A Sociolinguistic Study of Kochila Tharu in Southeast Nepal

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2020-005

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell A Sociolinguistic Study of Kochila Tharu in Southeast Nepal

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell

SIL International® 2020

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This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among Kochila Tharu [thq] communities in Southeast Nepal. The following topics were studied in order to inform any future language-based development activities: identifying major varieties of Kochila Tharu, assessing intelligibility and attitudes between the varieties, and determining the vitality of the language. Based on the findings of this research, it is our recommendation that future language-based development activities could take place in any of the varieties of Kochila Tharu and could be usable and acceptable to all other varieties. This study also shows that Kochila Tharu language vitality is high.

सारांश

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Tables Maps 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography 1.2 The Tharu peoples 1.2.1 History 1.2.2 Culture 1.3 Language 1.4 Previous research 2 Purpose and goals 3 Methodology 3.1 Instruments 3.1.1 Participatory methods: Dialect mapping 3.1.2 Wordlists 3.1.3 Recorded text test (RTT) 3.1.4 Knowledgeable insider interview (KII) 3.1.5 Informal interviews 3.2 Site selection 3.3 Subject selection 4 Location of speakers 5 Intelligibility 5.1 Dialect mapping results 5.2 Lexical similarity 5.3 Intelligibility testing results 5.4 Post-RTT questions 5.5 Intelligibility summary 6 Attitudes 6.1 Post-RTT questions 6.2 Contact and attitudes 6.3 Attitudes summary 7 Language vitality 7.1 Domains of language use 7.2 Intergenerational transfer 7.3 Extent of reading and writing 7.4 Contextual factors 7.5 Desires for development 7.6 Language vitality summary 8 Summary of findings and implications for language-based development 8.1 Location of speakers 8.2 Intelligibility 8.3 Attitudes 8.4 Language vitality 8.5 Overall recommendations 9 अनुसꅍधानबाट प्रा� कु र ा ह 셂 क ो सारांश तथा भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग सुझावह셂 Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing Appendix C: Informal Interviews Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Participatory Method Appendix F: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale References

iii Tables

Table 1. Sample size for informal interviews in each site by age and gender Table 2. Reported (Participatory Tools) and Census populations of Kochila Tharu speakers by district Table 3. Lexical similarity percentages matrix Table 4. RTT results Table 5. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation Table 6. Self-reported intelligibility after hearing eastern RTT Table 7. Positive responses to if RTT stories contained “pure” Kochila Tharu Table 8. Reported contact between speakers of various Kochila Tharu varieties Table 9. Responses regarding degree of difference between varieties Table 10. Reported language use among children

Maps

Map 1. Map of Nepal Map 2. Reported varieties of Kochila Tharu

iv 1 Introduction

The purpose of this survey is to develop a preliminary sociolinguistic profile for Kochila Tharu [thq] through four activities: identifying major varieties, investigating intelligibility between those varieties, assessing the attitudes of speakers toward each variety, and gauging the vitality level of the language. Through this research we hope to inform future language-based development activities, should the Kochila Tharu communities wish to pursue them. The meaning of the term Tharu should be clarified at the beginning of this report. In published articles and books, the term Tharu sometimes refers to all types of Tharu people living along the Nepal–India border, including among others Chitwan Tharu, Rana Tharu, Dangaura Tharu, and Kochila Tharu. However, sometimes the unmodified term refers to a specific Tharu group. For the purposes of this report, the term Tharu will be used only when discussing all Tharu people groups within the Nepal Terai as a whole. This report is not addressing Tharu people located in India and therefore they will be excluded from the term Tharu in this report. This sociolinguistic survey of Kochila Tharu was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. The data collection portion of this survey was carried out in February, March, and April of 2013 in Bara, Rautahat, Siraha, Saptari, and Morang districts of Nepal.

1.1 Geography

At the time of the writing of this report, Nepal was divided into 14 administrative zones and subdivided into 75 districts. The districts where Kochila Tharu people live are shown in map 1. From west to east are Bara, Rautahat, Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa, Siraha, Udayapur, Saptari, Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa. Excluding Udayapur district, all lie on the Nepal–India border.

