Environment and Ecology BHM 403 Techno India

ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY BHM 403 (2008 -2017)

PREPARED BY ANIS CHATTOPADHYAY ASST. PROFESSOR

TECHNO INDIA EM-4/1, SECTOR –V, SALT LAKE KOLKATA -700091

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2008 GROUP – A ( Multiple Choice Type Questions ) 1. Choose correct answer from the given alternatives in each of the following questions : 10x1 = 10 i) Environmental Studies involve studies of a) evolution of life b) all aspects of human environment c) nitrogen cycle d) oxygen cycle. b ii) "Itai itai' disease is caused by a) Zinc b) Cadmium c) Mercury d) Iron. b iii) El Nino starts from a) Mediterranean coast b) Chinese coast c) South American cost d) Indian cost. C iv) The Greenhouse effect is due to a) Carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane and chlorofluorocarbons b) Nitrogen oxide c) Sulphur oxide d) Carbon monoxide. A v) The Ganga pollution is due to dumping of a) domestic and industrial sewages b) waste from forest c) food waste d) hospital waste. A vi) Biotic factor of ecosystem is a) Solar energy b) Temperature c) Soil d) Plants and animals. D vii) Medha Patkar is involved in a) Chipko movement b) Silent Valley movement c) Narmada Bachao movement d) none of these. C viii) The "Kyoto Protocol" is related with a) air pollution b) noise pollution c) water pollution d) none of these. A ix) BOD stands as a) Biochemical Oxygen Demand b) Biological Oxygen Demand c) Biggest Oxygen Demand d) Blown Out Dose. B x) The protective shield for life on earth is a) Carbon dioxide b) Ozone c) Oxygen d) Hydrogen. B

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GROUP – B ( Short Answer Type Questions ) Answer any three of the following. 3 5 = 15 2. State the main components of ecosystem. Ans: The world we live in is composed of many, many different ecosystems, all interacting and playing off one another. Each of these ecosystems has parts, or components, which also interact within the ecosystem to produce the effects we observe and draw conclusions from. Although the components of ecosystems vary greatly from one place to another, in general we can categorize them to help better understand how they interrelate and what commonalities exist from one ecosystem to another.

A basic division that is made when considering the components of any ecosystem is between the living, or "biotic," parts and the non-living, or "abiotic". The amount of sunlight a particular area receives; the temperature and climate over an extended period of time; and the amount of rainfall received are all examples of abiotic components of an ecosystem. For ecosystems that exist in water, the type of water (freshwater or salt) and the strength of water current are ecosystem-specific components.

The biotic components of ecosystems can be further broken down into subcategories based on the feeding characteristics of a given animal. The most basic level of biotic components are the primary producers, or "autotrophs," which produce their own food usually using the chemical process known as photosynthesis. In a land ecosystem, these organisms would be the green plants, trees, bushes and the like; in a sea ecosystem, the primary producers are phytoplankton.

Above the level of autotrophs are the "heterotrophs," animals which feed on other animals in order to get their necessary nutrients. Within this category there can be countless divisions again, depending on which level in the food chain a particular animal preys upon for its food. However, there are four subcategories which must be present in any ecosystem, which are:

º Herbivores, which feed only on plants

º Carnivores, which feed only on other animals

º Omnivores, which feed on plants and animals, and

º Detritivores, which feed on dead things.

Now we must look briefly at how the components of ecosystems interact with and affect one another. Take, for example, a pond. The sunlight shines down into the water, and if the pond is relatively stagnant and nutrient-rich, tiny green algae will utilize the abiotic components to manufacture their own food. At the edge of the pond, the same sunlight is taken in by other plants, such as reeds and marshland plant life, to produce their food. Inside the pond, microscopic animals feed on the algae. Insects, such as water beetles and their young, will in turn feed on the microscopic animals, and become food for larger animals such as fish and birds. At the top of the chain lie the animals that only eat other animals, such as herons, which feed only on fish. The final step in the chain occurs when the animal dies, and is fed on by bacteria as part of the decomposition process.

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Components of an Ecosystem

(Organisation or Structural aspect of an ecosystem)

An ecosystem comprises of two basic components i) Abiotic components and ii) Biotic components

The relationship between the biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem is called 'holocoenosis'.

Abiotic Components

These include the non-living, physico - chemical factors such as air, water, soil and the basic elements and compounds of the environment.

Abiotic factors are broadly classified under three categories.

Climatic factors which include the climatic regime and physical factors of the environment like light, humidity, atmospheric temperature, wind, etc.

Edaphic factors which are related to the structure and composition of soil including its physical and chemical properties, like soil and its types, soil profile, minerals, organic matter, soil water, soil organisms.

Inorganic substances like water, carbon, sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus and so on. Organic substances like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, humic substances etc.

Biotic Components

It comprises the living part of the environment, which includes the association of a number of interrelated populations belonging to different species in a common environment.

The populations are that of animal community, plant community and microbial community.

Biotic community is distinguished into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs.

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Autotrophs (Gr: auto - self, trophos - feeder) are also called producers, convertors or transducers.

These are photosynthetic plants, generally chlorophyll bearing, which synthesize high-energy complex organic compounds (food) from inorganic raw materials with the help of sunlight, and the process is referred as photosynthesis.

Autortophs form the basis of any biotic system.

In terrestrial ecosystems, the autotrophs are mainly the rooted plants.

In aquatic ecosystems, floating plants called phytoplankton and shallow water rooted plants called macrophytes are the dominant producers.

Heterotrophs (Gr: heteros - other; trophs - feeder) are called consumers, which are generally animals feeding on other organisms.

Consumer's also referred as phagotrophs (phago - to ingest or swallow) or macroconsumers are mainly herbivores and carnivores.

Herbivores are referred as First order consumers or primary consumers, as they feed directly on plants.

For e.g., Terrestrial ecosystem consumers like cattle, deer, rabbit, grass hopper, etc.

Aquatic ecosystem consumers like protozoans, crustaceans, etc.

Carnivores are animals, which feed or prey upon other animals.

Primary carnivores or Second order consumers include the animals which feed on the herbivorous animals.

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For e.g., fox, frog, predatory birds, smaller fishes, snakes, etc.

Secondary carnivores or Third order consumers include the animals, which feed on the primary carnivores.

For e.g., wolf, peacock, owl, etc.

Secondary carnivores are preyed upon by some larger carnivores.

