Phase Ii Archaeological Investigation Site 40Sv43 Sevierville Waste Water Treatment Plant Sevier County, Tennessee

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PHASE II ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION SITE 40SV43 SEVIERVILLE WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT SEVIER COUNTY, TENNESSEE

Prepared For: The City of Sevierville Water and Sewer Department 2295 McCroskey Island Road Sevierville TN, 37802 865-868-1524

Prepared By:

North Wind Resource Consulting LLC 2800 Solway Road Knoxville, Tennessee (865) 352-0668

______

Emmett Brown Principal Investigator

July 24th, 2020

PHASE II ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION SITE 40SV43 SEVIERVILLE WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT SEVIER COUNTY, TENNESSEE

Prepared For: The City of Sevierville Water and Sewer Department 2295 McCroskey Island Road Sevierville TN, 37802 865-868-1524

Prepared By:

North Wind Resource Consulting LLC 2800 Solway Road Knoxville, Tennessee (865) 352-0668

Authored By Emmett Brown

July 24, 2020

FEDERAL AGENCY TENNEESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Management Summary ...... 1 Project Introduction ...... 2 Environmental Setting ...... 5 Geology and Soils ...... 5 Modern Climate ...... 6 Paleo environment ...... 6 PREHISTORIC PERIODS ...... 7 Prehistoric Periods ...... 7 Paleo-Indian Period (12,000 B.P. to 10,000 B.P.) ...... 7 Early Paleo-Indian Period (12,000 B.P.-10,900 B.P.) ...... 7 The Early Paleoindian Period ...... 7 Middle Paleo-Indian Period (10,900 B.P.-10,500 B.P.) ...... 8 Late Paleo-Indian Period (10,500 B.P.-10,000 B.P.) ...... 8 Archaic Period (10,000 B.P.–3000 B.P.) ...... 9 Early Archaic Period (10,000 B.P.-8000 B.P.) ...... 9 Middle Archaic Period (8,000 B.P.-5,000 B.P.) ...... 10 The Late Archaic Period (5,000 B.P.-3000 B.P.) ...... 10 Woodland Period (500 B.C.–A.D. 1000) ...... 11 The Early Woodland Period (ca. 1000 B.C-200 B.C.) ...... 11 The Middle Woodland Period (ca. 200 B.C-A.D. 400) ...... 11 The Late Woodland Period (ca. A.D. 400-A.D. 1000) ...... 11 Mississippian Period (A.D. 1000-A.D.-1540) ...... 12 The Early Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1000-A.D. 1250) ...... 12 The Middle Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1250-A.D. 1450) ...... 12 The Late Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1450-A.D. 1540) ...... 12 The Protohistoric Period (ca, A.D. 1540-A.D. 1680) ...... 13 Summary of Results ...... 14 Background Research ...... 14 KNOWN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES WITHIN A MILE ...... 14

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Site 40SV43 ...... 14 Phase I Investigation 2019 ...... 17 FIELD METHODOLOGY ...... 21 LABORATORY METHODOLOGY ...... 21 Prehistoric Pottery ...... 21 Constraints to the Fieldwork ...... 21 Field Results...... 23 Test Trench #5 (Sub-surface anomaly #5) ...... 23 Test Trench #6 (Sub surface anomaly #4) ...... 26 Test Trench #7 ...... 29 Test Trench #8 (Sub-surface anomaly #10) ...... 31 Test Trench #9 (Sub surface anomaly #10) ...... 34 Test Trench #10 (Sub surface anomaly #10) ...... 36 Test Trench #11 (Sub-surface anomaly #9) ...... 45 Summary and Recommendations ...... 47

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Site 40SV43 and the Project Area...... 3 Figure 2. The Project Area. Red Square is New Construction...... 4 Figure 3. Location of Phase I, Phase II, and Phase III Projects by Richard Polhemus 1987-1995...... 15 Figure 4. Structure #5 from Site 40SV43, Excavated by Richard Polhemus in 1994...... 16 Figure 5. The Project Area Showing the Ridge and Swale Topography...... 18 Figure 6. Phase I GPR Investigation Showing Sub-Surface Anomalies #5 and #6. Estimated Anomaly Depths-50 to 86 cmbs...... 19 Figure 7. Phase I GPR Investigation Showing Sub-Surface Anomalies #9 and #10, Estimated Anomaly Depths 90 to 125 cmbs...... 20 Figure 8. Location of Phase II Test Trenches at Site 40SV43...... 22 Figure 9. Test Trench 5, South Profile...... 24 Figure 10. Photo of Test Trench #5, South Profile...... 24 Figure 11. Test Trench #5, Showing Water Table, Facing East...... 25 Figure 12. Test Trench #6 South Profile...... 27 Figure 13. Test Trench #6, Showing Water Table, Facing Southwest...... 28 Figure 14. Photo Showing South Profile, Test Trench #6...... 28 Figure 15. South Profile Test Trench #7...... 29 Figure 16. Trench #7, South Wall Profile...... 30 iii

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 17.South Profile, Trench #8...... 31 Figure 18. Trench #8, South Wall Profile...... 32 Figure 19. Sub-Surface Anomaly #10 and Test Trench #8...... 33 Figure 20. East Profile, Test Trench #9...... 34 Figure 21. Sub-surface Anomaly #10 and Location of Test Trench #9...... 34 Figure 22. Photo, East Profile Test Trench 9...... 35 Figure 23. West Profile, Test Trench #10...... 36 Figure 24. Photo, East Profile, Test Trench #10...... 37 Figure 25. Test Trench #10 Showing Artifact Concentrations #3, #4, #5, #6, and Feature 378. . 38 Figure 26. Artifact Concentration #3 Showing FCR and Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd...... 39 Figure 27. Photo, Artifact Concentration #3...... 39 Figure 28. Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd Recovered from Artifact Concentration #3...... 40 Figure 29. Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd Recovered from the Back Dirt Pile at Artifact Concentration #3...... 40 Figure 30. Artifact Concentration #4 Showing FCR...... 41 Figure 31. Photo, Artifact Concentration #4...... 41 Figure 33. Photo, Artifact Concentration #3...... 42 Figure 32. Artifact Concentration #5 Showing FCR and Pottery Sherds...... 42 Figure 34. Artifact Concentration #6 Showing FCR...... 43 Figure 35. Photo, Artifact Concentration #6...... 43 Figure 36. Feature 378 Showing Extent of Feature...... 44 Figure 37. Photo, Feature 378...... 44 Figure 38. Test Trench #11, Facing West...... 45 Figure 39. Test Trench #11 and sub-surface anomaly #9...... 46

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Management Summary North Wind Resource Consulting LLC (North Wind) conducted a Phase II Archaeological Investigation at Site 40SV43 in support of an approximate 4.5 acre expansion at the Sevierville Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) in Sevier County, Tennessee. The project was conducted for the City of Sevierville, Water and Sewer Department. The Phase II Archaeological Investigation was conducted from March 5th to April 17th, 2020 by Emmett Brown and Richard Polhemus.

Prior to the Phase II investigation, North Wind performed a Phase I Archaeological investigation from February to April 2019. This Phase I investigation consisted of the excavation of backhoe trenches, a geomorphic analysis, and a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) investigation of the project area (Brown 2019). The geomorphic analysis revealed a buried A horizon located at varying depths across the project area, while the GPR investigation identified 10 subsurface anomalies. These subsurface anomalies have the potential to be prehistoric features and/or prehistoric activity areas.