1 2

Map 1. Map of Nepal

Map adapted by Janel Swenson from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nepal_zones- noname.svg, created by summitraj and RaviC. Accessed December 15, 2014. Used with permission.

Nepal also has three geographical regions which are not defined by political borders within the country. Each of these regions run west–east. The Himal region, with its name meaning “mountain,” is located in the northern-most areas of Nepal. The Pahad, meaning “hill,” makes up the middle region of the country; this region also includes the Kathmandu Valley. The Terai region in the south of the country shares its border with India. The Terai includes the lowest elevation areas of Nepal.

1.2 The Tharu peoples

The Tharu ethnic identity comprises many separate groups that vary in culture and language. Politically, the term Tharu refers to a large minority group that spans the entire Terai. In actuality many ethnic and language groups fall under the umbrella term Tharu. “Outsiders generally view the Tharu as one homogeneous group…The Tharu, however, recognize many different subgroups distinguished by clan, region, cultural differences, and language” (Webster 2017:5). “Among the more recognized groups are the Rana, Dangaura, Kochila/Morangia, Chitwania, and Kathariya” (Boehm 1997:19). Many of these Tharu groups recognize differences within their own group based on unique cultural practices. The 2011 Nepal census reports Tharu as the fourth most populous ethnic group with 1,737,470 reported Tharu people. This number, however, is not further broken down by specific ethnic varieties of Tharu. This survey focuses specifically on Kochila Tharu speakers.

1.2.1 History

Little research has been published regarding the history of the Kochila Tharu. On this topic van Driem says, “The Kosila Tharu of the eastern Terai were historically under influence of the Brahminical and Vaisnava culture of the Mithila kingdom” (2001:1167). Regarding the origin of their language name, Krauskopff says, “The ethnonym Koshila or Kuchila could be related to the name of the river Koshi on the bank of which they used to live” (1995:190). 3

She goes on to say that it can be presumed “that people called Tharu have been living in the eastern Terai for at least a millennium” (1995:190, 191).

1.2.2 Culture

Kochila Tharu culture is unique from that of their other Tharu neighbors. Boehm says they are distinguishable by dress, customs, and language (1997:19). Krauskopff agrees by saying, “Published and unpublished studies show a striking diversity from one group to another, in social organisation, rituals and religious practices, village and domestic organisation, mythology and festivals” (1995:191, 192). While on fieldwork in the Kochila Tharu areas, we noticed some differences in housing and clothing types. The scope of our research did not allow for investigation into the details of these differences. However, it should be noted that slight variations in these cultural markers may be an indication of historical differences between different groups within Kochila Tharu. Regarding religious practices, many Tharu people claim to be Hindu (Boehm 1997:27). However, “most Tharu practice an indigenous form of animism, in which shamanism, ancestor worship and tattooing play pivotal roles. This older religion has been overlaid with a veneer of Buddhism and has been influenced by Hinduism” (van Driem 2001:1167). As with cultural practices, religious practices differ from one Tharu group to another. “Ritual organisation (specifically, priesthood) also differs greatly from one group to another and even from one sub-group to another. Another striking example is the impact of the Hindu festival calendar: for the Dangauras, Dasai is the main festival, for the Ranas, it is Holi (Dasai is not really celebrated) and for the Koshila, it is the new year of Baisakh called Siruwa Pavan or Jur Sittal (Dasai is also not really important)” (Krauskopff 1995:192). While differences between groups are clear to the Tharu themselves, little has been published describing these differences. Two of the most influential and best known organizations working for the Tharu people are the Tharu Welfare Society (Tharu Kalyankarini Sabha) and the Backward Society Education (BASE). These NGOs are not exclusively Kochila Tharu organizations, but rather aim to serve all Tharu people. According to Krauskopff, “The Tharu Welfare Society was founded in 1949, an early date for an ethnic association in Nepal. Today it is the representative body of the Tharu in the Nepal Federation of Nationalities (Nepal Janajati Mahasangh)” (2007:200).

