Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral Livelihood Zone (Camel, Sheep/Goats (Shoats) and Cattle)

Dolow‐Ado and Filtu Districts, Liban Administrative Zone, Somali National Regional State, Ethiopia

Djibouti

on

Shinile Somalia far Regi A Jijiga on

gi Degahbur

Re Fik Warder a Korahe Gode Oromi A Afder

Liban Somalia Kenya Filtu Liban

Dolow Moyale

Dolow‐Filtu Pastoral LZ (camel, shoats, cattle)

Moyale Weyamo Pastoral LZ (camel, shoats,

Dawa/Ganale Riverine (maize, cattle)

Liban Agropastoral (maize, cattle, shoats)

An HEA Baseline Study By SC‐UK, DPPB and Partners February, 2002

Sponsored by USAID/OFDA and ECHO, with financial support from SC‐Canada and WFP

Assessment Team

Bashir H. Mire SC‐UK, Gode

Ibrahim A. Salan SC‐UK, Afder

Muhiadin H. Ismail SC‐UK, Fik

Abdullahi Issak

Abdi Rashid LECDB, Jijiga

Abdulkarim A. Ismail FSAU, Nairobi

Lesley Adams SC‐UK, ECARO, Lead Trainer

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral i Table of Contents

Assessment Team...... i Table of Contents...... ii Figures, Tables & Maps ...... iii Terms and Acronyms ...... iv 1. Executive Summary ...... 6 2. Introduction ...... 9 2.1 Purpose of the study ...... 9 2.2 Methodology...... 9 3. Background ...... 11 3.1 Agro Ecology, Geology, & Water...... 11 3.2 Infrastructure & Social Services ...... 11 3.3 Other issues in the Zone...... 16 3.4 Livelihood Zones in the Liban Administrative District...... 17 4. Food Economies...... 19 4.1 The Livelihood Zone...... 19 4.2 Historical Timeline...... 20 4.3 Seasonal Calendar ...... 23 4.4 Wealth Breakdown...... 24 4.5 Food Sources in the Reference Year...... 26 4.6 Income Sources in the Reference Year...... 27 4.7 Expenditure Patterns in the Reference Year ...... 29 4.8 Current Situation (January/February 2002) ...... 30 5. Vulnerabilities, Risks & Coping...... 32 6. Indicators to monitor...... 35 7. Recommendations...... 36 7.1 Recommendations...... 36 8. References...... 37 9. Appendices...... 38 9.1 HEA Methodology...... 38 9.2 Note on Somali Traditional Calendar...... 41 9.3 List of Kebeles in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral Livelihood Zone...... 43 9.4 Animal Herd Dynamics ...... 46 9.5 Importance of Milk Production for Food & Income...... 48 9.6 Livestock Market Employment ...... 52 9.7 Endemic Livestock Disease...... 53 9.8 List of Villages visited and Key Informants ...... 54

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral ii Figures, Tables & Maps

Figure 1 ‐ Exchange rates, goat and maize prices...... 12 Figure 2 ‐ Terms of Trade (Luuq market, Somalia and Mandera market, Kenya...... 14 Figure 3 ‐ Seasonal Calendar for Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ ...... 23 Figure 4 ‐ Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ...... 24 Figure 5 ‐ Food Sources for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ...... 26 Figure 6 ‐ Food Basket for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ...... 26 Figure 7 ‐ Income Totals for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ...... 27 Figure 8 ‐ Income Sources for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ ...... 28 Figure 9 ‐ Expenditure Totals for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ ...... 29 Figure 10 ‐ Expenditure Pattern for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ ...... 29 Figure 11 ‐ Proportional Expenditure on Food for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ ...... 30

Table 1 ‐ Livelihood Zones in Liban Administrative Zone ...... 18 Table 2 ‐ Historical Timeline Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ...... 21 Table 3 ‐ Wealth Characteristics...... 25

Map 1 ‐ Livelihood Zones in Liban Administrative Zone ...... 18

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral iii

Terms and Acronyms

ACF Action Contra le Faim Agro‐pastoralism A livelihood where farming and animals are both important, and the family cannot survive without each Agropastoralism A livelihood system in which extensive livestock production is mixed with some crop production provides the main income and food options. Aqal Literally ‘a house’ – a mother, father, children and dependant, if any Berkad Man‐made water catchment (sometimes covered) Browse Pasture suitable for camel and goats Burjuwasi Sharecropping farmers who have only rain‐fed land; many are reportedly “pastoral drop‐outs” Caamo Lit. “the ignorant” – those who have not had Koranic education Carafo Hajj season Dalaal Broker for livestock sales Deyr Rainy season between October and December Deyr Short rains (October to November/December) DPPB/D Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Bureau/Department Dugsi Koran School ECHO European Commission Humanitarian Office Farming A livelihood where cultivation is the dominant food and income option; animals provide additional wealth and security but are not critical LZ Livelihood Zone FS/EW Food Security Monitoring/Early Warning Gar Reconciliation process that takes place amongst elders and men of household Grazing Pasture suitable for cattle and sheep Gu Main rainy season (April to June) Hagaa Dry season between July and September Hagaa Short dry season (July to September) HCS Hararghe Catholic Secretariat Irmansi Lactating animal loaned to a poorer family Jilaal/Qoraxeed Hot dry season between late December and March Maqasha Small ruminants Nugul Weaker or more vulnerable herd animals that do not migrate far OFDA USAID Office for Foreign Disaster Assistance OWDA Ogaden Welfare and Development Association OWS Ogaden Welfare Society Pastoralism A livelihood system in which livestock provide most of the income and food options and in which livestock graze extensively in the rangeland. PCAE Pastoralist Concern Association Ethiopia Sahan Pasture surveying or reconnaissance SC‐UK Save the Children‐UK SC‐USA Save the Children‐USA Shaxaad Borrowing or receiving gifts from relatives and friends Shoat Collective term for sheep and goats SNRS Somali National Regional State

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Singibiil Ginger Soonfur End of the Muslim fast Tamarc Dates (fruit) TOT Terms of Trade WFP UN‐World Food Programme Xammil Traditional material tied around male sheep’s abdomen to obstruct mating Zakat Religious gift (obligation) by rich to poor (e.g. 10% of rain‐fed harvest)

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1. Executive Summary This study was carried out in January and February 2002 (during the long dry season (jilaal)) in a period characterised by successive rain failure. The relief programme which had been operating in recent years had ceased, but close proximity to Kenya and Somalia, where substantial relief operations are underway, has kept prices down for maize. Villages visited and key informants are listed in Appendix 9.8.

Geographic location: This pastoral food economy group covers Filtu and Dolow Ado districts, and is dependent on camels and goats for their livelihood. The group is similar to the pastoralists of Afder zone (see Afder pastoral FEG report). Moyale district pastoralists have larger cattle herds. This group is nomadic, although increasingly families split in the dry season with women and children remaining in villages and men and strong boys going off with the strong animals. Normal year migration tends to be within Liben zone.

Historical timeline: the last 10 years has seen high variation in environmental conditions for pastoralists, ranging from the good rain and grazing conditions (but high disease incidence) of El Nino in 1997 to the prolonged dry period of recent years. The area has been peaceful in the last few years with security around the Somali border maintained by Ethiopian troops. Towards the west of Liben zone tension between Borana and Somali clans (Degodia and Garre) causes occasional insecurity and limits animal migration beyond the border of Liben zone.

Clan Affiliation and Clan Relationships: Clans in this area include Degodia, Garre, Garimaro and Marrexan. The Marrexan clan (who are mainly around Hay Suftu area) has developed a good relationship with Borana people and is therefore more free to move towards Borana zone, but less free to move in Degodia or Garre areas. Degodia and Garre clans are strongly allied, and maintain a close relationship with Degodia clans in Wajir and Mandera who come into the area in difficult times. Marexaan pastoralists from Gedo region of Somalia have better relationships with pastoralists in Afder zone (particularly Darod) than with those in Liben zone so migration from Gedo tends to be via Dolow to the Chereti area of Afder and Gode zone. Degodia pastoralists are among those who are starting to diversify into agriculture and some have purchased land from the Garimaro1 ‐ the people who have been farming the land for some time. The tendency of the pastoralists to diversify into farming can cause conflict between the two groups, and it can cause internal problems within the Garimaro who might not accept the sale of the land2.

Livelihoods depend on livestock products and livestock sales for much of household income, with bush products a feature of the economy of the poorer groups. Animals are sold to various markets: Shoats mainly to Kenya, cattle mainly to Negele Borena, and

1 This purchase is made to clan Elders. There is no formal system of registration. 2 Abraham A, Kefale A, Jemma H, Olika T, Conflict and Conflict Mitigation Mechanisms in Dollo Ado and Dollo Bay Woreda of the Somali National Regional State. Addis Ababa University, 2000

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camel to Mogadishu. The pastoralists have not been greatly affected by the livestock ban since livestock trade with gulf states was less important than Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalia. Some of the sharecropping farmers along the Dawa and Ganale rivers3 were formerly pastoralists who have seen their herds reduced ever since the disastrous year of 1991/2. Successive droughts have further cut livestock numbers and many took up farming around 1996 when pump irrigation opened up opportunities for sharecropping. Such farmers do not regret the change, and point out that those who are currently in transition are the most vulnerable group.

Wealth is determined by livestock ownership. A man with a large herd is likely to give out milking animals as irmansi to his poorer relatives, and give gifts of animals for sale either through zekat or other social welfare support. The middle and rich households have a diet based almost entirely on milk during the wet season, while the poorer households have to supplement the milk with grain and sugar. In the reference year a rich man’s household4 had around 40 camels, a middle man around 20 and a poor man around 5‐10.

Risk factors include drought, insecurity and livestock disease. Insecurity is not currently a major risk although some livestock raiding has been occurring along the Borana border. While in principle pastoralists are free to move in difficult times even through territory controlled by a hostile clan, increasing pressure on pasture and water exacerbates existing clan tensions and can result in conflict. Disease presents a bigger risk since access to drugs is limited. Drought presents a risk and this has caused some families to “drop out” of pastoralism in recent years.

