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Encyclopedia of Lingguistics: Volume 1

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Encyclopedia of Lingguistics: Volume 1 SEMITIC LANGUAGES References Kienast, Burkhart. 2001. Historische Semitische Sprach- wissenschaft [Historical Semitic linguistics]. Wiesbaden: Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. 1983. Introduction to the Semitic lan- Harrassowitz. guages, transl. by Peter T. Daniels. Winona Lake, In: Lipin´ski, Edward. 1997. Semitic languages: outline of a com- Eisenbrauns; revised, 1995 (German original, 1928). parative grammar. Louvain: Peeters. Black, Jeremy, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate 2000. A Moscati, Sabatino, Anton Spitaler, Edward Ullendorff, and concise dictionary of Akkadian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Wolfram von Soden. 1964. An introduction to the compara- Brockelmann, Carl. 1908. Kurzgefasste vergleichende Grammatik tive grammar of the Semitic languages, ed. by S. Moscati. der semitischen Sprachen [Brief comparative grammar of the Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. Semitic languages]. Berlin: Reuther & Reichard. Nöldeke, Theodor. 1889. Semitic languages. Encyclopædia ––––––. 1908–1913. Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik Britannica, 9th edition, revised 11th edition, 1911. der semitischen Sprachen [Foundations of the comparative von Soden, Wolfram. 1952. Grundriss der akkadischen grammar of the Semitic languages], 2 vols. Berlin: Reuther Grammatik [Foundations of Akkadian grammar]. Rome: & Reichard. Pontifical Biblical Institute, 3rd edition, 1995. Gelb, I. J. 1952. Old Akkadian writing and grammar. Chicago: ––––––. 1958–1981.Akkadisches Handwörterbuch [Akkadian University of Chicago Press, 2nd edition, 1961. desk dictionary], 3 vols. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ––––––. 1969. Sequential reconstruction of Proto-Akkadian. Wright, William. 1890. Lectures on the comparative grammar Chicago: University of Chicago Press. of the Semitic languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Gelb, I. J., et al. (eds.) 1956–. The Assyrian dictionary of the Press. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 21 vols. Zimmern, Heinrich. 1898. Vergleichende Grammatik der semi- Chicago: Oriental Institute. tischen Sprachen [Comparative grammar of the Semitic lan- Geller, M. 1997. The last wedge. Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 87. guages]. Berlin: Reuther & Reichard. Gray, Louis H. 1934. Introduction to Semitic comparative lin- guistics. New York: Columbia University Press. PETER T. DANIELS Hetzron, Robert (ed.) 1997. The Semitic languages. London: Routledge. See also Afroasiatic; Arabic; Aramaic; Philology Serbo-Croatian and South Slavic Languages The South Slavic languages, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, which, together with the Black Sea, separates South Bulgarian, and Macedonian, descend from Slavic Slavic from Ukrainian. Within the South Slavic dialects that were brought to the sub-Alpine and branch, two subgroups are distinguished: Western Balkan regions of southwestern Europe c. 500 CE by South Slavic, constituted by Slovene and Serbo- waves of westward migration along and across the Croatian, and Eastern South Slavic, constituted by Danube, Drava, and Sava river systems. In their new Macedonian and Bulgarian. The languages are also territory, the South Slavs encountered and undoubted- divided along cultural and religious lines: Slovene and ly mixed with Latin-speaking peoples, probably Croatian are spoken predominantly by Catholics, descendants of older Indo-European-speaking peo- whereas Serbian, Macedonian, and Bulgarian are spo- ples, for example, Illyrian and Thracian. ken by Eastern Orthodox Christians. The exact relationships among the dialects at the These divisions have determined the choice of time of settlement are uncertain, but it is not the case alphabet, Latin being chosen in Catholic areas, and that there were already nascent Slovene, Serbo- Cyrillic (a modified variety of the Greek alphabet) in Croatian, Macedonian, and Bulgarian dialects. Rather, Eastern Orthodox areas. Bosnia, which has been reli- these formed over the subsequent millennium. The giously and ethnically mixed and also includes a sig- South Slavic group may now be defined by its geo- nificant Muslim population, had vacillated among graphical discontinuity to the remainder of the different alphabets. Since the disintegration of Slavic-speaking world. To the north, Slovene is bound- Yugoslavia, the standard Bosnian of Muslims is written ed by Friulian and Italian in Italy, by German in in the Latin alphabet, whereas the Bosnian Serbs use Austria, and by Hungarian in Hungary. Croatian and Cyrillic. As with most Indo-European languages, the Serbian are also bounded by Hungarian and Romanian South Slavic group is characterized by many grammat- (Romania). Bulgarian is bounded by Romanian, ical endings, with nouns and verbs