1.3 Language

Kochila Tharu [thq] is classified as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. The 2011 Nepal Census reports Tharu to be the fourth-most-spoken language in Nepal (1,529,875 speakers) though this figure includes all Tharu varieties. Kochila Tharu communities are not found in isolation, but members live in districts intermixed with speakers of other languages. “In contrast with western Terai where the Tharus are the only and dominant ethnic minority, the eastern – especially the far eastern – Terai is inhabited by several ethnic groups with very different linguistic affiliation” (Krauskopff 1995:190). Kochila speakers live among Nepali [nep] and Maithili [mai] speakers. Many Tharus living in Maithili areas claim to be ethnically Tharu but speak Maithili.1 In our research we encountered many informants that identified their mother tongue and caste as Maithili, when in fact it was Tharu. Upon further questioning, our informants seemed to be unclear about the distinction between the two. There are some Tharu people that claim to be Kochila Tharu ethnically, but call their language Saptariya Tharu. These people live in Siraha, Udayapur and Saptari districts.2 Saptariya Tharu is at this time listed in the Ethnologue as an alternative name to Kochila Tharu.

1 Ed Boehm, personal communication, 2010 2 Ed Boehm, personal communication, 2010

Kochila Tharu is currently classified on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS)3 as 5, Developing (Lewis, Simons, and Fennig 2014), meaning “The language is used for face- to-face communication by all generations and has effective educational support in parts of the community.” In this report we suggest that Kochila Tharu should be reclassified at an EGIDS level of 6a, Vigorous, meaning “The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language.” (This is discussed in Section 7.6.) It is estimated that nearly all Kochila speakers are bilingual with the exception of older women, who are generally monolingual.4

1.4 Previous research

While there has been a considerable amount of research on the Tharu people in regard to economics, religion, and customs, only a small amount of linguistic research has been published (Boehm 1997:13). In addition, much of the research done on the Tharu people focuses on the western Terai varieties and excludes Kochila Tharu in the east. In the 1970’s, R. R. Regmi published two pieces about Kochila Tharu customs and social structure. These articles (“Kosika Tharu samudaya ra tinko parivartansila saskrti” [1973] and “Kosika Tharu” [1977]) were published in Nepali and have not been translated into English. The majority of published linguistic research focuses on other Tharu varieties. Kelly Boehm (1997) has researched the vitality of Tharu and presented the results in her thesis Language Use and Language Maintenance Among the Tharu of the Indo-Nepal Terai. This research included two Kochila Tharu villages and concluded that vitality appeared to be strong at the time of her research.

2 Purpose and goals

The purpose of this survey is to obtain a basic understanding of the sociolinguistic situation of Kochila Tharu in Nepal. This survey aims to assist LinSuN, Linguistic Survey of Nepal, in fulfilling its objective of producing “a sociolinguistic profile for each of the languages of Nepal” (LinSuN Proposal 2008). The goals of this survey are to: 1. Identify the population centers and major varieties of Kochila Tharu in order to inform the scope of this sociolinguistic study. 2. Investigate the intelligibility among Kochila Tharu varieties through lexical similarity, comprehension testing, and emic perspective (that of the speakers themselves). 3. Assess the language attitudes of the major varieties of Kochila Tharu toward one another to better understand their willingness to share oral and written materials. 4. Evaluate the language vitality of Kochila Tharu in each speech community.

3 Methodology

3.1 Instruments

The following instruments were administered using Nepali or, where possible, Kochila Tharu. Probes within each of these instruments were translated into Nepali and Kochila Tharu when necessary and pilot tested prior to using them in fieldwork.