Main activities in normal year are based on animals and natural resources. Milk sales and livestock sales, and for the poor bush product sales (gums and resins, firewood) are the main income‐earning activities for these pastoralists. In a bad year coping strategies include sale of additional livestock, sale of greater quantities of gums and resins and other bush products for the poor (if the market is good), and seeking assistance from relatives. The proximity of this group to the river provides access to grazing and water in bad years, and assistance from relatives in the riverine areas, some of whom are able to provide fodder for livestock and land for temporary cultivation (irmansi) if required.

The main constraints to production include poor access to animal drugs and services (government service delivery is negligible and the NGOs running such projects have limited coverage) and poor market access for livestock products, gums and resins, and live animals. Pastoralists complain of lack of water for livestock, and in answer to this there is water development in areas with abundant pasture. It is important that the long‐ term effects of this are adequately considered monitored. This policy has had negative consequences in the Haud area of Somalia where water development has increased cattle numbers which has in turn led to increased settlement, and reduced the accessibility of

3 See Riverine report 4 household is defined as mother plus children plus her husband (plus any dependent relatives living with them, and sharing resources, throughout the year)

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formerly dry season grazing areas to nomadic groups. Environmental degradation is a slow‐onset disaster which requires careful monitoring. With large numbers of pastoralists reliant on increasing bush product collection to survive in the successive bad years there is a risk of deforestation. There appears to be limited consideration of such range management issues.

Recommendations for long term development include: Improve water quantity and quality (wells and ponds) but with a clear long‐term policy which will not adversely affect pastoralism in the long‐term Establish/strengthen traditional range management systems Improve access to animal health services through the promotion of private veterinary pharmacies; train community animal health workers Strengthen livestock marketing Restocking for pastoral “drop‐outs” (those who wish to return to pastoralism) Facilitate the transition to farming along the river for those who wish to settle; pumps allocated to groups (see riverine report). Development of gums and resins industry (processing, production and marketing)

The current situation is difficult for pastoralists in terms of pasture and water availability since rainfall has been poor for several seasons consecutively. However, Liben zone is favoured with areas of good browse and grazing for all livestock species around Filtu, and Afder zone also has good grazing areas. Water development has been undertaken to provide additional boreholes in areas where there is grazing. The relief food distribution in Mandera and Gedo region of Somalia has brought down the price of grain, and with livestock currently in a good condition and fetching a good price the terms of trade are favourable to those who are selling (on average two 50kg bags of grain for 1 local quality goat). However, when the relief supply stops the price of grain increases dramatically. Relief distribution is likely to continue in Kenya and Somalia for the near future.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 8

2. Introduction 2.1 Purpose of the study

In the past there has been a chronic scarcity of socio‐economic baseline information in Somali Region, which has made it very difficult for decision makers (Government, aid agencies and donors) to make decision on both short‐term and long‐term interventions. On occasions, such as the 1999/2000 drought, this inability to make quick decisions has had catastrophic consequences for the people of the Region. In an attempt to prevent such occurrences in the future, a project aimed at improving the Food Security Monitoring and Early Warning (FS/EW) capacity of the Region was established. This project is a joint effort by Save the Children–UK (SC‐UK) and the Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Bureau (DPPB) of Somali National Regional State (SNRS), Ethiopia5. The objective of the pilot phase of the project was to collect baseline information on livelihoods and develop a workable model for food security monitoring that will be built into government structures throughout the Region in Phase II

This report is one of 13 other Household Economy baseline assessment reports that have been produced by the project, during the periods of September‐October 2001 and January‐March 2002. Participating organisations in these baseline assessments included: DPPB (together with all DPPD offices), SC‐UK, WFP, SC‐USA, ACF, HCS, PCAE, OWS, OWDA and Al‐Najah Charity. The baseline exercise comprised of classroom training, three weeks of fieldwork and one week of analysis and write‐up.

Based on a reference or typical year, baseline reports were compiled for households belonging to the specific Livelihood Zone (LZ). The reports provide both qualitative and quantitative information on the normal mode of survival and the vulnerabilities of the different livelihood groups found in the Region, as well as information on how they respond to crises. These reports supply decision makers with useful information to make informed decisions, which will facilitate timely and appropriate responses and prevent possible disasters. The information also sheds light on longer‐term food security issues and can therefore help in the planning of development initiatives.

2.2 Methodology

The Household Economy Approach (HEA) has been used as the assessment and analysis tool for the baseline studies. This Approach provides a rapid food security assessment technique and has been used by SC‐UK for a number of years in parts of Africa and Asia. For a brief introduction to the Household Economy Approach please refer to Appendix 9.1. For further details refer to “The Household Economy Approach: A resource manual for practitioners” by John Seaman, Paul Clarke, Tanya Boudreau, and Julius Holt.

5 The Food Security Monitoring and Early Warning (FS/EW) Project, in Somali Region, Ethiopia, is a joint undertaking by Save the Children

– UK and the Regional Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Bureau. USAID/OFDA and ECHO fund the pilot phase (Year 1) of the project. Additional financial support was received from SC‐Canada and WFP. Partners in the baseline exercise included: WFP, ACF, SC‐

USA, HCS, PCAE, Al‐Nejah Charity, OWDA, LVIA, and the Government Bureau of Livestock Environment and Crop Development.

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Livelihood Zone (LZ) Definition Central to the Household Economy Approach is the concept of Livelihood Zones (LZ). Different populations live by very different means depending on their ecological environment, their assets, culture, skills etc. Some may depend primarily on livestock or fishing, others on agricultural production. Because of rainfall, soil type or marketing possibilities, some areas will be suitable for cash crops (such as cotton or tobacco) and others will produce only cereal staples. As a result of these different circumstances different population groups will adopt different approaches for survival. A group or population that obtains its food and income sources form a broadly similar combination of means and that have similar response to shocks is known as a Livelihood Zone (LZ).

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 10

3. Background 3.1 Agro Ecology, Geology, & Water

Altitude & Climate, Rainfall & Water Sources, Soil/Vegetation Land, range management, soil Most of the land is lowland plain (ranging from 1300m in the higher area around Filtu and decreasing to around 200m above sea level at Dolow. The climate is arid (mean annual temperature 27ºC, mean rainfall less than 450mm, low humidity, little cloud, evaporation several times in excess of rainfall in some places). Soils are brown‐grey desert soils (Yermosols and Xerosols). Towards the north of Filtu the altitude increases. In this area rainfall is considerably higher than around Dolow. The pastoral area has three types of vegetation: scattered tall trees; shrubs; grassland with browse dominant over grassland. The area is rich in trees producing gums and resins ((Acacia, Commiphora spp in the higher areas and Boswellia spp family in the lower areas) but the resource is very much under‐exploited6. Camels and goats are concentrated in the areas with thorny tall trees and shrubs, while cattle and sheep graze in the grasslands. Dry season grazing areas are located along the rivers and in grazing areas either side of the Filtu‐ Dolow‐Negele Borena road, near boreholes and permanent water points. Dolow area has currently very little pasture and few animals are found there.

Water Water sources are limited. Filtu, the Zonal capital has no boreholes or pipelines – water comes from large ponds, shallow wells and berkads. Boreholes have been drilled in Filtu district and they provide water in the dry season when many of the wells and ponds dry up. Water users are supposed to pay for their water use – usually for ponds, a flat fee for the whole herd regardless of size. There are no boreholes in Dolow district, which is why most livestock have moved into Filtu district where both grazing, browse and water were available at the time of this study (Jan‐Feb 2002).

Water development There are several organisations engaged in water development (drilling/deepening boreholes). In Filtu area COOPI and PCAE undertake much of the work. At the time of this study, the Zonal administration was reportedly planning to sink a borehole to supply drinking water for Filtu town.

3.2 Infrastructure & Social Services

Marketing & Currency

Markets, currencies, and exchange rates Three currencies are used in this area. Pastoralists around Filtu‐Kola area nearer the Ganale river, use the Ethiopian birr (ETB). Closer to the Kenyan border/along the Dawa river, (Jarso, Sede, Biolay, Berrerran, Dafobulale, Cel Der) the Kenyan shillings (KSh) is

6 Researchers have pointed out that there are multi‐billion dollar industries which make use of, and are constantly searching for, natural products from trees and shrubs

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 11

used since their economy is more closely linked to Kenyan markets (milk sales, labour, livestock sales etc.). In Dolow town and its vicinity Somali shillings (SoSh) dominate transactions because of the imported commodities which cross in from Somalia, and the exchange rate fluctuates frequently, affecting all households. In one month the SoSh can lose 5,000 to the dollar. However, because the exchange rate is so unpredictable people will tend to buy goods immediately with what cash they have. The biggest risk is to those who sell their animals in Somali shillings and delay purchase of other goods, and of course, foreign currency traders.

The figure below shows the exchange rate (with maize and goat prices for comparison) as tracked by FSAU in Luuq, on the other side of the Somali border. The most significant devaluation took place during 2001, with the value being halved over the 12‐month period. Generally speaking local prices for all commodities keep step with inflation. Those who will lose out are the sellers who are far from a market and are unaware of the exchange rate. As is clear from the graph below maize prices were at their lowest, at the time of the assessment (Jan/Feb 2002), in 3 years, and prices of livestock were variable, but not abnormal.

Exchange rate compared to maize and goat prices, Luuq market, Somalia (FSAU)

25,000 18.0

16.0

20,000 14.0 ) ($)

r $1) Goat o 12.0 15,000

10.0 1 local goat (SoSh f e t a 8.0 10,000 6.0

4.0

Exchange R 5,000 Exchange rate Maize 2.0 Prices (50kg maize;

0 0.0 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 11 11 11 11 1998/ 1998/ 1998/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 1998/ 1999/ 2000/ 2001/

Ex rate (SoSh for $1) Maize (50kg) Goat (local)

Figure 1 ‐ Exchange rates, goat and maize prices

While most livestock are sold to the Kenyan market they are sold first through Dolow market for Somali Shillings.

Dolow Livestock Market Dolow is an important market for livestock. Livestock owners tend to sell to Dolow and traders – who have the necessary links for trading across the border – take the animals on to Mandera (shoats) and Somalia (camels). Cattle are generally traded in Negele Borena. Marketing is an important employment opportunity for many people (see Appendix 9.6).

