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Ii UNIVERSITY of MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA ORIGINAL LITERARY WORK DECLARATION Name of Candidate: SITI NURHAFIZAH SALEEZA BT RAMLEE I.C/Passport No: 840812015518 Registration/Matric No: SHC090022 Name of Degree: DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Title of Project Paper/Research Report/Dissertation/Thesis (“this Work”): “STUDIES OF BREEDING HABITATS AND SEASONAL OCCURRENCE OF MOSQUITOES IN PUTRAJAYA AND KUALA SELANGOR, WITH LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS OF GUPPIES AND DRAGONFLY NYMPHS AS POTENTIAL BIOCONTROL PREDATORS AGAINST MOSQUITO LARVAE” Field of Study: ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY I do solemnly and sincerely declare that: (1) I am the sole author/writer of this Work; (2) This Work is original; (3) Any use of any work in which copyright exists was done by way of fair dealing and for permitted purposes and any excerpt or extract from, or reference to or reproduction of any copyright work has been disclosed expressly and sufficiently and the title of the Work and its authorship have been acknowledged in this Work; (4) I do not have any actual knowledge nor do I ought reasonably to know that the making of this work constitutes an infringement of any copyright work; (5) I hereby assign all rights in the copyright to this Work to the University of Malaya (“UM”), who henceforth shall be owner of the copyright in this Work and that any reproduction or use in any form or by any means whatsoever is prohibited without the written consent of UM having been first had and obtained; (6) I am fully aware that if in the course of making this Work I have infringed any copyright whether intentionally or otherwise, I may be subject to legal action or any other action as may be determined by UM. Candidate’s Signature Date: Subscribed and solemnly declared before, Witness’s Signature Date: Name: Designation: ii ABSTRACT Mosquito control is essential for the control of vector borne diseases. Many synthetic insecticides are widely used for controlling adult and larval mosquito populations. However, there are multirole effects: e.g. the harmful effects of chemicals on non-target organisms, the development of resistance to these chemicals in mosquitoes and the recent resurgence of different mosquito-borne diseases. The objectives of this study are to determine the potential breeding habitats of the mosquitoes, mosquito indices, mosquito species, density of mosquito larvae, perceptions of respondents on bio control and to conduct captivity studies on predator–prey relationships. Entomological surveillance was carried out in six localities in the urban and suburban areas from January until December 2010 to identify potential breeding sites for mosquitoes and mosquito species populations. A total of 442 representative households in six localities were selected. Breeding habitats were sampled outdoors in the surroundings of the housing areas. There was a significant difference in the number of mosquito larvae collected, where the urban areas had a higher density in contrast to suburban areas. The study indicated that the most predominant species found in both areas was Aedes albopictus with gardening utensils as a preferred breeding habitat for urban area and artificial containers for suburban area. Entomological indices were calculated to predict future outbreaks in the localities. Ovitrap surveillance was carried out in one year to study the relationship between ovitrap surveillance and environmental parameters, which revealed no significant difference in the population numbers for both areas and no correlation to the environmental factors. Questionnaires on the perceptions of chemical in mosquito control and the potential use of bio control were distributed to staffs in health office and also public in both study areas. In general the public had high uncertainties (scoring on ‘not sure’ for all the 4 questions given ranging from 47.9% to 27%. This is due to the public being unfamiliar to bio control as indicated in question 1 (56%) in contrast to staff very aware on bio control (75%). Fatigue was the iii most frequently reported symptom by staff and breathing difficulty reported by public. Natural bio control agent surveillance was conducted in both study areas. Poecilicia reticulata and Odonata nymph species was the most natural predator collected at study areas. Three species of Odonata nymphs consumed more Aedes species than Culex species but there was no significant difference in the predator feeding efficiency. In terms of prey preferences of guppy, both male and female consumed more Aedes species than Culex species. The behaviour of mosquito larvae species and predator (guppy and Odonata nymph) species showed direct influence on the predatory activities. All predators exhibited diurnal activities; they were day-time stalkers and actively consumed more mosquito larvae during the day time. The efficiency of predatory activities depends on several factors such as water volume, number of predator, and number of prey density. These results concluded that both common biocontrol agent (guppies) and potential biocontrol agent (Odonata nymphs) are efficient predators in laboratory experiment and thus likely candidates to be utilized as an environmental friendly mosquito management strategy. iv ABSTRAK Kawalan nyamuk adalah penting bagi pengawalan penyakit bawaan vektor. Banyak racun serangga sintetik digunakan secara meluas bagi mengawal populasi nyamuk dewasa dan larva. Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat kesan-kesan pelbagai peranan: contohnya, kesan bahan kimia yang memudaratkan kepada penduduk bukan sasaran, pembinaan ketahanan terhadap bahan-bahan kimia ini oleh nyamuk dan kemunculan semula penyakit bawaan nyamuk yang berbeza. Objektif kajian ini ialah untuk menentukan potensi pembiakan habitat nyamuk, indeks nyamuk, spesies nyamuk, kepadatan larva nyamuk, persepsi responden mengenai kawalan biologi dan menjalankan kajian kurungan terhadap hubungan mangsa-pemangsa. Penelitian entomologi dijalankan di enam lokasi di kawasan bandar dan pinggir bandar dari Januari hingga Disember 2010 untuk mengenal pasti potensi tempat pembiakan nyamuk dan populasi spesies nyamuk. Sejumlah 442 wakil isi rumah di enam kawasan telah dipilih. Habitat pembiakan telah disampel di kawasan luar persekitaran kawasan-kawasan perumahan. Terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam bilangan larva nyamuk yang dikumpulkan, iaitu kawasan bandar mempunyai kepadatan yang lebih tinggi, berbeza dengan kawasan-kawasan pinggir bandar. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa spesies yang paling pradominan dijumpai di kedua-dua kawasan adalah Aedes albopictus dengan peralatan berkebun sebagai habitat pembiakan pilihan bagi kawasan bandar dan bekas- bekas buatan bagi kawasan pinggir bandar. Indeks entomologi telah dikira untuk meramal wabak pada masa depan di kawasan-kawasan tersebut. Pengawasan ovitrap telah dijalankan selama satu tahun untuk mengkaji hubungan antara pengawasan ovitrap dan parameter alam sekitar, dan ia menunjukkan bahawa tiada perbezaan yang signifikan dalam bilangan populasi bagi kedua-dua kawasan dan tiada korelasi dengan faktor persekitaran. Borang v soal selidik mengenai persepsi terhadap bahan kimia dalam kawalan nyamuk dan potensi penggunaan alat kawalan biologi telah diedarkan kepada kakitangan pejabat kesihatan dan juga orang awam di kedua-dua kawasan kajian. Umumnya, orang ramai mempunyai ketidaktentuan yang tinggi (pemarkahan 'tidak pasti' bagi semua 4 soalan yang diberikan dalam julat antara 47.9% hingga 27%). Ini kerana orang awam tidak mengetahui kawalan biologi sebagai yang dinyatakan dalam soalan 1 (56%) berbanding dengan kakitangan pejabat kesihatan yang sangat menyedari mengenai kawalan biologi (75%). Keletihan adalah simptom yang paling kerap dilaporkan oleh kakitangan pejabat kesihatan dan kesukaran bernafas dilaporkan oleh orang ramai. Pengawasan agen kawalan biologi asli telah dijalankan di kedua-dua kawasan kajian. Spesies Poecilicia reticulata dan nimfa Odonata adalah pemangsa paling semula jadi yang dikumpulkan di kawasan-kawasan kajian. Tiga spesies nimfa Odonata memakan lebih banyak spesies Aedes daripada spesies Culex tetapi tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam kecekapan makan pemangsa. Dari segi keutamaan mangsa ikan gapi, kedua-dua ikan jantan dan betina memakan lebih banyak spesies Aedes daripada spesies Culex. Tingkah laku spesies larva nyamuk dan spesies pemangsa (ikan gapi dan nimfa Odonata) menunjukkan pengaruh langsung terhadap aktiviti-aktiviti pemangsa. Semua pemangsa mempamerkan aktiviti-aktiviti diurnal; mereka adalah pemburu di waktu siang dan memakan lebih banyak larva nyamuk secara aktif pada waktu siang. Keberkesanan aktiviti-aktiviti pemangsa bergantung kepada beberapa faktor seperti isi padu air, bilangan pemangsa, dan bilangan kepadatan mangsa. Kesimpulan daripada keputusan ini ialah kedua-dua agen kawalan bio biasa (gapi) dan agen kawalan biologi berpotensi (nimfa Odonata) merupakan pemangsa yang cekap dalam uji kaji didalam makmal dan dengan itu merupakan pilihan-pilihan yang mungkin boleh digunakan sebagai strategi pengurusan nyamuk yang mesra alam sekitar. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of Allah, The Most Gracious, The Most Merciful. Alhamdullilah, all praise is to Allah, The Supreme Lord of the Universe. Piece and blessing to Nabi Muhammad S.A.W., all the prophets, their families and all Muslims. Foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Norma Tan Sri Yusoff and my co supervisor Prof. Dato’ Dr. Mohd. Sofian Azirun, for the continuous support, patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge during this journey. Besides
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