Based on the results of the Phase I investigation, the WWTP will move the aeration tank to the east and avoid construction activities where sub-surface anomalies #1, #2, #3, #6, #7, #8 are located. However, sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, #9, and #10 are located within the proposed construction footprint. As a result, North Wind conducted a Phase II Archaeological Investigation to examine sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, #9, and #10, and to determine if these anomalies represent intact prehistoric cultural features. The goal of the Phase II investigation was not to excavate the sub-surface anomalies in their entirety, but to sample the locations to determine if cultural deposits were present.

Sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, and #9 are located in a swale area between two ridges, while sub- surface anomaly #10 is located on the central, east/west running ridge. The excavation of backhoe trenches at sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, and #9 failed to yield any prehistoric cultural features. A backhoe trench was excavated along the western boundary at sub-surface anomaly #10 and was negative for cultural features. However, a backhoe trench placed directly west of subsurface anomaly #10 did reveal intact cultural deposits in a buried A soil horizon. As a result, the central ridge area contains intact archaeological features that date to at least the Middle Woodland period with the potential that additional in-situ prehistoric features are present on the ridge.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Project Introduction

Site 40SV43 is located at the Sevierville Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) on McCroskey Island. The WWTP treats sewage for the city of Sevierville. The WWTP has the capability to treat approximately four million gallons of sewage on a daily basis https://www.seviervilletn.org/index.php/government/departments/water-sewer). Due to residential and commercial growth in Sevierville and in Sevier County, the WWTP is proposing to expand its treatment capability through the construction of additional facilities in an approximate 4.5 acre footprint.

The proposed WWTP expansion will include the construction of settling basins and aeration basins. The construction of the basins will require a 30 foot deep footprint. Additional work will also be conducted on the existing plant and will include the excavation of pipelines and structures. The area in the existing plant has been previously disturbed and contains buried pipelines and cables. Because there was a high probability that digging within the existing plant could encounter buried utilities, the current Phase I and Phase II investigations focused on the undisturbed area in the proposed expansion footprint. The proposed construction activities within the existing plant will include the placement of 12-48 inch wide pipelines with a minimum cover of 3 feet. The depth to the bottom of the trench will vary based on pipe diameter, typical trench bottoms will range from 5-10 feet below the surface. The proposed piping will be placed in previously disturbed areas within the existing plant.

In 2019, North Wind conducted a Phase I Archaeological investigation in support of the WWTP expansion (Figure 1). Because of the alluvial nature of the island, a work plan was developed that utilized geomorphic analysis and a GPR investigation. Based on the results of the Phase I investigation, a Phase II work plan was developed and approved by TVA and the Tennessee SHPO. The Phase II work plan included the excavation of backhoe trenches at sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, #9, and #10.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 1. Site 40SV43 and the Project Area.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 2. The Project Area. Red Square is New Construction.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Environmental Setting Site 40SV43 is located in East Tennessee in the shale hills of the Ridge and Valley physiographic province. The Ridge and Valley province is characterized by a series of long and narrow ridges generally oriented southwest to northeast, divided by parallel valleys, and underlain by dolomite, limestone, and sandstone bedrock formations (Sun et al 1963). The shale hills are characterized by large river valleys and by deep narrow river valleys created by smaller tributary streams (Hubbard et al. 1956:8). The floodplain of the Little Pigeon River is a ridge and swale topography with larger terraces located in the larger floodplains while smaller terraces can be found along the tributary streams (Hubbard et al. 1956:9).

Site 40SV43 is located on McCroskey Island, located at the confluence of the French Broad River and the Little Pigeon River. The island is a low fluvial terrace created during the late Holocene. Starting at circa 34000 years before present (B.P.) the river began to migrate northward, creating a ridge and swale topography across the western portion of the island (Leigh 2019). The island has three ridges that are divided by low, swales, a southern ridge, a central ridge, and a northern ridge. The ridges and swales were formed as the river migrated from south to north, with each ridge representing a former river bank. The southern and central ridges possessing the potential for Late Archaic to Proto-historic components. The southern ridge is outside of the proposed footprint while the northern ridge is a recent historic development and has a low potential for intact archaeological deposits (Leigh 2019). The central ridge is in the proposed construction footprint.

Geology and Soils The geology of Tennessee developed during the Early Precambrian to Mississippian periods (Sun et al. 1963). The Ridge and Valley is characterized by broad valleys that are bounded by ridges and hills. The broad valleys are underlain by limestone and shales that belong to the Conasauga Group of the Cambrian period and shales of the Chickamauga Limestone Group that developed during the Ordovician period (Sun et al. 1963). Ridges were formed by the more erosion resistant chert and limestones found in the Knox Group. The valleys of East Tennessee were created through the folding and faulting of sedimentary rocks.

This folding and faulting resulted in the numerous springs that are found throughout East Tennessee. Three types of natural springs can be found in East Tennessee; 1) depression springs, 2) contact springs, and 3) tubular springs (Sun et al 1963). Depression springs are created at locations where the ground surface extends down to the water table while contact springs are created where water flows from areas where permeable rock is situated at an outcrop of less permeable rock material. Tubular springs are created in areas where water flows from openings or cavities in rocks (Sun et al. 1963).

The soils mapped by the USDA for the project area consists of the Combs loam, rarely flooded. The Combs loam is a well-drained soil found on flood plains. The soil profile consists of an 11 inch thick loam above a 51 inch thick sandy loam.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Modern Climate The project area has a temperate climate characterized by cool winters and mild summers. The coldest temperatures typically occur during the months of December to March with the hottest temperatures occurring between June and September. Snowfall averages about 9.3 in (23.9 cm) annually.

Paleo environment The Wisconsin glacial maximum, circa 20,000 BP to 12,500 B.P., was a period when ice sheets covered much of North America (Delcourt 1979; Delcourt 1980). As water became trapped in the ice sheets, sea levels dropped (Anderson 2001:152). Around 15,000 cal. yr. B.P., temperatures began to rise (referred to as the Bolling) and the subsequent warming trend caused the ice sheets to melt (Hollenbach 2009:39). The melting ice sheets changed the pattern of moisture distribution and Jet Stream patterns, which impacted the climate in North America at both regional and local scales (Hu et al. 1999:437-439). The Late Pleistocene was characterized by periods of warming and periods of cooling temperatures. The Younger Dryas was a 1300 year cooling event caused by colder ocean currents that lasted circa 12,900-11,600 cal. yr. B.P. (Fiedel 2011:262, Hollenbach 2009:40). During the Younger Dryas, temperatures in the Southeast once again became cooler. Pleistocene animals that included mammoth, saber tooth tiger, mastodon, camel, horse and sloth went extinct during the Younger Dryas. Fiedel (2011:264) believes that the extinction of the megafauna resulted in the ability of forests to spread in areas that were once grasslands. While Fiedel’s (2011) assertion is debated, pollen cores do show an oak and hickory forest expansion that had begun to spread throughout the Southeast by 11,450 cal. yr. B.P., with pine- oak and hickory forests becoming common later through time (Anderson 2001:152; Hollenbach 2009:44). Additionally, the Southeast experienced cooler temperatures and slightly less rainfall than what is found in modern climates (Hollenbach 2009:38). The sudden shift to colder temperatures at the onset of the Younger Dryas mirrored the extinction of megafauna, the end of Clovis technology, and the diversification of projectile point types (Anderson 2001: 156). Environmental changes during the Younger Dryas most likely caused Paleoindians to modify hunting strategies, focusing on smaller game animals that lived in local, distinct patches. This localized hunting strategy resulted in the appearance of different tool kits in the Middle and Late Paleo-Indian periods (Anderson 2001:156). The start of the Holocene corresponds with the end of the Younger Dryas and with the Early Archaic and Middle Archaic periods in the Southeast (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 87). Temperatures during the early Holocene increased coupled with the continued expansion of oak and hickory forests (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:88). Mayewski et al. (2004:244) describes the Holocene climate history as a sequence of stable periods interrupted by Rapid Climate Change (RCC). Using published paleoclimate records, Mayewski et al. (2004:244-248) identified RCC events that include rapid changes at 9000-8000 cal. yr. B.P, 6000-5000 cal yr. B.P., 3500-2500 cal. yr. B.P., and 1200-1000 cal. yr. B.P. These RCC had different effects in different regions with the 6000-5000 RCC producing wetter conditions in Florida (Mayewski et al. 2004: 250).

