Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea
edited by R. Michael Bourke and Tracy Harwood Published by ANU E Press The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Email: [email protected] This title is also available online at: http://epress.anu.edu.au/food_agriculture_citation.html
This edition © 2009 ANU E Press
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry:
Food and agriculture in Papua New Guinea / editors, R. Michael Bourke, Tracy Harwood.
Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 9781921536601 (pbk) ISBN 9781921536618 (pdf) Agriculture--Papua New Guinea Agriculture--Economic aspects--Papua New Guinea. Agricultural productivity--Papua New Guinea. 630.9953
Suggested citation: Bourke, R.M. and Harwood, T. (eds) (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. ANU E Press, The Australian National University, Canberra. http://rspas.anu.edu.au/lmg/
Design: Sam Highley, Clarus Design Typeface: Minion Pro Index: Tracy Harwood
Cover: Yasisime from Asirangka village in the Aiyura basin, Eastern Highlands Province, weeds a peanut plot. Peanut is grown for both home consumption and for sale locally. It is grown in rotation with sweet potato to maintain soil fertility. The plot on the left contains sweet potato, the staple food in the highlands, and other food crops. Casuarina trees in the background shade Arabica coffee, the most important cash crop in the highlands. Photo by Mike Bourke. Contents
Foreword ...... vii Charles W. Lepani
Contributors ...... viii
Acknowledgements ...... x
Acronyms and initialisms ...... xii
Botanical names ...... xiv
Conventions, data sources and limitations ...... xxii
Twenty myths about Papua New Guinea agriculture ...... 1 R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen
Introduction ...... 5 R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen
History of agriculture in Papua New Guinea ...... 10 R. Michael Bourke
Part 1 People, Land and Environment ...... 27
Bryant Allen and R. Michael Bourke
1.1 Total population ...... 28 1.2 Land use ...... 35 1.3 Population density ...... 47 1.4 Internal migration ...... 51 1.5 Rainfall ...... 56 1.6 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and food supply ...... 62 1.7 Temperature, cloudiness and sunshine ...... 68 1.8 Climate change ...... 71 1.9 Soils ...... 81
Contents iii 1.10 Landforms and altitude ...... 87 1.11 Agricultural environments ...... 95 1.12 Land quality ...... 101 1.13 Crops, people and the environment ...... 107 1.14 Access to markets and services ...... 116 1.15 Geographical information systems ...... 121
Part 2 Food Production, Consumption and Imports ...... 129
R. Michael Bourke, John Gibson, Alan Quartermain, Kate Barclay, Bryant Allen and Jean Kennedy
2.1 Food in Papua New Guinea: an overview ...... 130 2.2 Staple food crop production ...... 138 2.3 Genetic diversity of food crops ...... 145 2.4 Food crop yields ...... 147 2.5 Rice production ...... 168 2.6 Animal production ...... 173 2.7 Rice and wheat imports ...... 179 2.8 Fruit and vegetable imports ...... 183 2.9 Meat imports ...... 185 2.10 Fish imports ...... 188
Part 3 Village Food Production Systems ...... 193
R. Michael Bourke and Bryant Allen
3.1 Staple food crops ...... 194 3.2 Vegetables ...... 201 3.3 Fruit ...... 208 3.4 Nuts ...... 215 3.5 Stimulants ...... 223 3.6 Intensification of agriculture ...... 230 3.7 Soil fertility maintenance techniques ...... 232 3.8 Fallowing ...... 235 3.9 Soil retention and benching ...... 242 3.10 Tree planting and legume rotations ...... 245
iv Contents 3.11 Tillage, mounds, beds and green manuring ...... 251 3.12 Other agricultural techniques ...... 260
Part 4 The Broader Economy ...... 271
Andrew McGregor and R. Michael Bourke
4.1 The macro-economic environment ...... 272 4.2 Consumer price index ...... 275 4.3 Prices of selected items ...... 278 4.4 Pay fortnight food market and retail cycles ...... 281
Part 5 Cash Income from Agriculture ...... 283
Matthew Allen, R. Michael Bourke and Andrew McGregor
5.1 Rural villagers’ cash income ...... 284 5.2 Cash cropping in Papua New Guinea: an overview ...... 292 5.3 Domestically marketed food ...... 300 5.4 Coffee ...... 306 5.5 Cocoa ...... 315 5.6 Copra and copra oil ...... 323 5.7 Oil palm ...... 331 5.8 Forest products ...... 340 5.9 Marine resources ...... 349 5.10 Sugar ...... 355 5.11 Rubber ...... 360 5.12 Tea ...... 367 5.13 Balsa ...... 371 5.14 Vanilla ...... 374 5.15 Spices and flavourings ...... 379 5.16 Pyrethrum ...... 385 5.17 Other income from plants ...... 389 5.18 Income from animals ...... 401 5.19 Purchased inputs for agricultural production ...... 408 5.20 Fluctuations in village cash crop production ...... 411 5.21 Marketing agricultural exports ...... 420
Contents v Part 6 Agricultural Development, Policies and Governance ...... 425
Bryant Allen
6.1 Land tenure ...... 426 6.2 Agriculture and gender ...... 431 6.3 Policy making in the agricultural sector ...... 437 6.4 Governance ...... 442 6.5 Agricultural surveys ...... 455 6.6 Nutrition surveys ...... 463 6.7 Land settlement schemes ...... 469 6.8 Rural development projects ...... 473 6.9 Transport infrastructure ...... 477 6.10 Rural poverty ...... 484
Appendix Tables ...... 489
Index ...... 595
vi Contents Foreword
It gives me great pleasure to contribute the Foreword The book is written in language that is readily to this impressive book. accessible to non-specialists. It will be a valuable teaching resource for senior high school and I have long held the view that subsistence agriculture university students. I commonly hear advisers new underwrites the PNG cash economy. The cash sector to PNG saying that there is no information available should supplement and complement but not replace on a particular topic, or that something that has the subsistence sector. Agriculture in PNG provides been tried before should be tried again. This book direct benefits to over 80% of our population. A makes that ‘missing’ information available in one strong subsistence sector and the wantok system place and describes the history of previous attempts provide surrogate social welfare support for many to, for example, introduce new crops or bring about people. The resilience of the rural majority was seen rural development. recently when steep increases in food prices caused considerable distress in many parts of the world. As a former director of the PNG National Planning However, most rural people in PNG were spared the Office, it is clear to me that much of the information worst impact of these rises because