1. A survey of African languages · Harald Hammarström...... 1 1.1. Introduction...... 1 1.2. Survey by region...... 8 1.2.1. North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula ...... 11 1.2.1.1. The greater Nile area ...... 13 1.2.1.2. Northwest Africa...... 14 1.2.2. The greater Saharan area...... 15 1.2.2.1. Northeast Bilād as-Sūdān...... 15 1.2.2.2. Sahara and Sahel...... 17 1.2.3. Ethiopic sphere ...... 20 1.2.4. Sudanic West Africa...... 23 1.2.5. Central Sudan and Cameroon Grassland...... 26 1.2.5.1. Central Sudan...... 26 1.2.5.2. Cameroon Grassfields...... 27 1.2.5.3. The Central African area...... 27 1.2.6. Equatorial rain forest...... 28 1.2.7. Eastern savanna...... 32 1.2.8. Madagascar...... 34 1.2.9. Southern tip...... 35 1.3. Summary and outlook...... 37 Acknowledgements ...... 38 References ...... 38

2. Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa · Tom Güldemann...... 58 2.1. African language classification and Greenberg (1963a)...... 58 2.1.1. Introduction...... 58 2.1.2. The pre-Greenbergian background ...... 60 2.1.3. The evolution of Greenberg’s classification ...... 62 2.1.4. The history of Greenberg’s final classification...... 65 2.2. Evidence supporting genealogical classifications...... 69 2.2.1. Introduction...... 69 x Table of contents

2.2.2. Morphological evidence over lexical evidence...... 71 2.2.3. Paradigms over atomic items...... 74 2.2.4. Lineage history over data quantity ...... 77 2.3. The present classification survey...... 79 2.3.1. A typology of evidence for genealogical hypotheses . . . . .79 2.3.2. Basic classificatory units...... 81 2.3.3. Scope and structure of the survey...... 85 2.4. The Khoisan domain...... 94 2.4.1. Classification history and lineage inventory...... 94 2.4.2. Diagnostic evidence...... 95 2.4.2.1. Morphology ...... 95 2.4.2.2. Lexicon...... 96 2.4.2.3. Typology...... 97 2.4.3. Basic classificatory units...... 98 U1 Tuu ...... 98 U2 Kx’a ...... 99 U3 Khoe-Kwadi ...... 100 U4 Sandawe...... 103 U5 Hadza ...... 103 2.4.4. Higher-order hypotheses and summary...... 104 2.4.4.1. Tuu and Kx’a ...... 104 2.4.4.2. Khoe-Kwadi and Sandawe...... 105 2.4.4.3. Summary...... 106 2.5. The Niger-Kordofanian domain...... 107 2.5.1. Classification history and lineage inventory...... 107 2.5.2. Diagnostic evidence...... 111 2.5.2.1. Morphology ...... 111 2.5.2.1.1. Pronouns...... 111 2.5.2.1.2. Verb derivation suffixes aka “extensions”...... 118 2.5.2.1.3. Noun classification and gender . . . .123 2.5.2.2. Lexicon...... 146 2.5.2.3. Typology...... 148 2.5.3. Basic classificatory units...... 154 U6 BENUE-KWA ...... 154 U6.A BANTOID...... 158 U6.B CROSS RIVER...... 160 U6.C KAINJI-PLATOID...... 161 U6.D Igboid ...... 162 U6.E Idomoid...... 163 U6.F Nupoid...... 163 U6.G Edoid...... 164 Table of contents xi

U6.H Akpes...... 164 U6.I Ukaan...... 165 U6.J Oko...... 166 U6.K Owon-Arigidi...... 166 U6.L Ayere-Ahan...... 168 U6.M Yoruboid...... 168 U6.N Gbe...... 169 U6.O GHANA-TOGO MOUNTAIN. .169 U6.P Potou-Akanic...... 170 U6.Q Ga-Dangme...... 171 U6.R LAGOON...... 171 U6.S Ega...... 172 U7 DAKOID...... 173 U8 Ijoid ...... 174 U9 KRU ...... 177 U9.A (Narrow) Kru...... 178 U9.B Siamou...... 179 U10 Pere ...... 180 U11 ATLANTIC...... 180 U11.A (CORE) ATLANTIC. . . . . 183 U11.B Mel ...... 185 U11.C Gola...... 187 U11.D Limba ...... 187 U11.E Sua...... 187 U11.F Nalu...... 188 U11.G Rio Nunez...... 188 U12 Mande...... 189 U13 Dogon...... 192 U14 Bangime ...... 193 U15 GUR ...... 194 U15.A (Central) Gur...... 196 U15.B Kulangoic ...... 197 U15.C Miyobe ...... 197 U15.D Tiefo ...... 197 U15.E Viemo ...... 198 U15.F Tusian...... 199 U15.G Samuic...... 199 U15.H Senufo...... 199 U16 ADAMAWA...... 200 U16.A Tula-Waja ...... 204 U16.B Longuda...... 205 U16.C Bena-Mboi...... 206 xii Table of contents