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

While the paleo environment in East Tennessee is not well understood, a general history of paleo environmental conditions can be constructed from regional pollen studies. Delcourt and Delcourt (1980) and Delcourt (1979) studied pollen samples from two ponds located on the Eastern Highland Rim and Cumberland Plateau in Tennessee. These ponds, Anderson Pond (White County Tennessee) and Mingo Pond (Franklin County, Tennessee), revealed a stratigraphic pollen sequence that dates circa 25,000 B.P. to the 20th century. A wet, cool climate was present by 25,000 B.P., evident by the presence of spruce and pine forests. These taxa dominated the landscape until 16,300 B.P., when they were replaced by new tree species that included ash, ironwood, hickory, and birch trees. A warming period occurred after 16,300 B.P. and mixed mesophytic forests began to advance northward from the Coastal Plain (Delcourt 1979, Maxwell and Davis 1972). By 2,800 B.P., modern environmental conditions and plant communities were established (Delcourt 1979 and Maxwell and Davis 1972). Delcourt and Delcourt (1998:338-339) demonstrated that human behavior could have influenced local environments. Their analysis of pollen cores from southeastern Kentucky (Cliff Palace Pond), southeast Tennessee (Tuskegee Pond), and western North Carolina (Horse Cove Bog), showed that burning and clearing of forests during the Late Archaic –Woodland periods brought about changes in the local forest canopy. Pollen from these samples revealed that prior to the Late Archaic period, red cedar and ash stands populated the uplands. However, by the Late Archaic to Woodland transition, the red cedar and ash stands give way to oak and chestnut trees.

PREHISTORIC PERIODS

Prehistoric Periods

Paleo-Indian Period (12,000 B.P. to 10,000 B.P.) The Paleo-Indian period represents the earliest known human occupation in Tennessee and dates circa 12,000 B.P. to 10,000 B.P. (Anderson and Sassaman 2012.). The Paleo-Indian period is identified by a unique projectile point technology that included the manufacture and use of large lanceolate projectile points (Anderson and Sassaman 2012). Differences in the manufacture style of these large lanceolate points have been used by archaeologists to sub-divide the Paleo-Indian period into three sub periods; Early, Middle, and Late.

Early Paleo-Indian Period (12,000 B.P.-10,900 B.P.)

The Early Paleoindian Period The Early Paleoindian period is when humans most likely arrived in North America (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:50). Paleoindians most likely arrived in the Mid-South through the ice free corridor that developed between the Cordilleran and Laurentide ice sheet. Once Paleoindians reached the Mid-west, they would have encountered an existing river system that flowed into the interior (Anderson 1996). However, other routes cannot be discounted. Sea faring Paleoindians could have followed the shoreline, accessing the interior from various, yet unknown, points along the southern coasts (see Anderson and Bissett 2015). Regardless of the migration route, by 11,500 B.P., Paleoindians were living in East Tennessee.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

A generalized hunter and gathering subsistence economy was organized through a band-level social structure (Anderson and Sassaman 2012). Although the toolkit contained gravers, endscrapers, and side scrapers (Fiedel 1987:64), the Clovis projectile point is the artifact that is the most commonly used to identify the Early Paleoindian period (Ensor 2011: 5). Fiedel (1987:56) describes the Clovis point as “lanceolate in shape, 7 to 15 cm long, bifacially thinned by skillful percussion flaking; most distinctively, they are fluted at the base, usually on both faces.” Clovis groups preferred to occupy environmental niches on the large rivers (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 50) using terraces and benches as camp sites while exploiting the low, wetter biomes of sinks, floodplains, springs, and bogs (Ensor 2011:6). Paleoindians most likely used mobility and group flexibility as ways to adapt to environmental and resource instability. Modern hunter gatherers are known to buffer against periods of resource scarcity through a flexible social organization, aggregating together and dispersing into smaller groups when changes in resources dictated (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:53, Fiedel 1987:71, Robinson et al. 2009:429). The Bull Brook site in Maine has been interpreted by Robinson et al. (2009:425) as a Paleoindian aggregation site used for a single communal hunt sometime around 10,700 cal. B.C. Anderson et al. (1996) analyzed the distribution of Early Paleo-Indian artifacts. He demonstrated that Early Paleo-Indian artifacts were concentrated in large river valleys. Anderson et al (1996) believes that these river valleys were the first places that Paleo-Indians colonized before branching out during the Middle Paleo-Indian period. During the Early and Middle Paleo-Indian periods, groups were most likely organized at the band level and practiced a generalized hunter and gathering subsistence economy (Anderson and Sassaman 2012).

Middle Paleo-Indian Period (10,900 B.P.-10,500 B.P.) The Middle Paleo-Indian period is characterized by the presence of Cumberland, Beaver, and Quad projectile point types (Miller et al. 2013). Lewis (1954 cited in Anderson et al 1996: 11) describes the Cumberland point as a “narrow, deeply fluted, slightly wasted lanceolate with faint ears and a slightly concave base”. The Carson-Conn-Short site (40BN190) dates to the Middle Paleo-Indian period and supports the idea that the large Paleo-Indian sites were located near large rivers (Broster and Norton 1996). Site 40BN190 was identified by a large surface deposit of Eastern Clovis and Cumberland points (Broster and Norton 1996). During the Middle Paleoindian period, groups continued to be organized in small, highly mobile communities. As the megafauna became extinct, Middle-Paleoindian subsistence expanded to a wider diet breadth that encompassed a variety of smaller animal species along with a variety of plant foodstuffs like acorn, black walnut, hickory and hackberry as primary food resources (Anderson and Sassaman 2004; Hollenbach 2009). Projectile point types expanded to include fluted and unfluted types like Cumberland, Suwannee, Coldwater, Simpson, Quad, Redstone, and Beaver Lake types (Anderson and Sassaman 2012).