changing form 956 SERBO-CROATIAN AND SOUTH SLAVIC LANGUAGES depending on their position in the sentence or on their The Serbo-Croatian speech territory is character- function as subjects or objects, singulars or plurals. ized by three distinct dialect areas, each labeled by Slovene and Serbo-Croatian go with the rest of the both professionals and the laity by the word meaning Slavic-speaking world in having preserved most of ‘what’. A transitional zone called the Torlak group dis- these endings in nouns, but verbs have become some- plays features of both Štokavian and neighboring what simplified. Macedonian and Bulgarian have the Macedonian and is thus arguably within the scope of opposite: simplified nouns but more complicated verbs. the Balkan Sprachbund, an area of linguistic conver- Serbo-Croatian is spoken by approximately 16 mil- gence among distantly related or even unrelated lan- lion people. It is the state language of the Republic of guages caused by long-term contact, which also Croatia (where it is called Croatian), Bosnia and includes Albanian, Aromanian, Greek, Romanian, Herzegovina (where it is called Bosnian), and Serbia Romany, and, to some extent, Turkish. and Montenegro (where it is called Serbian); minority Generally speaking, linguists’ attention has been speakers are also found in Italy, Hungary, Austria, drawn to Serbo-Croatian (as well as Slovene), espe- Romania, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. cially for its phonological (sound pattern) features, The Serbo-Croatian standard was formed in the high degree of dialect variation, and preservation of nineteenth century as a compromise between Serbs key archaisms that aid in the reconstruction of Proto- and Croats, whose major dialect divisions and corre- Slavic, the prehistorical language thought to have been sponding divergent literary traditions, particularly in spoken by all Slavs before 500 CE. Standard Slovene the Croatian case, had fostered disunity. The Hakavian and Serbo-Croatian, as reflected in many of their and Kajkavian dialects, both spoken in Croatian ethnic dialects, contrast long and short vowels, and, along territory, and which had developed into sophisticated with stress, have rising and falling tones (similar to literary vehicles during the Renaissance and Chinese), e.g. Slovene brá:t(i) ‘to read’ (long low Reformation, respectively, were abandoned as models pitch), brà:t ‘to go read’ (long high pitch), and bràt for the standard language in favor of the Štokavian ‘brother’ (short high pitch). Other features are of inter- dialect, spoken in Croatia and all of Serbia, as well as est, particularly word and sentence structure, e.g. in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. In Serbo-Croatian has begun to simplify its nouns, as has Serbia, the new Štokavian-based standard replaced the occurred more radically in Macedonian and Bulgarian, artificial Slaveno-Serbian literary language, which by reducing the number of grammatical endings was based largely on Old Church Slavic. The compro- (‘cases’), especially in the plural. mise, which was engineered by intellectuals around Structurally, Slovene is closest to Serbo-Croatian the Croat Ljudevit Gaj and the Serb Vuk KaradDic´, was and is spoken by approximately two million people, codified in the Literary Agreement of 1850. The stan- largely in the Republic of Slovenia, where it is the dard had two varieties, the Croatian (or Western), writ- primary official language (alongside regionally offi- ten in a modified Latin alphabet, and the Serbian (or cial Italian and Hungarian). It is also spoken by sig- Eastern), written in a modified Cyrillic. This standard nificant minorities in neighboring Italy, Austria, and persisted officially as the language of the Croats, Hungary. Serbs, and (Bosnian and SandDakian) Muslims, as well Modern standard Slovene, which began its develop- as the de facto lingua franca of Yugoslavia, until the ment with the religious translations of the Protestant disintegration of the state in 1991. Since then, separate Primus Truber (PrimoD Trubar in Slovene) in the mid- Croatian, Serbian, and Bosnian state languages (the sixteenth century, was established in largely its current latter using the same alphabet as Croatian and having form toward the end of the nineteenth century. It is a relatively higher number of Turkish and other based on the urban speech of the capital, Ljubljana, Islamic cultural borrowings) have been cultivated, and the surrounding central dialects, although it also each continuing from their inherited Štokavian-based has features selected from its highly variegated precursor; all three standard languages remain almost dialects. It is written in a modified variety of the Latin completely mutually intelligible. (For this reason, alphabet, similar to Croatian. ‘Serbo-Croatian’ persists as a linguistically valid term, With its relatively small speech territory, Slovene referring to the speech territory and the
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