Unit III, Modules 9-13 Test Review • See also the Unit III notes and pages 76-122 • About 45 m.c., plus two essays; one on functioning, the other review concepts from previous units. • Some practice questions are embedded in this presentation • Other practice questions are available at the textbook website and in the textbook after each module.

Order of a transmission: , cell body, , (see arrow below) Neural Communication , 80 Neural Communication

• (a)Dendrite – the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the (b)cell body • (c)Axon – the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands • [MY-uh-lin] Sheath – a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons – makes possible vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses, – Damage to can lead to Neural Communication

• – a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; DEPOLARIZED – generated by the movement of positively charges atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane • Threshold – the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse Action Potential A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. Practice question

• Multiple sclerosis is a disease that is most directly associated with the degeneration of: a. the myelin sheath. b. the pituitary gland. c. endorphins. d. . Myelin Sheath

– a layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons – makes possible vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses, – Damage to can lead to Multiple sclerosis Sensory neurons

• 1. Shoulder receptors detected the squeeze • Sensory neurons carried the info to your • Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the receptors to the CNS.

Sensory Neuron (Bipolar)

• carried the information to your brain • Interneurons in your brain interpreted the info: “Hey someone squeezed my shoulder!” • Interneurons connect the other two neurons

Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar) Motor neurons

• carried the command for your hand to squeeze the shoulder of the person in front of you. • Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Motor Neuron (Multipolar) Kinds of neurons and their location

• Interneurons – Central (CNS) neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs • Motor Neurons in the peripheral nervous system – carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands – Skeletal Nervous System – the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles Kinds of Neurons, 62 Sensory Neurons carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect the two neurons.

Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar) (Bipolar)

Motor Neuron (Multipolar) Refractory Period & Pumps, 56 Refractory Period: After a neuron fires an action potential it pauses for a short period to recharge itself to fire again.

Sodium-Potassium Pumps: Sodium-potassium pumps pump positive ions out from the inside of the neuron, making them ready for another action potential. Threshold, 56

Threshold: Each neuron receives depolarizing and hyperpolarizing currents from many neurons. When the depolarizing current (positive ions) minus the hyperpolarizing current (negative ions) exceed minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential. Action Potential, 55 A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. Action Potential Properties

All-or-None Response: When the depolarizing current exceeds the threshold, a neuron will fire. If the depolarizing current fails to exceed the threshold, a neuron will not fire.

Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon. Parts of a Neuron

Cell Body: Life support center of the neuron.

Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons.

Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.

Terminal Branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons. Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers released into synapse Reuptake: Prozac effects prevention of for serotonin

Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake.

This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action. Antidepressant drugs and serotonin,

Antidepressant drugs like Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil are Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) that improve the mood by elevating levels of serotonin by inhibiting reuptake Can lead to neurogenesis: new brain cells. Agonists (see 82) Botox as an antagonist, 83

A poison (botulin) is injected into the face to block the working of ACh and relaxing the facial muscles. Re-injections are needed.

http://test.selfinnovations.com/sc/images/crowsBefore.gif Curare: an antagonist

• Curare acts only at muscular and NOT at the synapses of the (curare does not cross the blood-brain barrier), • Thus, a victim of curare poisoning may be aware of what is happening until the very end. • The victim can feel the paralysis progressing but is quickly unable to move, call out or gesture. • If artificial respiration is performed throughout, the victim usually recovers without ill effects. How it affects the body

• Death from curare is caused by paralysis of the respiratory muscles. • The alkaloid curare molecule mimics the neurotransmitter ACETYLCHOLINE by binding to its at muscle synapses. ACTS AS AN ANTAGONIST. • This prevents from stimulating muscle contraction. • Paralysis sets in gradually, because curare must compete for receptor binding sites before occupying them Practice question

• Botox injections smooth facial wrinkles because botulin is a(n): a. ACh antagonist. b. antagonist. c. ACh agonist. d. dopamine agonist.

Agonists and antagonists, 59

• These are NOT neurotransmitters • Agonists mimic (act like) the action of neurotransmitters • Example: nicotine mimics Ach • Antagonists block the action of neurotransmitters • Example: curare blocks Ach (leading to paralysis of muscles) Practice question

• A drug that blocks the reuptake of a particular neurotransmitter is called a(n): a. opiate. b. antagonist. c. glutamate. d. agonist.

Motor neurons (CNS)

• carried the command for your hand to squeeze the shoulder of the person in front of you. • Motor Neurons carry outgoing information from the CNS (brain and spinal column) to muscles and glands.