Late Paleo-Indian Period (10,500 B.P.-10,000 B.P.) By the Late Paleo-Indian period the climate was warmer and wetter than the climatic conditions of the preceding Middle Paleoindian period. Two dates were obtained from Late Paleo-Indian contexts at the Stanfield-Worley Bluff Shelter and date to 9,640+ 450 and to 8,920+ 400 (DeJarnette et al. 1962: 85-86).

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

The Late Paleoindian toolkit included gravers, scrapers, knives, Dalton, Cumberland, Quad, Beaver Lake, and side-notched points (Anderson et al. 1996, Dejarnette et al. 1962: 82-83). Dalton communities have been interpreted as a series of extraction camps oriented toward the collection of animal and plant resources. These extraction camps were tethered to larger village sites (Anderson and Sassaman 2012). A Dalton occupation was identified at the Dust Cave site located near the Tennessee River in northern Alabama. The Dalton tool assemblage from Dust Cave consisted of hafted bifaces, blades, and included Quad, Beaver Lake, Dalton and side notched Hardaway projectile points (Sherwood et al. 2004). The subsistence economy included muskrat, swamp rabbit, pond turtles, and waterfowl while terrestrial species included white tail deer, turkey, squirrel, and box turtle (Walker 2008:108- 109). The grassland species of bobwhite and prairie chicken were also recovered from the Late Paleoindian levels at Dust Cave (Walker 2008:108). Burials and cemeteries have been found from the Late Paleoindian period and may signal increasing social complexity among hunter gatherers during this time (Walthall 1999). Dalton cemeteries are known from the Central Mississippi Valley and include the Sloan site in Northern Arkansas (Sassaman 2010:99).

Archaic Period (10,000 B.P.–3000 B.P.) The Archaic Period in East Tennessee is divided into three sub periods; the Early Archaic Period (10,000 B.P.-8,000B.P.), the Middle Archaic Period (ca. 8,000 B.P.-5,000 B.P.) and the Late Archaic Period (5,000 B.P.-3,000 B.P.).

Early Archaic Period (10,000 B.P.-8000 B.P.) The Early Archaic period occurred at the end of the Younger Dryas and at the start of the Holocene (Anderson and Sassaman 2004:87). Climatic changes are believed to have pushed hunter gatherers to adapt to changes in biotic communities (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:72). Herd animals and megafauna were replaced with smaller mammal species that preferred to live in distinct patches. Population is thought to have increased as the density of Early Archaic sites increase in the archaeological record (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:72). Hollenbach (2019: 209-219) provides an Early Archaic model for subsistence strategies practiced by Early Archaic communities. Early Archaic groups practiced a seasonal round, concentrating on alluvial niches in the summer and spring while moving to the highlands in the fall and winter (Hollenbach 2009). These hunter gatherers depended on the collection and processing of hickory nuts, acorns, black walnuts, grapes and persimmons, and smartweed and purslane seeds. Side –notched projectile points appear and replace the large lanceolate points. While Paleo- Indian points were manufactured using high quality stone material, side-notched points were manufactured from low quality cherts (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:72). This shift to a lower quality chert is attributed to a decrease in the territories of hunter gatherer groups. By the Early Archaic period, hunter gatherer mobility became restricted as these groups were becoming tethered to defined areas (Anderson and Sassaman 2004:90-91). Side-notched projectile points include the Big Sandy point and the Hardaway point (Anderson and Sassaman 2004; Chapman 1980). The Big Sandy point has a triangular, beveled blade with serrated 9

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

or ground side notches. Bases range from concave to straight to convex (DeJarnette et al.1962: 49). The Hardaway side-notched has a straight blade with deep, U-shaped notches and a concave ground base (Dejarnette et al. 1962:59). Big Sandy points have been dated to 8500-7800 cal. B.C. at Dust Cave (Sherwood et al 2004). Other projectile point types include Kirk Corner notched (8500-7800 cal. BC) and the bifurcate tradition that includes LeCroy points and Kanawha points (7800-6600 ca. BC) (Chapman 1975, Kimball 1996, also see McMillan et al. 2013, Sherwood et al. 2004).

The bifurcate projectile point horizon was identified by the presence of triangular shaped projectile points that contain a deep basal notch. These points are common in East Tennessee and less common in Middle and West Tennessee. Three bifurcate projectile point types were recovered during the excavation at the Rose Island Site (40MR44), which is located on the Little Tennessee River. Based on the excavation at Site 40MR44, a temporal sequence of bifurcate points was established. This sequence included St. Albans point (8870 B.P.), LeCroy point (8,300 B.P.) and Kanawha point (8,200 B.P.) (Chapman 1975; McMillan et al. 2013).

Radio-carbon dates taken from the site date the Kirk Corner Notched horizon circa 9,270 B.P. (Chapman 1980). The excavation at Site 40MR23 exhibited stratigraphic differences that allowed the excavators to identify changes in Kirk projectile point style through time. In the upper stratum, Kirk-Corner projectile points consisted of smaller corner notched points with unground or ground bases and include Palmer, Kirk, and Pine Tree points. The lower stratum contained points with large shafts with ground excurvate bases (Kimball 1996). Other artifacts recovered at the Kirk Horizon include drills, unifacial perforators, and gravers, tear drop end scrapers, and utilized flakes, manos, hammerstones, and anvils (Kimball 1996).

Middle Archaic Period (8,000 B.P.-5,000 B.P.) The Middle Archaic was a period of localized environmental instability brought on by the Hypsithermal (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 73). Regional cultural traditions or “landscapes of historical practice” (Sassaman 2010:51) are expressed in the Lower Mississippi Valley by the construction of earthen monumentality, in the Mid-south by the heaping of shell mounds, and by the manufacture and movement of ritualized or symbolic objects (Anderson and Sassaman 2012:74, Sassaman 2010:99). Stemmed projectile points replace the side notched technology prevalent in the Early Archaic period. Common stemmed points that occur during the Middle Archaic include Kirk Stemmed/Serrated points (6900-6300 cal B.C), Eva/Morrow Mountain points (6300-5400 cal. B.C.), Sykes/White Springs points (5400-4300 cal B.C.), and Benton points (4800–3700 cal B.C.). The Morrow Mountain point is a medium size point with a short stem with an excurvate blade with some points exhibiting serrations (DeJarnette et al. 1962:63). Dejarnette et al. (1962:80-82) excavated three Middle Archaic burials at the Stanfield-Worley Bluff site and found Morrow Mountain points, uniface scrapers, a shell bead, bone tools, and an atlatl hook.

The Late Archaic Period (5,000 B.P.-3000 B.P.) The Late Archaic experienced a growth in population and a focus on the extensive collection and consumption of fresh water shellfish (Anderson and Sassaman 2012). Prestige goods, increased ceremonialism, and an increase in burial goods are more common than in the preceding Middle Archaic period. The Hypsithermal ended and climatic conditions became similar to modern 10

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

environmental conditions (Anderson and Sassaman 2012). Late Archaic subsistence patterns continued to be based on hunting and gathering, although some horticulture was practiced. Projectile points used during this period included Appalachian Stemmed, Savannah River, Copena, Turkey-tail and Iddins points (Chapman 1987).

Woodland Period (500 B.C.–A.D. 1000) The Woodland Period in East Tennessee is divided into three sub periods; the Early Woodland Period (1000 B.C. -200 B.C.), the Middle Woodland Period (ca. 200 B.C.–A.D. 400) and the Late Woodland Period (A.D. 400-A.D. 1,000).