U16.D Bikwin-Jen ...... 207 U16.E Samba-Duru...... 207 U16.F Mumuyic...... 208 U16.G Maya...... 208 U16.H Kebi-Benue...... 209 U16.I Kimic ...... 210 U16.J Buaic...... 210 U16.K Day...... 211 U16.L Baa~Kwa...... 212 U16.M Nyingwom~Kam...... 212 U16.N Fali ...... 212 U17 UBANGI...... 213 U17.A Gbayaic...... 217 U17.B Zandic...... 217 U17.C Mbaic...... 218 U17.D Mundu-Baka...... 219 U17.E Ngbandic...... 220 U17.F Bandaic ...... 221 U17.G NDOGOIC ...... 222 U18 KORDOFANIAN...... 223 U18.A Heibanic ...... 225 U18.B Talodic...... 226 U18.C Lafofa ...... 227 U18.D Rashadic...... 228 U19 Katlaic...... 230 2.5.4. Summary...... 232 2.6. The Nilo-Saharan domain...... 235 2.6.1. Classification history and lineage inventory...... 235 2.6.2. Diagnostic evidence...... 240 2.6.2.1. Morphology ...... 240 2.6.2.2. Lexicon...... 249 2.6.2.3. Typology...... 254 2.6.3. Basic classificatory units...... 258 U20 Kadu ...... 258 U21 Kuliak...... 259 U22 Central Sudanic ...... 261 U22.A Bongo-Bagirmi...... 265 U22.B Sinyar ...... 267 U22.C Kresh...... 268 U22.D Aja...... 268 U22.E Birri...... 269 U22.F Moru-Madi...... 269 Table of contents xiii

U22.G Lenduic...... 270 U22.H Mangbutu-Efe...... 270 U22.I Mangbetu-Asua ...... 271 U23 Songhay...... 271 U24 Kunama...... 273 U25 Shabo ...... 275 U26 Furan ...... 276 U27 Saharan...... 276 U28 Maban...... 277 U29 Taman...... 278 U30 Nyimang...... 280 U31 Nara ...... 281 U32 Meroitic...... 281 U33 Nubian...... 282 U34 Dajuic...... 283 U35 Temeinic ...... 285 U36 Nilotic...... 285 U37 Surmic...... 287 U38 Jebel ...... 288 U39 Berta ...... 290 U40 Koman...... 291 U41 Baga ...... 293 2.6.4. Higher-order hypotheses and summary...... 294 2.6.4.1. Low-level links...... 294 2.6.4.2. East(ern) Sudanic...... 299 2.6.4.3. Summary...... 308 2.7. The Afroasiatic domain...... 309 2.7.1. Classification history and lineage inventory...... 309 2.7.2. Diagnostic evidence...... 312 2.7.2.1. Morphology ...... 312 2.7.2.2. Lexicon...... 317 2.7.2.3. Typology...... 319 2.7.3. Basic classificatory units...... 321 U42 Semitic...... 321 U43 Egyptian...... 322 U44 Berber...... 323 U45 Cushitic...... 327 U46 OMOTIC...... 330 U46.A Ta-Ne...... 334 U46.B Maji...... 336 U46.C Ari-Banna ...... 337 U46.D Mao...... 338 xiv Table of contents

U47 Ongota ...... 340 U48 Chadic...... 342 U49 Laal-Laabe...... 345 U50 Kujarge...... 345 2.7.4. Summary...... 347 2.8. Higher-order hypotheses beyond Greenberg...... 348 2.9. Summary...... 352 References ...... 362