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 12

Apart from Mandera market, other markets which trade with Filtu‐Dolow pastoralists are: Baidoa: Camel, cattle, donkey Bardera: Shoat, Donkey Bosasso: male sheep, which are routed through Gode‐BW; Luuq‐El Berde‐BW

Dolow market is also supplied by livestock from Afder, Gode and Liben zones (except Moyale district) and Gedo region of Somalia.

There are 3 links in the animal marketing chain: the village collector, the middle market collector (e.g. Dolow market) and the exporter who comes from the main market ‐ Bossaso, Garissa and Mandera.

Livestock from Dolow and Filtu area are taken to the following markets: Negele Borena (for cattle7); Mandera (for shoats); Somalia (Mogodishu) for camels for slaughter.

Demand is relatively constant from Kenya, with peaks in demand during religious festivals: • Before and within the month of December (Christmas‐related demand); • Islamic festivals (linked to the lunar calendar ‐ the Gregorian date changes every year): The ceremonies include Carafo (Hajj season) and soonfur (the end of the Muslim fast).

Filtu‐Dolow pastoralists bring back cash when selling livestock at Mandera. When they trade in Somalia they brings back food (oil, rice, sugar)) and non‐food items (water pumps, clothes).

Milk marketing operates through a collection point in Dolow which buys milk from pastoralists and takes it daily to Mandera market. There are therefore two prices in the market: the buying price in Dolow market and the selling price to Mandera.

Hides and skins are sold in Somalia and Kenya. The buyers have a problem with exchange rates since they have to buy in different currencies at different times. Price increases realised in 2001 were mainly related to the devaluation of the Somali shilling, relative to the dollar.

Skins (shoats only) 1999 2000 2001 2002 Buying (SoSh) 6,000 3,000 15,000 10,000 Selling 7,000 4,250 17,000 11,000

Dolow Cereal Market During the Siad Barre regime in Somalia, Ethiopian traders were prohibited from purchasing cereals from Somalia and so all cereal purchase was from Ethiopia. Now the

7 ALRMP Mandera reported also Kenyan cattle being sold mainly in Negele Borena.

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supply is equally from local production and from Somalia. In Ethiopia the rivers were not exploited for farming until in 1996 when pump irrigation was initiated by Somalis who had settled in Ethiopia, and a limited number of Ethiopian Somali refugees returning from Somalia8. With pump irrigation local grain production increased dramatically and grain prices decreased significantly from around SoSh 150,000 ($15 estimated) for one bag (50kg) of maize before irrigated production, to between one‐third and one‐half of the original cost (SoSh 50,000 ($5) in 1997).

In recent years, maize has been coming mainly from Dawa riverine production. When the Dawa river dries up (during the jilaal) and maize stocks run out the price of maize doubles. In recent years relief distribution has brought down the price of maize considerably. This has meant that the terms of trade for pastoralists is unusually favourable. While Terms of Trade in a “normal” year is 1 shoat for 50kg maize, the figure in January/February 2002, is two times better than this (see figure below). In the absence of price monitoring data from Liben zone figures are taken from FSAU’s price monitoring in Luuq market (Somalia) which is likely to follow a similar pattern to the Ethiopian side.

Terms of Trade (Luuq and Mandera markets 1998-2001) (The amount of maize which can be purchased with 1 local goat)

200 Terms of trade (Luuq market, Somalia)

goat 150 cal

o "Normal year"

1 l Terms of trade r o 100 e f z

Kgs mai 50 Terms of trade (Mandera market, Ken 0 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 1 3 5 7 9 11 11 11 11 1998/ 1998/ 1998/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 1999/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2000/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 2001/ 1998/ 1999/ 2000/ 2001/

Figure 2 ‐ Terms of Trade (Luuq market, Somalia and Mandera market, Kenya

As can be seen from the above graph terms of trade have been favourable since the middle of 2000 when relief distribution started to bring down the price of grain and push up the price of livestock. Variation in terms of trade in the post‐2000 years is closely related to relief distribution in Mandera and Somalia: a high grain availability will greatly decrease the price and improve pastoral terms of trade. The main grain consumed is maize.

Oil is either imported from Somalia, or comes through the relief pipeline (across the border from Kenya or Somalia). The price of imported oil (Sosh 12000/lit) is double that of relief oil (Sosh. 7000/litre). If oil is imported the price is almost double the price of the

8 At this time many of the pumps were cheap since many had been looted from abandoned farms in Somalia at the fall of the Siad Barre regime

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relief oil (SoSh 12,000 per litre for imported oil compared to SoSh 7,000). Oil from local sesame production by riverine farmers, (which started to produce around 1998) can cost up to SoSh 20,000.

Sugar price fluctuates very little – its increase in recent years relates to changes in the exchange rate only. Before the 2001 devaluation of the Somali shilling, sugar price was around SoSh 5,000 for 1 kg. Since 2001 the price has reached SoSh 10‐12,000. Similarly, the price of rice has doubled (from SoSh 4,000 to 7000‐9000, since these currency fluctuations).

Access to Education Koranic education is very important for the pastoral people. Those who have not gone through the system are known as caamo (the ignorant) and are less respected in the community. Most families have young children who attend Koran school (dugsi) mainly during the wet season; in dry seasons children move with their families to dry season grazing areas.

Formal education is an option for a minority of middle and rich pastoral families who have the means to support a child in formal school. A few poor families might be fortunate in accessing sponsorship from an Islamic agency. In Ethiopia, education is free, but there is a scarcity of teachers, education facilities and infrastructure. School enrolment is very small and mostly consists of boys with very few girls attending formal schools.

Access to pasture and water Good rains in the wet season revive pasture and provide surface water (ponds) which allows herds to remain near home. During the dry season local pasture becomes depleted and browse becomes dry, so the herd is split and the strong animals migrate to far distances. Camels visit water points every ten to twelve days taking one to two days to reach water points. Migration outside Liben zone is rare – pasture is plentiful around Filtu even in a below normal jilaal season; water is less plentiful but is available in a few boreholes found in the districts. Borehole water for livestock has to be paid for; water from ponds is mostly free but some communities have a system of fee collection, which allows for the salary of the water point “guard”.

Watering livestock Goats are watered every 3 days or less, depending on water and pasture quality: the more salty the water, the more frequent the watering. For cattle the maximum time possible between watering is 2 days. Camels can last 9‐10 days with poor quality water and up to 12 days with good quality water. One camel needs around 50 litres of water at each watering, cattle 25 litres and goats 10 litres. Troughs are fixed near the well in some areas and are the property of the clan; some herders have their own trough. Camels are watered in the night while shoats are watered during the day. This is because of several reasons: (a) goats are vulnerable to animal predator attack at night whereas camels are not; (b) a camel can take more water in the night time; and (c) it is easier for men to water their animals at night. There is often tension and sometimes fighting around water points during water shortages.

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3.3 Other issues in the Zone

Cross border issues All food and non‐food commodities transported from Mogadishu to Dolow area are off‐ loaded in Dolow Somalia. However, these commodities are not traded in Somalia since the market is very limited – they are taken to Dolow Ethiopia. The prices of all commodities are slightly cheaper in Ethiopia than in Somalia and the price will first rise on the Somali side of the border followed by the price on the Ethiopian side. Traders come from Somalia to buy the products, which they take back to Somalia. Traders crossing the border pay a “tax” (negotiable) for transporting the commodities. The charge is higher from Ethiopia to Somalia (4 birr for 100kg sugar) than from Somalia to Ethiopia (2 birr). The main foods coming from Somalia are sugar, rice, wheat flour, pasta and oil. The main foods coming from Ethiopia is cereals and vegetables (e.g potatoes) and other important food items such as tamarc (dates), chilli, singibiil (ginger) which are taken to Mogadishu.

All livestock except camels are traded in Ethiopia and Kenya (camels fetch a high price in Mogadishu and pass through Gedo region). Insecurity in Somalia further encourages pastoralists to sell their animals in Kenya. The livestock ban imposed by Gulf states in recent years has had little affect on this group of pastoralists since they are more dependent on the Kenyan market for shoat sales, on the Ethiopian market for cattle sales and on the local slaughter market in Mogadishu for camel sales.

There is more trade in the dry season because more traders can cross without having to pay the charge for raft transport across the river; moreover more traders can pass through to Mogadishu because the roads are accessible.

Security The situation in Liban Zone is quite calm. Rarely do inter‐clan disputes (mainly over pasture resources) occur. The major risk to security in Liban administrative Zone is the occasional clashes with the Borena in Oromia Region to the west. Clan disputes are usually resolved through negotiations between Elders groups.

Populations of Concern in the Area The following groups are of concern and research should be undertaken with them to investigate their situation and influence policy and intervention. • Very poor pastoralists (those who have non‐sustainable herd sizes). • Pastoral drop‐outs in urban areas – particularly those who are unable to access farm land as a burjuwasi9 • IDPs from Borana zone (near Filtu) • Refugees from Somalia (in Dolow area) • Returnees from Somalia who have not yet been established with assistance – reported to be of concern by district officials. The families who remain in Dolow

9 The burjuwasi are the sharecropping farmers who have only rainfed land. Many are reported to be “pastoral drop‐outs” (see Liben Riverine FEG report)

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 16

have not been able to return to their original areas or if they are from the Dolow area have not been able to access relatives for cultivation under the burjuwasi system.

3.4 Livelihood Zones in the Liban Administrative District

The Filtu‐Dolow LZ is found in Filtu and Dolow districts of Liban Administrative Zone. It is bordered by Dawa‐Ganale Riverine LZ on the east and southeast, Moyale district and Dawa river on the south west, Borena Zone on the north and Afder Zone to the northeast (see map).

See earlier definition of a Livelihood Zone (section 2.2).

Liban Zone has a diverse livelihood system. The major livelihood groups (Livelihood Zones) identified are: • Dawa‐Ganale Riverine LZ (15‐20% of Zonal Population) – This group is mainly found in Dolow‐Ado district. • Moyale‐Wayamo Pastoral LZ (25‐30% of Zonal Population) – This LZ rear camels, shoats and cattle and are heavily dependent on livestock and livestock products for food and income. • Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ (15‐25% of total Zonal Population) – this pastoral group occupies the largest area in Dolow Ado and Filtu districts although the population is not as high. This group is the subject of this report. • Liban Agropastoral LZ (15‐25% of Zonal Population – Liban Zone has got scattered agropastoral groups, which can be loosely categorised as ‘Riverine’ or ‘rain‐fed’. The Agropastoral mentioned here are the rainfed group as those that live along the rivers are classified as Riverine. The Rain‐fed agropastoral group is mainly in Filtu district and in some nearer to the Ganale and Dawa rivers. Moyale has a small group of agropastoralists scattered within the district. • Urban LZ – 10‐20% of total Zonal population. The urban population is mainly found in Dolow Ado, and Moyale, with a small trading community in Filtu and other villages across the Zone.