3 The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) is a convention used to classify the level of vitality held in a community or language using a 0-10 scale with 0 representing strong vitality and 10 being extinct (Lewis and Simons 2010). (See Appendix F for additional information about EGIDS). 4 Ed Boehm, personal communication, 2010 5

3.1.1 Participatory methods: Dialect mapping

This survey used one participatory methods (PM) tool: Dialect Mapping. The purpose for using PM is to gain perspective from the community regarding what they see happening with their language. PM attempts to draw out the emic perspectives of the community. Description and Purpose: The Dialect Mapping tool creates space for discussion of emic perspectives regarding dialects, their geographic location and perceived levels of comprehension between varieties. Procedure: Participants were invited to describe their linguistic landscape by identifying locations where their language is spoken. They then identified how large they perceive the differences to be between their variety and the others, their level of understanding of the varieties around them, which variety they use in conversation with people from other areas, and which variety they believe to be the standard or most broadly understood. A full description of this tool is in Appendix E. Advantages: Provides a visual representation of other communities which participants interact with, how well they feel they understand those varieties, how their language may or may not be altered in these circumstances, and their attitudes about other varieties. Disadvantages: May seem complicated or redundant, but each step contributes to a fuller picture of the local perception of the language situation. Emic perspectives do not always match linguistic reality.

3.1.2 Wordlists

Description and Purpose: Wordlists are compared in order to estimate the degree of lexical similarity between the speech varieties the wordlists represent. Procedure: Wordlists were elicited using Nepali from mother tongue Kochila Tharu speakers and transcribed by the researchers using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Each pair of wordlists was compared item by item to determine whether the responses were the same or different. The number of items with the same response divided by the total number of wordlist items is the degree of lexical similarity, usually expressed as a percentage. Advantages: Data collection is relatively efficient. Wordlists can provide some broad insights into possible dialect groupings. Disadvantages: Above certain levels of lexical similarity, wordlists cannot give conclusive evidence of intelligibility between speech varieties compared.

3.1.3 Recorded text test (RTT)

Description and Purpose: Subjects listen to recorded stories in another speech variety than their own, with comprehension questions within the stories. After the subject listens to a story, questions regarding language attitudes and self-reported intelligibility are asked. Procedure: A narrative story was collected from a native Kochila Tharu speaker. It was then played for people in other Kochila communities, who were not told the story’s place of origin. As subjects listened to the story, they answered comprehension questions (recorded in their own dialect) about the story. After listening to the story, subjects then answered questions about their understanding of and opinions toward the speech variety used by the storyteller. The tests were first administered in the community the storyteller is from to ensure the speech sample was representative for that variety. This is referred to as the home town test (HTT). Complete procedures for RTT administration are found in Appendix B. Advantages: By using actual samples of selected speech varieties, an initial assessment of intelligibility and attitudes can be made. Disadvantages: This test can be time consuming to develop. The type of RTT used in this survey only evaluates basic understanding of narrative texts. In addition it does not measure reading and writing ability in the second variety. 6

3.1.4 Knowledgeable insider interview (KII)

Description and Purpose: The prepared interview is specifically designed for someone the community views as the most knowledgeable regarding information about their language and community. Procedure: Questions range from specific population estimates and locations to general information about vitality and other languages spoken by the community. Community members should lead the researcher to the best-suited person, which, ideally, shows their trust in this person as the community expert on the topic of language. Advantages: This interview is useful for obtaining information at the village level. Disadvantages: Information is from only one person and therefore may be skewed to their particular view.

3.1.5 Informal interviews

Description and Purpose: A prepared interview schedule guides interaction in order to gather information regarding specific sociolinguistic issues, while allowing freedom to wander from the schedule if it provides additional information relevant to the research questions of the survey. Procedure: An example of this procedure would be asking “What language do you usually speak with your children?” If the interviewee responds with two or more languages, follow-up questions such as “Do you speak one of these languages more often than the other?” might be asked. This allows the interviews to focus more on patterns of language use (and their impact on language vitality and shift) than on other topics, such as generalized trends of multilingualism. Advantages: Depending on the length of the interview, the time in administration can be minimal, allowing for relatively large numbers of people to be interviewed. The informal nature of the interviews helps subjects feel comfortable and share openly, while allowing greater depth and providing context for their responses. Disadvantages: Informal interviews are limited in that subjects may only report what they want the researcher to hear, or what they believe the researcher would like to hear.

3.2 Site selection

Dialect Mapping was performed in Kathmandu with a group of Kochila Tharu speakers from various districts in order to gain an initial assessment of the districts where Kochila Tharu is spoken. Based on the results of these Dialect Mapping facilitations, three districts were chosen for testing: Bara, Siraha, and Morang. RTT stories were collected and home town tested in Bara and Morang districts. RTTs, wordlists, knowledgeable insider interviews, and informal interviews were administered in all three districts. Additional details regarding site selection considerations can be found in section 4.