3. Language contact and areal linguistics in Africa · Tom Güldemann and n.n...... 445 Introduction ...... 445

3.1. Contact and contact languages (omitted)...... 447

3.2. Areal linguistics beyond contact, and linguistic areas in Afrabia · Tom Güldemann ...... 448 3.2.1. A different approach to areal linguistics...... 448 3.2.2. Linguistic heterogeneity vs. homogeneity in Africa. . . . .451 3.2.3. A survey of language-contact cases and patterns ...... 454 3.2.3.1. Southern Africa...... 454 3.2.3.2. Bantu...... 455 3.2.3.3. Central Africa...... 457 3.2.3.4. West Africa...... 458 3.2.3.5. Sahel...... 460 3.2.3.6. Sahara...... 462 3.2.3.7. Nile valley...... 463 3.2.3.8. Horn of Africa...... 464 3.2.3.9. Nilotic-Surmic and East Africa...... 470 3.2.3.10. Summary...... 472 3.2.4. Macro-areal research...... 472 3.2.4.1. Introduction...... 472 3.2.4.2. Kalahari Basin ...... 474 3.2.4.3. Bantu spread zone...... 477 3.2.4.4. Macro-Sudan belt...... 479 3.2.4.5. Central transition sphere...... 486 3.2.4.6. Chad-Ethiopia...... 488 3.2.4.7. Afroasiatic spread zone...... 491 Table of contents xv

3.2.4.8. Southern High Africa submerged by the Bantu expansion?...... 493 3.2.4.9. Summary discussion...... 494 3.2.5. Afrabia in a wider geographical perspective...... 507 3.2.5.1. Africa as a “linguistic area”...... 507 3.2.5.2. Areal effects across Africa’s boundaries. . . . . 509 References ...... 512

4. Phonetics and African languages · Ian Maddieson...... 546 4.1. Introduction and background...... 546 4.2. Consonants...... 548 4.2.1. Complex consonants...... 548 4.2.1.1. Doubly-articulated stops and nasals...... 548 4.2.1.2. Clicks ...... 554 4.2.2 Ejectives and implosives...... 561 4.2.3. Prenasalized segments...... 565 4.2.4. Pharyngeals and pharyngealization...... 566 4.2.5. Labial flap...... 569 4.3. Vowels...... 569 4.3.1. Vowel harmony...... 569 4.3.2. Phonation type...... 575 4.3.3. Vowel-to-vowel coarticulation...... 576 4.4. Prosodic Features...... 578 4.4.1. Tone...... 578 4.4.1.1. F0 declination...... 578 4.4.1.2. Tone alignment...... 581 4.4.1.3. Depression ...... 582 4.4.2. Timing...... 585 4.4.2.1. Quantity ...... 585 4.4.2.2. Rhythm...... 586 4.4.3. Syllabification...... 587 4.5. Summary and future directions...... 590 References ...... 591

5. Current issues in African phonology · Florian Lionnet and Larry M. Hyman...... 602 5.1. Introduction...... 602 5.2. Segmental phonology: Complex segments...... 603 5.2.1. Prenasalized consonants ...... 603 xvi Table of contents

5.2.2. Labial-velars ...... 604 5.2.3. Clicks...... 606 5.2.3.1. Clicks are consonants...... 606 5.2.3.2. Clicks and their “accompaniments”: Unit vs. cluster analysis ...... 608 5.3. Suprasegmental phonology...... 610 5.3.1. Tone and the autosegmental revolution...... 610 5.3.1.1. The autosegmental revolution...... 610 5.3.1.1.1. Non-isomorphism...... 612 5.3.1.1.2. Stability effects...... 615 5.3.1.1.3. Zero representation...... 616 5.3.1.2. Analyses of tonal systems and processes. . . . .624 5.3.2. Harmony systems...... 627 5.3.2.1. Vowel harmony...... 627 5.3.2.1.1. The autosegmental account . . . . . 627 5.3.2.1.2. ATR harmony...... 628 5.3.2.1.3. Height harmony...... 628 5.3.2.1.4. Rounding harmony...... 630 5.3.2.2. Consonant harmony...... 632 5.3.3. Prosodies and process morphology...... 633 5.3.3.1. Palatal and labial prosodies ...... 634 5.3.3.2. No underlying vowel contrast?...... 635 5.3.3.3. Prosodies as morphemes: non-segmental/ non-concatenative morphology ...... 636 5.3.3.4. Autosegmental representation ...... 637 5.3.3.5. Featural affixes versus processes...... 639 5.3.3.6. The origin of prosodies and featural affixes. . . .645 5.3.4. Nasality as a prosody...... 646 5.4. Segment organization and word structure...... 647 5.4.1. Syllables, slots and moras...... 647 5.4.2. Reduplication...... 650 5.4.3. Accent and positions of prominence...... 651 5.4.3.1. Stem-initial prominence...... 652 5.4.3.2. Conflicting prominence ...... 655 5.4.3.3. Iambic languages ...... 658 5.4.3.4. Interplay between prominence and vowel harmony...... 660 5.4.3.5. Interactions between metrical structure and tone...... 662 5.4.3.6. Similar unresolved issue: the Tiene case . . . . .664 5.5. Interface phenomena...... 665 5.5.1. Syntax–phonology interface ...... 665 Table of contents xvii