Tertiary carnivores or Quaternary consumers include the animals, which feed on the secondary carnivores.

For e.g., lion, tiger, etc.

These are not eaten by any other animals.

The larger carnivores, which cannot be preyed upon further are called top carnivores.

Saprotrophs (Gr: sapros - rotten; trophos - feeder) are also called decomposers or reducers. They break down the complex organic compounds of dead matter (of plants and animals).

Decomposers do not ingest their food. Instead they secrete digestive enzymes into the dead and decaying plant and animal remains to digest the organic material. Enzymes act upon the complex organic compounds of the dead matter.

Decomposers absorb a part of the decomposition products for their own nourishment. The remaining substances are added as minerals to the substratum (mineralisation).

Released minerals are reused (utilised) as nutrients by the plants (producers).

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3. How do you explain Environmental Impact Assessment ? An environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the ensuing environmental impacts when deciding whether to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made."[1] EIAs are unique in that they do not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts of the proposal.[

The eight guiding principles...

There are eight guilding principles that govern the entire process of EIA and they are as follows:

Participation: An appropriate and timely access to the process for all interested parties.

Transparency: All assessment decisions and their basis should be open and accessible.

Certainty: The process and timing of the assessment should be agreed in advanced and followed by all participants.

Accountability: The decision-makers are responsible to all parties for their action and decisions under the assessment process.

Credibility: Assessment is undertaken with professionalism and objectivity.

Cost-effectiveness: The assessment process and its outcomes will ensure environmental protection at the least cost to the society.

Flexibility: The assessment process should be able to adapt to deal efficiently with any proposal and decision making situation.

Practicality: The information and outputs provided by the assessment process are readily usable in decision making and planning.

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Applying EIA...

EIA is considered as a project management tool for collecting and analyzing information on the environmental effects of a project. As such, it is used to:

identify potential environmental impacts, examine the significance of environmental implications, assess whether impacts can be mitigated, recommend preventive and corrective mitigating measures, inform decision makers and concerned parties about the environmental implications, and advise whether development should go ahead.

EIA Process...

In EIA systems there are sequence of activities implemented in project in a logical sequence and are termed as EIA process. They are given in Figure 2.

The EIA processes in sequences of application.

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Project screening Not all development projects require EIA. Project screening will help identify the ones that actually do. Here in this section describes the various screening criteria. Scoping The process of scoping helps determine the coverage or 'scope' of the EIA. The methods of scoping is elaborated in this section. Baseline data collection A brief explanation on the concept of baseline data collection and its purposes. Identification of environmental impacts Described here are the various types of environmental impacts of development projects both beneficial and adverse. Impact prediction comparison of alternatives and determination of significance This sections covers the considerations for impact prediction, uncertainties in impact prediction and comparison of alternatives for impact prediction. Mitigation measures Described briefly under this section are the concept and objectives, types and interesting points, of mitigation measures. Public consultation and participation Public participation is a necessary component of the EIA. "Who are the public?", "How to involve them?", and "What are the benefits/disbenefits?" The answers can be found under this section. Environmental monitoring As one of the most important aspects of EIA, "Environmental Monitoring" is defined here along with explanations on monitoring principles, types and institutional aspects. Environmental auditing You will find under this section, the various types of Environmental Auditing and when it should be carried out during the EIA.

EIA

Benefits and Flaws

EIA generates huge benefits in selection of project location, process, design, development actions, and decision-making, however, in the current practice of EIA there are a number of flaws, shortcomings and deficiencies. The table below, summarizes apparent benefits and flaws of the EIA.

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EIA benefits and flaws

Benefits Flaws

Provides systematic methods of impact Time-consuming assessment

Estimates the cost/benefit trade-off of Costly alternative actions

Facilitates the public participation Little public participation in actual implementation

Provides an effective mechanism for Unavailability for reliable data (mostly in developing countries)  coordination  environmental integration  negotiations

 feed back

Top-level decision making Too focused on scientific analysis(sometimes)

Triggers an institutional building Poor presentation of EIA report(bulky volumes, scientific explanation, difficult to understand)

Achieve a balance between the impact of Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom developmental and environmental concern carried out

Education and training...

One significant factor that could help improve the EIA process is good education and training. Currently, very few educational and training courses exist in developing countries that properly consider various EIA methodologies available in depth. Information on the legal and regulatory frameworks and institutional arrangements are also necessary. Education and training process are important since the fundamental factors behind all EIA predictions are still the best professional judgment and/or experiences with similar projects implemented elsewhere.

Both short-term and long- term courses are necessary. These courses however, must be multidisciplinary, and the focus should be on the practical and operational aspects of EIA based on theoretical implications.

4. Mention the main objectives of Environmental Studies. Ans:

The objectives for developing environmental education are as follows:

(a) Awareness:

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To help social groups and individuals acquire awareness and sensitivity to the total environmental and its allied problems.

(b) Knowledge:

To help social groups and individuals gain a variety of experiences in and acquire a basic understanding of the environment and its associated problems.

To help social groups and individuals acquire a set of values and feelings of concern for the environment and motivation for actively participation in environmental improvement and protection.

(d) Skill:

To help social groups and individuals acquire skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.

(e) Evaluation ability:

To help individuals and social groups to evaluate environmental measures and education programs in terms of ecological, economic, social, aesthetic and educational factors.

(f) Participation:

To provide social groups and individuals with the opportunities to be actively involved at all levels in working towards the resolution of environmental problems.

The overall goal of environmental education can be expressed in another form as three principal objectives (UNESCO, 1977a).

1- To foster clear awareness and concern about economic, social, political and ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas.

2- To create new patterns of behaviors of individuals, groups and society as a whole towards the environment.

3. To provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and improve the environment.

In order to achieve these goals and objectives, the environmental education should be a continuous life-long process, to be provided for all age groups, at all levels, both in and out of school education. It should foster in public large-children, adolescents and adults alike awareness and better understanding of the environmental issues.

Environment is interwoven with man's life, the environmental education should therefore, include environment in its totality-natural and built up, in an interdisciplinary problem-solving approach.

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Environmental education should not be viewed as one or more subjects added to the already heavy curriculum, but as a growing important concern to be integrated into the programs for all learners, whatever be their age and learning situation. The out of school environmental education may therefore be either governmental, nongovernmental and/or combination of both.

