Reconstruction Through Collaboration Negotiation of the Housing Process in Disaster Recovery

Reconstruction through Collaboration Negotiation of the Housing Process in Disaster Recovery By Bauni Hamid A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Yehuda E. Kalay, Chair Professor Galen Cranz Professor Judith E. Innes Spring 2012 Reconstruction through Collaboration: Negotiation of the Housing Process in Disaster Recovery Copyright 2012 by Bauni Hamid 2 Abstract Reconstruction through Collaboration Negotiation of the Housing Process in Disaster Recovery by Bauni Hamid Doctor of Philosophy in Architecture University of California, Berkeley Professor Yehuda Kalay, Chair The great Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami of December 2004 hit many countries in South and Southeast Asia and affected millions of individuals. As such, it led to one of the biggest reconstruction projects in the world, whether considered in terms of the scale of project, number of people impacted, number of institutions involved, total budget, or land area coverage. Hundreds of multinational design and construction firms were involved with the reconstruction along with relevant institutions and donors from various countries, including Indonesia, the country most impacted. My dissertation is an attempt to find a more effective and efficient means of addressing this complex situation by applying the lessons learned from the Aceh post-disaster tsunami recovery process. Investigating stakeholders’ interest in this complex context has been the central issue of my dissertation work. To do so, I have applied theories, particularly those regarding collaboration, that explain the interactional or organizational context as the main tools for my investigation. As I have done so, I have come to realize that although the term collaboration was widely used during the course of the Aceh recovery process as a description of the process of working together to achieve specific goals, it is questionable whether the Aceh stakeholders engaged in true collaboration. The discussion of the urgency of collaboration in complex situations in this dissertation is based on recognition of the importance of using this approach to examine the nature of collaboration from various perspectives and to measure progress during the recovery process. It must be emphasized that collaboration is neither a goal in the process nor a solution to its problems. As such, theories on collaboration are used as tools with which to examine the dynamics that existed among the project stakeholders in their work together in the recovery of Aceh. As examination of the current problems in urban planning and design in developing countries has indicated that they arise from complex issues among the stakeholders involved, this investigation of the reconstruction process in Aceh allows for a unique means of identifying the lessons learned from this experience that can be applied to many types of projects. 1 Table of Contents PART I: DISASTER, ORGANIZATION, AND COLLABORATION Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 1 1.1 The disaster ……………………………………………………………………… 1 1.2 Recovery: The catastrophe after the catastrophe ………………………………... 6 1.3 The context: The city of Banda Aceh .…………………………………………... 11 1.4 The concept: Why collaboration? …..…………………………………………… 14 Chapter 2: Organization: From Bureaucracy to Collaboration ….………………………….. 16 2.1 Macro-level organization ………………………………………………………... 18 2.1.1 Organizational context ….……………………………………………... 19 2.1.2 Power and resource dependence .……………………………………… 20 2.1.3 Network and interorganizational relationship ....……………………… 22 2.1.4 Social status and organizational demography ………………………… 24 2.1.5 Towards a collaborative recovery process ……………………………. 24 2.2 Micro-level organization ……..………………………………………………… 26 2.2.1 Group-level organizational processes ………………………………… 26 2.2.2 Team performance ……………………………………………………. 28 2.2.3 Towards a collaborative process ………………………………….….. 31 Chapter 3: Collaboration: From Design Process to Process Design ..………………………. 35 3.1 Collaboration ……………………………………………………………………. 35 3.2 Collaborative planning ………………………………………………………...... 37 3.2.1 Addressing complexity ……………………………………………….. 37 3.2.2 Leadership …………………………………………………………….. 39 3.2.3 Participatory planning ………………………………………………… 40 3.2.4 Towards collaborative network …..…………………………………… 42 3.3 Architectural collaboration ……………………………………………………… 44 3.3.1 The collaborative architectural design process ..……………………… 45 3.3.2 Collaboration and design communication problems ………………….. 46 3.3.3 Techniques: Process design …….....…………………………………... 50 3.3.4 Towards collaborative design ..………………………………………... 52 PART II: METHODS Chapter 4: Exploring Reconstructed Banda Aceh …………………………………………... 