5.5.2. Tonal morphology...... 668 5.5.2.1. Non-segmentable tonal morphemes...... 668 5.5.2.2. Tone cases...... 670 5.5.2.3. Postlexical assignment of tonal morphemes. . . .673 5.5.2.4. Construction tonology ...... 675 5.5.3. Dependent and construct states...... 681 5.5.3.1. Dependent state in Berber...... 681 5.5.3.2. Construct form...... 684 5.5.4. Phonologically conditioned mobile affixation...... 687 5.6. Conclusion...... 689 References ...... 691

6. Current issues in African morphosyntax · Denis Creissels and Jeff Good...... 709 Introduction ...... 709

6.1. Current issues in African morphosyntactic typology · Denis Creissels...... 712 6.1.1. Introduction...... 712 6.1.2. Nouns and noun phrases ...... 713 6.1.2.1. Gender systems...... 713 6.1.2.1.1. Gender without semantic basis: the case of Uduk...... 713 6.1.2.1.2. Gender and genericity...... 713 6.1.2.1.3. An extreme case of flexibility in gender assignment: Hamar. . . . .716 6.1.2.1.4. Phonology-driven gender assignment: The case of Afar. . . . .717 6.1.2.1.5. The question of alliterative concord. . 718 6.1.2.2. Linkers in noun-modifier constructions. . . . . 719 6.1.2.2.1. Specialized linkers...... 720 6.1.2.2.2. Multipurpose linkers...... 723 6.1.2.3. Construct forms of nouns...... 724 6.1.2.3.1. Generalizing the notion of “construct state of nouns” traditionally used in Semitic linguistics...... 724 6.1.2.3.2. Some possible misunderstandings about the notion of construct form. . .725 xviii Table of contents

6.1.2.3.3. Construct forms of nouns in Nilotic languages ...... 726 6.1.2.3.4. Construct forms of nouns in other East African languages...... 727 6.1.2.3.5. The construct form of Tswana nouns. .727 6.1.2.3.6. The construct form of Eton nouns . . .728 6.1.2.3.7. The construct form of Hausa nouns . . . 729 6.1.2.3.8. The construct form of Wolof nouns . . 730 6.1.2.3.9. Construct forms of nouns in Mande languages ...... 730 6.1.2.3.10. Construct forms of nouns in Dogon languages ...... 732 6.1.2.3.11. Concluding remarks...... 733 6.1.2.4. Incorporation of attributive adjectives...... 733 6.1.2.4.1. Introductory remarks ...... 733 6.1.2.4.2. Incorporation of attributive adjectives in Soninke (Mande). . . . 735 6.1.2.4.3. Incorporation of attributive adjectives in Gur languages. . . . . 736 6.1.2.5. Dependency reversal in noun–attributive constructions...... 737 6.1.2.6. NP coordination ...... 738 6.1.2.6.1. NP coordination and comitative adjunction in Manding languages. . . 738 6.1.2.6.2. A rare type of inclusory coordination in Tswana...... 741 6.1.3. Argument structure and valency operations ...... 742 6.1.3.1. Transitivity prominence...... 742 6.1.3.2. Valency orientation...... 744 6.1.3.3. Passives...... 745 6.1.3.3.1. Active / passive lability (zero-coded passives). . . . .745 6.1.3.3.2. A rare type of oblique passive in Joola languages...... 748 6.1.3.4. Atypical objects in Soninke...... 748 6.1.3.5. Experiencers, impersonality, and transitivity. . . 752 6.1.3.6. Antipassives in “accusative” languages. . . . . 754 6.1.3.6.1. Introductory remarks ...... 754 6.1.3.6.2. Bantu antipassives ...... 755 6.1.3.6.3. West African antipassives...... 755 6.1.3.7. Non-canonical applicatives: the case of Tswana . .758 6.1.3.7.1. Introductory remarks ...... 758 Table of contents xix