of their strong in this book will and should form the basis for subsistence base and cash income from agricultural planning further agricultural development and export crops. indeed form the basis for defining development policies for PNG. The authors have not been afraid to Agriculture is also important because it is a central put forward their expert opinions on possible future part of our traditional cultures and maintains our trends. They have also constructively addressed some lifestyles. It also reduces poverty among rural people contentious issues in the interests of agricultural and lessens migration to towns. While the mining development in PNG. and petroleum sectors are presently important to the economy, agriculture uses renewable resources that I congratulate the authors, editors and The Australian will continue to be critical to the PNG economy long National University for producing this book and into the future. warmly commend it. I am attracted to many aspects of this important book. It contains information about the significance of subsistence food production, the role of export cash crops, and details on forestry and fisheries. I was particularly pleased to see the wide variety of subjects covered including, for example, population, land use, global climate change, animal husbandry, gender issues and access to services. I was also Charles W. Lepani pleased to note that the authors have included Papua New Guinea High Commissioner information on addressing current constraints to the to Australia, Canberra expansion of agriculture. October 2008
Foreword vii Contributors
Most of this book was written by R. Michael Bourke Kate Barclay and Bryant Allen. Some sections were contracted Kate Barclay is a Senior Lecturer with the to specialists. Matthew Allen wrote 11 sections International Studies program at the University of Part 5. of Technology, Sydney. Kate researches the social and political aspects of fisheries in the Asia–Pacific Bryant Allen region. She is particularly interested in the connec- Bryant Allen is a Senior Fellow with the Land tions between economic development and national Management Group, Research School of Pacific and identity, and globalisation, using fisheries enterprises Asian Studies (RSPAS), The Australian National as case studies. Authored: 2.10. University. He has carried out research in the Cook Islands in the 1960s and in rural Papua New R. Michael Bourke Guinea (PNG) from the early 1970s to the present. Mike Bourke is an independent consultant and an He has worked at the University of PNG, the PNG Adjunct Senior Fellow with the Land Management Department of Environment and Conservation Group, RSPAS, The Australian National University. and the PNG National Research Institute. He has He has formal training as an agricultural scientist researched in many parts of rural PNG, in particular and human geographer and has been continuously in the Dreikikir area of East Sepik and the Tari area involved in research and development work in village of Southern Highlands. His main interests are in the agriculture in PNG since 1970. He has worked in sustainability of agricultural systems, in particular most parts of rural PNG. His research interests shifting cultivation systems; rural development; include relationships between people, crops and the rural poverty; and food security. Authored: 1.1–1.7, environment; intensification of land use; climate 1.9–1.12, 1.14–1.15, 2.5, 3.6–3.12, 6.1–6.10. change; sustainability of agriculture; food security; rural poverty; rural development; and root crop Matthew Allen agronomy. Authored: History of agriculture, 1.8, Matthew Allen is a Postdoctoral Fellow with the 1.13, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 3.1–3.5, 4.2–4.4, 5.1, 5.3, 5.15–5.20; Resource Management in Asia-Pacific Program, and significant contribution to all sections in Part 5. RSPAS, The Australian National University. Matthew has conducted research on various aspects of the John Gibson societies and environments of Melanesia since John Gibson is a Professor of Economics at the 1997. His PhD research examined the relationships Waikato Management School, University of Waikato, between the state, identity, resources and conflict in Hamilton, New Zealand, and a Visiting Fellow at Solomon Islands. His research interests are resource the Center for Global Development, Washington, conflict and identity politics in Melanesia in general DC. He has previously worked as an adviser with the and Solomon Islands in particular, with further PNG Department of Agriculture and Livestock and interests in smallholder agriculture, food security as a researcher with the PNG Institute of National and rural development. Authored: 5.2, 5.4–5.13. Affairs. His research interests include poverty
viii Contributors measurement; the design and analysis of household Andrew McGregor survey data; and economic development, especially Andrew McGregor is an agricultural economist in China and other Asian and Pacific economies. specialising in the Pacific islands. He currently Authored: 2.7–2.9. manages the Trade and Development Office, Fiji. Over the past 30 years Andrew has worked in most Tracy Harwood Pacific island countries, and also in the eastern Tracy Harwood is an editor with the Land Caribbean and Hawaii. Authored: 4.1, 5.14, 5.21; Management Group, RSPAS, The Australian National contributed to future prospects for export crops University. She has a Bachelor of Applied Science in in Part 5. Ecology and Natural Resources from the University of Canberra and is interested in environmental Alan Quartermain sciences. She has been editing since 2002 and is a Alan Quartermain is Dean of the School of Natural member of the Canberra Society of Editors and the Resources, University of Vudal, Rabaul, PNG. He Australian and New Zealand Society of Indexers. trained as an agricultural scientist and animal geneticist. He has taught at the University of PNG Jean Kennedy and University of Vudal, was Chief Scientist at the Jean Kennedy is an archaeologist and Visiting Fellow PNG National Agricultural Research Institute, and in the Department of Archaeology and Natural works as a consultant for the Food and Agriculture History, RSPAS, The Australian National University. Organization of the United Nations. His research She is interested in the prehistory and ethnobotany interests include livestock production, and agricul- of perennial tropical crops of the south-west tural research and development issues in developing Pacific region. Authored: 2.3. countries. Authored: 2.6.