3.3 Subject selection

The quota sampling used in this survey was based on the four variables of gender, age, education, and geographic location, as these factors are known to influence language use and attitudes. People in these demographic groups often have varying levels of exposure to other languages and therefore different attitudes. In each test site, a minimum of 10 RTTs were administered to a sample of Kochila Tharu speakers stratified by gender and 12 informal interviews stratified by age and gender. The informal interview sample distribution is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Sample size for informal interviews in each site by age and gender

Age Sample size by strata Total Young (15-34) Old (35+) Male 3 3 6 Gender Female 3 3 6 Total 6 6 12

Within these demographic groups, we required subjects to meet four screening criteria for participation in wordlists and the RTT: 1. Subject has grown up in the village under study, lives there now, and if they have lived elsewhere, it was not for a significant amount of recent time.5 2. Subject has at least one parent from the mother-tongue region being compared. 3. Subject has at least one parent from the village under study and that parent spoke the mother-tongue (L1) with them. 4. Subject speaks L1 first and best. For informal interviews (Section 3.1.4) we required that only criteria numbers one and two be met in order for a subject to be eligible. Educational background was accounted for during data collection. Due to the high levels of education in the data collection sites, most subjects were educated. For this analysis, literate persons are classified as educated, which generally corresponds with the completion of primary level four. Because most subjects are educated, analysis was not stratified by education.

4 Location of speakers

In order to appropriately address the goals of this survey (intelligibility among dialects, attitudes, and language vitality), we first had to identify the geographic locations of the major varieties of Kochila Tharu. Only after identifying the locations of the major varieties were we able to appropriately choose sites to administer the research tools. Because little has been published on the different varieties of Kochila Tharu, the first goal of this survey, to identify major varieties, was foundational in accomplishing the other goals of this research. A Dialect Mapping facilitation provided first-hand reports of the major varieties, their approximate locations and populations. The six participants in this facilitation were from three districts: Rautahat, Sunsari, and Morang. The complete results from this facilitation are in Appendix E. Through Dialect Mapping, participants identified three major groupings, which we will refer to throughout this report as western, central, and eastern. These titles of western, central, and eastern are for the purposes of this report only. The area of the western variety consisted of Parsa, Bara, Rautahat, and Sarlahi districts. The central grouping comprised Mahottari, Dhanusa, Siraha, Udayapur, and Saptari districts. Sunsari and Morang districts contained the eastern variety. We were told that the Kochila Tharu spoken in Jhapa was different from the other three, but that there are relatively few speakers living there. Map 2 shows the districts of these reported varieties.

Map 2. Reported varieties of Kochila Tharu

Map adapted by Janel Swenson from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nepal_zones- noname.svg, created by Summitraj and RaviC. Accessed December 15, 2014. Used with permission.

5 It is difficult to define a specific time period (e.g. more than the last five years) for “a significant amount of recent time.” Thus, this criterion is intentionally subjective as it depends on how long the subject lived elsewhere and how long they have been back in the village relative to their age.

Dialect Mapping participants also helped identify major population concentrations within these areas by noting if each district had “many,” “some,” or “few” Kochila Tharu speakers. We compared these responses with the population figures from the 2001 Nepal Census6 of Tharu speakers by district. Table 2 shows the population estimate of the participants as well as the population figures from the census.

Table 2. Reported (Participatory Tools) and Census populations of Kochila Tharu speakers by district

Variety District Where Spoken Reported Population Census Population7 Parsa Many 3,430 Bara Many 40,059 Western Rautahat Many 13,434 Sarlahi Some 7,809 Mahottari Some 2,461 Dhanusa Few 109 Central Siraha Some 17,951 Udayapur Few 21,004 Saptari Some 95,882 Sunsari Many 97,630 Eastern Morang Many 61,232 Jhapa Jhapa Few 5,684

After comparing the data, one district from each of the identified speech varieties was chosen, taking into consideration districts where there were large speaker populations reported as well as available contacts in those districts. The three districts chosen for testing were Bara, Siraha, and Morang. For purposes of this survey it was decided that research done in any one variety area (western, central, or eastern) would be grouped together. Meaning, testing done in one district within the identified three varieties would be assumed to represent attitudes and intelligibility of the other districts of that variety. For example Bara and Rautahat would represent the same variety. Similarly, research in both Sunsari and Morang districts would be grouped as eastern.