Overall, about 50% (45‐50%) of the population of Liban Zone is Pastoral, while 35‐40% are agropastoralists (either riverine or rain‐fed agropastoralists). The remaining 10‐20% is urban.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 17

% of Administrative Name of LZ Districts covered in LZ Zone’s population Moyale Moyale Wayamo 25‐30% Pastoral Filtu‐Dolow Filtu, Dolow‐Ado 15‐25% Pastoral Dawa‐ Dolow Ado Ganale 15‐20% Riverine Liban Mainly in Filtu; some in Dolow 15‐25% Agropastoral Ado and Moyale Urban LZ Moyale, Dolow‐Ado, Filtu (and 10‐20% smaller villages) TOTAL 100 Table 1 ‐ Livelihood Zones in Liban Administrative Zone

Filtu Liban Zone

Moyale Dolow

Dolow-Filtu Pastoral LZ (camel, shoats, cattle)

Map 1 ‐ Livelihood Zones in Liban Administrative Zone

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 18

4. Food Economies 4.1 The Livelihood Zone

Population Socio‐political Structure Clans The pastoral populations of Dolow and Filtu districts mainly belong to the following Somali clans: Degodia, Garre and Mareexan

Polygamy and Marriage Polygamy is common among wealthier men with large herd sizes (the “middle” and “better‐off” groups). In such households lactating cattle and camel are divided between the wives with more allocated to the senior wife. When sons get married they are given household items and their own animals and they become independent. In addition the sons can be given irmansi10 animals.

Labour division in pastoral households Roles and responsibilities in pastoral households are clearly defined. Men are responsible for activities relating to the productivity and survival of the herd. This includes milking camels, managing the herd reproduction, watering the livestock, pasture and water observation in advance of the dry season, gathering information on where to go next (sahan), making enclosures for livestock, searching for lost livestock, taking animals to the market and buying sugar, tea, grain etc in return. In a bad year they will resort to cutting poles to earn extra cash, and will shake the acacia tree for pods for goats. In addition men have an important social/political role in reconciliation processes (gar) with other elders.

The woman is responsible mainly for domestic tasks (cooking, firewood collection, looking after children, looking after small stocks and milk animals, making house materials (mats for the hut (aqal)), milking goats and cattle (and milk sales) in the morning and evening, and ghee preparation.

Children look after kids of the small ruminants (maqasha) when they are not attending Koran school (dugsi). Children from poorer households also collect bush products.

Links with other Livelihood Zones and other areas Most of the people within Dolow and Filtu districts originate from the same community; they share the same language, culture and religion. The LZ in/around the areas and with which the Filtu‐Dolow pastoral have relationships include: • Urban – Dolow‐Ado Urban and Mandera Urban, in Kenya. • Dawa‐Ganale Riverine farmers who have very small herds of shoats and cattle • Pastoralists • Cattle/shoat pastoralists (a fairly small group that is found between the Filtu‐Dolow pastoral and the Riverine groups. near the rivers and associated with farming communities)

10 A lactating animal given as a loan for as long as it is in milk.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 19

• Camel/shoat/cattle pastoralists ‐ this study. (Those in the Dolow area place more importance on shoats)

The pastoral groups supply livestock, livestock products and bush products while riverine and agro‐pastoral groups provide cereals (maize) and opportunities for dry season labour and fodder. Pasture and river water are shared by the different groups without apparent stress, even in the current drought, although tensions can develop into clan conflict where resources are extremely limited. Degodia and Garre clans enjoy good relations with each other, but their relationship with the Marexaan is poor. The Marexaan, who are based in the area around Hay Suftu and Negelle maintain good relationships with Borana pastoralists, although the language is different. Degodia and Garre pastoralists are able to move into Ogaden areas in Afder and beyond, and are free to move into their clan territories in Kenya (Wajir and Mandera) but are not free to move into Borana areas. The Mareexan from Gedo move freely in Afder and Gode zones (Darod areas) (generally avoiding Degodia/Garre areas) and are currently reported to be around Chereti.

4.2 Historical Timeline

Pastoralists in this area usually recall years by either a name which was particular for what was a special year, or by the Somali name of the year (one of the names of the days of the week). Exceptional years are named normally after the conditions during the deyr season. The deyr season is critical because it precedes the very tough period of jilaal and qoraxeed (the last month of jilaal) when conditions are extremely stressful.

Selection of the Reference Year Household food economy analysis considers many different ways of recalling years. There are “traditional” years, “production” years and “consumption” years and the “reference” year.

In coming up with Historical timelines, the deyr season (which starts in October) is used as the start of the Somali traditional year. The traditional Somali year therefore spans across two Gregorian calendar years, starting with the deyr (October) and ending with the hagaa (September).

Household food economy analysis ranks years using the traditional system of recall (the deyr season followed by the gu season for each traditional year) – since this is how people recall the past – but focuses on a “consumption year” for discussions with communities on how they lived during the year. This year is taken as the “reference year”. It runs for 12 months from the time of major food production (the gu rains) through to just before the following gu rains (i.e. the end of the long, dry jilaal/qorahxeed or jilaal season). The “consumption” year therefore covers two Gregorian calendar years. Household economy interviews (with representatives from each wealth group) gather information about a specific year, and this provides a “benchmark” or set of reference values and behaviours against which to compare any other year.

The “reference” year chosen for review is one which is within recent memory (since production and prices will have to be remembered) and which was neither very good nor very bad (extremes can be misleading when we are trying to describe a livelihood system). For convenience we will call this year the “normal” year, but this should not be interpreted necessarily as being either “frequently‐occurring” or “typical” as is often the case in agricultural societies. A “normal” year

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 20

from a pastoral perspective might be a year where there is adequate rainfall in terms of intensity and distribution, livestock production is adequate in both seasons, animals and milk fetch good prices and grain is not too expensive. There is little migration or little insecurity. It could be argued that this description represents a “good” year than an “average” year. For this reason it is often more useful to talk of a “reference year” which allows us to describe typical households in a particular year.

For information on the Traditional Somali Calendar System please refer to Appendix 9.2.

Reference year used and explanation The reference year (Khamis (“Thursday year”) (1998/9)) was an average year. For pastoralist communities this means that the year was in between larqos (good) and marqos (bad) for most indicators. Rainfall distribution and intensity was within the average ranges. Milk yield was average and sufficient in both deyr and gu seasons and prices were normal. (In the wet season one milking camel produces four glasses per day and a cow three glasses (how big is a glass?). The price of milk was SoSh 2,500 ($0.25). Typical livestock prices were: goats: Ksh 750; sheep was Ksh 600ksh; cattle Ksh 6,000; camel Ksh 6,500 and cereals KSh 600 (50kg). Terms of trade in a “normal” year is therefore 50‐60kg for 1 shoat).

There was no abnormal migration – camel moved towards the highland areas at the end of Qoraheed which is usual. The overall security situation during the reference year was calm, there were no clan disputes in both farming and grazing areas and there was no political tension. Market accessibility was usual; borders were open and the flow of food and non‐food commodities was reasonable.

The historical time line traces the events which shaped the lives of the pastoralists over the last 10 years. See Table 2 below. Table 2 ‐ Historical Timeline Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ Year Year name Deyr Gu Comments Rainfall ‐ Low rainfall in deyr which revised some pasture 2001 Sunday Livestock ‐ Poor livestock condition; immigration from Kenya and Gedo; TOT= 2 goats = 1 1 0 to2002 Axad bag Events ‐ Deyr siigo (dust) Rainfall ‐ Below average; pasture regeneration 2000 to Saturday Livestock ‐ Good condition in the deyr but outmigration to Kenya, Afder in the Gu. Terms of 2 1 2001 Sabti Trade were poor: 2 goats: 1 bag Events ‐ Afmaroojis (facial expression twisted mouth): very bad Rainfall ‐ Low rainfall received in deyr; good rain and pasture revival in gu Livestock ‐ Good livestock condition and good price in animal markets in Gu. Migration 1999 to Friday 1 3 from Rhamu and Mandera (Kenya). Good TOT: 1 goat = 1 bag 2000 Jimco Events ‐ Deyr kala luud (separation) in the deyr season. Deyr dhag beel (deafness – everything you hear is bad; if you are stressed you can’t hear anything) Rainfall ‐ Sufficient rains in gu and deyr; good pasture 1999 to Thursday 2 3 Livestock ‐No animal movements and no in‐migration; good terms of trade 1998 Khamiis Events ‐ Gu Qaboojiye (“cooling down” – tempers temperature, etc – due to improved year.) Rainfall ‐ Plenty of rain received in deyr with very good pasture; average gu rains 1998 to Wednesday 5 3 Livestock ‐ Livestock condition was good; livestock diseases for shoats and camels 1997 Arbaco Events ‐ Deyr shuba Rainfall ‐ Average rains received in the gu season; pasture good, no rain in the deyr 1997 to Tuesday Livestock ‐ Livestock migrated to Filtu district; poor condition in deyr but improved in gu 1 3 1996 Talaado season Events ‐ Deyr Magan (missing deyr) 1996 to Monday 1 4 Rainfall ‐ Deyr rain failure; Above average gu rains

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 21

Year Year name Deyr Gu Comments 1995 Isniin Livestock ‐ Internal movements during the deyr, returning in the gu; Good TOT: 1 goat = 1 bag Events ‐ Deyr hargab (cough) Rainfall ‐ Good deyr rain with enough pasture; gu rains below average 1995 to Sunday Livestock ‐ No livestock migration with good livestock conditions; good security and no 4 2 1994 Axad diseases Events ‐ Deyr geel dhalaaye (many camels delivered) Rainfall ‐ Below average rains in deyr; Normal rains in gu and good pasture 1994 to Saturday Livestock ‐ Good livestock conditions with better livestock production; migration in deyr 2 3 1993 Sabti returning in gu Events ‐ Deyr cadey