The Early Woodland Period (ca. 1000 B.C-200 B.C.) The Early Woodland Period is characterized by the appearance of pottery in East Tennessee, an increase in population, and a more sedentary lifestyle. Pottery manufactured during the Early Woodland period includes consisted of thick pottery that was tempered with coarse and crushed quartz (Polhemus 1996:43). Polhemus (1996:41) describes the limestone tempered Long Branch Fabric Marked pottery, as impressed on the surface with a “coarse weft-faced fabric”. Exterior decoration included fabric impressed and cord marked (Polhemus 1996:43). Projectile points include Adena Stemmed, Gary Contracting Stemmed, Little Bear Creek, Motley, and Wade. Whitetail deer provided the bulk of animal protein but other animals including bear, turkey, raccoon, turtle and fish also contributed to the diet. Plant resources included acorns, hickory nuts and squash. Large earth ovens appear during this period and were used to process large amounts of food. The settlement pattern during this period consisted of small villages that were occupied on a consistent basis (Wellborn et al. 2013).

The Middle Woodland Period (ca. 200 B.C-A.D. 400) The Middle Woodland Period in East Tennessee was first described by Lewis and Kneberg as the Candy Creek Phase. The Candy Creek Phase is characterized by use of limestone tempered pottery with cord-marking and fabric impressed surface decorations. Sand-tempered ceramics with fabric impressed, complicated and simple stamping, and checked stamped sherds were used during this period.

Several Middle Woodland sites have been excavated in the Little Tennessee River Valley and provide some insight to lifeways during this period. The Middle Woodland Period is also characterized by the appearance of the Hopewell Interaction sphere. The Hopewell Interaction sphere was a regional trade system based in the Ohio River valley. This trade system moved exotic and prestige items throughout the Southeast and Lower Midwest. Artifacts associated with Hopewell include pottery with bird motifs, crosshatched rims and non-local lithic material. Hopewell artifacts have been recovered from the Icehouse Bottom site and included prismatic blades and ceramics with Hopewell motifs (Anderson and Sassaman 2012).

The Late Woodland Period (ca. A.D. 400-A.D. 1000) The Late Woodland Period is characterized by the collapse of the Hopewell Interaction sphere and a decrease in the overall number of sites. Maize becomes part of the subsistence base that also included goosefoot, knotweed, maygrass, and nuts (Yerka et al. 2013).

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Mississippian Period (A.D. 1000-A.D.-1540) The Mississippian period is characterized by the appearance of shell tempered ceramics, the establishment of chiefdom level societies, a subsistence economy supported by maize agriculture, and the construction of mound complexes. The Mississippian Period is divided into three sub periods; the Early, Middle and Late Mississippian (Anderson and Sassaman 2012).

The Early Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1000-A.D. 1250) The Early Mississippian period is characterized by the construction of platform mounds, the appearance of large villages, and the use of maize as a diet staple. In East Tennessee, Early Mississippian peoples lived in the broad valleys where resources were plentiful, and streams and creeks provided a reliable water source. Most of their settlements were founded on first terraces situated along the floodplains of major rivers (Schroedl et al. 1985).

The Martin Farm site (40MR20) is an example of an Early Mississippian site. Site 40MR20 is located in Monroe County on the Little Tennessee River. The site consisted of two platform mounds and an associated village. Features recovered during the excavation of the site included subterranean pits, above ground granaries, and square and round houses. Shell replaces limestone as the temper agent for the majority of ceramics. The Hamilton Incurvate projectile point is the most common type of point used during this period (Schroedl et al. 1985). The Early Mississippian period is characterized by the construction of platform mounds for residences, the appearance of large villages, and the use of maize as a diet staple. In the Middle Tennessee River Valley. Faunal analysis at the site shows that the Martin Farm inhabitants consumed deer, squirrel, beaver, and raccoons. Fish species consumed at the site included sucker, gar, bass, catfish, and freshwater drum (Bogan and Bogan 1985:369-405). In addition to animal species, hickory nuts, acorns, walnuts, eight and ten rowed maize varieties, sumpweed, and chenopod provided plant based fiber to the diet (Schroedl et al. 1985:456).

The Middle Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1250-A.D. 1450) The Middle Mississippian Period is characterized by the Hiwassee Island Phase, named for the Hiwassee Island (40MG31) site located in the Chickamauga Basin (Lewis and Kneberg 1946). Site 40MG31 included a large platform mound and associated village. The architecture at the site consisted of square and/or rectangular houses. Construction methods included trench construction that transitioned to single posts construction by the end of the period. During this period, first alluvial terraces were the preferred location to establish new villages. The ceramic assemblage was defined from excavations in the Chickamauga Basin and the Tellico Reservoir. Middle Mississippian ceramics were predominately tempered with shell, although small quantities of limestone tempering were also present. The majority of ceramics include plain pottery, cord marked pottery, and red filmed pottery (Koerner et al. 2013).

The Late Mississippian Period (ca. A.D. 1450-A.D. 1540) The Late Mississippian Period is characterized by the Dallas Phase. This phase includes multi- mound centers, increased warfare, and the presence of a ranked or hierarchal society. The Toqua site is representative of the Dallas Phase in East Tennessee. The Toqua site consisted of square and rectangular houses with single set posts. Features included circular pits, post holes, mounds and palisades. Ceramics recovered from the Toqua site included shell-tempered plain vessels, cord 12

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

marked globular jars, and vessels with surface decorations that included Dallas and DeArmond Incised. Minor amounts of Pisgah Rectilinear Complicated Stamped and Etowah Complicated Stamped were also found at Toqua. Applied nodes and filleted rims are common on bowls and jars. Projectile points that are found at Dallas Phase sites included Hamilton, Madison, and Dallas point types (Harle et al. 2013).

The Protohistoric Period (ca, A.D. 1540-A.D. 1680) The Spanish were the first documented Europeans to explore Northeast Tennessee, beginning with the Desoto expedition in 1559. After the Spanish excursions of the 17th century, a period of almost a hundred years passed before Europeans once again ventured back into Northeast Tennessee (Smith 1987).

The Protohistoric period in the southeastern United States dates between the end of the Mississippian period, the arrival of Spanish entradas, and the founding of the English settlement of Charles Town in South Carolina in 1670 (Dalton-Carriger 2016, Smith 1987). Smith (1987:87) proposes that the large Mississippian chiefdoms collapsed due to depopulation from introduced European diseases (Smith 1987:87). European artifacts appear during this period and include Spanish glass beads, iron celts, iron axes, and rolled brass tinkling cones, brass bells, and firearms (Smith 1987:31-53). These European trade goods have been used to sub-divide the Protohistoric period, first by Marvin Smith (1987) and by Dalton-Carriger (2016) for Eastern Tennessee. Smith (1987:45-47) divides the Protohistoric into four sub periods: sub periods A, B, C, and D. Sub period A, A.D. 1525-A.D.1565 is characterized by Nueva Cadiz beads, faceted chevron beads, iron chisels, Clarksdale bells, and tubular brass beads. Sub period B, A.D. 1565-A.D. 1600 is characterized by the disappearance of the Nueva Cadiz style bead and replaced with spherical blue beads. Sub period C, A.D. 1600-A.D. 1630 is characterized by a widespread appearance of European trade materials that included seed beads, striped beads, an increase in brass gorgets and brass beads, and flushloop bells. Sub period D, A.D. 1630-A.D.1670, was characterized by a decline in Clarksdale bells and an increase in brass animal effigy pendants. It was also during this period that glass beads manufactured in Holland and England appear, prompting Smith (1987:47) to state that Native American communities living in the interior had expanded their trading networks to other European groups. Dalton-Carriger (2016) analyzed the chemical composition of European glass beads and was able to identify the bead manufacture dates with beads recovered from sites in East Tennessee. She was able to show that these trade items arrived in East Tennessee during the late 1500’s and continued to be traded into East Tennessee into the 18th century. Using bead manufacture as a baseline, Dalton-Carriger (2016:252) was able to sub divide the Protohistoric period in East Tennessee into an Early, Middle, and Late periods. The Early Protohistoric dates to A.D 1570 to A.D.1630, the Middle Protohistoric dates from A.D. 1630 to A.D. 1680, while the Late Protohistoric dates from A.D. 1680 to the late 18th century.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Summary of Results

