View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives “Norway is a Peace Nation” Discursive Preconditions for the Norwegian Peace Engagement Policy Øystein Haga Skånland M.A.Thesis, Peace and Conflict Studies Faculty of Social Science UNIVERSITY OF OSLO 20th June, 2008 ii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Halvard Leira for his insightful feedback, suggestions, and encouraging comments. Without him keeping me on track and gently prodding me in the right direction, carrying out the analysis would undoubtedly have been an overwhelming task. I am also grateful to Iver B. Neumann, who has read through and given valuable comments on a draft in the finishing stages of the process. I would also like to thank Prof. Jeffrey T. Checkel for an excellent introduction to social constructivism in International Relations, Prof. Werner Christie Mathisen for his course on textual analysis, and Sunniva Engh for introducing me to Norwegian development aid history. You have all inspired me in the choice of perspective and object of study. Writing this thesis would not be possible without support and encouragement to overcome the many small and big challenges I have encountered. I am indebted to my fellow students, particularly Jonathan Amario and Ruben Røsler; my friends; and my parents. Last, but not least, Synnøve deserves my most heartfelt thanks for her patience and loving support. All the viewpoints presented, and all errors and inconsistencies, are solely my own responsibility. Øystein Haga Skånland Oslo, June 2008 iii Table of Content Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... ii 1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................1 1.1 Research Question and Analytic Approach ...................................................................3 1.2 Disposition ...................................................................................................................6 2 Theory and Methodology .....................................................................................................7 2.1 Discourse Analysis as Theory .......................................................................................8 2.1.1 Meta-theory ...........................................................................................................8 2.1.2 The discourse analytic view of language ................................................................9 2.1.3 Defining discourse and representation ................................................................. 10 2.1.4 What do discourses and representations do? Discursive productivity .................. 11 2.1.5 Representations as relationally structured systems of signs.................................. 13 2.1.6 Discursive change and practice ........................................................................... 14 2.1.7 Intertextuality and interdiscursivity ..................................................................... 17 2.2 A Discourse Analytic Methodology ............................................................................ 18 2.2.1 The nature of the study, and its empirical material .............................................. 19 2.2.2 On events ............................................................................................................. 22 2.2.3 Delimiting discourse and representations ............................................................ 23 2.2.4 Analytical framework .......................................................................................... 26 3 The Prehistory of the Peace Engagement Discourse: up to 1993 ........................................ 29 3.1 The Norwegian Peace Discourse and Peace Tradition ................................................. 29 3.2 Discourse Prior to 1993 .............................................................................................. 31 3.2.1 Impotent Superpower – Potent Small State: Norway‟s foreign policy potential .... 31 3.2.2 Official and authoritative discourse: White Papers .............................................. 32 3.3 Summary .................................................................................................................... 35 4 The Establishment of a Distinct Peace Engagement Discourse and a Dominant Representation: 1993-1997 ................................................................................................... 37 4.1 The Media Coverage of the Oslo Agreement .............................................................. 37 4.1.1 Norway has played a decisive role in the successful negotiations ......................... 38 4.1.2 Explaining the success of the Oslo Back Channel ................................................ 40 4.1.3 The Norwegian diplomatic victory as good PR .................................................... 42 4.1.4 Norway can play a role also in other peace negotiations ..................................... 43 4.2 The Establishment of a Dominant Representation ....................................................... 45 4.2.1 Norway has given important contributions to peace ............................................. 45 4.2.2 Peace promotion is an important part of Norway‟s foreign policy ....................... 46 4.2.3 Norway‟s distinctive approach to peace promotion .............................................. 48 iv 4.2.4 Motivation for the engagement: “Self interest and altruism go hand in hand” ..... 49 4.2.5 The relationship between development assistance and peace promotion .............. 52 4.3 Criticism of the Peace Engagement: an Emerging Alternative Representation ............. 53 4.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 55 5 Consolidation of Peace Engagement and Discourse: 1997-2003......................................... 57 5.1 The Dominant Representation: Reproduction and Innovation ..................................... 58 5.1.1 Norway plays an important role in numerous peace processes ............................. 58 5.1.2 Norway gets international acclaim for its peace promotion ................................. 59 5.1.3 Peace engagement is an important part of Norway‟s foreign policy ..................... 59 5.1.4 Motivation: “Idealism and self interest go hand in hand” .................................... 60 5.1.5 A distinct and successful Norwegian approach - the Norwegian Model ............... 62 5.1.6 Norway is a peace nation: a new discursive element ............................................ 64 5.2 „Realist‟ Criticism: Reproduction of an Alternative Representation ............................ 65 5.3 „Idealist‟ Criticism: The Emergence of a Second Alternative Representation .............. 66 5.4 Summary .................................................................................................................... 69 6 The Discourse is Opened, Discursive Struggle Ensues: 2003-2008 .................................... 70 6.1 The Reflexive Turn: “Norway is a Peace Nation” as Self Image ................................. 71 5.2 The Idealist Representation ......................................................................................... 77 6.3 The Revival of the Realist Representation................................................................... 80 6.4 Reproduction of the Dominant Representation ............................................................ 85 6.4.1 Norway is a peace nation ..................................................................................... 85 6.4.2 The peace engagement is an important part of the foreign policy ......................... 86 6.4.3 The Norwegian Model: the Norwegian approach and its advantages ................... 87 6.4.4 The relationship between peace promotion and development aid ......................... 89 6.4.5 The motivation for the engagement ...................................................................... 90 6.4.6 Direct countering of criticism .............................................................................. 92 6.5 Summary: Discursive Opening, Discursive Struggle? ................................................. 95 7 Conclusion: Discourse as an Important Precondition for the Peace Engagement. ............... 97 7.1 Empirical Findings ..................................................................................................... 97 7.2 Speculations about the Future of the Peace Engagement ........................................... 104 7.3 Directions for Further Research ................................................................................ 104 Bibliography....................................................................................................................... 106 Secondary Sources, Theory ............................................................................................ 106 Empirical Sources .......................................................................................................... 111 1 1 Introduction On September 13th 1993, PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin shook hands on the lawn before the White House in Washington D.C. The two former arch enemies had just signed the Declaration of Principles, the first official agreement ever between