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 22

4.3 Seasonal Calendar

Figure 3 ‐ Seasonal Calendar for Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

Seasonal Calendar – Filtu-Dolow Pastoral FEZ (Camel, Shoats, Cattle) Jilaal Gu Hagaa Deyr Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rainfall Pasture observation and movements Men (prep for dry season) Men Men Men Fencing

Selection of male livestock for mating high production; low production; high production; low production; low price high price low price high price Milk production / sales / prices Handicrafts (women) (mats for houses etc. (generally not sold) Livestock salting (giving salt or taking to daran areas (salty areas) Livestock watering

Restocking highest highest Livestock sales and festivals and festivals purchase purchase Food purchase (higher quantities of low highest low purchase maize, sugar) purchase purchase Least Favourable Least favourable Terms of trade (grain : livestock) favourable TOT TOT favourable TOT TOT Resting, marriage and other celebrations Well preparation and digging firewood firewood wild food Bush products collection gums/resins wild food gums/resins

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 23

The seasonal calendar above (figure 3) features variation in animal productivity, animal movement, and seasonal increases in grain purchase. During the wet season most of the livestock graze in areas near the homestead. Milk production is at its highest and most households purchase very little grain or sugar. Life is relatively easy. During the dry seasons the low milk production is offset by higher sugar consumption and grain purchase. For most pastoralists grain purchase starts at a time when grain prices are cheap (at the beginning of the dry season when the harvest is just in). At this time livestock prices are also good, with pasture and water sources replenished by the rain. Purchase continues until the most expensive time to buy grain – at the end of the dry season and the beginning of the wet season. At this time markets have exhausted local stocks, and the price of livestock is lowest.

Dry season income‐generating activities are done by women and children of poorer households whose small herd sizes force them to depend on the collection and sale of bush products to get by. This includes wild foods (e.g. hohob – a wild fruit), firewood, gums and resins.

Animal migration during the dry season takes the men and older boys away from the women and children – who remain behind to look after the more vulnerable animals. A small number of milking animals give milk during the dry season – particularly important if there are young children in the family – those aged between 1 and 2 years are considered particularly vulnerable and require animal milk. If a family has no milking animal they are likely to be lent a lactating animal by a relative. This tradition is known as irmansi.

4.4 Wealth Breakdown

Population Distribution of Wealth Groups

15 - 25 Better-off 25 - 35 Poor

45 - 55 Middle

Figure 4 ‐ Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

The community is very close‐knit, with families depending on each other for assistance. This assistance goes both ways – from the wealthy to the poorer relatives in gifts, and the assistance is reciprocated – in kind.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 24

In pastoral communities the “middle” income group constitutes the majority of the population, with the better off and the poor the smaller groups within the society. Indeed pastoral communities would be unsustainable with a higher percentage of poor as the poor group’s low animal holdings mean that assistance from wealthier relatives is critical.

Interestingly labour is not a significant source of cash or food for the “poor”. The loan of an irmansi animal to a poor family is usually according to need. For instance, the table below shows that “poor” families have 5‐10 camels, and of these around 1 will be lactating. Since milk is so critical to pastoral households, if the family does not have a lactating animal it is likely that they will be loaned such an animal by a wealthier relative (irmansi).

Most “middle” or “better‐off” marriages are polygamous. The livestock herd sizes given below are for each household (woman and her children and her husband) rather than for each male. Richer households are likely to have more children for no reason other than because wealth usually takes time to accumulate. Otherwise there is generally no difference in household size.

Table 3 ‐ Wealth Characteristics

Wealth Group name & vernacular name Very Poor Poor Middle Better off

Characteristics number of wives 1 2 2 Household size 7 8 8 Number of members living away & where Number of members

from other family(ies) Number of members earning income & who (in order of importance) LIVESTOCK Owned Shoats 25 – 35 50 – 80 100 ‐ 150 Borrowed Shoats Female Shoats Male Shoats Lactating Shoats 5 15 25‐5=20 Owned Cattle 3 – 6 15 – 20 30 ‐ 40 Borrowed Cattle Female Cattle Male Cattle Ox(en) Lactating Cow(s) 2 5 11‐1=10 Owned Camel(s) 5 – 10 15 – 25 35 ‐ 55 Borrowed Camel(s) Female Camel(s) Male Camel(s) Lactating Camel(s) 1 4 8‐1=7 Pack Camel(s) Donkey(s)/Ass(s) Mule(s)/Horse(s)

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 25

4.5 Food Sources in the Reference Year

Food Sources in the Reference Year

120%

100%

80%

needs Other d o

o Gift food f

l 60% a Purchases nu an

40% Own L/stock prod of

% Own Crops prod 20%

0% Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 5 ‐ Food Sources for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

Food Basket in the Reference Year

120%

100% s

80% Other need

d Sugar o

o Oil

f 60%

al Dairy u Pulses

ann 40%

Cereals f o % 20%

0% Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 6 ‐ Food Basket for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

The “Poor” Wealth Group The “poor” have few milking animals of their own; those with fewer are likely to receive irmansi goats or camels, particularly if they have young children. For the large part of their food sources they rely on market purchase (mainly maize) with sugar and oil making up the rest.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 26

The “Middle” Wealth Group The middle group, with around 4 milking camels, 5 milking cattle and 15 milking goats, relies heavily on livestock products for food and cash, particularly during the wet season.

Cereal and sugar purchase make up the rest of household food consumption with around 1kg of sugar consumed every day of the year, and between 1.5 and 2kgs maize.

The “Better off” Wealth Group The rich purchase a small quantity of cereals (from ½ kg in the wet season to 1 ½ kg in the dry season) to supplement the milk from their large herds. They have around 7 lactating camels, 10 cows and around 20 goats and this gives them more than half of their annual food needs). They purchase around 1kg of sugar daily throughout the year. Of the wet season milk which is produced approximately 50% is consumed, 40% sold and the remaining 10% is given as gifts and used for visitors. In the dry season a higher percentage of milk will be sold (because the price is good), but the total quantity will be less because of lesser production.

4.6 Income Sources in the Reference Year

Income Totals in the Reference Year

80,000

70,000

s 60,000 g n

li 50,000 il h

S 40,000 n a

y 30,000 n e 20,000 K

10,000

0 Poor Middle Better-off Wealth Group

Figure 7 ‐ Income Totals for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 27

Income Sources in the Reference Year

100%

90%

80%

e 70% m

o Other c 60%

In Remittances l

a 50% Gifts (local gifts) u

n Loans n 40%

A Bush product sale f 30% Labour income % o Livestock product sale 20% Crop s ale 10% Livestock sale

0% Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 8 ‐ Income Sources for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

The “Poor” Wealth Group The main income sources for the “poor” are livestock sales and bush products, each making up roughly half of their annual income. Livestock sales in a “normal” year would usually include around 5 shoats, a cow and a camel, plus additional sales from the two or so shoats received as gifts. Bush product sales includes sales of firewood, myrrh and incense (each an estimated 50‐100kg per year) (this is usually collected by children). Poles are collected by men but usually only in bad years.

The “Middle” Wealth Group For the “middle”, income comes chiefly from livestock sales (around 2 camels, 2 cattle, 10 shoats) and milk sales (mostly camel milk).

The “Better off” Wealth Group Income for the rich households comes predominantly from livestock sales – in a “normal” year they sell around 5 large ruminants and around 15 shoats in addition to those given to the teacher of the Koran, and the livestock given as clan tax. Milk sales make up the other source of income.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 28

4.7 Expenditure Patterns in the Reference Year

Expenditure Totals in the Reference Year

70,000 60,000 s

g 50,000 n li

il 40,000 h S

a 30,000 y n

e 20,000 K 10,000 0 Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 9 ‐ Expenditure Totals for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

Expenditure Pattern in the Reference Year

100%

90%

80% Flexibility

e 70% Other m

o Inputs c 60% n I l Social services a 50%

nu Clothes & n 40% footwear A Household

of 30% items

% Food 20%

10%

0% Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 10 ‐ Expenditure Pattern for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 29

Expenditure Pattern on Food in the Reference Year

100%

80% e m o c 60%

n Other I l Sugar Oil

nnua 40% Cereals A of % 20%

0% Poor Middle Better-off Rich/ V.Poor Wealth Group

Figure 11 ‐ Proportional Expenditure on Food for all Wealth Groups in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral LZ

The “Poor” Wealth Group Expenditure categories include food – around 2kg of maize per day in the wet season, around 3kg per day in the dry season and sugar (again, more in the dry season). Additional food purchase includes salt, coffee and tea. Social services includes Koranic school, clan taxes and drugs for human illnesses (mainly malaria). Household items purchased includes a high amount for clothes (around KSh 2,000 per year), soap, and a torch and batteries. The “poor” have approximately 10‐15% of total income “extra” for spending on additional, “non‐essential” items.

The “Middle” Wealth Group The middle group have higher costs than the poor – they buy more expensive food, they spend more on inputs (salt and animal drugs), they have more children in school, they are able to spend more on human health and they have to pay a higher clan tax.

The “Better off” Wealth Group Apart from expenditure on food, “better off” households spend the largest part of their income on inputs (drugs, salt, and purchase of animals for restocking), followed by household items and social services. They have a similar number of children in school as the middle group, but are required to pay a higher clan contribution, and they spend more on clothes and other household items.

4.8 Current Situation (January/February 2002)

The current situation is very difficult, referred to by pastoralists as “Imtixaan” (test). There is drought which affects livestock and it is reported that some households are having to feed animals (including camels) by hand which means buying cereals or maize stalks for the animals – and this is expensive. However, livestock condition was

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 30

observed to be acceptable. There is some sign of distress migration for pasture and water to areas inside the zone as well as outside the zone such as Filtu, Imi, Gode, Fafen. Terms of trade, however, are reasonable since the high supply of food relief to Mandera and Gedo region has maintained a very low price for grain. (see figure 2). Livestock prices are relatively good.