Contributors ix Acknowledgements
The concept for this book was developed by Ishmel Libitino, David Loh, Tella Loie, Mark Lowe, Mike Bourke, Bryant Allen and John Gibson. Michael Lowe, Sue Lowe, Victor Maggio, John The basic idea was presented to the Papua New Mandich, Mike Manning, Anna Martin, David Guinea National Agricultural Research Institute; Mather, Leigh Matters, Wakasa Mecksaene, Rahman Department of Agriculture and Livestock; and Mizanur, Jane Mogina, John Moxon, Jennifer Moyes, Department of National Planning and Monitoring. Kulala Mulung, John Nightingale, Norah Omot, Staff at these institutions, including Naihuwo Ahai, Theresa Orim, Diane Ormsby, Ian Orrell, Dale Raghunath Ghodake, Valentine Kambori, Matthew Palmer, Nigel Parker, Sudari Pawiro, Andrew Pawley, Kanua, Roy Masamdu and Geoff Wiles, supported John Petersen, Philip Pondikou, Kanawi Pouru, Gary the idea, commented on the proposal and suggested Preston, Alan Quartermain, Sisiwaka Roah, Graeme additional material. Participants at a seminar at The Ross, Alan Rumsey, David Sali, Joselito Santiago, Australian National University suggested inclusion of Wila Saweri, Brett Schofield, Reuben Sengere, Ian some other sections, as did Geoff Fox of AusAID. Sexton, Tim Sharp, Robert Shelton, Rob Small, John Sowei, Graeme Stowell, Willie Susuke, Ben Tara, Many people from the commercial sector, industry Lauatu Tautea, Bruce Telfer, Stephen Tovita, Katie bodies and government departments in PNG Tripp, Jack Tulvue, Ruth Turia, Roger Vallance, provided data, as did some based in Australia and Michael Varapik, Phillip Vovola, Michael Waisime, elsewhere. They include: Ganei Agodop, Joseph Peter Walton, Tamzin Wardley, Nathan Wartovo, Aka, Will Akus, Stephen Althaus, Moses Alu, Ram Jimmy Weiner, David Wilkin, Steve Woodhouse, Anatharaman, Theresa Arek, David Armour, David Charles Yala, Andrew Yamanea and Sylvanius Yavisa. Bain, Felix Bakani, Valonna Baker, Sergei Bang, Paul Barker, Chew Kui Boo, Greg Bosa, Maurice Some sections were sent to specialists for comments. Brownjohn, Guy Cameron, Paul Chatterton, John Those provided by Jack Golson on the history of Cook, George Curry, Charles Dambui, Edwin agriculture were particularly comprehensive. Other Dawana, Robert DeBrouwere, Bob Densley, Frederic reviewers were Chris Ballard, Kate Barclay, Paul Dumortier, Warren Dutton, Geoff Fahey, Mathias Barker, Chew Kui Boo, John Burton, Brian Chung, Faure, Philip Franklin, Brad Furness, Chris Gard, George Curry, Peter Cusack, Warren Dutton, Colin Botu Gaupu, Anton Goonetilleke, John Goumei, Filer, Jim Fingleton, Phil Franklin, John Gibson, Jim Greg, Marianne Grosclaude, Brian Gunn, Anton Goonetilleke, Brian Gunn, Simon Haberle, Martin Gunther, Gaona Gwaibo, Peter Heywood, Alfred Hartemink, Robin Hide, Braden Jenkin, Neville Howcroft, Ross Humphries, Kasis Inape, Margaret Jolly, Gael Keig, Jeff Kinch, Lastus Kuniata, Sharryl Ivahupa, Mike Jackson, Ron Jenkins, Mark Hugh Laird, Joseph Lelang, Anthony Lewis, John Johnston, Vele Kagena, Patricia Kaiola, John Kaius, McAlpine, Andrew McGregor, Mark Mosko, Aquina Kango, Pauka Karafa, Ram Karan, Henao Ian Orrell, Alan Quartermain, Ian Sexton, Tim Kari, Prescilla Kauni, John Kendiga, Jeff Kinch, Sharp, Rob Small, John Spriggs, Bill Standish and Michael Knight, Gina Koczberski, Marcel Kuiper, Phillip Vovola. Tom Kukhang, Lastus Kuniata, Hugh Laird, Leanne Lawrance, Phil Leahy, Malcolm Levett, Frank Lewis,
x Acknowledgements Most of the information on village-sector agriculture was collected from hundreds of people from every district in PNG who willingly gave their time and immense knowledge about their food production and cash crop systems. One of the aims of this book is to explain the critical importance to PNG’s national economy of village agriculture through the production of food, shelter and cash crops. The book was produced by members of the Land Management Group, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. As well as the editors, Laura Vallee (data organisation) and Bryant Allen (editing) made a significant input. Others who contributed included Matthew Allen, Karen Fisher, Quintin Gravatt, Amber Pares, Natalie Stuckings and Veerle Vlassak. Graphs and pie charts were generated in house. Maps were drawn by Kay Dancey, Cartography Unit, ANU. Additional figures were provided by Catherine Eadie, Philippe Rekacewicz and Robert Rohde. Design was by Sam Highley. Several members of the Canberra Society of Editors advised informally on some editing conventions. Funding was provided by the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at ANU, the Australian Government through AusAID, and by members of the Land Management Group from consulting income. The assistance of all those named above is acknowledged with thanks. Responsibility for any errors or omissions rests with the authors of individual sections.