6.1.3.7.2. The canonical use of Tswana applicatives...... 758 6.1.3.7.3. Applicative derivation and the promotion of instrumental adjuncts. . 759 6.1.3.7.4. Applicative derivation and the semantic role of locative phrases: general remarks ...... 760 6.1.3.7.5. Verbs of movement that cannot assign the role of source or destination. . . .760 6.1.3.7.6. Verbs of movement that can assign the role of source...... 761 6.1.3.7.7. Verbs that do not express movement. .762 6.1.3.7.8. Applicative derivation and the focalization of locative phrases . . . .764 6.1.3.7.9. Concluding remarks...... 765 6.1.3.8. A rare type of valency operator: the possessive voice of Wolof...... 768 6.1.4. Clause structure...... 770 6.1.4.1. Multiple transitive coding (symmetrical voices): The case of Uduk . . . . .770 6.1.4.2. Core argument flagging and indexation. . . . . 771 6.1.4.2.1. Co-argument sensitivity in core argument flagging: the case of Ik. . . 771 6.1.4.2.2. Case-marked subjects or objects unexpected from a genetic or areal perspective...... 772 6.1.4.2.3. Differential object indexation. . . . .774 6.1.4.2.4. A typologically rare configuration in argument indexation: object indexation in Taa ...... 774 6.1.4.3. Uncommon types of constituent order and syntactically conditioned variations in constituent order...... 775 6.1.4.3.1. Introductory remarks ...... 775 6.1.4.3.2. The Subject-Object-Verb-Oblique constituent order in Mande languages. 775 6.1.4.3.3. Mande-style constituent order in non-Mande languages: Senufo and Eastern Songhay...... 778 6.1.4.3.4. TAM-polarity-driven VO~OV alternations in West African languages ...... 780 xx Table of contents

6.1.4.3.5. Concluding remarks...... 783 6.1.4.4. Interpositions ...... 784 6.1.4.4.1. Definition...... 784 6.1.4.4.2. The interposition of Ju|’hoan. . . . .785 6.1.4.4.3. Interpositions in other Ju varieties?. . 786 6.1.4.4.4. Interpositions in other Khoisan languages?...... 787 6.1.4.4.5. The interposition of Lamba . . . . . 788 6.1.4.4.6. The interposition of Nande...... 789 6.1.4.4.7. An emerging interposition in Baule?. .791 6.1.4.5. Existential predication in the languages of the Sudanic belt ...... 796 6.1.4.6. Impersonal constructions: generalizing you with overt antecedents...... 797 6.1.5. Complex constructions ...... 801 6.1.5.1. Relativization...... 801 6.1.5.1.1. Relative clauses and the stage level vs. individual level property distinction...... 801 6.1.5.1.2. Generalized noun-modifying clauses...... 803 6.1.5.2. Clause chaining...... 804 6.1.6. Information structure...... 805 6.1.6.1. Focus positions in Bantu languages...... 805 6.1.6.2. Conjoint and disjoint verb forms in Bantu languages ...... 805 6.1.6.2.1. Introductory remarks ...... 805 6.1.6.2.2. The function of the conjoint vs. disjoint distinction in Tswana. . . . .806 6.1.6.2.3. The conjoint vs. disjoint distinction in other Bantu languages ...... 808 6.1.6.3. Presentational focus constructions in West African languagues ...... 809 6.1.7. Conclusion...... 813 References ...... 814

6.2. African languages and formal linguistics frameworks · Jeff Good ...... 822 6.2.1. African morphosyntactic typology and formal theories . . . 822 6.2.2. Nominal morphosyntax...... 823 6.2.2.1. Issues in the syntax of nouns and noun phrases. . 823 6.2.2.2. Noun and noun class structure in Bantu. . . . . 823 Table of contents xxi