Environmental education programs need to be planned nationally as there is difference in the environmental priorities. Fast growing populations, high .intensity agriculture, human settlements and slum improvement, introduction of modern transport systems, increasing demands for energy and industrialization are the environmental priorities for developing countries whereas over exploitation of resources, industrial pollution and waste disposal are the main environmental priorities for developed countries.

5. Define Greenhouse Effect. Ans:

Life on earth depends on energy from the sun. About 30 percent of the sunlight that beams toward Earth is deflected by the outer atmosphere and scattered back into space. The rest reaches the planet's surface and is reflected upward again as a type of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation.

The heat caused by infrared radiation is absorbed by "greenhouse gases" such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone and methane, which slows its escape from the atmosphere.

Although greenhouse gases make up only about 1 percent of the Earth's atmosphere, they regulate our climate by trapping heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet.

This phenomenon is what scientists call the "greenhouse effect." Without it, scientists estimate that the average temperature on Earth would be colder by approximately 30 degrees Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit), far too cold to sustain our current ecosystem.

How Do Humans Contribute to the Greenhouse Effect? While the greenhouse effect is an essential environmental prerequisite for life on Earth, there really can be too much of a good thing.

The problems begin when human activities distort and accelerate the natural process by creating more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than are necessary to warm the planet to an ideal temperature.

 Burning natural gas, coal and oil -including gasoline for automobile engines-raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Some farming practices and land-use changes increase the levels of methane and nitrous oxide.  Many factories produce long-lasting industrial gases that do not occur naturally, yet contribute significantly to the enhanced greenhouse effect and "global warming" that is currently under way.

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 Deforestation also contributes to global warming. Trees use carbon dioxide and give off oxygen in its place, which helps to create the optimal balance of gases in the atmosphere. As more forests are logged for timber or cut down to make way for farming, however, there are fewer trees to perform this critical function.  Population growth is another factor in global warming, because as more people use fossil fuels for heat, transportation and manufacturing the level of greenhouse gases continues to increase. As more farming occurs to feed millions of new people, more greenhouse gases enter the atmosphere.

Ultimately, more greenhouse gases means more infrared radiation trapped and held, which gradually increases the temperature of the Earth's surface and the air in the lower atmosphere.

The Average Global Temperature is Increasing Quickly

Today, the increase in the Earth's temperature is increasing with unprecedented speed. To understand just how quickly global warming is accelerating, consider this:

During the entire 20th century, the average global temperature increased by about 0.6 degrees Celsius (slightly more than 1 degree Fahrenheit).

Using computer climate models, scientists estimate that by the year 2100 the average global temperature will increase by 1.4 degrees to 5.8 degrees Celsius (approximately 2.5 degrees to 10.5 degrees Fahrenheit).

6. State the importance of Environmental Protection Act, 1986 in Hospital Administration. Ans:

The act was promulgated to provide for the protection and improvement of environment and matters connected the results. The act consists of 26 sections distributed among four chapters and extends to the whole of India.

The act provides general powers to the Central Government to take all necessary measures for the purpose of:

(A) Protecting and improving the quality of the environment and

(B) Preventing, controlling and abating environmental pollution.

Besides, other powers the Central Government shall have process for:

(i) Planning and execution of a nationwide programme for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution.

(ii) Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects.

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(iii) Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources whatsoever.

(iv) Restriction of areas in which industry, operations or processes shall not be carried out subject to contain safeguards.

(v) Laying down procedures and safeguards for prevention of accidents, which may cause environmental pollution. (vi) Laying down procedures for handling of hazardous substances.

(vii) Examination of such manufacturing processes materials and substances as are likely to cause environmental pollution. (viii) Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems of environ-mental pollution.

(ix) Collection and dissemination of information on environmental pollution and

(x) Preparation of manuals, codes or guides, relating to the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution.

By considering above facts Hospitals have to arrange the following preventive measures for their organization:

A modern hospital is a complex, multidisciplinary system which consumes thousands of items for delivery of medical care and is a part of physical environment. All these products consumed in the hospital leave some unusable leftovers i.e. hospital waste. The last century witnessed the rapid mushrooming of hospital in the public and private sector, dictated by the needs of expanding population. The advent and acceptance of "disposable" has made the generation of hospital waste a significant factor in current scenario.

What is hospital waste

Hospital waste refers to all waste generated, discarded and not intended for further use in the hospital.

Classification of hospital waste

(1) General waste: Largely composed of domestic or house hold type waste. It is non- hazardous to human beings, e.g. kitchen waste, packaging material, paper, wrappers, plastics.

(2) Pathological waste: Consists of tissue, organ, body part, human foetuses, blood and body fluid. It is hazardous waste.

(3) Infectious waste: The wastes which contain pathogens in sufficient concentration or quantity that could cause diseases. It is hazardous e.g. culture and stocks of infectious agents from laboratories, waste from surgery, waste originating from infectious patients.

(4) Sharps: Waste materials which could cause the person handling it, a cut or puncture of skin e.g. needles, broken glass, saws, nail, blades, scalpels.

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(5) Pharmaceutical waste: This includes pharmaceutical products, drugs, and chemicals that have been returned from wards, have been spilled, are outdated, or contaminated.

(6) Chemical waste: This comprises discarded solid, liquid and gaseous chemicals e.g. cleaning, house keeping, and disinfecting product.

(7) Radioactive waste: It includes solid, liquid, and gaseous waste that is contaminated with radionucleides generated from in-vitro analysis of body tissues and fluid, in-vivo body organ imaging and tumour localization and therapeutic procedures.

Approach for hospital waste management

Based on Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998, notified under the Environment Protection Act by the Ministry of Environment and Forest (Government of India).

1. Segregation of waste

Segregation is the essence of waste management and should be done at the source of generation of Bio-medical waste e.g. all patient care activity areas, diagnostic services areas, operation theaters, labour rooms, treatment rooms etc. The responsibility of segregation should be with the generator of biomedical waste i.e. doctors, nurses, technicians etc. (medical and paramedical personnel). The biomedical waste should be segregated as per categories mentioned in the rules.

2. Collection of bio-medical waste

Collection of bio-medical waste should be done as per Bio-medical waste (Management and Handling) Rules. At ordinary room temperature the collected waste should not be stored for more than 24 hours.

Type of container and colour code for collection of bio-medical waste.