Acknowledgements xi Acronyms and initialisms
ACIAR Australian Centre for International DHS Demographic and Health Survey Agricultural Research DIS delivered-in-store ADB Asian Development Bank DNPM Department of National Planning AGSYS agricultural system and Monitoring ANU The Australian National University DPI Department of Primary Industry AusAID Australian Agency for International DSG District Support Grant Development DSIP District Services Improvement AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Program Radiometer EBC Evangelical Brotherhood Church CBO community-based organisation Inc. CCI Cocoa Coconut Institute of PNG ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation CIC Coffee Industry Corporation Ltd EU European Union CIMC Consultative Implementation and FAO Food and Agriculture Organization Monitoring Council of the United Nations CLTC Christian Leaders Training College FFB fresh fruit bunch (oil palm) CMB Copra Marketing Board FIMS Forest Resource Information System COPD Community Oil Palm Development FPDA Fresh Produce Development CPI consumer price index Agency Ltd CRES Centre for Resource and GIS geographical information system Environmental Science (ANU) HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus/ CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and acquired immune deficiency Industrial Research Organisation syndrome (Australia) IASER Institute of Applied Social and CU census unit Economic Research DAL Department of Agriculture and IFTA Insect Farming and Trading Livestock Agency DASF Department of Agriculture, Stock INA Institute of National Affairs and Fisheries IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on DEC Department of Environment and Climate Change Conservation
xii Acronyms and initialisms ITTO International Tropical Timber OPIC Oil Palm Industry Corporation Organization OPRA Oil Palm Research Association KIK Kokonas Indastri Koporesen ORD Office of Rural Development LAES Lowlands Agricultural Experiment PDS Provincial Data System Station, Keravat PNG Papua New Guinea LDC Livestock Development Corporation Ltd PNGCC Papua New Guinea Coconut Commodities LMS London Missionary Society PNGFA Papua New Guinea Forest LSS land settlement scheme Authority MASP Mapping Agricultural Systems of PNGRIS Papua New Guinea Resource Papua New Guinea Project Information System MP member of parliament PO PA Palm Oil Producers’ Association MTDS Medium Term Development PRA participatory rural appraisal Strategy RAMS Road Asset Management System NAC National Agricultural Council RHS rural household survey NACS National AIDS Council Secretariat RIC Rural Industries Council NADP National Agriculture Development Plan RMU resource mapping unit NAIS National Agricultural Information RRA rapid rural appraisal System SGS Société Générale de Surveillance NAQIA National Agriculture Quarantine SIB Spice Industry Board and Inspection Authority SOI Southern Oscillation Index NARI National Agricultural Research SSTC South Seas Tuna Corporation Institute TPC Tactical Pilotage Chart NBPOL New Britain Palm Oil Limited UN United Nations NES nucleus estate and smallholder (model) UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund NFA National Fisheries Authority US United States of America NFB National Forestry Board USDA United States Department of Agriculture NFS National Forestry Service VOP village oil palm NGO non-government organisation WWF (formerly) World Wide Fund for NIS nut-in-shell Nature NNS National Nutrition Survey NPK nitrogen–phosphorus–potassium fertiliser NPO National Planning Office NSO National Statistical Office of PNG OPGA Oil Palm Growers’ Association
Acronyms and initialisms xiii Botanical names
Yam Dioscorea pentaphylla Staple foods Yam, aerial Dioscorea bulbifera Yam, greater Dioscorea alata Common name Scientific name Yam, lesser Dioscorea esculenta
Banana Musa cvs Yam, white Dioscorea rotundata Cassava Manihot esculenta Coconut Cocos nucifera Vegetables Cordyline Cordyline fruticosa Corn (maize) Zea mays Common name Scientific name Irish potato Solanum tuberosum Kudzu Pueraria lobata Aibika Abelmoschus manihot Polynesian Tacca leontopetaloides Amaranthus Amaranthus blitum arrowroot Amaranthus Amaranthus caudatus Queensland Canna edulis Amaranthus Amaranthus cruentus arrowroot Amaranthus Amaranthus dubius Rice Oryza sativa Amaranthus Amaranthus tricolor Sago Metroxylon sagu Bean, adzuki Vigna angularis Sago Metroxylon salomonense Bean, broad Vicia faba Sorghum Sorghum bicolor Bean, climbing Phaseolus vulgaris Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum Bean, common Phaseolus vulgaris Sweet potato Ipomoea batatas Bean, dwarf Phaseolus vulgaris Taro Amorphophallus Bean, jack Canavalia ensiformis paeoniifolius Bean, lablab Lablab purpureus Taro (taro tru) Colocasia esculenta Bean, lima Phaseolus lunatus Taro, Chinese Xanthosoma sagittifolium Bean, mung (bean Vigna radiata Taro, giant Alocasia macrorrhizos sprouts) Taro, swamp Cyrtosperma chamissonis Bean, rice Vigna umbellata Wheat Triticum aestivum Bean, snake Vigna unguiculata cv. group Yam Dioscorea nummularia Sesquipedalis