5 Intelligibility

The second goal of this research was to investigate intelligibility among Kochila Tharu varieties. Intelligibility was examined through the use of Dialect Mapping facilitations, wordlist comparison, recorded text testing, and post-RTT questions. This data confirms that the western, central, and eastern varieties are in fact varieties of Kochila Tharu and not separate languages. Intelligibility between varieties could be high enough for sharing language-based materials, although extensibility testing during material development is recommended to further examine if materials developed in certain Kochila Tharu varieties would be acceptable to other Kochila Tharu varieties. This chapter is divided into sections that discuss the results for each tool.

5.1 Dialect mapping results

Dialect Mapping was facilitated by researchers in 16 villages throughout the Kochila Tharu area. These facilitations led to a basic understanding of how well those Kochila Tharu speakers believe

6 This type of data is not yet available in the 2011 Census stratified by district. Therefore, the data reported here is from the 2001 Census. 7 The reported population may include individuals who were reported as Tharu speakers, not specifically speakers of Kochila Tharu. Some Tharu people may also have reported themselves as members of other communities such as Maithili or Nepali. 9 they understand speakers of Kochila Tharu from other areas. (A description of the procedures for Dialect Mapping as well as complete results are available in Appendix E). Some generalizations can be made based on the data reported by those Kochila Tharu speakers that participated in the facilitations. First is the affirmation that the variety of Tharu spoken in the districts between Parsa and Jhapa, including Udayapur, is seen as one language, though variation was reported within the one language. Secondly, participants understand the districts lying closest to their own district; the farther away the district, the less they understand.

5.2 Lexical similarity

Lexical similarity is a measure of the relative similarity of a sample of words from two speech varieties. Similarity percentages are determined by calculating the percentage of words in one speech variety that are pronounced the same as or similar to the words in another speech variety. Specifically, this survey used the comparison method outlined in Blair (1990). Lexical similarity percentages below 60% reliably indicate that two wordlists represent different languages, while lexical similarity percentages above 90% reliably indicate that two wordlists represent the same language. Lexical similarity scores between 60% and 90%, however, fall in a gray area, which requires intelligibility testing to confirm whether the varieties are dialects of the same language or if they are different languages (Blair 1990:24). Lexical similarity is further explained in Appendix A.

Table 3. Lexical similarity percentages matrix

Western

(Bara) Central 73% (Siraha) Eastern 65% 70% (Morang)

The lexical similarity percentages between the three Kochila Tharu varieties of this survey are displayed in Table 3. As shown, percentages vary from 65% to 73%. No comparison falls below the cutoff (60%) where they would be considered separate languages. Lexical similarity follows a geographic pattern of the central variety having similar results for the eastern and western varieties, while the similarity percentage between the eastern and western varieties is slightly lower. Lexical similarity comparisons provide no conclusive evidence for considering the western, central, and eastern varieties to be different languages, and intelligibility testing was needed to assess intelligibility between these varieties. Lexical similarity comparisons further confirm the differentiation between Kochila Tharu and other Tharu languages. Wordlists collected in October 2011 in Dangaura Tharu and its closely related varieties of Deukhuri, Desauriya, and Malhoriya, as well as Kathoriya Tharu were compared to this survey’s 268-item wordlists (Eichentoptf and Mitchell 2012). Similarity percentages were all below the generally accepted cutoff of 60%, showing the significant difference between the languages. The full lexical similarity percentages matrix is in Appendix A.