Category Waste class Type of container Colour 1. Human anatomical waste Plastic Yellow 2. Animal waste -do- -do- 3. Microbiology and -do- Yellow/Red Biotechnology waste 4. Waste sharp Plastic bag puncture proofBlue/White containers Translucent 5. Discarded medicines andPlastic bags Black Cytotoxic waste 6. Solid (biomedical waste) -do- Yellow 7. Solid (plastic) Plastic bag puncture proofBlue/White containers Translucent 8. Incineration waste Plastic bag Black 9. Chemical waste (solid) -do- -do-

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3. Transportation

Within hospital, waste routes must be designated to avoid the passage of waste through patient care areas. Separate time should be earmarked for transportation of bio-medical waste to reduce chances of it's mixing with general waste. Desiccated wheeled containers, trolleys or carts should be used to transport the waste/plastic bags to the site of storage/ treatment.

Trolleys or carts should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected in the event of any spillage. The wheeled containers should be so designed that the waste can be easily loaded, remains secured during transportation, does not have any sharp edges and is easy to clean and disinfect. Hazardous biomedical waste needing transport to a long distance should be kept in containers and should have proper labels. The transport is done through desiccated vehicles specially constructed for the purpose having fully enclosed body, lined internally with stainless steel or aluminium to provide smooth and impervious surface which can be cleaned. The drivers compartment should be separated from the load compartment with a bulkhead. The load compartment should be provided with roof vents for ventilation.

4. Treatment of hospital waste

Treatment of waste is required:

 to disinfect the waste so that it is no longer the source of infection.

 to reduce the volume of the waste.

 make waste unrecognizable for aesthetic reasons.

 make recycled items unusable.

4.1 General waste

The 85% of the waste generated in the hospital belongs to this category. The, safe disposal of this waste is the responsibility of the local authority.

4.2 bio-medical waste: 15% of hospital waste

 Deep burial: The waste under category 1 and 2 only can be accorded deep burial and only in cities having less than 5 lakh population.

 Autoclave and microwave treatment Standards for the autoclaving and microwaving are also mentioned in the Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. All equipment installed/shared should meet these specifications. The waste under category 3,4,6,7 can be treated by these techniques. Standards for the autoclaving are also laid down.

 Shredding: The plastic (IV bottles, IV sets, syringes, catheters etc.), sharps (needles, blades, glass etc) should be shredded but only after chemical treatment/microwaving/autoclaving. Needle destroyers can be used for disposal of needles directly without chemical treatment.

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 Secured landfill:: The incinerator ash, discarded medicines, cytotoxic substances and solid chemical waste should be treated by this option.

 Incineration: The incinerator should be installed and made operational as per specification under the BMW rules 1998 and a certificate may be taken from CPCB/State Pollution Control Board and emission levels etc should be defined. In case of small hospitals, facilities can be shared. The waste under category 1,2,3,5,6 can be incinerated depending upon the local policies of the hospital and feasibility. The polythene bags made of chlorinated plastics should not be incinerated.

 It may be noted that there are options available for disposal of certain category of waste. The individual hospital can choose the best option depending upon the facilities available and its financial resources. However, it may be noted that depending upon the option chosen, correct colour of the bag needs to be used.

5. Safety measures

5.1 All the generators of bio--medical waste should adopt universal precautions and appropriate safety measures while doing therapeutic and diagnostic activities and also while handling the bio-medical waste.

5.2 It should be ensured that:

 drivers, collectors and other handlers are aware of the nature and risk of the waste.

 written instructions, provided regarding the procedures to be adopted in the event of spillage/ accidents.

 protective gears provided and instructions regarding their use are given.

 workers are protected by vaccination against tetanus and hepatitis B.

6. Training

 each and every hospital must have well planned awareness and training programme for all category of personnel including administrators (medical, paramedical and administrative).

 all the medical professionals must be made aware of Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998.

 to institute awards for safe hospital waste management and universal precaution practices.

 training should be conducted to all categories of staff in appropriate language/medium and in an acceptable manner.

7. Management and administration

17 Environment and Ecology BHM 403 Techno India major departments. This committee should be responsible for making Hospital specific action plan for hospital waste management and its supervision, monitoring and implementation. The annual reports, accident reports, as required under BMW rules should be submitted to the concerned authorities as per BMW rules format.

8. Measures for waste minimization

As far as possible, purchase of reusable items made of glass and metal should be encouraged. Select non PVC plastic items. Adopt procedures and policies for proper management of waste generated, the mainstay of which is segregation to reduce the quantity of waste to be treated. Establish effective and sound recycling policy for plastic recycling and get in touch with authorised manufactures.

9. Coordination between. hospital and outside agencies

 Municipal authority : As quite a large percentage of waste (in India upto 85%), generated in Indian hospitals, belong to general category (non-toxic and non-hazardous), hospital should have constant interaction with municipal authorities so that this category of waste is regularly taken out of the hospital premises for land fill or other treatment.

 Co-ordination with Pollution Control Boards: Search for better methods technology, provision of facilities for testing, approval of certain models for hospital use in conformity with standards 'aid down.

 To search for cost effective and environmental friendly technology for treatment of bio- medical and hazardous waste. Also, to search for suitable materials to be used as containers for bio-medical waste requiring incineration/autoclaving/ microwaving.

 Development of non-PVC plastics as a substitute for plastic which is used in the manufacture of disposable items.

GROUP – C ( Long Answer Type Questions ) Answer any three questions. 3 15 = 45 7. Being a disease palace, discuss the role of a hospital administrator to control the internal environment of the hospital for giving protection to the internal as well as the external publics. 15 Ans: Potentially hazardous wastes from hospitals and clinics which have a pathogenic, chemical, explosive, or radioactive nature are called “medical wastes”. Medical wastes include the following:

 pathological wastes (i.e., body parts, aborted fetus, tissue and body fluids from surgery; and dead infected laboratory animals);  infectious waste (i.e., surgical dressings and bandages, infected laboratory beddings, infectious cultures and stocks from laboratories, and all waste from patients in isolation wards handling infectious diseases);  sharps (i.e., needles, syringes, used instruments, broken glass);  pharmaceutical wastes (i.e., soiled or out-of-date pharmaceutical products);  chemical wastes (i.e., spent solvents, disinfectants, pesticides and diagnostic chemicals);  aerosols (i.e., aerosol containers or gas canisters which may explode if incinerated or punctured);

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 radioactive wastes (i.e., sealed sources in instruments, and open sources used in vitro diagnosis or nuclear medical therapy); and  sludges from any on-site wastewater treatment facilities may be potentially hazardous.