xiv Botanical names Vegetables (continued) Kalava Ormocarpum orientale Kangkong Ipomoea aquatica Bean, winged Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Karakap Solanum americanum Beetroot Beta vulgaris cv. group Kohlrabi Brassica oleracea cv. group Garden Beet Kohlrabi Broccoli Brassica oleracea cv. group Kumu musong Ficus copiosa Broccoli Leek Allium ampeloprasum cv. Brussels sprout Brassica oleracea cv. group group Leek Brussels Sprouts Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus Cabbage, Chinese Brassica rapa cv. group Chinese cabbage Lettuce Lactuca sativa Cabbage, head Brassica oleracea cv. group Marrow Cucurbita pepo White Headed Cabbage Oenanthe (water Oenanthe javanica Capsicum Capsicum annuum dropwort) Carrot Daucus carota Onion Allium cepa cv. group Common Onion Castor Ricinus communis Pak choi Brassica rapa cv. group Pak Cauliflower Brassica oleracea cv. group Choi Cauliflower Parsley Petroselinum crispum Celery Apium graveolens var. dulce Pea Pisum sativum Ceylon spinach Basella alba Peanut Arachis hypogaea Chilli Capsicum frutescens Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan Choko (chayote) Sechium edule Pitpit, highland Setaria palmifolia Coral tree Erythrina variegata Pitpit, lowland Saccharum edule Cowpea Vigna unguiculata cv. group Unguiculata Pumpkin Cucurbita moschata Cucumber Cucumis sativus cv. group Radish, red Raphanus sativus cv. group Slicing Cucumber Small Radish Cyanotis Cyanotis moluccana Rhubarb Rheum ×cultorum Dicliptera Dicliptera papuana Rorippa Rorippa schlechteri Eggplant Solanum melongena cv. Rungia Rungia klossii group Common Eggplant Russian comfrey Symphytum asperrimum Ficus wassa Ficus wassa Shallot Allium cepa cv. group Garlic Allium sativum cv. group Aggregatum Common Garlic Silverbeet Beta vulgaris cv. group Ginger Zingiber officinale Spinach Beet Gourd, bottle Lagenaria siceraria Soya bean Glycine max Gourd, wax Benincasa hispida cv. group Spinach Spinacia oleracea Wax Gourd Spring onion Allium cepa cv. group Highland kapiak Ficus dammaropsis Aggregatum Job’s tears Coix lacryma-jobi Toma to Lycopersicon esculentum
Botanical names xv Vegetables (continued) Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus Langsat Lansium domesticum Trichosanthes Trichosanthes pulleana Lemon Citrus limon pulleana Lime Citrus aurantifolia Tulip Gnetum gnemon Longan Euphoria longan Turnip Brassica rapa cv. group Vegetable Turnip Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Vala ngur Polyscias verticillata Malay apple Syzygium malaccense Wandering Jew Commelina diffusa Malay apple, giant Syzygium megacarpa Watercress Rorippa nasturtium- Mandarin Citrus reticulata aquaticum Mango Mangifera indica Yam bean Pachyrhizus erosus Mango, traditional Mangifera minor Zucchini Cucurbita pepo Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana Marita pandanus Pandanus conoideus Mon Dracontomelon dao Fruit Mulberry Morus nigra Naranjilla Solanum quitoense Common name Scientific name Nectarine Prunus persica var. nectarina Apple Malus spp. Orange Citrus sinensis Avocado Persea americana Pandanus, coastal Pandanus tectorius Brazil cherry Eugenia uniflora Parartocarpus Parartocarpus venenosa Bukabuk Burckella obovata Passionfruit, Passiflora mollissima Bullock’s heart Annona reticulata banana Cape gooseberry Physalis peruviana Passionfruit, Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa lowland yellow Carambola (five Averrhoa carambola corner) Passionfruit, purple Passiflora edulis f. edulis Cherimoya Annona cherimolia Pawpaw (papaya) Carica papaya Cumquat Fortunella japonica Peach Prunus persica Custard apple Annona squamosa Persimmon Diospyros kaki (sweetsop) Pineapple Ananas comosus Durian Durio zibethinus Plum, Japanese Prunus spp. Egg tree Garcinia xanthochymus Pomegranate Punica granatum Elder Sambucus nigra Pomelo Citrus maxima Golden apple Spondias cytherea Pouteria Pouteria maclayana Governor’s plum Flacourtia indica Pulasan Nephelium mutabile Granadilla Passiflora quadrangularis Rambutan Nephelium lappaceum Grapefruit Citrus paradisi Raspberry, black Rubus lasiocarpus Guava Psidium guajava Raspberry, red Rubus moluccanus Guava, cherry Psidium cattleianum Raspberry, red Rubus rosifolius
xvi Botanical names Fruit (continued) Macadamia Macadamia tetraphylla Okari Terminalia impediens Rockmelon Cucumis melo Okari Terminalia kaernbachii (cantaloupe) Omphalea gageana Omphalea gageana Rukam Flacourtia rukam Pao Barringtonia edulis Santol Sandoricum koetjape Pao Barringtonia novae- Soursop Annona muricata hiberniae Star apple Chrysophyllum cainito Pao Barringtonia procera Strawberry Fragaria spp. Pecan Carya illinoensis Suga prut (highland Passiflora ligularis Polynesian chestnut Inocarpus fagifer yellow passionfruit) (aila) Tamarillo (tree Cyphomandra betacea Sea almond (talis) Terminalia catappa tomato) Sis (solomon) Pangium edule Tamarind Tamarindus indica Tulip Gnetum gnemon Ton (taun) Pometia pinnata Watermelon Citrullus lanatus Watery rose apple Syzygium aqueum Stimulants
Common name Scientific name Nuts Betel nut (buai) Areca catechu Common name Scientific name Betel nut, highland Areca macrocalyx Betel pepper, Piper gibbilimbum Breadfruit Artocarpus altilis highland Candle nut Aleurites moluccana Betel pepper, Piper betle Cashew Anacardium occidentale lowland Castanopsis Castanopsis acuminatissima Kava Piper methysticum Dausia Terminalia megalocarpa Marijuana Cannabis sativa Elaeocarpus Elaeocarpus womersleyi Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum womersleyi Finschia Finschia chloroxantha Galip Canarium decumanum Cash crops Galip Canarium harveyi Galip Canarium indicum Common name Scientific name Galip Canarium lamii Annatto (bixa) Bixa orellana Galip Canarium salomonense Balsa Ochroma lagopus Karuka, planted Pandanus julianettii Black pepper Piper nigrum Karuka, wild Pandanus antaresensis Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum Karuka, wild Pandanus brosimos Chilli Capsicum frutescens Macadamia Macadamia integrifolia