At the moment the Kenyan border is open to trade. Prices are normal for this time of year.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 31

5. Vulnerabilities, Risks & Coping Vulnerabilities and Risks Risks which this Food Economy Group are vulnerable to include: • Drought: affects mainly poor people with small herds with nugul animals (cattle and shoats). Such households have fewer other animals to sell to get income to save the nugul animals. • Insecurity is more of a risk on the border with Borana zone. Even with good rain in the Borana area and poor rain in Liben zone most animals cannot access the area. There exists a perennial animosity between the between Oromo and Somali peoples, along the border with Oromia Region, because of the territorial dispute between the two groups. Risk of insecurity from outside the country is minimal with strong Ethiopian military presence maintaining stability. However, Liben pastoralists are indirectly affected by insecurity in Somalia because of possible influx of refugees and disruptions in supply of key imported commodities. • Disease Outbreak: the main livestock diseases recorded by NGOs working in the area are listed in Appendix 9.7. • Drop in livestock price: this might be caused because of increased supply to the Kenyan market from Somalia. The imposition of the livestock ban has had a limited effect on the livestock market. • Availability of drugs is very poor, and pastoralists do not have access to veterinary health services or private pharmacies. • Lack of water, is a problem for both livestock and humans, especially in dry seasons; • Lack of local markets providing middlemen with an opportunity to exploit the immobility of the livestock owner and his ignorance of currency fluctuations. Prices paid by middle men are often well below the market price. • Predators such as hyena in rangeland and crocodiles along rivers are a common complaint – they kill livestock and herders. • Fenced land near rivers: this makes access to rivers difficult for pastoralists from outside the area. There is an increasing fencing of such land and this will increasingly affect the pastoralists. However there have been no conflicts reported over this fencing yet, perhaps, because the two groups are closely related. • Access to salt and pastures for livestock: Animals belonging to poorer families are less productive since they are less able to access the far‐away salt licks and lush pasture (they are unable to travel longer distances or hire herdsmen to drive animals longer distances and water animals), or buy salt and drugs. “Neefku cawskuu cuno buu caanihiisa leeyahay” (“an animal will give back to you the resources you give it”). Wealthier households have better herd management and milk production because of their greater resources.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 32

Risk Minimising & Coping Strategies Examples of Risk Minimising include: • Pasture observation: men and older sons will look An example of risk minimising for pasture during the latter stages of the rain for the community was found season for dry season migration among pastoralists in Beer‐ • Storage of fodder tied in trees raran who were suffering from • Slaughtering new born animals to protect the constant hyena attack. They mother mixed water with 2kg of tea • Castration of male animals at birth to prevent leaves. This mixture was left to unwanted pregnancies – these are the ones which ferment for three nights. They are sold later for export then poured this liquid over the meat of a slaughtered goat as • Preventing the male animal from mating off‐ bait. The exercise was season using local techniques (a tie) known as successful: every hyena which “Xammil” tasted the meat died, and the • Splitting the herd (and family): men and strong risk was minimised. boys go with camels to far places in the dry season. Purely nomadic pastoralists will move with the whole household. • Increasing pack animals – this provides the family with increased ability to migrate, and more animals to be used to transport water and bush products.

Coping Strategies For all groups • Reducing the cost of unnecessary items (clothes, tobacco, kerosene) before reducing non‐staple foods (flour, oil, rice, meat) • Selling livestock; selling productive livestock in late stages of hardship • Livestock product sales (hides and skins) to Mandera • Relief (if not: slaughter old camel, dry the meat and feed the family).

Poor Wealth groups • Collecting, eating and selling wild foods (hohob, dhafaruur, gomoshe) and other bush products (poles, charcoal production) • Borrowing or receiving gifts from relatives and friends (shaxaad); or sending one or more children to live with a relative • Labour migration (elder son) to riverine areas (they can send back 400ksh per month) • Exemption from clan taxes and other community contributions

Middle • Acting as broker (dalaal) for the increase in livestock sales • Increasing petty trading (Petty trade; borrow a bag of maize from relative or close friend who is a large trader, bring to the smaller retailers and sell in smaller quantities) • Migration – normally to the two rivers within Liben zone; sometimes farther afield e.g. Afder but this is not common • Gold mining (those close to Dawa river) – to hills in the gu season (gold is in streams) and the Dawa river in dry season) and around Filtu area. There are reports that the gold is now exhausted.

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 33

Better Off • Selling animals to focus expenditure on a smaller herd and protect the vulnerable • Migration (as for middle)

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 34

6. Indicators to monitor • Rainfall – distribution, intensity, sufficiency • Pasture and water availability (browse and grazing) • Livestock condition and production • Disease outbreak – livestock and humans • Livestock migration • Market prices (grain, sugar, livestock, milk, firewood) • Security in Kenya, Somalia and border with Borana zone • Nutrition situation • Urban in‐migration

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 35

7. Recommendations 7.1 Recommendations

• Improve water quantity and quality (wells and ponds) but with a clear long‐term policy which will not adversely affect pastoralism in the long‐term • Establish/develop traditional range management systems – pasture and water reservation, control of water points, etc • Improving animal health services (establishment of private veterinary pharmacies ‐ facilitate access to drugs; establishment of revolving funds for community pharmacies) and train community animal health workers • Set up livestock marketing strategies – freeing cross‐border livestock trade and helping to find both national level and international market for local livestock • Rehabilitation of pastoral dropouts, Returnees and IDPs, e.g. restocking of households wishing to return to pastoralism – with viable livestock numbers • Facilitate the transition to farming along the river (see riverine report): pumps allocated to groups of farmers • Develop natural resource management systems – both to ensure sustainable access to natural resources (grazing, browse, water) as well as to increase the income potential from gums and resins collection (market development is key).

LZ 12 Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral 36

8. References

SC (SAVE THE CHILDREN) UK (2000) The Household Economy Approach: a resource manual for practitioners. Save the Children, London.

Famine Early Warning Systems Network; Update on Tanzania http://www.fews.net/current/updates/ visited 11/2003

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9. Appendices

9.1 HEA Methodology

The Household Economy Approach11 The Household Economy Approach helps to provide a detailed picture of the many ways that households meet their food and income needs in a ‘normal’ year and the many strategies they employ to lessen the consequences of crises (selling or consuming assets, migration for employment, eating wild foods, etc.). It therefore provides a picture of the household economy and its relationship to markets and employment opportunities. produce a coherent picture about how people live and the options open to them in a normal year identify the types of risk which households are vulnerable to give an estimate of the likely effect of a ‘shock/hazard’ on household income explore the extent to which coping strategies can cover a household’s deficit identify which population groups are most at risk of not coping with change predict the likely impact of a range of intervention options and identify the most effective in reducing short‐term and long‐term vulnerability

HEA is useful for answering the question “what constraints prevent households from prospering”, or “what will be the effect of a “shock” or combination of shocks, on the economy of various types of households in different Livelihood Zones?” It provides analysis that can be used both for prediction and to make more informed interventions. The approach is reproducible and incorporates sufficient mechanisms to cross‐check information internally for users to be confident of the validity of findings and subsequent recommendations. It can be used in a rapid or a comprehensive form, depending on the question of study, time and money available.

This approach is participatory in nature and does not follow conventional statistical sampling methodology. The method employs RRA tools such as seasonal calendar, time line, normal year, proportional piling, pair wise ranking and so on. Interviews focus on groups that represent specific Livelihood Zones. Within this zone interviews are held with representative key informants and wealth groups (socio‐economic groups). The approach is based on the understanding that it is the quality of the information collected that is important rather than the number of interviews conducted. However, every attempt is made to ensure that the information collected is representative. Thus site selection is done in coordination with technical officials at Regional, Zonal and District levels.

A typical Household economy baseline assessment includes the following steps:

11 For any additional questions please contact Suleiman Mohammed the Early Warning and technical coordinator for Save the Children’s food security project in Jijiga, Ethiopia. Telephone +251 5 752775/6/7 or send an email to [email protected]. Alternatively visit the Save the Children (UK) website www.savethechildren.org.uk/foodsecurity .

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Step 1: Identifying Livelihood Zones (LZ)s and populations The first step therefore is to identify population groups within which most households obtain their food and cash by broadly similar combinations of means (known as a livelihood zone, food economy area, group or zone). A Livelihood Zone may be at one extreme a refugee camp and at the other a large part of a country.

Step 2: Identifying Wealth Groups and a ‘reference’ year. As it is not possible to investigate and generalise across all households, we gain insights into the lives of representatives from the major wealth groups identified by key informants; usually the ‘rich’, ‘middle’, ‘poor’ and ‘very poor’. A profile is developed of the distribution of wealth which will relate to land and/ or livestock holdings, household labour availability, income generating activities, asset ownership and so on. These characteristics are identified by the community themselves and thus vary per LZ.

This profile usually portrays the household economy in a ‘reference’ year. While in reality years vary. In order to allow for comparisons to be made when conditions are significantly different, a ‘reference’ year is chosen which is relatively ‘normal’ or ‘typical’. This reference year is also referred to as the ‘baseline’ year12.

Step 3: Describing Household access to food and cash income Within each LZ we need to understand how typical households access their food and other income and how this varies for each wealth group. This information is obtained by interviewing groups of women or men from each wealth group who identify the various options households employ to secure access to food. These will explore all possible sources of food. In order to purchase food and other basic needs such as health & education, income is derived from various sources, and all are explored. Information is also gathered on all household expenditure.

For each of these three areas, food production, cash income & expenditure, the information is displayed in graphs which illustrate the current situation and show us the options available to each wealth group. Estimates are made of the extent to which a household can expand each option in times of stress. All these interviews are about the previously identified ‘reference year’.

Multiple interviews are conducted and information is triangulated to ensure internal and external consistency. For instance, payment for labour reported by labourers should tally with payment rates given by employers.

Step 4: Understanding links to markets Most households in most parts of the world depend in some way on the marketplace to obtain some of their food. The ‘better‐off’ may increase the value of their crops by specialising production or selling when their value is highest, the poor may be obliged to sell crops directly after harvest and purchase later using income from employment.

12 The term “baseline” is used differently than how it is understood in monitoring longitudinal change. It is, rather, a set of reference information which can be compared with similar information gathered at a future time.

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Without an understanding of ‘normal’ links between households and markets in procuring both food and cash income it is not possible to understand options open in times of crisis. The interviews clarify which markets are of greatest importance and therefore where observed price changes (e.g. staple food prices) or reduced access (e.g. due to hostility) will have greatest impact on households in a given LZ.