Pathological wastes should be destroyed by incineration under high heat (i.e., over 900 o C with an afterburner temperature at over 800o C), although some countries require burial of human pathological wastes at official cemeteries for religious reasons. To reach these temperatures and have adequate afterburning and pollution control typically requires development of a regional medical waste facility. Smaller individual hospital or clinic incinerators may not be able to reach these temperatures and afterburning retention periods. Volatilized metals (such as arsenic, mercury, lead) and dioxins and furans could result from inadequate burning temperatures and retention periods.

Other procedures to consider may include chemical disinfection or sterilization (i.e., irradiation, microwave, autoclave, or hydroclave) followed by secure landfill disposal of residuals. In some cases, following complete disinfection, some wastes may be recycled. For example, recycling by specialized contractors is sometimes arranged after disinfection of thick plastics, such as intravenous bags and tubs, and syringes.

Pharmaceutical wastes require destruction, secure land disposal or return to the manufacturer for destruction through chemical or incineration methods.

Chemical wastes need to be source segregated according to their recycling potential and compatibility; and those which are non-recyclable may require stabilization, neutralization, encapsulation, or incineration.

Hospital wastewater treatment sludges require treatment (i.e., anaerobic digestion, composting, incineration, etc.) which raises temperatures to levels that destroy pathogenic microorganisms.

Radioactive medical therapy and diagnosis in high-income countries are divided into two categories: “open sources” which derive from direct use of the radiochemical substance, and “sealed sources” which involve indirect use of the substance within a sealed apparatus or equipment unit. Only open sources tend to result in radioactive wastes, as sealed sources are returned to the manufacture for recycling when exhausted or no longer required. Radioactive wastes typically include isotopes such as technetium 99, gallium 67, iodine 125, iodine 131, cesium 137, iridium 192, thallium 201, and thallium 204. These wastes are seldom present in low-income and middle-income developing countries, because the hospitals do not have the equipment and technology to generate these wastes. If generated, these wastes should be stored safely until the radioactivity has declined to acceptable levels and then disposed with general refuse to sanitary landfill. The half-lives of commonly used medical radionuclides for therapy, diagnosis, or imaging range from 6 hours to several days. Storage on-site in a secured chamber is typically recommended for a period of 10 half-lives, or for one to two months.

The overall quantity of wastes generated in hospitals varies according to the income level of the country. For developing countries, the data base is limited, but it appears that the following range of quantities is likely:  general waste which is not contaminated, and can be handled with general municipal refuse: 1.0 to 2.0 kg/bed/day; and  contaminated medical waste which needs special management, and is considered potentially hazardous: 0.2 to 0.8 kg/bed/day.

Low-income countries would tend to generate medical wastes on the low end of this range, while middle-income countries would tend to generate medical wastes on the upper end of this range. The study area is within a [] income country, based on ranking criteria established by the World Bank and published in its annual development report.

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Medical wastes, if not properly managed, pose a risk to the personnel who are handling these wastes, including custodial personnel and waste collectors, as well as to those providing disposal or picking through the wastes for recyclables. There is the danger that syringes will be recovered from transfer depots and disposal sites by waste pickers for recycling (i.e., by drug users). Contaminated containers for collection of medical wastes are not usually dedicated to only one site, but are circulated throughout cities as each skip truck brings an empty container to the hospital or clinic and removes the full one while it covers its daily collection route for general refuse.

Incineration is generally considered the preferred technology for some, if not all, medical wastes. At a minimum, infected tissue, body parts, and laboratory animal carcasses are generally recommended to be incinerated. On-site incinerators operating on a batch basis or regional incinerators operating on a continuous basis are considered appropriate technology. Because of the cost of meeting stringent air pollution control emission standards, many high-income countries are taking steps to steam sterilize, irradiate, chemically disinfect, or gas/vapor sterilize some of the medical wastes.

One hospital incinerator with a capacity of 0.75 tonne/hour, operating on a continuous feed, could cost from $US 0.5 to 1.0 million to implement. Air pollution control systems, if they are added to meet 1995 USA standards, could cost another $ 0.5 to 1.0 million to implement. Incinerators which operate on a batch basis are typically dedicated to one hospital, as their capacity is limited to less than 1 tonne/day. Regional incinerators would typically be designed to operate on a continuous feed basis.

These equipment costs do not include transportation, customs, and setup costs within the study area. Transportation and setup may add about 10% to these costs. If government imports the equipment, especially as it is for waste management purposes, customs may not need to be paid. However, if the private sector is building the facility and needs to import the equipment, customs could add about to these costs. Civil works and land costs which are local costs may add about 30% to these costs.

While the costs/tonne of treatment/destruction are likely to be high (about $100 to $300/tonne depending on the level of pollution control required), the low quantities of medical wastes in developing countries would result in a costs which generally would be less than 1% of the most hospital's operating budget, exclusive of salaries. Therefore, the proper treatment/destruction facilities are likely to be affordable. Hospitals interviewed in various developing countries have indicated a willingness to pay to cover these costs.

Hospital waste treatment/destruction facilities could be implemented through one or more Design, Build, Own, and Operate (DBOO) or Design, Build, Operate and Transfer (DBOT) concession agreements of 10 to 15 years duration. Or the government could implement the facilities and arrange for service contracts of 2 to 5 years for operation and maintenance. Each hospital would be required to pay tipping fees which fully cover the costs of investment, debt service and operation. As part of the privatization agreement, the company providing the treatment/destruction services could also be awarded the task of also providing collection of the wastes from each hospital and maintaining a manifest system to track the waste from source to ultimate disposal.

Secured sanitary landfill is generally considered the preferred technology for medical wastes which do not require incineration or disinfection, such as packaging materials and general kitchen wastes. Nevertheless, special measures to fence and control access to the area of landfilling for medical wastes are essential. No waste picking should be allowed in the secured area. Also, the machinery for compacting refuse should not come in direct contact with the waste. Instead, the waste should be dumped into a trench and a adequate layer of soil dumped over the waste. Only thereafter is it recommendable that the machinery work over the soil covered waste to compact it and grade the surface so that infiltration of rainwater is minimized.