Botanical names xvii Cash crops (continued) Copal gum Agathis spp. Cordyline Cordyline fruticosa Cinnamon Cinnamomum verum Dammar Vatica papuana Citronella grass Cymbopogon nardus Dillenia Dillenia spp. Cocoa Theobroma cacao Eaglewood Gyrinops ledermannii Coffee, Arabica Coffea arabica Eucalyptus Eucalyptus deglupta Coffee, Robusta Coffea canephora var. (kamarere) robusta Eucalyptus Eucalyptus pellita Coconut Cocos nucifera Hibiscus Hibiscus tiliaceus Ginger Zingiber officinale Hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii Japanese mint Mentha arvensis Ivory nut Metroxylon amicarum Jatropha Jatropha curcas Kamarere Eucalyptus deglupta Kapok Ceiba pentandra Klinki pine Araucaria hunsteinii Lemon grass Cymbopogon citratus Kwila Intsia bijuga Nutmeg Myristica argentea Malas Homalium spp. Nutmeg Myristica fragrans Massoi Cryptocarya massoy Oil palm Elaeis guineensis Mersawa Anisoptera spp. Patchouli Pogostemon cablin New Guinea walnut Dracontomelon dao Pyrethrum Chrysanthemum (mon) cinerariaefolium Noni Morinda citrifolia Rubber, assam Ficus elastica Perennial cane Coix gigantea Rubber, para Hevea brasiliensis grass Tea Camellia sinensis Pinus Pinus spp. Turmeric Curcuma domestica Planchonella Pouteria spp. Vanilla Vanilla planifolia Red canarium Canarium indicum Vanilla Vanilla tahitensis (galip) Red cedar Toona ciliata Rosewood Pterocarpus indicus Forest products Rubber Hevea brasiliensis Sandalwood Santalum macgregorii Common name Scientific name Sisal Agave sisalana Acacia Acacia crassicarpa Teak Tectona grandis Acacia Acacia mangium Terminalia Terminalia spp. Burckella Burckella spp. Tigaso oil Buchanania spp. Cajuput oil Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa Tigaso oil Campnosperma Calophyllum Calophyllum spp. brevipetiolata Casuarina (yar) Casuarina oligodon Ton (taun) Pometia pinnata Chinese water Eleocharis dulcis chestnut
xviii Botanical names BOUGAINVILLE kilometres Lihir MILNE BAY Simberi Keravat Mt Sinivit (Sinewit) vilo EAST NEW BRITAIN Ta 50 0 100 200 300 400 NEW IRELAND Dami WEST NEW BRITAIN ORO CENTRAL Bisianumu MOROBE Tolukuma Laloki Bubia Erap MADANG Aiyura 5 Ramu Kainantu Region GULF MANUS 4 National Capital District Islands Region Momase Region Highlands Region Southe rn Kuk 3 Tambul agricultural research station agricultural research EAST SEPIK Taluma 1 2 mine Kutubu Porgera WESTERN SANDAUN oil/gas field ENGA EASTERN HIGHLANDS WESTERN HIGHLANDS SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS SIMBU Ok Tedi 3 5 1 2 4 © Cartography ANU 08-081 KD
The five regions of Papua New Guinea, mine sites mentioned in the text, and agricultural research stations
The five regions of Papua New Guinea xix Mussau Is ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 50 0100 200 300 400 MANUS Bismarck Bay kilometres LORENGAU Manus Is NEW IRELAND Fedarb Is Rambutyo Is New Hanover SANDAUN Mbuke Is Lou Is Pam Is KAVIENG Baluan Is Simberi Is VANIMO EAST SEPIK Sissano B I Bewani Lagoon S M A R C Aitape K Lihir Is Vokeo Is A R C H NEW Nuguria Dagua I P E IRELAND Islands WEWAK L A Tanga Islands Amanab Dreikikir Maprik Du Nuku Murik G ke Bainyik Lakes O Of Yo Wosera rk Sepik Gavien B G la r Feni Islands n ou S ch p BOUGAINVILLE epik Angoram Manam Is e Rabaul B Ama K a Ambunti y e u r Bogia a m m MADANG BISMARCK SEA Keravat a KOKOPO g Pinipel Is R o y BA ran i a IN a I W Yapsiei M N Nissan Is Y Mundua Is A Karkar Is G u D M Carteret a EL Garove Is Open N t B Gazelle TS Islands E Bagabag Is Bay RT Peninsula SC Unea (Bali) Is H RA r RA . te s DE es in R G c k Telefomin R og u s A. ol lo o Lagaip Kaironk R H Buka Is Tabubil Oksapmin a MADANG G i m e e Bialla a Simbai u Long Is Siassi Islands p Talasea Stettin p Kompiam L a a Kopiago B Ji Sirunki a m Rai C Bay C i i Co Pomio y ast BUKA Porgera WABAG e 3 Hoskins r Tinputz Laiagam V Wapenamanda Saidor i lu KIMBE Ningerum Koroba 2 Mt Bundi FINIS a u Wahgi Wilhelm TER Ar K O Kandep Tambul Kuk RE Umboi Is ia k Tari N RA Gembogl Dumpu . Teptep Wasu Wakunai T e b MOUNT Kudjip Kerowagi Gusap e i d Margarima l d N y A i HAGEN n e GOROKA e r s Sialum a m KUNDIAWA a l Wantoat Nipa b MENDI ro Arawa Kiunga k A. c i S R Kabwum Kandrian i Gumine Mt Kainantu ARAWAGET NEW BRITAIN
r Nomad
t Elimbari Kaiapit Huon Aropa S Henganofi 1 Ialibu Arona M y 4 Peninsula BOUGAINVILLE l Great Papuan Lake Lufa Ukarumpa a Pindiu F r Plateau Kutubu Era Karimui kh Nadzab Ogeranang ISLAND Pimaga ve 5 Okapa am Gobari Finschhafen Erave t t i Situm Mt Bosavi i Ima p Wopasali r ni u t EAST NEW BRITAIN a Patep m m a Lake a a LAE L Wonenara No.2 Murray W W Wagau WEST NEW BRITAIN K Pu Marawaka Mumeng ke ik rari na Busama ori S Bosset Menyamya Bulolo Aird Aseki MOROBE WESTERN Kikori Hills Wau T Kanabea a Koravaki u SOLOMON SEA ri u am k e Garaina F Murua k ly a Epo L Suki Balimo KEREMA Waria GULF Trobriand ORO Islands Losuia Bereina Iwa Is Oriom POPONDETTA Kiriwina Is o GULF OF PAPUA Yule Is Kokoda Woodlark Is Managalas Amphlett Gawa Is DARU Plateau Tufi ch Group ea Afore Goodenough Is D y R 'E Guasopa le a al s n G Sogeri u Wanigela Fergusson Is t Saibai Is re h M c lc a PORT e s te MORESBY W Cape a p V oge u
m l x
e K Normanby Is Agaun I Rabaraba s l Kupiano a MILNE BAY Moreguina Dogura n 1 SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS d
s C East Cape Koyagaugau Is a ALOTAU pe 2 ENGA R od ne 3 WESTERN HIGHLANDS y Misima Is Samarai Engineer Panaeati Is 4 SIMBU Group CENTRAL 5 EASTERN HIGHLANDS Wari Is Rossel Is CORAL SEA Tagula Is