Motor Neuron (Multipolar) An Examination of the effect of on heart rate

• One set of nerves, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), is the fight or flight system, mobilizing your body. • Another set of nerves, the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) works to slow down the body’s resources Parasympathetic Sympathetic • Like a symphony: gets you excited Practice question

• The peripheral nervous system consists of: a. association areas. b. the spinal cord. c. the reticular formation. d. sensory and motor neurons. Interneurons

• carried the information to your brain • Interneurons in your brain interpreted the info: “Hey someone squeezed my shoulder!” • Interneurons connect the other two neurons

Interneuron Neuron (Unipolar) Reflex

• a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory Brain

Sensory neuron (incoming information) Interneuron

Motor neuron (outgoing information) Muscle Spinal cord Skin receptors Hormonal System

• Endocrine System – the body’s “slow” chemical communication system – a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Pituitary Gland Is called the “master gland.” The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance.

Adrenal Glands, 91 Adrenal glands consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism.

Electroencephalogram (EEG), 95

– an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s

surface AJ Photo/ Photo Researchers, Inc. AJ Photo Researchers,Photo/ – these waves are measured by electrodes placed on

the scalp

PET Scan, 68

PET (positron emission BrookhavenCourtesyLaboratoriesNationalNationalof tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task. MRI Scan, 68

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of brain tissue.

Both photos from Daniel Weinberger, M.D., CBDB, NIMH Practice question

• Which of the following would be most useful for detecting the brain areas that are most active as a person performs mathematical calculations? a. a brain lesion b. an fMRI c. a PET scan d. a hemispherectomy

Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex Right hemisphere Left hemisphere

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Amygdala Reticular formation Medulla

Hippocampus Spinal cord

Cerebellum

Cerebral cortex Limbic system Brainstem Brain Stem, 71

The Medulla is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.

Reticular Formation is a network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal and alertness. The thalamus (Hal + Amos) 72

The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas (visual, auditory, all except smell) in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. Reward Center: Hypothalamus Rats cross an electrified grid for self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the reward (hypothalamus) center

(top picture). When the Sanjiv Sanjiv Talwar,SUNY Downstate limbic system is manipulated, a rat will navigate fields or climb up a tree (bottom

picture). Hypothalamus (Hypo the Llamas)

– neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus – directs several maintenance activities • eating • drinking • body – helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

The Limbic System: Regulation of emotion primarily occurs in this area Practice question

• The limbic system structure that regulates hunger is called the: a. thalamus. b. . c. hippocampus. d. hypothalamus. Association Areas, 79

• areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions • involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking or recognizing faces Cerebral Cortex Lobes • Frontal Lobes – involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments • Parietal Lobes – include the sensory cortex • Occipital Lobes – include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field • Temporal Lobes – include the auditory areas () Parietal lobe, 76

• Awareness of where your feet and hands are () Frontal lobe, 76

• Deciding your driving destination and how you will get there • Conscious control of voluntary movement , 76

• Interpreting auditory information about traffic • Balance (vestibular sense) Occipital lobe, 76

• Interpreting visual information from the instrument panel and traffic Practice question

• The regions of the parietal lobes that are involved in mathematical and spatial reasoning are known as: a. the angular gyrus. b. Wernicke's areas. c. the reticular formation. d. association areas. Practice question

• Brain scans indicate that well-practiced pianists have a larger-than-usual auditory cortex area that encodes piano . This best illustrates: a. hemispherectomy. b. tomography. c. aphasia. d. plasticity. Cerebellum 98

The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance. Amygdala 99

The Amygdala consists of two almond-shaped neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger. Hippocampus • Contributes to the formation of memories The cerebellum

• Cerebellum [sehr-uh- BELL-um] – the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem – it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance Motor and sensory cortex

• Motor Cortex – area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements • Sensory Cortex – area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations, most critically touch – See next slide for location and specifics The Sensory and Motor Cortex Phineas Gage, see page 110 • Suffered frontal lobe damage. • His personality changed from friendly to combative. • More recently scientists have argued that these differences were exaggerated. He largely adjusted to this brain trauma. Practice question

• Following massive damage to his frontal lobes, Phineas Gage was most strikingly debilitated by: a. aphasia. b. memory loss. c. auditory hallucinations. d. irritability.

Brain Plasticity, 110-2

• The idea that the brain, when damaged, will attempt to find news ways to reroute messages. • Children’s are more plastic than adults. Neurogenesis

= the formation of new neurons. Splitting the Brain A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them; used by neurosurgeons to reduce epileptic seizures.

Courtesy of Terence Williams, University of Iowa Consciousness, 118

= our awareness of ourselves and our environment. Dual Processing, 120

= processing the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. Essays

• #1 The topic is “Super Heroes”

• #2 A review of some key terms from Chapter 18 and some material from Ch. 2