53 i 4.1 Research method ………………………………………………………………… 53 4.2 Research strategy ………………………………………………………………... 54 4.3 Method of analysis ………………………………………………………………. 55 PART III: RECONSTRUCTION Chapter 5: Social Challenges in Aceh ………………………………………………………. 57 5.1 Civil conflict …………………………………………………………………….. 57 5.1.1 The GAM and pre-tsunami events ….…………………………………. 57 5.1.2 The KPA and post-tsunami events .……………………………………. 58 5.1.3 Sharia law ……………………………………………………………... 59 5.2 Stakeholders ……………………………………………………………………... 60 5.2.1 The BRR: A story of coordination .……………………………………. 60 5.2.2 The NGOs ………………………..……………………………………. 65 5.2.3 Other project stakeholders …………………………………………….. 68 5.2.4 Collaboration instead of coordination ………………………………… 77 Chapter 6: Reconstructing Banda Aceh: From Playing Politics to Village Planning ……….. 79 6.1 Housing development in disaster recovery ..…………………………………….. 79 6.1.1 On the reconstruction stage ..........…………………………………….. 80 6.1.2 Political-economic issues ….………………………………………….. 81 6.1.3 Housing implementation strategy …..…………………………………. 84 6.1.4 Land tenure is not everything …………………..……………………... 87 6.2 Disaster planning ………………………………………………………………... 89 6.2.1 Vulnerability and technology ………………...………………………... 89 6.2.2 Vulnerability, capacity and disaster resilience ..……………………….. 93 6.2.3 Recovery complexity and disaster resilience ..………………………… 96 6.2.4 Towards collaborative disaster recovery ………..…………………….. 98 Chapter 7: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………. 105 Notes ………………………………………………………………………………………… 108 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………………………… 116 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………….. 131 ii List of Figures Figure 1.1: Destroyed urban area in Banda Aceh, before and after reconstruction …………. 1 Figure 1.2: Reconstruction needs and allocated funding ……………………………………. 6 Figure 1.3: Proposed environmental design in the Master Plan …………………………….. 7 Figure 1.4: New houses built several meters from the coastline ……………………………. 8 Figure 1.5: People still living in barrack more than four years after the tsunami …………... 9 Figure 1.6: Geographical position of Banda Aceh ………………………………………….. 12 Figure 1.7: Nearly all land parcels on the Banda Aceh coastline left unsuitable for development after the tsunami ………………………………………………. 14 Figure 2.1: Organizational context in the Aceh Reconstruction Project and levels of Analysis …………………………………………………………………….... 17 Figure 2.2: A/E/C project team comprising professionals from many other organizations and disciplines ……………………………………………………………….. 18 Figure 2.3: Networks in organizations ………………………………………………………. 23 Figure 2.4: Placing the design process within the IMOI framework ………………………... 30 Figure 3.1: Typical flow of activities in community-based/participatory planning in housing reconstruction ………………………………………………………. 41 Figure 3.2: DIAD framework ……………………………………………………………….. 43 Figure 3.3: Architectural design phases ……………………………………………………... 45 Figure 3.4: Recent CSCW research into collaboration tends to view the primary problem in collaboration as the facilitation of communication ……………... 47 Figure 3.5: A rough wooden model representing a new housing reconstruction project in Aceh presented at a public meeting ………………………………. 50 Figure 3.6: Design process representation system …………………………………………... 51 Figure 3.7: Representation system to investigate the social-psychological nature of participants in collaborative design …………………………………………. 51 Figure 5.1: BRR organizational structure: Implementation Agency, Supervisory Board, and Advisory Board ………………………………………………….. 61 Figure 5.2: A house built by BRR that deteriorated before occupancy ……………………... 61 Figure 5.3: Alue Naga village was literally flattened when all physical structures, plants, and trees were swept away by tsunami waves ………………………. 62 Figure 5.4: Asbestos-ridden houses torn down by their beneficiaries in Deah Raya village .. 63 Figure 5.5: A house rented by a UN agency at a rate several times higher than the market price ……………………………………………………………… 66 Figure 5.6: Fancy and flashy cars of NGO representatives in Banda Aceh traffic, a common sight during the recovery process ………………………………... 67 Figure 5.7: Project Implementing Unit Mechanisms: Workflow in reporting goods/services procurement …………………………………………………. 69 Figure 5.8: A family with multiple houses on one site ……………………………………… 71 Figure 5.9: A house in Gampong Jawa with a missing roof due to strong winds less than two years after its construction had been completed ............................... 71 iii Figure 5.10: Land consolidation strategy as part of a planner’s ideal urban plan (Master Plan of Aceh-Nias Rehabilitation and Reconstruction, 2005) ……… 73 Figure 5.11: Example of an ideal housing plan that

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