Role of Hospital Administrator:

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In a hospital environment, there are many pollution risks: dust, lint, as well as bacteria and germs. Luckily, many of the factors that contribute to the environmental pollution in hospitals can be controlled, and the pollution possibly avoided. Here are some tips to effectively learn how to control environmental pollution risks in a hospital. 1. Identify disease house in hospital - Hospitals can have dust, airborne bacteria, gases and germs in the air. Determining what is in each room can help you save on the type of equipment needed for each location. 2. Purchase ionizers for hospital rooms -Ionizers can keep positive ions flowing throughout the rooms and will help keep cleaning costs low. 3. Make sure the hospital has an adequate ventilation system and a working air condition system -An inadequate air flow in the hospital can aid in the spread of germs. Bacteria grow easily in warm, humid areas so a working air conditioning system throughout the hospital is vital to hindering bacteria growth. 4. Implement a disposal system - Hospital waste management is one of the best ways to eliminate air pollutants. Having a well-structured way to dispose of the trash and hazardous waste will greatly decrease the amount of pollution in the hospital. 5. Educate the hospital staff on how to dispose of waste correctly -They should also know what can be recycled, and where specific waste products go. Hazardous material should be disposed of properly and carefully, and if the staff is thoroughly trained, then it reduces the risk of contamination to other patients. Some states provide workshops and seminars to properly educate staff. 6. Use specialized hazardous waste receptacles -Using red "hazardous material" bags or canisters for appropriate waste will cut down on the accidental handling of hazardous and potentially dangerous material. The Contra Costa Health Department has a Hazardous Material Department that has developed a poster entitled "Know Where to Throw." It focuses on the handling of hazardous material and what is appropriate to throw in the hazardous material receptacles.

7. Establish a separate holding area -There should be an area separate for patients who are sick, and for visitors. This can help protect visitors from any air-borne illnesses. This may also limit the need to clean and sterilize the visitor room as often, which will lower the cost of cleaning.

8. a) Define the concept of Noise Pollution. b) What are its acute and chronic effects ? c) How can the noise pollution be controlled ? 2 + 8 + 5 Ans: The noise pollution is defined as the unwanted sound which is released into the environment. It disturbs the human being and cause an adverse effect on the mental and psychological well being. It is measured in the units of decibels and is denoted by the dB.The noise which is more than 115 dB is tolerant. The industrial limit of sound in the industries must be 75 dB according to the world health organization. A type writer can produce a sound at 60 dB. There are different sources of the noise pollution and include the agriculture machines, industries which produce a sound and the use of

21 Environment and Ecology BHM 403 Techno India entertaining equipment, crackers, the blasting of dynamite, bull dozing, stone crushing, defense equipments and textile mills. b) Noise has been found to interfere with our activities at three levels; (a) audio logical level in referring with the satisfactory performance of the hearing mechanism; (b) biological level interfering with the biological functioning of the body; and (c) behavioural level affecting the sociological behaviour of the subjects. Because of this the noise affects categorically, performance, physiology and psychology.

Acute effect of Noise Pollution:

 The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of hearing, which diminishes by the damage of some part of auditory system. When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs to the eardrum. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern will lead to chronic damage to the hair cells in the inner ear.

 Noise causes chronic headache and irritability; work, which needs a high degree of skill, is considerably affected. The overall working efficiency goes down when noise level goes up.

 Loud and sudden noise such as sonic boom produces a startle effect, which may damage the brain. Sonic booms can also cause physical damage to property i.e. windows may break due to it. Sudden noise can be much more harmful than a continuous noise.

Chronic effect of Noise pollution:

1. Depression and fatigue, which considerably reduces the efficiency of a person.

2. Insomnia as a result of lack of undisturbed and refreshing sleep.

3. Straining of senses and annoyance as a result of slow but persistent noise from motorcycles, alarm clocks, call bells, telephone rings etc.

4. Affecting of psychomotor performance of a person by a sudden loud noise (sound)

5. It is a cause of frustration and is associated with difficulty in concentration, disturbance of rest, physical and mental fatigue. Low frequency noise of 50 to 60 dB affects the higher centre of brain and causes an alternation in the normal sleep pattern and prevents sound sleep.

6. Noise, which is an annoyance also causes irritation dis-satisfaction, dis-interest and affects work "performance. Noise has been reported both to improve and to decrease work efficiency, depending on its intensity, duration and frequency distribution etc.

Various physiological as well as pathologic effects of noise pollution are as under:

1. Noise pollution affects human health, comfort and efficiency. It cause contraction of blood vessels, makes, the skin pale, leads to excessive secretion of adrenalin hormone into blood stream with is responsible for high blood pressure.

2. It causes muscles to contract leading to nervous breakdown, tension and even insanity.

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3. Noise effects are anxiety, stress reaction and fright. These adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in turn produces increased rate of heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive sperms and dilation of pupil of eye.

4. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is the impairment of hearing, which diminishes by the damage of some part of auditory system. When exposed to very loud and sudden noise acute damage occurs to the eardrum. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern will lead to chronic damage to the hair cells in the inner ear.

5. Auditory fatigue appears in the 90 dB associated with whistling and buzzing in ears. Temporary deafness occurs at 4000-6000 Hz, and this effect is known as Temporary Threshold Shift (TTS), Permanent loss of hearing occurs at 100 dB due to continuous noise exposure. Under such conditions, the auditory threshold shift is called Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS). Besides chronic hearing loss, there may be instantaneous damage or acoustic trauma, which may be caused by very high intensity impulsive noise resulting from an explosion or sudden excessive noise of more than 150 dB.

6. Physiological effects of noise pollution include neurosis, hypertension, increase in sweating, hepatic diseases, giddiness, peptic ulcers, undesirable change in gastro intestinal activities behavioural and emotional stress.

7. Noise mainly interferes with man's communication. It is easily visualized that a conversation can be carried on in whisper in a still place, while one his to shout to make sense in a noisy factory.

8. Blood gets thickened by excessive noise. Changes in breathing amplitude have also been reported due to impulsive noise.

9. Noise causes cosinophilia, hyperglycarmia, hypokalaemia and hypoglycarmia by a change in blood and other body fluids.

10. Noise causes chronic headache and irritability; work, which needs a high degree of skill, is considerably affected. The overall working efficiency goes down when noise level goes up.