5.3 Intelligibility testing results

Recorded Text Testing (RTT) was used to evaluate comprehension between the varieties of Kochila Tharu. One RTT was developed in the eastern variety (Morang district) and one in the western variety (Bara and Rautahat districts). Further description of the testing procedure can be found in Appendix B. Table 4 displays the results of the intelligibility tests. The highlighted sections display the results of the hometown test (HTT), whereas the others are RTT results. 10

Table 4. RTT results

Test Location Story Western Central Eastern Avg % 86%8 64% 67% Western SD 7.5 19.0 16.2 (Bara/Rautahat) n= 15 10 13 Avg % 65% 65% 90% Eastern SD 15.1 15.8 11.1 (Morang) n= 10 10 14

In order to interpret RTT results properly, three pieces of information are necessary. The first is average percentage (shown as Avg % in Table 4), which is the mean or average of all subjects’ individual scores on a particular story at a particular test site. Another important piece of information is a measure of how much individual scores vary from the community average, which is knows as standard deviation (shown as SD in Table 4). The third important component of the data is the size of the sample of people tested on each story (shown as n= in Table 4). Blair (1990: 25) has written about the relationship between test scores and their standard deviation, as seen in Table 5.

Table 5: Relationship between test averages and standard deviation

Standard Deviation High Low Situation 1 Situation 2 High Many people understand the story Most people understand the story. well, but some have difficulty. Average Score Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand Few people are able to understand Low the story, but a few are able to the story. answer correctly.

In general, average RTT scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations (usually ten and below; high standard deviations are about 15 and above) are taken to indicate that the subjects from the test point display adequate comprehension of the variety represented by the recording. However, RTT average scores lower than 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate comprehension. When the western RTT was administered to Kochila Tharu speakers in Morang (east), the average score was 67%. The standard deviation was 16.2. When administered in Siraha (central), the average score was 64% with a high standard deviation of 19.0.9 These results, as seen in Table 5, show low average scores with high standard deviation, which means that many people cannot understand the story, but a few are able to answer correctly. There is no apparent correlation between RTT scores and the factor of gender. The scores for the eastern RTT were similar to the western RTT. When administered in the western and central varieties, both locations scored an average of 65% with high standard deviations of 15.1 (western) and 15.8 (central). This shows, like the testing on the western RTT, that many people cannot understand the story, but a few are able to answer correctly. Again, the factor of

8 HTT scores as close to 100% as possible are ideal with a cutoff of 90%. The HTT scores on these stories were lower than expected. We found that many subjects had difficulty understanding testing procedures, which lowered the average score. Despite this, we used the test and believe the information was still accurate and useful at the time of writing. A more complete description of HTT principles is found in Appendix B. 9 One subject from the central variety (C3S08) scored considerably lower than the other respondents; their score was 18% whereas the next lowest score was 55%. Due to the abnormally low score of this individual, concerns were raised as to if there were distractions or confusion during test taking. If this informant is removed from the sample, the average score moves from 67% to 70% and the standard deviation lowers from 16.2 to 10.1. This does not significantly change the conclusions from the test. 11 gender does not appear to correlate with RTT scores, although women tended to score slightly higher than men in both test locations (72% average score for women versus 58% for men in both locations). Overall, RTT scores suggest that the test takers had a difficult time understanding the stories they heard. This data shows that intelligibility of the eastern variety by speakers of the western variety is very similar to the intelligibility of the western variety by speakers of the eastern variety.

5.4 Post-RTT questions

Post-RTT questions were used to corroborate participants’ understanding of the RTTs. After each RTT we asked “How much of the story did you understand?” Four response options were provided: All, most, half, and less than half. Following the eastern RTT, in both western and central locations, the majority of respondents felt they understood all or most of the story (shown in Table 6). Only two respondents in each location answered differently.

Table 6. Self-reported intelligibility after hearing eastern RTT

Variety Western Central n= 11 12 All 36% 42% Most 45% 42% Half - 17% Less than Half 9% - Other 9% -

Following the western RTT, most respondents from the central area felt they understood all of the story (62%) while the majority of respondents from the east felt they understood most of the story (69%). Self-reported intelligibility suggests that all varieties understand the eastern and western varieties most of the time.