Step 5: Clarifying risk‐minimising strategies and potential coping strategies Poor households are constantly aware of the risks to their livelihoods and income and to a large degree anticipate and prepare for this. When broadly predictable, (such as in semi‐arid areas where rainfall and crop production alter greatly from year to year) successful strategies will include storing crops and accumulating livestock in years of surplus production, and increasing use of wild foods and selling livestock and other assets in shortfall years. In years of extreme ‘shock’ other strategies may be available such as sending members of the household to fish, to find employment further a field, to increase the collection of firewood or claiming customary kinship support. As most of these are an extension of the usual coping mechanisms of the poor, interviewees are able to identify the options most likely to be pursued first.

Understanding these options is crucial to understanding how households will manage in a given change and what kind of support is necessary for them to access their food and cash income.

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9.2 Note on Somali Traditional Calendar

Somali communities, mark their traditional years by giving them names that correspond to the days of the week; years are known as Monday year, followed by Tuesday year, etc, and after the seventh year (i.e. Sunday), the cycle begins again with Monday. Years with the same name would be differentiated by a nickname related to a major event (droughts, floods, war, regime change, epidemics, etc), that took place during particular year; for example Arbaca Shuba (meaning the “Pouring Wednesday”) referred to the el‐ nino year of 1997/98, which was a Wednesday year. Whereas year names are the same across all Somali groups, nicknames may be different in the different agro‐ecologies and geographic locations, as events affecting them will be different.

In coming up with Historical timelines, the deyr season (which starts in October) is used as the start of the Somali traditional year. The traditional Somali year therefore spans across two Gregorian calendar years, starting with the deyr (October) and ending with the hagaa (Septmber)

The Somalis use two types of calendar years (i.e. two ways of counting years). It is very important for researches studying production, seasonal related areas among the Somali, to distinguish these two calendar types because the Somali community uses them for different purposes13.

1. The nairus or naurus calendar: This calendar is related to the movement of the sun and other celestial bodies and therefore is used to determine seasonal patterns. The calendar year is kept orally with incredible accuracy and followed closely by the rural communities, particularly pastoralists, as it determines when to expect rainfall, and whether or not to move livestock to different location. This type of year is exactly the same as the Gregorian year (i.e. has 365 days) but does not start with January. The beginning of the year is marked by ‘the positioning of some star(s) into specific locations in the sky’, known as kalawereega nairuuska. This usually coincides with start of the deyr rainy season for most Somali groups and is marked in a variety of ways by some rural communities. The nairus year is divided into four main seasons in the most Somali inhabited areas – deyr, jilaal, gu, and hagaa. Deyr and gu are rainy seasons while hagaa and jilaal are dry seasons.

The number of days in each of the seasons in the nairus year are numbered, each about 90, although with some seasons (like the hagaa) being a few shorter and others slightly longer. The total number of days would then fit in exactly with the Gregorian calendar days. Therefore the start of the seasons is normally easily identified with a specific Gregorian date like Gu (the main rains) starts around 12‐14 April in most of the Somali inhabited areas (except the karan belt). Similarly the other seasons start at specific dates (hagaa in July, deyr in October, and Jilaal in January).

13 The order in which the season will appear in the assessment will depend on how a given community identifies their ‘consumption’ year. Therefore a reference year could start in the jilaal season followed by the gu, hagaa & deyr or in the gu followed by the hagaa, deyr & jilaal etc.

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There are parts of the Somali inhabited areas that have slightly different seasonal patterns, but still use the nairus system to keep track of the seasons. These are the northern part of Somali Region (Jijiga and Shinile Zones), the northwestern part of Somalia (mainly Woqooyi Galbeed, Awdal and parts of Sanaag Regions) and Djibouti. These areas do not receive deyr rains but instead receive gu (or diraa’) and karan rains.

2. The Islamic Calendar (Lunar Calendar) – This calendar uses the moon’s movements instead of the sun’s movement. The number of months is 12 but the year is normally around 355 days. This calendar started with the migration of Prophet Mohamed and his followers from Mecca to Madina, which marked a turning point in the history of the Islamic faith, and is therefore known as Hijriya (Migration) calendar. The Somali have local names for each of the Islamic months ‘or moons’ (but this names differ slightly among the different geographic locations) and they use these months for all religious obligations, rites and worship – like fasting, zakat14 payment, Hajj15, etc.

14 Zakat is the obligatory payment by wealthier Muslims to poorer ones, once their wealth (usually savings or assets) reaches a specific threshold known as nisaab. Zakat is 2.5% of savings; 10% or rainfed crop harvest; 5% of irrigated crop harvest; one shoat for every the first 5 camels owned, etc. 15 Hajj is a compulsory pilgrimage to the Ka’ba (the first house of worship established by prophet Abraham), at least once in a lifetime for Muslim individuals who can afford the journey while still being able to maintain their families.

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9.3 List of Kebeles in Filtu‐Dolow Pastoral Livelihood Zone

District: Filtu

S/n Name of Direction in Distance LZ Major water points Kabale ref. to Filtu from Filtu (P=pastoral, ( HDW= Hand‐dug well) town. R=Riverine A/P=Agropastoral) 1 Filtu(3) ‐ ‐ ‐ Pond/Earthdam 2 Baqaqa North 7 A/P Pond/Earthdam of Filtu 3 Malka labi North 23 P Pond of Kullan Kabale 4 Malka xagar North 36 P HDW,Kullan pond 5 Masaajid East 16 A/P HDW 6 Kulan East 7 P pond 7 Hiiran East 18 P HDW 8 Qudhacle East 58 P HDW 9 Kala jeex East 105 P Genale river 10 Baandheer East 126 P Genale river 11 Garab geel Southeast 135 P Genale river 12 Ayinle Southeast 70 P pond 13 Qulay South 93 P pond 14 Bood‐bood South 136 R Dawa river 15 Wiilo South 145 R Dawa river 16 Goolbo South 63 R Dawa river 17 Harbali South 31 P pond 18 Cusubay South 22 P pond 19 Carra‐same Southwest 9 P Dawa river ,pond 20 Axmed aamin Southeast 28 P pond 21 Biifato Southeast 16 P pond 22 Xaydinte West 22 A/P pond 23 Seero West 42 A/P Borehole(motorized) 24 Guunway West 62 R Dawa river, Seero borehole 25 Dibi West 57 P Borehole(Not functional), Seero borehole 26 Higle West 67 A/P Bore hole(Not functional),Seero borehole 27 Soora Northwest 95 P Ganale river 28 Xaysuftu West 76 P no water point 29 Dheeka West 85 P no water point 30 Walayso West 115 P pond lamaan 31 War Cadey West 105 P pond 32 Gaalluun West 140 P Dawa river 33 Laan barde West 150 P Dawa river

Health In Filtu district there are five health posts in haysuftu, seero, Ayinle, masjid and bander. The two Vet clinics built in Haysuftu and Ayinle are not operational.The hospital in filtu is operating in clinic level.The most common human diseases are malaria, TB, internal parasite, and diarrhea; whereas common livestock diseases include pasturolysis, trypanosomes (dukan), internal parasites, ‘’dhabae jabiye’’and ‘’cabeeb’’ district.

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Education Regarding education service in Filtu district, there are mobile schools (grade 1‐4) in Malk alabi, Malka xagar, Qudacle, Qulay, and Cusubay. In ayinle and Masajid kabales there is one school of grade 1‐7 in each. Two other schools of grade`1‐8 are found in Haysuftu and Seero, while other four schools of grade 1‐4 are in Biifato, Haydintu, Kalajeeh and Bandeer.

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District: Dolo Ado

S/n Kebeles name distance direction LZ Major water points. 1 Dolo Ado ‐ ‐ Riverine Dawa & Ganale river 2 Halmog 20 SW Pastoral Dawa 3 Bardale 15 SW Agro Pastoral Dawa 4 Yukuta 20 SW Agro Pastoral Dawa 5 Oda 30 S Agro Pastoral Dawa 6 Kilimisigi 15 NE Agro Pastoral Ganale river 7 Sigalaw 10 NE Agro Pastoral Ganale river 8 Shambal 18 North Agro Pastoral Ganale river 9 Golomey 20 North Agro Pastoral Ganale river 10 Buramino 25 North Agro Pastoral Ganale river 11 Amino 27 North Agro Pastoral Ganale river 12 Yahasow 27 North Agro Pastoral Ganale river 13 Heloweyn 30 N Riverine Ganale river 14 Washaqa‐Bar 60 N Agro Pastoral lasaska Washaqa‐Bar 15 Kole 50 N Agro Pastoral Ganale river 16 Godbokol 55 NE Agro Pastoral Ganale river 17 Kobe 45 NE Agro Pastoral Ganale river 18 Malkadida 60 NW Agro Pastoral Ganale river 19 Bokol Mayo 90 NW Pastoral shallow wellls & Genale 20 Sablale 70 WEST Pastoral HDW 21 Hawl Xagi 60 W Pastoral HDW 22 Turtur Dher 35 NW Pastoral HDW 23 Softu‐01 37 SW Riverine Dawa River 24 Softu‐02 38 S Riverine Dawa River 25 Qudac Mara 54 S Riverine Dawa River 26 Boryale 67 SE Riverine Dawa River 27 Kajama 54 E Riverine Dawa River 28 Fikaw 50 E Riverine Dawa River 29 Kurawe 50 NE Agro Pastoral Dawa River 30 Wadlahubo 67 NE Agro Pastoral Dawa River 31 Deytoli 80 NE Agro Pastoral Dawa River 32 Nimaan 68 NE Agro Pastoral Dawa River 33 Biyoley 60 E Agro Pastoral Dawa River 34 Jarsi 70 E Agro Pastoral Dawa River 35 Raana 80 E Agro Pastoral Dawa River 36 Gacandur 76 W Agro Pastoral Dawa River 37 Dhriburis 87 W Agro Pastoral Dawa River 38 Qurarey 90 W Agro Pastoral Dawa River 39 Didin 98 NW Pastoral Dawa River 40 Badweyn 90 W Pastoral Dawa River 41 Beeni 89 NW Pastoral Dawa River 42 Beeran 86 W Pastoral Dawa River 43 Sade 94 E Pastoral Dawa River 44 Sade‐02 97 E Pastoral Dawa River 45 Qalman 80 E Pastoral Dawa River

