Dialect Features of Leupueng Children: A Study of Dialect in Post Tsunami Aceh by Kismullah B. Ed., Dipl. TESOL, M. App. Ling. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Deakin University November 2017 Dedication To my parents: My father, the late Abdul Muthalib Ibrahim; My mother, Habibah Hasan; To my dearest brother, Faisal, with all good wishes and prayers. iv Acknowledgements Alhamdulillah, I have finally reached the end of my long journey of research leading to this PhD thesis. A lot has happened over the past six years of my PhD candidacy. I have been on study leave from my home institution Universitas Syiah Kuala; I have been away from my family in Pidie, Aceh; I have met new people both at the university and outside it in Melbourne during my study; I have become a new member of the community that I researched in Leupueng; and I have had a wonderful experience teaching Bahasa Indonesia at Trafalgar High School in Trafalgar, Gippsland, Victoria and at Deakin University. All of these have been a challenge and a reward in themselves. I have a lot of people to thank, who have been there to provide support, wisdom, encouragement, and prayers to make this a meaningful journey. First and foremost, I want to thank my ‘godfather’, Dr Qismullah Yusuf, without whom I would not have had the opportunity to go to Deakin in the first place. I would like to thank him for his confidence in me and for always supporting and saying good things about me and for sharing the story of my name, which is identical to his, which gave me more insight into my own self. I want thank Deakin University for supporting me with a generous DUPR scholarship throughout my candidature. Even when my candidature had to be extended, Deakin showed great generosity and managed to support me in one way or another. I would especially like to thank Ms Robyn Ficnerski who has always been there to provide advice and remind me to stay on track. I would also like to thank my academic supervisors, Dr. Zosia Golebiowski, Dr. Tricia Henry, and Dr. Hossein Shokouhi, for their continuous support and guidance throughout the writing of my thesis. I would like to extend my appreciation to the people of Leupueng who were very supportive during my fieldwork in their village. I would especially like to mention Suhaimi, Pak Geusyik Syamsuddin Hasyem for hosting me; Yah Cut Adnan for insight about and the history of Leupueng; Dekgam for always being there and offering a hand; Kak Naimah for good seafood meals; and Hayatun Nufus, Susi Rukayah, Sri Mawarni and Indah Rastika Sari for helping organise the children. I would like to thank the parents of the children who were the participants of my research for allowing their children to take part. I sincerely hope their children grow up to be successful while still appreciating their own language. I have many people to thank in Melbourne as well: Ferry Maulana and his family; Adkhilni Mudkhala Sidqi; Mia Ilmiawati and family; Pak Ayman; and Pak Yudhi and family. I also owe many thanks for their support to my v Acehnese compatriots Pak Azhari Yahya, Teuku Zulfikar, Jarjani Usman, Saifuddin Dhuhri, Asnawi Abdullah, Ari Palawi, T.M. Ridha Al Awwal, Alma Aletta, Maulida Oktaviana, Teuku Nanta and Putri, Kak Nyanyak (the president of Seuramoe Aceh Victoria) and Bang Warren, Kak Yeyen and Bang Udi, Tojir, Syarifah Dahliana, Idaryani, and the Acehnese double degree group at Deakin who I am unable to mention individually. I would like to express my appreciation to Bu Margaret Kartomi’s Sunday badminton group, Pak David Mitchell and Bu Tuti, for allowing me to be part of the group and also for their many academic insights. I have been blessed with the PhD companions that I had on Elgar Rd in the EB Building, Badrus Sholeh, Eko Nugroho Mardi Saputro, Kaya Murman, Natalia Pareira, and everyone who shared the office and who sometimes generously left some cookies (reindeer poo) in the kitchen. Ibu Rebecca and Pak Ismet came at the critical time for my rescue to finish my PhD. I cannot thank them both enough for showing me the way by making it possible for me to visit to Deakin at the final critical time. I would also like to thank them both for their enthusiasm and immense knowledge about Indonesia and Aceh during the finalisation process of my thesis. I also thank them both for arranging for me to be a visiting academic which allowed me come to Deakin at the very end of my PhD. I would like to extend my special thanks to my wife, Fadhilah. She is the one who sacrificed the most throughout the journey. During my PhD study, Fadhilah was the one who was mainly responsible for raising my four children, Kamilatun Nisa, Muhammad Fathin, Muhammad Zafran and Raisul Mumtaz. Pak Syamsul Bahri Ys has always been there, being