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Control of Noise Pollution

A) Noise Control at Source The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation itself by employing techniques like- Reducing the noise levels from domestic sectors: The domestic noise coming from radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers, washing machines, cooking operations can be minimised by their selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any absorbing material, the noise generated from felling of items in house can be minimised. Maintenance of automobiles: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will reduce the noise levels. Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the noise levels. Control over vibrations: The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper foundations, rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations. Low voice speaking: Speaking at low voices enough for communication reduces the excess noise levels. Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in the habitant zones except for important meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban Administration of the metro cities in India, is becoming stringent on usage of loudspeakers. Selection of machinery: Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces excess noise levels. For example selection of chairs, or selection of certain machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technology etc. is also an important factor in noise minimisation strategy. Maintenance of machines: Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles etc. will reduce noise levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of a vehicle will become loose while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts are not properly fitted, they will generate noise and cause annoyance to the driver/passenger. Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular maintenance is essential not only for noise control but also to improve the life of machine.

B)Control in the transmission path

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Wherein the inter-relationship between elements of noise was represented. The change in the transmission path will increase the length of travel for the wave and get absorbed/refracted/radiated in the surrounding environment. The available techniques are briefly discussed below. Installation of barriers: Installation of barriers between noise source and receiver can attenuate the noise levels. For a barrier to be effective, its lateral width should extend beyond the line-of-sight at least as much as the height. It may be noted that, the frequencies, represented on the X-axis of the graph in, are the centre frequencies of the octave band. The barrier may be either close to the source or receiver, subject to the condition that, R <

 Design of building: The design of the building incorporating the use of suitable noise absorbing material for wall/door/window/ceiling will reduce the noise levels. The approximate reduction of outside noise levels using typical exterior wall construction is given at Table 6. The reduction in noise levels for various frequencies and the A-weighted scale are shown. Variations in spectrum shape may change this A-weighted value by as much as +/- 3 dB. Installation of panels or enclosures: A sound source may be enclosed within a paneled structure such as room as a means of reducing the noise levels at the receiver. The actual difference between the sound pressure levels inside and outside an enclosure depends not only on the transmission loss of the enclosure panels but also on the acoustic absorption within the enclosure and the details of the panel penetrations which may include windows or doors. The product of frequency of interest and surface weight of the absorbing material is the key parameter in noise reduction through transmission loss. With conventional construction practices, the high-frequency transmission loss of a panel becomes limited to around 40 dB, owing to the transmission of sound through flanking paths other than the panel itself. Examples of such flanking are structural connections or ducts joining the two spaces on either side of the panel of interest. Procedures for detailed design examples are given at.

Using protection equipment Before employing the use of protective equipment, please wherein the various steps involved in the noise management strategy are illustrated. Protective equipment usage is the ultimate step in noise control technology, i.e. after noise reduction at source and/or after the diversion or engineered control of transmission path of noise. The first step in the technique of using protective equipment is to gauge the intensity of the problem, identification of the sufferer and his exposure to the noise levels. For the Regulatory standards pertaining to time of exposure vs. maximum noise levels permitted in a workspace environment, please refer to LO-8. The usage of protective equipment and the worker's exposure to the high noise levels can be minimised by - Job rotation: By rotating the job between the workers working at a particular noise source or isolating a person, the adverse impacts can be reduced. Exposure reduction: Regulations prescribe that, noise level of 90 dB (A) for more than 8 hr continuous exposure is prohibited. Persons who are working under such conditions will be exposed to occupational health hazards. The schedule of the workers should be planned in such a way that, they should not be over exposed to the high noise levels. Hearing protection: Equipment like earmuffs, ear plugs etc. are the commonly used devices for hearing protection. Attenuation provided by ear-muffs vary widely in respect to their size, shape, seal material etc. Literature survey shows that, an average noise attenuation up to 32 dB can be achieved using earmuffs

9. What is Hydrosphere? Describe Hydrological cycle with a neat diagram. Show that the Word water Budget is more or less constant. 2 + 8 + 5

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Ans:

The hydrosphere is the liquid water component of the Earth. It includes the oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams. The hydrosphere covers about 70% of the surface of the Earth and is the home for many plants and animals.

The hydrosphere, like the atmosphere, is always in motion. The motion of rivers and streams can be easily seen, while the motion of the water within lakes and ponds is less obvious. Some of the motion of the oceans and seas can be easily seen while the large scale motions that move water great distances such as between the tropics and poles or between continents are more difficult to see. These types of motions are in the form of currents that move the warm waters in the tropics toward the poles, and colder water from the polar regions toward the tropics. These currents exist on the surface of the ocean and at great depths in the ocean (up to about 4km).

Hydrological Cycle: The total amount of water on the earth and in its atmosphere does not change but the earth’s water is always in movement. Oceans, rivers, clouds and rain, all of which contain water, are in a frequent state of change and the motion of rain and flowing rivers transfers water in a never-ending cycle. This circulation and conservation of earth’s water as it circulates from the land to the sky and back again is called the ‘hydrological cycle’ or ‘water cycle’. The stages of the cycle are:

 Evaporation  Transport  Condensation  Precipitation  Groundwater  Run-off

Evaporation

Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere through evaporation, the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas. The sun’s heat provides energy to evaporate water from the earth’s surface. Land, lakes, rivers and oceans send up a steady stream of water vapour and plants also lose water to the air (transpiration).

Approximately 80% of all evaporation is from the oceans, with the remaining 20% coming from inland water and vegetation.

Transport

The movement of water through the atmosphere, specifically from over the oceans to over land, is called transport. Some of the earth’s moisture transport is visible as clouds, which themselves consist of ice crystals and/or tiny water droplets.

Clouds are propelled from one place to another by either the jet stream, surface-based circulations like land and sea breezes or other mechanisms. However, a typical cloud 1 km thick contains only enough water for a millimetre of rainfall, whereas the amount of moisture in the atmosphere is usually 10-50 times greater than this.

Most water is transported in the form of water vapour, which is actually the third most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Water vapour may be invisible to us, but not to satellites which are capable of collecting data about moisture patterns in the atmosphere.

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Condensation

The transported water vapour eventually condenses, forming tiny droplets in clouds.

Precipitation

The primary mechanism for transporting water from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth is precipitation.

When the clouds meet cool air over land, precipitation, in the form of rain, sleet or snow, is triggered and water returns to the land (or sea). A proportion of atmospheric precipitation evaporates.

Groundwater

Some of the precipitation soaks into the ground and this is the main source of the formation of the waters found on land - rivers, lakes, groundwater and glaciers.