© Cartography ANU 08-081 KD Mussau Is ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 50 0100 200 300 400 MANUS Bismarck Bay kilometres LORENGAU Manus Is NEW IRELAND Fedarb Is Rambutyo Is New Hanover SANDAUN Mbuke Is Lou Is Pam Is KAVIENG Baluan Is Simberi Is VANIMO EAST SEPIK Sissano B I Bewani Lagoon S M A R C Aitape K Lihir Is Vokeo Is A R C H NEW Nuguria Dagua I P E IRELAND Islands WEWAK L A Tanga Islands Amanab Dreikikir Maprik Du Nuku Murik G ke Bainyik Lakes O Of Yo Wosera rk Sepik Gavien B G la r Feni Islands n ou S ch p BOUGAINVILLE epik Angoram Manam Is e Rabaul B Ama K a Ambunti y e u r Bogia a m m MADANG BISMARCK SEA Keravat a KOKOPO g Pinipel Is R o y BA ran i a IN a I W Yapsiei M N Nissan Is Y Mundua Is A Karkar Is G u D M Carteret a EL Garove Is Open N t B Gazelle TS Islands E Bagabag Is Bay RT Peninsula SC Unea (Bali) Is H RA r RA . te s DE es in R G c k Telefomin R og u s A. ol lo o Lagaip Kaironk R H Buka Is Tabubil Oksapmin a MADANG G i m e e Bialla a Simbai u Long Is Siassi Islands p Talasea Stettin p Kompiam L a a Kopiago B Ji Sirunki a m Rai C Bay C i i Co Pomio y ast BUKA Porgera WABAG e 3 Hoskins r Tinputz Laiagam V Wapenamanda Saidor i lu KIMBE Ningerum Koroba 2 Mt Bundi FINIS a u Wahgi Wilhelm TER Ar K O Kandep Tambul Kuk RE Umboi Is ia k Tari N RA Gembogl Dumpu . Teptep Wasu Wakunai T e b MOUNT Kudjip Kerowagi Gusap e i d Margarima l d N y A i HAGEN n e GOROKA e r s Sialum a m KUNDIAWA a l Wantoat Nipa b MENDI ro Arawa Kiunga k A. c i S R Kabwum Kandrian i Gumine Mt Kainantu ARAWAGET NEW BRITAIN r Nomad
t Elimbari Kaiapit Huon Aropa S Henganofi 1 Ialibu Arona M y 4 Peninsula BOUGAINVILLE l Great Papuan Lake Lufa Ukarumpa a Pindiu F r Plateau Kutubu Era Karimui kh Nadzab Ogeranang ISLAND Pimaga ve 5 Okapa am Gobari Finschhafen Erave t t i Situm Mt Bosavi i Ima p Wopasali r ni u t EAST NEW BRITAIN a Patep m m a Lake a a LAE L Wonenara No.2 Murray W W Wagau WEST NEW BRITAIN K Pu Marawaka Mumeng ke ik rari na Busama ori S Bosset Menyamya Bulolo Aird Aseki MOROBE WESTERN Kikori Hills Wau T Kanabea a Koravaki u SOLOMON SEA ri u am k e Garaina F Murua k ly a Epo L Suki Balimo KEREMA Locations mentioned in the text Waria GULF Trobriand ORO Islands Losuia Bereina Iwa Is Oriom POPONDETTA Kiriwina Is o GULF OF PAPUA Yule Is Kokoda Woodlark Is Managalas Amphlett Gawa Is DARU Plateau Tufi ch Group ea Afore Goodenough Is D y R 'E Guasopa le a al s n G Sogeri u Wanigela Fergusson Is t Saibai Is re h M c lc a PORT e s te MORESBY W Cape a p V oge u
m l x
e K Normanby Is Agaun I Rabaraba s l Kupiano a MILNE BAY Moreguina Dogura n 1 SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS d
s C East Cape Koyagaugau Is a ALOTAU pe 2 ENGA R od ne 3 WESTERN HIGHLANDS y Misima Is Samarai Engineer Panaeati Is 4 SIMBU Group CENTRAL 5 EASTERN HIGHLANDS Wari Is Rossel Is CORAL SEA Tagula Is
© Cartography ANU 08-081 KD Conventions, data sources and limitations
Food crop categories Conventions A number of terms could be used to describe the most important carbohydrate foods grown in PNG. We have Currency used the term ‘staple food crop’ as a category for these crops, the most important being sweet potato, sago, The value of production and exports is usually banana and various types of taro and yam. Strictly expressed in PNG kina, with values in US dollars also speaking, the term ‘staple food’ refers to a food that used in some appendix tables. Australian pounds provides the most food energy in a population’s diet. was the currency used in PNG until early 1966 and So a crop might be the staple food for some people, pounds have been converted to Australian dollars but not for others. Alternative terms we could have by multiplying by two. Australian dollars were then used and which would have been more precise in some used until April 1975, when the kina was introduced. contexts include ‘starchy food’, ‘carbohydrate food’, Values in Australian dollars prior to 1975 are ‘energy food’, ‘main food crop’ or ‘most important expressed as kina throughout the book. Figure 4.1.1 food crop.’ A number of food crops grown in PNG are and Table A4.1.1 display the exchange rates used in difficult to classify in crop categories. We have included the conversions between the kina and Australian banana, coconut, corn, Irish potato and sugar cane dollar and US dollar. with staple foods. Peanut is included in the vegetable The symbols used for the main currencies are: class, while breadfruit is included with edible nuts. K PNG kina We use the term ‘stimulant’ for a group of substances A$ Australian dollar that people use to alter their mood, emotion or US$ United States dollar perception. The substances covered here (tobacco, betel nut, marijuana, caffeine, alcohol and kava) are The kina lost value relative to the US dollar after not all stimulants in a medical sense, but the term is 1994, and particularly after 1998. Hence the value of less emotive than alternative names such as ‘narcotic’ exports from PNG in kina terms generally increased or ‘drug’ and less technical than the more precise term after the late 1990s (Figure 5.2.4). However, the ‘psychoactive drug’. buying power of the kina decreased at the same time, so real returns to growers are generally less than they The common names of food crops and plants are appear in figures showing the export value for each used as much as possible in this book. Scientific cash crop (Part 5). names are used where common names are not known or used, or to distinguish between similar species. For example, galip is the common name for a nut belonging to the genus Canarium, of which there are many species. In the text, the nut may be referred to by its full scientific name to make it clear which galip species is being discussed. A table of all plant common and scientific names is on page xiv.