Background Research Research was conducted at the Tennessee Division of Archaeology (TDOA) in Nashville on January 29, 2019. A review of the TDOA site files revealed that 11 previously identified archaeological sites are located within a mile radius of the project area.

KNOWN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES WITHIN A MILE Site 40SV09 is a prehistoric site with Archaic, Mississippian, and Late Mississippian components. The site was identified by a surface scatter of lithic flakes and prehistoric pottery.

Sites 40SV10, 40SV11, and 40SV12 are archaeological sites that were identified on a first terrace located directly across McCroskey Island on the south bank of the Little Pigeon River. Site 40SV10 consisted of a surface scatter of lithic flakes, Site 40SV11 consisted of a Mississippian pottery sherd, while Site 40SV12 consisted of a Mississippian period site. The three sites were reported in 1973 and have not been formally investigated.

Site 40SV23 is also located on a first terrace directly across McCroskey Island on the south bank of the Little Pigeon River. The site consists of non-diagnostic lithic flakes recovered from an area that measured 350 feet by 150 feet. The site was reported in 1961.

Site 40SV46 was identified in 1996 during a survey by the Tennessee Transportation Center. The site is a prehistoric site based on the recovery of five chert flakes and an archaic PPK from a terrace located approximately 200 m south of the French Broad River.

Site 40SV47 was identified in 1996 during a survey by the Tennessee Transportation Center. The site is a prehistoric site based on the recovery of 51 chert flakes, two biface fragments and an archaic PPK from the ground surface. The site is situated 600 m south of the French Broad River and was disturbed by the excavation of barrow pits for highway construction.

Site 40SV233 is a non-diagnostic lithic scatter identified on the north side of the French Broad River in an upland environment. The site consists of seven non-diagnostic flakes recovered from a highly disturbed area.

Site 40SV43 Site 40SV43 was originally investigated by Richard Polhemus PhD in 1987 during a Phase I Archaeological survey. During the survey, Dr. Polhemus identified three clusters of artifacts in the center of McCroskey Island in an old “A” horizon. He described this “A’” horizon as brown to dark brown sandy loam. In 1993, he conducted a Phase II archaeological investigation in the center of the island in support of a WWTP expansion. The Phase II investigation consisted of staking a grid at the proposed WWTP expansion and excavating 42 STPs along with deep coring samples. The Phase II investigation produced pottery sherds, Fire-Cracked-Rock (FCR), and lithic debitage that ranged from the Early Woodland period to the Middle Mississippian period. The Early Woodland pottery included Watts Bar fabric marked, Long Branch fabric marked, and 14

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Candy Creek cord marked. Middle Woodland pottery included Wright checked stamped. Middle Woodland sherds included sand tempered pottery sherds and checked stamped pottery sherds, while grit tempered, and Cobb Island complicated stamped sherds indicate an Early Mississippian occupation.

From 1994 to 1995, Dr. Polhemus conducted a Phase III data recovery. The Phase III data recovery revealed a dense prehistoric occupation that spanned the Late Archaic period to the Mississippian period. Features included circular pits (n=66) and oval pit basins (n=2). The circular pits were 1.0 feet to 4.2 feet in diameter while the oval pit basins were 2.2 feet to 4.8 feet in diameter (Polhemus 1996:19). The circular pits dated to the Early Woodland period, the Middle Woodland period and the Mississippian period.

Figure 3. Location of Phase I, Phase II, and Phase III Projects by Richard Polhemus 1987-1995.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Prehistoric Structures Excavated by Polhemus in 1994 A total of six structures were identified in the 1994-1995 Phase III (Polhemus 1996:29). Structure 1 consisted of a single set pole structure that was 14 square feet in size that was dated to the Early Mississippian period. Structure #2 consisted of a 22 square foot building that resembled a Dallas Phase house. Structure #3 was an Early Mississippian house constructed using single set posts that measured 14 feet square. Structure #4 was a possible Woodland period structure constructed using single set posts laid out in a circular pattern. Structure #5 and Structure #6 were Early Mississippian houses constructed using single set posts in a rectangular pattern. Structures #5 and #6 were both 14 foot square in size.

Figure 4. Structure #5 from Site 40SV43, Excavated by Richard Polhemus in 1994.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Based on the field investigation at McCroskey by Polhemus, the site has a prehistoric utilization that spans from the Late Archaic period to the Mississippian period.

Phase I Investigation 2019

In 2019, North Wind conducted a Phase I investigation of the 4.5 acre expansion area. The 2019 project area is located west (but adjacent to) the area where Richard Polhemus conducted his Phase III excavation in 1994-1995. The Phase I investigation included backhoe trenching, a geomorphic analysis (David Leigh 2019), and a GPR investigation (Howard Cyr 2019).

The depositional history revealed that the island was formed during the late Holocene as the French Broad River migrated from the south (where the Little Pigeon is located) northward across the island (Leigh 2019:4). This river migration began circa 3400 cal. yr. BP, and over the next 400 years migrated northward at a rate of 0.36m/yr. (Leigh 2019:13). At 3000 cal. yr. BP, the river migration decelerated or stopped completely. The river began to migrate south again circa 1500 cal. yr. cal BP.

The area between the southern ridge and the central ridge (Figure 5) has the highest potential to contain Late Archaic to Proto historic artifacts while the northern portion of the island has a low to no potential for prehistoric artifacts and prehistoric/protohistoric features. The best potential for an intact Late Archaic deposit is on the southern ridge (outside of the project area) while Woodland to Protohistoric components are likely moving north to the central ridge area (Leigh 2019). The GPR survey identified 10 sub-surface anomalies in the project area with all 10 anomalies located between the southern and central ridges. Based on the results of the Phase I investigation, the WWTP will move the aeration tank to the east and avoid construction activities where sub- surface anomalies #1, #2, #3, #6, #7, #8 are located. However, sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, #9, and #10 are located within the proposed construction footprint (Figure 6 and Figure 7).

