Table of contents Preface . .v List of contributors .........................................vii 1. A survey of African languages · Harald Hammarström ..........1 1.1. Introduction ...............................................1 1.2. Survey by region ...........................................8 1.2.1. North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula ..................11 1.2.1.1. The greater Nile area ........................13 1.2.1.2. Northwest Africa ............................14 1.2.2. The greater Saharan area ..............................15 1.2.2.1. Northeast Bilād as-Sūdān .....................15 1.2.2.2. Sahara and Sahel ............................17 1.2.3. Ethiopic sphere .....................................20 1.2.4. Sudanic West Africa ..................................23 1.2.5. Central Sudan and Cameroon Grassland ..................26 1.2.5.1. Central Sudan ..............................26 1.2.5.2. Cameroon Grassfields ........................27 1.2.5.3. The Central African area ......................27 1.2.6. Equatorial rain forest .................................28 1.2.7. Eastern savanna .....................................32 1.2.8. Madagascar ........................................34 1.2.9. Southern tip ........................................35 1.3. Summary and outlook ......................................37 Acknowledgements ............................................38 References ...................................................38 2. Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa · Tom Güldemann ...........58 2.1. African language classification and Greenberg (1963a) ............58 2.1.1. Introduction ........................................58 2.1.2. The pre-Greenbergian background ......................60 2.1.3. The evolution of Greenberg’s classification ...............62 2.1.4. The history of Greenberg’s final classification .............65 2.2. Evidence supporting genealogical classifications .................69 2.2.1. Introduction ........................................69 x Table of contents 2.2.2. Morphological evidence over lexical evidence .............71 2.2.3. Paradigms over atomic items ...........................74 2.2.4. Lineage history over data quantity ......................77 2.3. The present classification survey ..............................79 2.3.1. A typology of evidence for genealogical hypotheses ........79 2.3.2. Basic classificatory units ..............................81 2.3.3. Scope and structure of the survey .......................85 2.4. The Khoisan domain .......................................94 2.4.1. Classification history and lineage inventory ...............94 2.4.2. Diagnostic evidence ..................................95 2.4.2.1. Morphology ...............................95 2.4.2.2. Lexicon ...................................96 2.4.2.3. Typology ..................................97 2.4.3. Basic classificatory units ..............................98 U1 Tuu . 98 U2 Kx’a . 99 U3 Khoe-Kwadi . 100 U4 Sandawe . 103 U5 Hadza . 103 2.4.4. Higher-order hypotheses and summary ..................104 2.4.4.1. Tuu and Kx’a .............................104 2.4.4.2. Khoe-Kwadi and Sandawe ...................105 2.4.4.3. Summary .................................106 2.5. The Niger-Kordofanian domain ..............................107 2.5.1. Classification history and lineage inventory ..............107 2.5.2. Diagnostic evidence .................................111 2.5.2.1. Morphology ..............................111 2.5.2.1.1. Pronouns ........................111 2.5.2.1.2. Verb derivation suffixes aka “extensions” ..................118 2.5.2.1.3. Noun classification and gender ......123 2.5.2.2. Lexicon ..................................146 2.5.2.3. Typology .................................148 2.5.3. Basic classificatory units .............................154 U6 BENUE-KWA . 154 U6.A BANTOID ..................158 U6.B CROSS RIVER ..............160 U6.C KAINJI-PLATOID ...........161 U6.D Igboid .....................162 U6.E Idomoid ....................163 U6.F Nupoid .....................163 U6.G Edoid ......................164 Table of contents xi U6.H Akpes. 164 U6.I Ukaan ......................165 U6.J Oko ........................166 U6.K Owon-Arigidi ...............166 U6.L Ayere-Ahan .................168 U6.M Yoruboid ...................168 U6.N Gbe .......................169 U6.O GHANA-TOGO MOUNTAIN ..169 U6.P Potou-Akanic ................170 U6.Q Ga-Dangme .................171 U6.R LAGOON ..................171 U6.S Ega ........................172 U7 DAKOID . 173 U8 Ijoid . 174 U9 KRU . 177 U9.A (Narrow) Kru ................178 U9.B Siamou. 179 U10 Pere . 180 U11 ATLANTIC . 