as good as any parent can be, asking about my progress, convincing me that I was the person to do this PhD, teaching me to value and be grateful for everything I get and am in life. I would like to show my appreciation and thank him for listening to all I had to say and for always having the answers, personally and professionally. I want to thank Bang Iskandar Abdul Samad and Dek Nong for being such good friends and giving good support. Thank you for reminding me that we shared the same struggle and for being willing to talk about it. I would also like to thank Bang Zulfadli and Kak Yunisrina Qismullah Yusuf for sharing their work and for their support. Finally, I would like to dedicate this to my late father, Abdul Muthalib Ibrahim, who always preferred my pronunciation of /kai/ over my older sisters’ /köi/ in alam tara kaifa fa’ala rabbuka bi ashabil fiil? when we began to learn to recite vi the Quran. I believe in a way he can still see me and is proud as I complete this journey. Most of all, what I have learned from this journey is perseverance. In staying the course, you cannot detach yourself from the people around you. When you think that it is time to give up, there are always people who are confident in you who convince you it is worth it to carry on. vii Table of Contents Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vii List of Tables xii List of Figures xiii Abstract xiv List of Abbreviations xv Chapter 1-- Context of the Research 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 3 1.3 Aims of the Study 7 1.4 Significance of the Study 9 1.5 Research Questions 12 1.6 Structure of the Thesis 14 Chapter 2 -- Background 15 2.1 The Geographic and Demographic Setting of Leupueng 15 2.2 Psychopsychological Dimensions 19 2.3 Religious Activities and Language Use in the Leupueng 28 Community 2.4 Life After the Tsunami in Leupueng 30 2.5 Literacy of the Acehnese 33 2.6 Domain of Acehnese Language Use 34 2.7 The Position of Acehnese within the Indonesian Speaking 35 Sphere 2.8 Leupueng Dialect as a Variety of Acehnese 39 2.9 The Story of Gampong Pande/The Origin of Lamseunia, 40 Leupueng 2.10 The Leupueng Identity 48 2.11 Summary 48 viii Chapter 3 – The Acehnese Language 50 3.1 Linguistic History of Acehnese 50 3.2 Sounds in Standard Acehnese 57 3.2.1 Consonants 57 3.2.2 Vowels 58 3.2.3 Syllable and Word Structure 61 3.2.4 Consonant Clusters 62 3.2.5 Syllable Initial and Syllable Final Consonants 64 3.2.6 Vowels in Stressed Syllables and Unstressed Syllables 64 3.2.7 Diphthongs and Unstressed Syllables 65 3.2.8 Nasal Vowels and Unstressed Syllables 65 3.3 Varieties of Acehnese 65 3.4 Acehnese Orthography 71 3.5 Summary 73 Chapter 4 – Dialect Contact and Dialect Change 74 4.1 Dialect Contact 74 4.2 Speech Community 75 4.3 Language and Dialect 79 4.4 Dialect Change 89 4.5 Contact as a Determinant for Dialect Change 92 4.5.1 New Zealand English 92 4.5.2 The English Fens 97 4.5.3 Texas 99 4.5.4 Hoyanger, Odda, and Tyseddal 100 4.5.5 The Dutch Polders 102 4.5.6 Children in Spitsbergen 103 4.5.7 Milton Keynes 104 4.5.8 Lessons from the studies 104 4.6 Transmission and Acquisition 105 4.7 Social Networks 108 4.8 Mixed Dialect Marriages 115 4.9 Attitude and Language Use 117 4.10 Summary 121 Chapter 5 – Methodological Framework 123 5.1 Research Site 123 5.2 Identification and Analysis of LD Source 123 5.3 Durie’s 1990 Field Session in Leupueng 124 5.4 Research Participants 125 5.4.1 The Children 125 5.4.2 The Parents 129 5.5 Language Elicitation and Analysis 130 ix 5.6 Parent Attitude Questionnaires and Semistructured Interviews 131 5.7 Summary 134 Chapter 6 – Some Phonological Characteristics of the 135 Leupueng Dialect 6.1 The Leupueng Dialect in Relation to Standard Acehnese 135 6.2 Unconditional Correspondences 139 6.2.1 Rising Diphthongs in LD 139 6.2.2 Absence of Diphthongs in Closed Syllables 140 6.2.3 The Uvularisation of the Alveolar Tap /ɾ/ 141 6.2.4 The Dentalisation [t̪] of the Alveolar Fricative [s] 141 6.2.5 The Correspondence of SA Aspirated Alveolar Tap [ɾh] 142 (Cluster) with LD [t̪ʁ] Cluster 6.3 Conditional Correspondences 143 6.3.1 The Realization of [a] 143 6.3.2 The SA Vowel [ʌ] and LD [ɔ] 144 6.3.3 The Lowering of Closed Front Vowel SA [i]: LD [e] 145 6.4 Summary 147 Chapter 7 – Features of Leupueng Dialect in Children’s 148 Language Use 7.1 Overall Variable Occurrences 148 7.1.1 High Frequency Variables 150 7.1.2 Middle Frequency Variables 150 7.1.3 Low Frequency Variables 152 7.2 Patterns of Use 153 7.2.1 Variation Across Groups 154 7.2.2 Variation Across Variables 158 7.2.3 Variables with Zero Realization in LD (V1, V2, V6) 159 7.2.4 Variables with Low Occurrence and Low LD Realization 160 7.2.5 Variation in Stereotyped LD Features 162 7.2.6 Variation in the Production