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Red Box is the Project Area

Figure 5. The Project Area Showing the Ridge and Swale Topography.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 6. Phase I GPR Investigation Showing Sub-Surface Anomalies #5 and #6. Estimated Anomaly Depths-50 to 86 cmbs.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 7. Phase I GPR Investigation Showing Sub-Surface Anomalies #9 and #10, Estimated Anomaly Depths 90 to 125 cmbs.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

FIELD METHODOLOGY The field methodology employed for the Phase II Archaeological Investigation included the excavation of test trenches at selected locations. The test trenches were excavated with a smooth bucket backhoe. The soil was slowly scraped in sweeps with two archaeologists observing each backhoe scrape. When possible, the trench walls were cleaned by shovel and trowel to expose any cultural features. Test trenches were placed outside of the sub surface anomalies and excavated into the anomalies to provide a contrast with the natural soil stratigraphy with the soil stratigraphy of the sub surface anomalies.

The trenches were numbered using the sequential numbering system started during the Phase I Archaeological Investigation. Since four backhoe trenches were excavated during the Phase I investigation, the first excavated trench in the Phase II Archaeological Investigation began with the number 5. The back hoe trenches excavated during the Phase II study included Trench #5, Trench #6, Trench #7, Trench #8, Trench #9, Trench #10, and Trench #11 (Figure 8).

LABORATORY METHODOLOGY

Prehistoric Pottery Prehistoric pottery was analyzed by temper and surface decoration when possible. The ceramic sherds were identified by Richard Polhemus in the field.

Constraints to the Fieldwork

Constraints to the fieldwork included periods of heavy rain that resulted in trench slumping and a higher than usual water table. The depth of the trenches coupled with the wet nature of the island resulted in safety issues. As a result, portions of trenches were “stepped” to allow for the profile to be measured and recorded. The exception is Test Trench #11. Test Trench #11 has a four foot thick layer of sandy fill material above the buried A horizon. Test Trench #11 was excavated to 1.7 meters below the surface, but conditions would not allow for the individuals to get into the trench.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 8. Location of Phase II Test Trenches at Site 40SV43.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Field Results

Test Trench #5 (Sub-surface anomaly #5) Test Trench #5 was placed in the low swale that is situated between the southern and central ridges. The test trench was placed in this location to sample sub-surface anomaly #5. Sub-surface anomaly #5 was identified at 50 to 86 cm below the ground surface during the GPR survey and measured approximately 10 m east/west and 5 m north/south (Cyr 2020). The trench was excavated to 115 cm below the ground surface. The sub-surface anomaly was not identified in the test trench.

The test trench was oriented with the long axis east/west and measured 5.5 meters in length and two meters in width. Trench excavation was terminated at 115 cm below the ground surface due to the presence of the water table. The soil stratigraphy consisted of a 90 cm thick 10 YR 4/4 dark yellowish sandy silt loam. At 90 cm below surface, there was an abrupt transition to the buried A horizon which consisted of a 10YR 3/3 dark brown silt loam (Figure 9 and Figure 10). Sub-surface anomaly #5 was not identified in Test Trench #5.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 9. Test Trench 5, South Profile.

Figure 10. Photo of Test Trench #5, South Profile.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 11. Test Trench #5, Showing Water Table, Facing East.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #6 (Sub surface anomaly #4) Test Trench #6 was excavated in the southern portion of the site between the southern and central ridges, approximately 10 meters east of Test Trench #5. Test Trench #6 was placed at this location to sample sub-surface anomaly #4. Sub-surface #4 was identified at 50 to 86 cm below the ground surface and measures approximately 10 m east/west by 10 m north/south (Cyr 2020). The trench was excavated to 155 cm below the ground surface. The sub-surface anomaly was not identified in the test trench.

The test trench was oriented with the long axis east/west and measured eight meters in length and 90 cm in width. A small “step” was left in place at the western end of the trench to allow for a portion of the trench to be safely sketched in profile.

The soil stratigraphy consisted of a 90 cm thick 10 YR 4/4 dark yellowish brown sandy silt loam with an abrupt transition to the 10 YR 3/3 dark brown silt loam (the A horizon). The A horizon was excavated from 90 cm to 155 cm below surface (Figure 12). At 140 cm below surface, the sand content increased in the A horizon and the water table was encountered at 155 cm below surface. Test unit excavation was terminated at 155 cmbs due to the water table (Figure 13 and Figure 14).

A portion of the test unit profile was sketched due to safety issues with the sandy and wet nature of the soil. However, the portion of the south profile in Figure 12 is representative of the soil stratigraphy in Test Trench 6.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 12. Test Trench #6 South Profile.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 13. Test Trench #6, Showing Water Table, Facing Southwest.

Figure 14. Photo Showing South Profile, Test Trench #6.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #7 Test Trench #7 was placed at the northern edge of the proposed construction footprint. Test Trench #7 was placed at this location to identify the 1994 test trench excavated by Richard Polhemus. The test trench was excavated to 90 cm below the ground surface. The sub-surface anomaly was not identified in the test trench.

The test trench measured three meters north/south by three meters east/west. The soil stratigraphy consisted of four soil strata and the 1994 Polhemus test trench.. Stratum I is a 20 cm thick 10 YR 4/4 dark yellowish brown sandy silt loam above a 20 cm thick 10 YR 3/3 dark brown sandy silt loam with fine sand. Stratum III is a 80 cm thick 10 YR 3/3 dark brown silt loam thin laminated fine sands (Figure 15 and Figure 16). Stratum IV consisted of a 10 YR 7.5YR dark brown silt loam (buried A horizon). No cultural features were identified in Test Trench #7.

Figure 15. South Profile Test Trench #7.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

V-1994 Test Trench Disturbed III

Bottom of Trench

Figure 16. Trench #7, South Wall Profile.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #8 (Sub-surface anomaly #10) Test Trench #8 was excavated on the central ridge in order to examine sub-surface anomaly #10. Anomaly #10 was identified at 90 to 126 cm below the ground surface and measures approximately 10 m east/west by 15 m north/south and extends across the central ridge to the edge of the swale. Unlike the diffuse nature of sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, and #9, sub-surface anomaly #10 has distinct edges and form.

The test trench was oriented along the east/west axis of the central ridge and measured 10 meters in length and 90 cm in width. The trench was excavated to identify the southern boundary of sub- surface anomaly #10. The soil stratigraphy identified in Trench #8 consisted of a 20 cm thick C horizon (Stratum I and II) that consisted of a 7.5 YR 5/6 strong brown silt loam. The uppermost 10 cm of the C horizon is intermixed with fill and gravel (Stratum I). Stratum II transitions into the Ap horizon (Stratum III) evident by a 7.5 YR 3/3 dark brown sandy silt. The Ap horizon transitions to a 40 cm thick A2 horizon (Stratum IV) evident by a slightly darker 7.5 YR 3/3 dark brown sandy silt (Figure 17 and Figure 18). A small plain sherd and a checked stamped Middle Woodland sherd was identified in the south wall of the test trench at 115 cm below the ground surface in Stratum IV. Sub-surface anomaly #10 was not identified in Test Trench #8.

