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Open Sjohnson Dissertation PSU Ecology FINAL.Pdf The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Intercollege Graduate Program in Ecology NATIVE AMERICAN LAND USE LEGACIES IN THE PRESENT DAY LANDSCAPE OF THE EASTERN UNITED STATES A Dissertation in Ecology by Sarah E. Johnson 2014 Sarah E. Johnson Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2014 The dissertation of Sarah E. Johnson was reviewed and approved* by the following: Marc D. Abrams Steimer Professor of Forest Ecology Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Margot Kaye Associate Professor of Forest Ecology Dean Snow Professor Emeritus of Anthropology Kim Steiner Professor of Forest Biology David M. Eissenstat Professor of Horticulture Chair, Intercollege Graduate Program in Ecology *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT Native American populations in the eastern United States were active and passive land managers during the period from AD 500 to 1650. The impacts of these land uses were profound, and identifiable in historic records. In this study, vegetation and soil characteristics from archaeological sites and off-site areas were quantified on three United States Department of Defense installations and one protected archaeological site in the eastern U.S. to determine if this legacy of Native American land uses exists on present day landscapes. Vegetative indicator species were identified through ethnobotanical literature review to determine which species were highly important in the diet and life of Native American groups of interest. This research defined two major vegetation indicators, white oak (Quercus alba L.) at MCB Quantico, Virginia and the oak-pine-blueberry (Quercus-Pinus-Vaccinium) association of a sandy glacial outwash moraine at Fort Drum, New York. At both of these installations, forested archaeological sites were shown to be distinctly more open (decreased trees per acre) than off-site plots. Soil charcoal, while showing higher incidence on archaeological sites than on off-site areas, was fairly abundant across all surveyed areas, possibly indicating the influence of widespread Native American burning. This research also suggests that Native Americans may have had an influence on soil characteristics in areas with intensive habitation and inherently low fertility soils. At Fort Drum archaeological sites presently have soils that display darker color and higher over-all fertility. Native American influences were less discernible at study sites that exist along waterways. This may be due to their inherently more fertile soils, which would not require amendments to facilitate agriculture, or increased importance of fresh or brackish water resources, decreasing the need for intensive agriculture. iv Present-day vegetation and soils associated with Late Woodland and Mississippian archaeological sites show different overall trends, influenced by settlement patterns, available resources, and baseline soil fertility. Application of these methodologies therefore requires careful examination of geographic variables and anthropological context. Predictive modeling techniques currently used by cultural resources managers could be improved through addition of other important landscape variables, such as vegetation and soils. This research provides a more complete understanding of Native American land use legacies on the present day landscape in the vegetation and soils, and highlights important indicator species and soil fertility trends at different locations in the eastern United States. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1 Native American land use legacies in the eastern United States ...................................... 1 Summary of Chapters ....................................................................................................... 4 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................ 7 Chapter 2 Description of Study Areas and Witness Trees Analysis ....................................... 12 Fort Drum Army Installation, New York ......................................................................... 15 Witness Tree Analysis .............................................................................................. 22 Canfield’s Island, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania ........................................................ 27 Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia ............................................................................ 31 Witness Tree Analysis .............................................................................................. 36 Cheatham Annex Naval Supply Station, Virginia ........................................................... 39 Witness Tree Analysis .............................................................................................. 46 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 50 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................ 51 Chapter 3 The Relationship Between Vegetation, Soil Charcoal, and Archaeological Site Location ........................................................................................................................... 59 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 59 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 63 Methods ............................................................................................................................ 64 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................................... 73 Identification of Indicator Species ........................................................................... 73 Comparison of Archaeological and Off-site Overstory Composition ...................... 76 Comparison of Archaeological and Off-site Soil Charcoal ...................................... 83 Classification Tree Modeling ................................................................................... 86 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 93 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................ 95 Chapter 4 Native American Black Earth in the Eastern United States ................................... 103 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 103 Objectives ................................................................................................................. 105 Methods ............................................................................................................................ 106 Results and Discussion ..................................................................................................... 118 Comparison of Overall Soil Data from Archaeological and Off-site Areas............. 118 vi Regression Tree Model Results ................................................................................ 121 Spatial Interpolation Results .................................................................................... 125 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 142 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................ 144 Chapter 5 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 150 A protocol for efficient identification and protection of cultural resources ..................... 150 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................ 158 Appendix: Ethnobotanical Inventory and Data Sources .......................................................... 161 A. Ethnobotanical information gathered through personal communication .................... 161 New York ................................................................................................................. 161 Pennsylvania ............................................................................................................ 162 Virginia .................................................................................................................... 163 B. Literature utilized for ethnobotanical inventory .......................................................... 164 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1. Map of Fort Drum land ownership and training areas, including documented locations of prehistoric archaeological sites, and inset map indicating the location of Fort Drum in upstate
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