will gradually be won- over to Buddha's law." ..... GOVERNMENT AND ·IRRIGATION IN BURMA 361 Mya:kan· inscription at Myanpagan, Pagan.11 They give a legendary his;. tory of Kyansittha's origins, his earlier lives and exploits, and record the outstanding events of his reign: the endowment of monasteries, the re. pair of the great Buddhist shrine at Bodh Gaya, in Bengal and its re· endowme;nt, · and an embassy he sent to a Chola prince. In all th_ese inscriptions, the King is referred to by the title Sri Tribhuwanaditya- dhammaraja. Alone, in a fragment of an inscription12 dealing with his achevements in irrigation, did the King assume the superlative title of Sri Tribhuwanadityadhammarajadiiajaparamiswarabala cakkrawar, "Supreme King of Kings, overlord, mighty universal monarch." The inscription reads: ..... to the end that all beings may obtain happiness, bliss (and) plenty, (and) be .free from famine of ((agriculture)) (in) every place that lacks water, lacks arable land, lacks ((intensive)) cultivation our Lord the King of the law dams the water, digs a tank (and thus) creates arable land (and) ( (intensive) ) cultivation. At the time when King Sri Tribhuwanadityadhammarajarajadirajapara- miswarabalacakkrawar, the exalted, who rides upon a male white elephant, who was foretold by the Lord Buddha, the omniscient (one), the Bod- hisatva* had dug this tank, be gave (it) the name of Mahanirbban · Lak Chuy Khi Kiy (to be) for the benefit of all mankind, the congregation of beings (and) all - May all you good men understand.13 To confirm the special emphasis given this aspect of the King's achievements, the second paragraph is written in Pali, not Burmese.
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