xxii Conventions, data sources and limitations Imperial measurements East Sepik and Sandaun; New Britain into East New Britain and West New Britain; Central Highlands Some historical data is available only in imperial into Southern Highlands, Western Highlands and measurements, such as tons or acres. We have Eastern Highlands; Eastern Highlands into Eastern converted all data to metric units, which have been Highlands and Simbu; and Western Highlands into used in PNG since 1972. Western Highlands and Enga. Population When we commenced this book, Bougainville was one of 19 provinces. On 15 June 2005, its status Official population data from the 2000 National changed to the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. Census has been used throughout this book. The We have used the term ‘Bougainville’ throughout total population in mid 2000 was 5.2 million people. rather than the post 2005 name. Census units, the lowest unit of the PNG census, were used to group the population into urban, rural and rural non-village classes. (‘Rural non-village’ Data sources locations include mining settlements, logging camps, mission stations, schools and research stations.) Of the total, 81% (4.2 million) were rural villagers; Data in this book come from many places and are 13% (0.7 million) lived in urban areas; and 6% (0.3 noted under ‘Sources’ at the end of each section. million) lived in rural non-village locations (Table Statements are not attributed to an author in the text, 1.1.1). The average number of people per household although they are sometimes attributed in footnotes. in PNG is 5.1, so to convert population figures to number of households, divide by 5.1. The mid 2008 Some data sources for tables and figures are given PNG population was estimated by the Secretariat of as organisations with or without dates. If data were the Pacific Community to be 6.5 million people. obtained directly from an organisation or govern- ment department (for example, from the Department Most population data used in tables and figures of Agriculture and Livestock, DAL), then no date is are for rural villagers, where we use the term ‘rural supplied. When data are from a published source, population’. These figures do not include the rural a date is given and the bibliographic details are non-village population. However, some analyses listed at the end of the relevant section, for example, present data for the entire provincial or national DAL (1992). population. Readers should note the distinction between ‘rural population’ and ‘total population’ in The Papua New Guinea Resource Information column headings and graph axes. In the x-axis of System (PNGRIS), developed by CSIRO in Australia graphs, the term ‘Central’ refers to the rural village and PNG Department of Primary Industry (now population only in Central Province, whereas the DAL) in the 1980s and 1990s, was widely used in term ‘Central + NCD’ includes the total population Part 1. It contains information on natural resources, of Central Province and the National Capital District land use and population distribution in PNG, with (Port Moresby). data in a mappable form (or geographical informa- tion system). The database is described in a number Provincial names of publications (see Section 1.15 for the references). The names commonly used for some provinces Another significant data source was the Mapping differ from the official (and older) names. We have Agricultural Systems of Papua New Guinea Project used the more commonly used names, that is, Oro, (MASP) database, particularly for Part 3. This was Sandaun and Simbu rather than Northern, West developed by members of the Land Management Sepik and Chimbu. We use the current province Group at The Australian National University and name rather than earlier province names, even when is based on extensive fieldwork in the 1990s (see referring to historical data. Some provinces have Section 1.15). been split over the past 60 years: they are Sepik into
Conventions, data sources and limitations xxiii Much of the data are presented in about 380 tables, Data for the volume and value of export crops is figures and maps. Smaller tables are contained in likely to be fairly accurate, but errors are apparent, the body of the book. Larger and more complicated even with data for the same year from the same tables have been placed in an appendix. These industry body. We have spent a lot of effort in are identified by the letter ‘A’ in front of the table attempting to resolve conflicting data, but have not number. For example, Table A6.7.1 is the first always been successful. The reliability of some data appendix table for Section 6.7. The appendix tables appears to decrease in recent years, particularly since are not published in the paper version of this book, the late 1990s. We chose to present data on export but are contained in the accompanying compact crops from the industry bodies rather than the more disk. Data for most figures are given in appendix commonly used data from the Bank of Papua New tables, so that they can be re-analysed by users or Guinea. Our reasoning is that data from the industry extended in the future. Subject to funding avail- bodies is more likely to be accurate, but this appears ability, it is planned to make this book available on to be not always so. the web in a form where tables can be downloaded as Export crops data from the Bank of PNG has the Excel spreadsheets. advantage of being consistent and readily available on the internet
xxiv Conventions, data sources and limitations PNG Agriculture Literature Database Sources of information about Papua New Guinea agriculture The PNG Agriculture Literature Database (‘AgBib’) was developed by the Land Management Group at The Australian National University. The focus of AgBib is agriculture in PNG, but it includes other A large volume of information about agricultural topics relating to rural development. The database surveys, research and many other aspects of rural contains more than 16 000 entries. The original development exists for PNG, and is contained in bibliography was developed by Robin Hide (see published and unpublished books, reports and below), using EndNote software. A feature of the papers. These documents can be identified through database is a comprehensive keyword list that is printed and electronic bibliographies.1 Four major drawn from the CAB Thesaurus. Increasingly, where electronic bibliographies have been developed for digital full text versions of papers exist, these are agriculture, rural development and related topics being linked to the related bibliographic record. Many in PNG. These databases do not give access to the of the references have been checked against originals papers themselves, but they indicate what literature is and the database contains few errors. An early version available and often where it can be located. of the database can be accessed on the internet at PNG National Agricultural Information
Conventions, data sources and limitations xxv Hide’s New Guinea bibliography Access to most journals is not presently available in PNG. However, in 2008, the National Research Robin Hide maintains a personal research database Institute, National Agricultural Research Institute, that has been built up over a 40-year period. Office of Higher Education and the six PNG univer- It includes publications on agriculture, health, sities established the PNG Academic and Research ecology and other topics focused on New Guinea Network (PNGARNet). PNGARNet uses satellite (both Papua New Guinea and Papua, Indonesia). communications to overcome problems created by It contains some 43 000 entries, of which about the geographical isolation of these institutions from 36 000 concern New Guinea (as at July 2008). The each other by providing high speed internet connec- bibliography uses EndNote software. An earlier tions. If funding becomes available, the members of version of the bibliography formed the beginning PNGARNet will provide access to their individual of the PNG Agriculture Literature Database. As a library catalogues and full text journal databases. personal, work-in-progress database, entries are not standardised, nor are all checked against originals. Another source of references to information on PNG The database is not publicly available, but printed (but not the information itself) is web-based library or electronic lists by topic or of specific searches are catalogues.3 Many library catalogues can be accessed available on request ([email protected]). One from outside the institution that supports them. element of this database – an annotated bibliography The Australian National Library is a good example on the subject of pig husbandry in PNG – has been
xxvi Conventions, data sources and limitations Sources
Bourke, R.M. (2001). Previous conferences devoted to food production or human nutrition in PNG (1970–99). In Bourke, R.M., Allen, M.G. and Salisbury, J.G. (eds). Food Security for Papua New Guinea. Proceedings of the Papua New Guinea Food and Nutrition 2000 Conference. ACIAR Proceedings No. 99. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. pp. 889–892. Harwood, T. and Vlassak, V. (2004). Papua New Guinea Agriculture Literature Database Guidelines. Land Management Group, Department of Human Geography, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra. Hide, R. (2003). Pig Husbandry in New Guinea: A Literature Review and Bibliography. ACIAR Monograph No. 108. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.
Conventions, data sources and limitations xxvii