6.2.2.3. Mixed category constructions involving nouns. . 825 6.2.3. Reference tracking and formal approaches...... 827 6.2.3.1. Logophoricity and agreement...... 827 6.2.3.2. Logophoricity...... 828 6.2.3.3. Argument cross-reference markers...... 830 6.2.3.3.1. Verbal agreement and linguistic theory...... 830 6.2.3.3.2. Bantu subject and object prefixes. . . 831 6.2.3.3.3. Afroasiatic agreement...... 835 6.2.4. Argument structure ...... 837 6.2.4.1. Valency changing suffixes and serial verb constructions ...... 837 6.2.4.2. Valency coding on the verb with special reference to Bantu...... 837 6.2.4.2.1. Overview of issues in valency coding...... 837 6.2.4.2.2. Morphology or syntax?...... 840 6.2.4.2.3. Baker’s (1988a) incorporation approach...... 841 6.2.4.2.4. LFG and the lexicalist approach. . . .843 6.2.4.2.5. Evaluation: Extensions and verbal valency...... 844 6.2.4.2.6. Morpheme ordering...... 846 6.2.4.2.7. Double object constructions. . . . . 848 6.2.4.3. Serial verb constructions...... 851 6.2.4.3.1. Background on serial verb constructions...... 851 6.2.4.4. Serial verb constructions in transformational grammar...... 854 6.2.4.5. Formal analyses of serial verb constructions: An evaluation...... 857 6.2.5. Word order: Object–verb order alternations ...... 857 6.2.6. Information structure...... 861 6.2.6.1. The African contribution to formal models of information structure...... 861 6.2.6.2. Word order and information structure ...... 861 6.2.6.3. Cleft constructions...... 865 6.2.7. Conclusion: The state of African languages and formal morphosyntactic theories...... 869 References ...... 870 xxii Table of contents

7. Anthropological and cognitive linguistics in Africa (omitted) ...... 882

8. African socio- and applied linguistics · H. Ekkehard Wolff. . .883 8.1. Introduction...... 883 8.1.1. Defining the scope...... 885 8.1.1.1. Sociolinguistics...... 885 8.1.1.2. Applied linguistics...... 887 8.1.1.3. Socio- and applied linguistics in the African context...... 888 8.1.2. Issues and trends in socio- and applied linguistics in Africa...... 888 8.1.3. Specific features of the “language question” in Africa. . . .894 8.1.3.1. The legacies of the past...... 894 8.1.3.2. Linguistic imperialism and the postcolonial class divide...... 896 8.1.3.3. Eurocentrism versus perspectives from within Africa...... 898 8.1.3.4. Sociolinguistic terminology applied to the African context...... 899 8.1.4. The challenges of multilingualism in Africa...... 902 8.1.4.1 Territorial multilingualism...... 903 8.1.4.2. Institutional multilingualism...... 905 8.1.4.3. Individual multilingualism...... 906 8.1.4.4. Sociocultural (stable) multilingualism...... 908 8.1.4.5. Multilingual proficiency and semilingualism. . . 909 8.1.5. Language policies, language politics, and language use in Africa...... 910 8.1.5.1. Background: Ideologies and prejudice...... 911 8.1.5.2. Multilingualism and polyglossia...... 914 8.1.5.3. Language attitudes...... 917 8.1.5.4. Language planning: Language, the nation-state, and development ...... 921 8.2. Language and power in Africa...... 924 8.2.1. Language and the colonial past...... 926 8.2.2. Language and the state...... 929 8.2.3. Language and globalization...... 934 8.3. Language and education in Africa...... 938 8.3.1. The medium-of-instruction controversy...... 939 8.3.1.1. Mother tongue versus other tongue ...... 940 Table of contents xxiii

8.3.1.2. Swahili and Yoruba...... 942 8.3.1.3. Mother tongue–based multilingual education . . .947 8.3.2. Literacy and the “intellectualization” of African languages. .950 8.3.2.1. Writing systems in Africa...... 950 8.3.2.2. Harmonizing orthography in African languages. . 951 8.3.2.3. Literacy, postliteracy, and publishing in African languages...... 953 8.3.2.4. Intellectualization and technicalization of the lexicon ...... 957 8.4. Language and development in Africa ...... 959 8.4.1. The linguistic dimension of the Millennium Development Goals for 2015...... 962 8.4.2. Development communication...... 964 8.4.2.1. Discourse on development...... 965 8.4.2.2. Communicating development in multilingual settings...... 968 8.5. Language and the city in Africa...... 971 8.5.1. Is mother tongue–based education feasible in African megacities?...... 974 8.5.2. Urban “linguistic landscapes”: Language visibility in the public space...... 975 8.5.3. New urban vernaculars: “Lifestyle registers” or emerging “nationalist” languages?...... 976 References ...... 977 Further Reading...... 983 Index 1: Subjects ...... 985 Index 2: Languages, language groups, and areas...... 994

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