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9.4 Animal Herd Dynamics

CAMELS Gestation: 13m; Lactation (wet): Yield: 3 litres; duration: 6 months; Lactation (dry): yield: 2 litres; duration: 6 months # births # deaths per Normal net herd # Males # Females Herd per year per year per herd increase (births‐ Total Qurbac Qaalin Bergub Korron Raray Total Nirig Qaalmo Rimay Irman Gudan size herd (normal year) deaths) (v young) Young Breedg Castrated Pack V young Heiffer Preg. Milkin “dry” g 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 10 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 20 1 1 1 2 4 2 3 4 2 4 2 2 50 2 1 1 1 4 9 10 6 10 5 10 4 6 100 5 6 1 5 4 15 18 11 20 15 20 10 10

Milk Production CATTLE gestation period: 9 months; Inter‐birth period 2 years; Delivery period: last month of jilaal Herd #M #F # # deaths/yr in Normal net Milk yield (wet): 2.5 litres per day size births/y herd (normal MR) herd Lactation duration (wet): 4‐5 months r increase Milk yield (dry): 1 litre per day Young Breeding Mature Total Pregnant Lactating Lactation duration (dry): 2 months 5 ?high? 10 2 8 ? 4 4 2 2 20 4 16 ? 6 6 3 3 30 50 10 40 ? 15 15 5 10 100 20 80 ? 25 25 10 15

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Notes on Animal Herd composition and dynamics A study of animal herd dynamics provides information on the composition of the herd (species, sex, reproductive status) and this allows us to estimate the rate of natural herd increase (births less deaths) which in turn allows us to estimate the maximum offtake which is sustainable (those which can be slaughtered, given away or sold without decreasing the herd size). See Appendix 9.4: Animal herd dynamics.

Example: herd composition for a herd of 20 camels: ¾ In such a herd there will be around 5 males: 1 young camel (qaalin), 1 breeding camel (baarqab), 1 castrated camel (koron) and 2 pack males for the family (rarey). The 15 remaining will be females: 4 very young (nirgo), 2 heiffers (qaalmo), 3 pregnant (rimay), 4 milking (irman),and 2 “dry” (gudhan). Given this composition, In a normal year the number of births per herd per year will be 4, the number of deaths per herd per year will be 2. Therefore the net herd increase will be 2 animals per year. In this case the family can sell 2 camels (usually young male camels) and maintain their herd size. (In an excessively dry season some animals may die from starvation, and there will be fewer births). ¾ Milk production (see Appendix 9.5) from this herd will be 6 months of high production in the wet season and 6 months of low production in the dry season for each of the 4 milking camels. ¾ Animal reproduction is carefully controlled to prevent conception out of season – if a camel gives birth at the beginning of the dry season the offspring’s survival is less certain.

Example: a herd of 80 goats ¾ 15 males, 65 females. In a normal year the number of animals giving birth will be around 30‐35, which is also the number of lactating animals. The number of deaths in the herd in a normal year will be around 10‐15. Therefore the normal net herd increase will be around 20 animals. Therefore this is the sustainable off‐ take number in a normal year. (Livestock deaths in a dry year will increase if the drought is severe). ¾ Milk production from this herd will be 20 animals who will give milk for around 3 months each. Herd reproduction is organised such that most will deliver just before the long or short rains, but there will be a minority who deliver in the dry season.

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9.5 Importance of Milk Production for Food & Income

The information below represents average figures across typical herds for each wealth group. It is recognised that milk production is extremely variable (according to reproductive status, age, water and pasture availability and season). These figures are therefore generalisations. It is also recognised that in a given herd size there will be some animals which give birth out of season, and therefore produce more milk in the dry season. However, these are in the minority – all but a few births are planned for the wet season when the offspring has the highest chance of survival. Milk Production COWS MILK Poor Middle Better Off No. cows 3‐6 15‐20 30‐40 No. milking cows 2 5 11 Irmansi 0 0 ‐1 (given away) Total milked 2 5 10 Wet Daily milk / cow (glasses16) 3 3 3 Season Total daily for herd 6 15 30 Period (days) 120 120 120 Total production (glasses) 720 1800 3600 % consumed / glasses 60% 432 30% 540 25% 900 % sold / glasses 20% 144 30% 540 30% 1080 % ghee / glasses 20% 144 30% 540 30% 1080 % gift / glasses 0% 0 10% 180 15% 540 Total litres consumed 346 432 720 Dry Daily milk / cow (glasses) 1.5 1.5 1.5 season Total daily for herd 3 8 15 Period (days) 90 90 90 Total production (glasses) 270 675 1350 % consumed / glasses 100% 270 60% 405 40% 540 % sold / glasses 0% 0 30% 203 50% 675 % ghee / glasses 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 % gift / glasses 0% 0 10% 68 10% 135 Total litres consumed 216 324 432 Tot consumptn cows milk (litres) 562 756 1152 Kcals 359424 483840 737280 % of food needs 7% 9% 13% Ghee production (cows) 0 0 Total Glasses of milk used 144 540 1080 Litres 115.2 432 864 Ghee (kgs) 4 16 32 % consumed 100% 4 50% 8 70% 22 % sold 0% 0 50% 8 20% 6 % gift 0 0 10% 3 Kcals consumed 35328 66240 185472 % of food needs 1% 1% 3%

16 1 glass = 0.8l

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CAMEL MILK Poor Middle Better Off No. camels 5‐10 15‐25 35‐55 No. milking 1 4 8 Irmansi ‐1 Total milked 1 4 7 Wet Daily milk / camel (glass) 4 4 4 Season Total daily for herd 4 16 28 Period (days) 180 180 180 Total production (glasses) 720 2880 5040 % consumed / glasses 100% 720 50% 1440 50% 2520 % sold / glasses 0% 0 35% 1008 40% 2016 % ghee / glasses 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 % gift / glasses 0% 0 15% 432 10% 504 Total litres consumed 576 1152 2016 Dry Daily milk / camel (glass) 2 2 2 season Total daily for herd 2 8 14 Period 180 180 180 Total production (glasses) 360 1440 2520 % consumed / glasses 100% 360 50% 720 35% 882 % sold / glasses 0% 0 40% 576 45% 1134 % ghee / glasses 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 % gift / glasses 0 0 10% 144 15% 378 Total litres consumed 288 576 706 Total milk consumed (camel) 864 1728 2722 Kcals 552960 1105920 1741824 % of needs 11% 20% 31%

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GOAT MILK Poor Middle Better Off No. sheep & goats (shoats) 25‐35 50‐80 100‐150 No. milking goats 5 15 25 Irmansi ‐5 Total milked 5 15 20 Wet season17 Milk/day/goat (contro18) 1 1 1 Total daily for herd 5 15 20 Period 90 90 90 Total prod (contro) 450 1350 1800 % consumed 100% 450 50% 675 40% 720 % sold 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 % ghee 0% 0 50% 675 60% 1080 % gift 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 Total litres consumed 113 169 180 Kcals 72000 108000 115200 % of food needs 1% 2% 2%

Ghee production (goats) Total # contro of milk used 0 675 1080 Litres 0 169 270 Ghee (kgs) 0 6.25 10 % consumed 0% 0 100% 6 50% 5 % sold 0% 0 0% 0 50% 5 % gift 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 Kcals consumed 0 51750 41400 % of needs Ghee 0% 1% 1%

TOTAL FOOD NEEDS MET BY MILK 21% 33% 51% PRODUCTION

17 Some goats produce milk in the dry season but pastoralists manage the herd’s reproduction such that the majority deliver at the end of the dry season, to produce milk during the wet season only 18 1 contro = 0.25l

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Milk Sales Poor Middle Better Off Cow No. glasses 144 540 1080 Wet season Price per glass Ksh 5 5 5 Income 720 2700 5400 Camel No. glasses 0 1008 2016 Wet season Price per glass Ksh 5 5 5 Income 0 5040 10080 Cow No. glasses 0 203 675 Dry season Price per glass Ksh 10 10 10 Income 0 2025 6750 Camel No. glasses 0 576 1134 Dry season Price per glass Ksh 10 10 10 Income 0 5760 11340 Total income milk: 720 15,525 33,570

Ghee sales no. of kg 0 8 11 no. of 1/2 kg bottles 16 23 Price per 1/2 kg (wet season) 65 65 Total income ghee: 1040 1482

Income milk products total: 720 16,565 35,052

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9.6 Livestock Market Employment

There are many men employed in livestock marketing. These are: • Dulaal (broker) (one for the owner, one for the trader) • Employees of the trader: • Macalqabad (quality checker) • Xarigle (who ropes the animal and takes care of it after purchase) • Calamadle (brander) • Raaci (keeper – feeds the livestock for a short period) Safriye (driver of the animals (on foot) to the next destination.

Payments for each type of worker are as follows: Payment received per animal Camel Cattle Shoat Donkey Dulaal of owner 30,000 20,000 2,000 20,000 Dulaal of trader 10,000 10,000 2,000 10,000 Macal Qabad ‐ ‐ 2,000 ‐ Xarigle ‐ ‐ 2,000 ‐ Calamadle 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Raali 10,000 (/day) 5,000 (/day) 2,000 (/day) 5,000 (/day) Safriye 20,000 10,000 2,000 10,000

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9.7 Endemic Livestock Disease

Livestock diseases prevalent in the area are as follows: (ranked according to incidence)19:

• black leg • bovine pastorolosis • trypanosomiasis • gastro‐intestinal parasites • external parasites • anthrax • shoat pox • salmonelosis • butulism • CCPP (contagious caprine pleuropneumonia)

19 Source: SC(USA), Dolow Ado

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9.8 List of Villages visited and Key Informants

List of villages Quracle (Filtu) Qulley (Filtu) Sablaley (Dolow) Jarso (Dolow) Cel Der (Dolow) Berrarran (Dolow)

Key informants in each village: • Peasants Association (PA) / Kabele Committee; and/or • Community Elders • Male and female representatives of each wealth group • Pastoralists by water points

Key informants in each zone: • Zonal authorities (including DPPD, LECDP)

Key informants in each district/ town: • Market traders; • District authorities; • District Development Office (DDO), Development Agent • District Elders;

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