Figure 17.South Profile, Trench #8.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

I Fill/Spoil

II C Horizon

III Ap Horizon

IV Intact A2 Horizon

V Bwb Horizon

Figure 18. Trench #8, South Wall Profile.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Anomaly #10

Test Trench 8

Figure 19. Sub-Surface Anomaly #10 and Test Trench #8.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #9 (Sub surface anomaly #10) Test Trench #9 was placed perpendicular to Trench #8 at the western end of Test Trench #8 and excavated in a north/south direction across the central ridge. Test Trench #9 was placed at this location to identify any features that may be located on the central ridge. The test trench was 20 meters in length (north/south) and 90 cm in width. The soil stratigraphy consisted of a 30 cm thick 7.5 YR 3/1 very dark grey silt loam (Stratum I- Ap horizon), above a 40 cm thick 10YR 4/3 brown sandy silt loam (Stratum II). Stratum II is an intact A horizon. Below Stratum II is a 10 YR 4/4 dark yellowish brown sandy loam (Figure 20). Sub-surface anomaly #10 was not identified in Test Trench #9.

Figure 20. East Profile, Test Trench #9.

Test Trench 9

Figure 21. Sub-surface Anomaly #10 and Location of Test Trench #9. 34

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 22. Photo, East Profile Test Trench 9.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #10 (Sub surface anomaly #10) Test Trench #10 was placed perpendicular to Trench #8 in an east/west direction beginning at the western end of Test Trench #8. Trench #10 is 24 meters in length east/west and 60 cm in width north/south. The trench was excavated to a depth of 60 cm below the ground surface. The soil stratigraphy in Test Trench #10 consisted of three soil strata. The soil stratigraphy consisted of a 30 cm thick 7.5 YR 3/1 very dark grey silt loam (Stratum I- Ap horizon), above a 40 cm thick 10YR 4/3 brown sandy silt loam (Stratum II). Stratum II is an intact A horizon. Excavation of the test trench was terminated at 60 cm below the ground surface based o the presence of FCR clusters and a potential pit feature.

Figure 23. West Profile, Test Trench #10.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 24. Photo, East Profile, Test Trench #10.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

TrenchTest Trench 10 #10

Figure 25. Test Trench #10 Showing Artifact Concentrations #3, #4, #5, #6, and Feature 378.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Artifact Cluster #3

Artifact Cluster #3 was identified in the A2 horizon at 60 cm below the ground surface. Artifact Cluster #3 consists of five pieces of FCR and a Middle Woodland pottery sherd from an approximate area that measures 50 cm east/west by 45 cm north/south. A Middle Woodland checked stamped sherd was also recovered from the back dirt pile at Artifact Cluster #3. There were no observable changes in the soil color or any areas of thermally altered soil.

Figure 26. Artifact Concentration #3 Showing FCR and Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd.

Figure 27. Photo, Artifact Concentration #3.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Figure 28. Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd Recovered from Artifact Concentration #3.

Figure 29. Middle Woodland Pottery Sherd Recovered from the Back Dirt Pile at Artifact Concentration #3.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Artifact Cluster #4

Artifact Cluster #4 was identified in the buried A horizon at 60 cm below the ground surface. Artifact cluster #4 consists of 10 pieces of in situ FCR identified in an area 70 cm north /south by 60 cm east/west. There were no observable changes in the soil color or any areas of thermally altered soil.

Figure 30. Artifact Concentration #4 Showing FCR.

Figure 31. Photo, Artifact Concentration #4.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Artifact Cluster #5

Artifact Cluster #5 was identified in the A2 horizon at 60 cm below the ground surface. Artifact cluster #5 consists of two pieces of FCR and four plain pottery sherds distributed along a 200 cm portion of the trench. There were no observable changes in the soil color or any areas of thermally altered soil.

Figure 33. Artifact Concentration #5 Showing FCR and Pottery Sherds.

Figure 32. Photo, Artifact Concentration #3.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Artifact Cluster #6 Artifact Cluster #6 was identified in the A2 horizon at 30 cm below the ground surface. Artifact cluster #6 consists of six pieces of in situ FCR identified in an area 25 cm north/south by 25 cm east/west. There were no observable changes in the soil color or any areas of thermally altered soil.

Figure 34. Artifact Concentration #6 Showing FCR.

Figure 35. Photo, Artifact Concentration #6.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Feature #378

Feature #378 was identified in the A2 horizon at 40 cm below the ground surface. The feature was a 70 cm north/south by 60 cm east/west deposit of brown soil. FCR was not present on the surface of the feature.

Figure 36. Feature 378 Showing Extent of Feature.

Figure 37. Photo, Feature 378.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench #11 (Sub-surface anomaly #9) Test Trench #11 was placed at the eastern boundary of the project area at sub-surface anomaly #9. Sub-surface anomaly #9 was identified at 90 to 126 cm below the ground surface during the GPR survey and measured approximately 10 m east/west and 5 m north/south.

The test trench was oriented with the long axis east/west and measured 5.5 meters in length and two meters in width. The uppermost meter of the test trench was sandy, rocky modern fill that was above a 10YR 3/3 dark brown silt loam (A horizon). Due to the instability of Test Trench #11, North Wind archaeologists were not allowed in the trench. Approximately 30 cm of the A horizon was excavated, and no cultural features were observed. The sub-surface anomaly is most likely the sandy, rock modern fill.

Figure 38. Test Trench #11, Facing West.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Test Trench 11

Figure 39. Test Trench #11 and sub-surface anomaly #9.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

Summary and Recommendations

North Wind Resource Consulting LLC (North Wind) conducted a Phase II Archaeological Investigation at Site 40SV43 in support of an approximate 4.5 acre expansion at the Sevierville Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP) in Sevier County, Tennessee. The project was conducted for the City of Sevierville, Water and Sewer Department. The Phase II Archaeological Investigation was conducted from March 5th to April 17th, 2020 by Emmett Brown and Richard Polhemus.

The Phase II investigation to examine sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, #9, and #10, and to determine if these anomalies represent intact prehistoric cultural features and/or activity areas. The goal of the Phase II investigation was not to excavate the sub-surface anomalies in their entirety, but to sample the locations to determine if cultural deposits were present.

Test unit excavations at sub-surface anomalies #4, #5, and #9 did not produce any cultural features. Sub-surface anomalies #4 and #5 are located in a low swale and test trench excavation was terminated due to the water table. Sub-surface anomaly #9 is located in a low area adjacent to the central ridge. Test Trench #11 was placed at sub-surface anomaly and revealed a meter thick modern fill above the buried A horizon. No cultural features were observed at the interface of the excavation at Test Trench #11, Test trench excavation did not reveal any cultural features and prehistorically this are would have been part of the lower, swale area.

A backhoe trench was excavated along the western boundary at sub-surface anomaly #10 and was negative for cultural features. However, a backhoe trench placed directly west of subsurface anomaly #10 did reveal intact cultural deposits in a buried A soil horizon. As a result, the central ridge area contains intact archaeological features that date to at least the Middle Woodland period with the potential that additional in-situ prehistoric features are present along the ridge. Additional test trenches were not excavated at sub-surface anomaly #10 due to the possibility that this area could also be avoided during construction. However, the central ridge area cannot be avoided, and any archaeological deposits will be impacted during construction activities. As a result, the central ridge area (including sub-surface anomaly #10) will require additional archaeological work prior to any construction activities.

Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

REFERENCES Anderson, David G. 2001 Climate and Culture Change in Prehistoric and Early Historic Eastern North America. Eastern North America. Vol 29:143-186.

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Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

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Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

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Phase II Archeological Investigation Site 40SV43, Sevier County, TN

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