Some of the underground water is trapped between rock or clay layers - this is called groundwater. Water that infiltrates the soil flows downward until it encounters impermeable rock and then travels laterally. The locations where water moves laterally are called ‘aquifers’. Groundwater returns to the surface through these aquifers, which empty into lakes, rivers and the oceans.

Under special circumstances, groundwater can even flow upward in artesian wells. The flow of groundwater is much slower than run-off with speeds usually measured in centimetres per day, metres per year or even centimetres per year.

Run-off

Most of the water which returns to land flows downhill as run-off. Some of it penetrates and charges groundwater while the rest, as river flow, returns to the oceans where it evaporates. As the amount of groundwater increases or decreases, the water table rises or falls accordingly. When the entire area below the ground is saturated, flooding occurs because all subsequent precipitation is forced to remain on the surface.

Different surfaces hold different amounts of water and absorb water at different rates. As a surface becomes less permeable, an increasing amount of water remains on the surface, creating a greater potential for flooding. Flooding is very common during winter and early spring because frozen ground has no permeability, causing most rainwater and meltwater to become run-off.

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THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET

A water budget comprised of the components of the hydrologic cycle can be formulated. It is an accounting of the inflow, outflow and storage of water in a designated hydrologic system.

The development of an equation for the water budget is straightforward. For a designated time period, it provides for balancing the gains and losses of water with the quantities of water stored in the region (a continuity equation). A general water balance equation is:

where

is precipitation is runoff is evapotranspiration is the change in storage (in soil or the bedrock)

The variables in the water budget equation are: precipitation P, Runoff R, Interception I, Evaporation E, Transpiration T, Evapotranspiration ET, Groundwater G, and letting ΔS stand for change in storage, a hydrologic budget can be derived. Inflows to the region are denoted as positive quantities and outflows as negative ones. Subscripts s and g indicate surface and underground components respectively.

For surface flow, the hydrologic budget can be written as:

P + R1 - R2 + Rg - Es - Ts - I = ΔSs where precipitation, surface-water inflow, and groundwater appearing as surface water (Rg) are inflows; surface-water outflow, evaporation, and infiltration are outflows; and all variables are volumes per unit of time.

For underground flow, the hydrologic budget can be written as:

I + G1 - G2 - Rg - Eg - Tg = ΔSs where infiltration and groundwater inflow are inflows; groundwater outflow, groundwater appearing as surface water, evaporation, and transpiration are outflows. The combined hydrologic budget for a region is derived by summing the two previous equations:

P - (R2 - R1) - (Es + Eg) - (Ts + Tg) - (G2 - G1) = Δ(Ss + Sg)

If the subscripts are dropped and the quantities in parentheses are taken as net changes, the equation reduces to: P - R - E - T - G = ΔS

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This is the fundamental equation of hydrology. It is the basis for all hydrologic modeling. Various applications of this important equation are referred to in later chapters. One of its uses is in calculating the combined evaporation and transpiration, or evapotranspiration (ET), for a region when estimates of other variables in the equation can be reasonably made. For example, in large river basins, (measured in thousands of square miles or kilometers), groundwater system boundaries often follow surface-water divides. In cases where this assumption can be considered valid, the groundwater flux into and out of the region can be assumed equal to zero (G = 0). In addition, over a long period of time (usually five or more years), seasonal excesses and deficits in storage often tend to balance out in large watersheds, and in such cases the average condition for ΔS may sometimes be assumed to be equal to zero. Under these two assumptions, the hydrologic equation becomes

P - R - ET = 0 and by knowing P and R, a rough estimate of ET can be obtained.

To solve the hydrologic budget equation in terms of any one of its variables, reasonable estimates of the other variables must be made. But this is not always possible or easily done. When data are lacking on variables of concern, simplifying assumptions can sometimes be made, but there is no substitute for a credible data base.

10. Define Hazardous wastes. How do they differ from Toxic wastes? Briefly describe the management of hazardous wastes with reference to the relevant Rules and Regulations. 3 + 2 + 10 Ans: A Hazardous waste is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment. Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following four hazardous traits:

. ignitability (i.e., flammable) . reactivity . corrosivity . toxicity

Listed hazardous waste are materials specifically listed by regulatory authorities as a hazardous waste which are from non-specific sources, specific sources, or discarded chemical products. These wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required. Worldwide, The United Nations Environmental Programme(UNEP) estimated that more than 400 million tons of hazardous wastes are produced universally each year, mostly by industrialized countries (schmit, 1999). About 1- percent of this total is shipped across international boundaries, with the majority of the transfers occurring between countries in the Organization for the Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) (Krueger, 1999). Some of the reasons for industrialized countries to ship the hazardous waste to industrializing countries for disposal are the rising cost of disposing hazardous waste in the home country.

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Hazardous waste Toxic waste

1) "A hazardous waste is waste that poses 1) "Toxic waste is waste material that can cause substantial or potential threats to public health or death or injury to living creatures. The term is the environment and generally exhibits one or often used interchangeably with “hazardous more of these characteristics: waste”, or discarded material that can pose a -ignitable (i.e., flammable) long-term risk to health or environment. -oxidizing As with most pollution problems, toxic waste -corrosive began to be a significant issue during the -toxic industrial revolution.It usually is the product of -radioactive industry or commerce, but comes also from -explosive residential use (e.g. cleaning products, cosmetics, U.S. environmental laws (see Resource lawn care products), agriculture (e.g. chemical Conservation and Recovery Act) additionally fertilizers, pesticides), the military (nuclear describe a "hazardous waste" as a waste (usually weapons testing, chemical warfare, medical a solid waste) that has the potential to: facilities (e.g. pharmaceuticals), radioactive - cause, or significantly contribute to an increase sources, and light industry, such as dry cleaning in mortality (death) or an increase in serious establishments." irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness; or - pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.

The term "hazardous waste" comprises all toxic chemicals, radioactive materials, and biologic or infectious waste. These materials threaten workers through occupational exposure and the general public in their homes, communities, and general environment. Exposure to these materials can occur near the site of generation, along the path of its transportation, and near their ultimate disposal sites. Most hazardous waste results from industrial processes that yield unwanted byproducts, defective products, and spilled materials. The generation and disposal of hazardous wastes is controlled through a variety of international and national regulations. Hazardous waste was formerly known as 'special' waste."

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