180 U11.A (CORE) ATLANTIC .........183 U11.B Mel ......................185 U11.C Gola ......................187 U11.D Limba ....................187 U11.E Sua .......................187 U11.F Nalu ......................188 U11.G Rio Nunez .................188 U12 Mande . 189 U13 Dogon . 192 U14 Bangime . 193 U15 GUR . 194 U15.A (Central) Gur ...............196 U15.B Kulangoic .................197 U15.C Miyobe ...................197 U15.D Tiefo .....................197 U15.E Viemo ....................198 U15.F Tusian. 199 U15.G Samuic. 199 U15.H Senufo ....................199 U16 ADAMAWA . 200 U16.A Tula-Waja .................204 U16.B Longuda. 205 U16.C Bena-Mboi. 206 xii Table of contents U16.D Bikwin-Jen ................207 U16.E Samba-Duru. 207 U16.F Mumuyic ..................208 U16.G Maya .....................208 U16.H Kebi-Benue ................209 U16.I Kimic .....................210 U16.J Buaic. 210 U16.K Day ......................211 U16.L Baa~Kwa ..................212 U16.M Nyingwom~Kam ...........212 U16.N Fali ......................212 U17 UBANGI . 213 U17.A Gbayaic ...................217 U17.B Zandic ....................217 U17.C Mbaic. 218 U17.D Mundu-Baka ...............219 U17.E Ngbandic ..................220 U17.F Bandaic ...................221 U17.G NDOGOIC ................222 U18 KORDOFANIAN . 223 U18.A Heibanic ..................225 U18.B Talodic ....................226 U18.C Lafofa ....................227 U18.D Rashadic ..................228 U19 Katlaic . 230 2.5.4. Summary .........................................232 2.6. The Nilo-Saharan domain ..................................235 2.6.1. Classification history and lineage inventory ..............235 2.6.2. Diagnostic evidence .................................240 2.6.2.1. Morphology ..............................240 2.6.2.2. Lexicon ..................................249 2.6.2.3. Typology .................................254 2.6.3. Basic classificatory units .............................258 U20 Kadu . 258 U21 Kuliak . 259 U22 Central Sudanic . 261 U22.A Bongo-Bagirmi .............265 U22.B Sinyar ....................267 U22.C Kresh .....................268 U22.D Aja .......................268 U22.E Birri ......................269 U22.F Moru-Madi. 269 Table of contents xiii U22.G Lenduic ...................270 U22.H Mangbutu-Efe ..............270 U22.I Mangbetu-Asua .............271 U23 Songhay . 271 U24 Kunama . 273 U25 Shabo . 275 U26 Furan . 276 U27 Saharan . 276 U28 Maban . 277 U29 Taman . 278 U30 Nyimang . 280 U31 Nara . 281 U32 Meroitic . 281 U33 Nubian . 282 U34 Dajuic . 283 U35 Temeinic . 285 U36 Nilotic . 285 U37 Surmic . 287 U38 Jebel . 288 U39 Berta . 290 U40 Koman . 291 U41 Baga . 293 2.6.4. Higher-order hypotheses and summary ..................294 2.6.4.1. Low-level links ............................294 2.6.4.2. East(ern) Sudanic ..........................299 2.6.4.3. Summary .................................308 2.7. The Afroasiatic domain ....................................309 2.7.1. Classification history and lineage inventory ..............309 2.7.2. Diagnostic evidence .................................312 2.7.2.1. Morphology ..............................312 2.7.2.2. Lexicon ..................................317 2.7.2.3. Typology .................................319 2.7.3. Basic classificatory units .............................321 U42 Semitic . 321 U43 Egyptian . 322 U44 Berber . 323 U45 Cushitic . 327 U46 OMOTIC . 330 U46.A Ta-Ne .....................334 U46.B Maji ......................336 U46.C Ari-Banna .................337 U46.D Mao ......................338 xiv Table of contents U47 Ongota . 340 U48 Chadic . 342 U49 Laal-Laabe . 345 U50 Kujarge . 345 2.7.4. Summary .........................................347 2.8. Higher-order hypotheses beyond Greenberg ....................348 2.9. Summary ...............................................352 References ..................................................362 3. Language contact and areal linguistics in Africa · Tom Güldemann and n.n. ......................445 Introduction .................................................445 3.1. Contact and contact languages (omitted) ...................447 3.2. Areal linguistics beyond contact, and linguistic areas in Afrabia · Tom Güldemann ...........448 3.2.1. A different approach to areal linguistics .................448 3.2.2. Linguistic heterogeneity vs. homogeneity in Africa ........451 3.2.3. A survey of language-contact cases and patterns ..........454 3.2.3.1. Southern Africa ............................454 3.2.3.2. Bantu ....................................455 3.2.3.3. Central Africa .............................457 3.2.3.4. West Africa ...............................458 3.2.3.5. Sahel ....................................460 3.2.3.6. Sahara ...................................462 3.2.3.7. Nile valley