5.5 Intelligibility summary

Dialect Mapping facilitations and lexical similarity comparisons show that the western, central and eastern varieties are in fact varieties and not languages independent from one another. RTT scores on both tests (eastern and western) show that many people cannot understand the story, but a few are able to answer correctly, and that intelligibility of eastern and western varieties are similar. Despite relatively low RTT scores, self-reported intelligibility shows that all varieties understand the eastern and western varieties most of the time. This suggests that respondents feel they understand more than test results show.

6 Attitudes

Assessing the language attitudes between people representing these Kochila Tharu varieties is an important aspect of this sociolinguistic research. Understanding how Kochila Tharu people in the various areas view themselves and others provides a guide for how to assist with any future language-based projects. In order to assess attitudes, we used post-RTT questions as well as various questions on the informal interview. 12

6.1 Post-RTT questions

After informants listened to the western and eastern stories, they were asked if they thought the way the speaker spoke Tharu was pure or not. Responses are shown in Table 7 (HTT results are highlighted).

Table 7. Positive responses to question whether RTT stories contained “pure” Kochila Tharu

Variety Story Western Central Eastern n= 17 13 16 Western Yes 88% 77% 13% n= 11 12 15 Eastern Yes 9% 58% 100%

For both the eastern RTT when played in the west and the western RTT when played in the east, the majority of respondents felt the Kochila Tharu speech sample was not pure. However, in the central location, the majority of respondents reported that the speech samples were pure Kochila Tharu; 77% of respondents said the western speech sample was pure and 58% reported the eastern speech sample as pure. This suggests that the central variety community views both the western and eastern as pure most of the time. It also shows that the central variety community views the western variety as more pure than the eastern variety for these speech samples. After each RTT we also asked, “Is the speech in the story the same, a little different, or very different from the language here?” The majority of respondents identified other varieties as “a little different” from their own. The exceptions to this were the respondents in the west after listening to the eastern RTT story who reported the variety as “very different” (45%) followed by those assessing it “a little different” (27%). Very few respondents reported that the speech varieties they heard from other locations was the “same” as their own. The highest average for respondents reporting “same” were central informants after listening to the western speech sample (38%). This data suggests that speakers from the central variety feel the western variety is more similar to their own than the eastern variety. The post-RTT data suggests that the eastern and western variety speakers recognize differences in their way of speaking Kochila Tharu. It also suggests that the central variety speakers may see their variety as more similar to the western variety.

6.2 Contact and attitudes

Informal interviews were used to inquire about contact and attitudes between the eastern, central, and western speech communities. Informants were first asked if they had ever spoken to Kochila Tharu speakers from the other speech communities. Table 8 shows the extent informants reported interacting with speakers of other varieties.

Table 8. Reported contact between speakers of various Kochila Tharu varieties

Respondents who reported contact with Kochila Tharu speakers from… Bara/Rautahat (western) 8/29 Siraha (central) 14/31 Morang (eastern) 9/29

The responses indicated that contact between speakers of the different varieties is low (30/89). Because of low interaction between speakers of the different varieties, Table 8 is not stratified by test location. Of the total 30 respondents who had interacted to some extent with speakers of other varieties, only 6 were female. Those 30 respondents were also asked if their own speech is the same, a little different, or very different from that of the speakers of the varieties they encountered. Results of this second question are shown in Table 9. 13

Table 9. Responses regarding degree of difference between varieties

Is the way people speak who are from ….. the same, a little

different, or very different from people here? Bara/Rautahat Siraha (central) Morang (eastern) (western) n= 8 14 9 Little different 13% 50% 78% Very different 88% 43% 11% Other - 7% 11%

It is important to note that no correlation was found between the test site of the respondents and their responses to this question. That is why the demographic of test location is not included in Table 9. There are several noteworthy things from Table 9. The first is that the response “same” is not included in the chart. This is because no respondents reported that the speakers they encountered spoke the same as them. Secondly, the majority of people from the central and eastern areas reported that the western variety is very different from their own. And the majority of the western and central speakers reported the eastern variety as a little different. This data is opposite from that found through intelligibility testing and self-reported intelligibility. Lastly, opinions toward the central variety are split between a little different and very different. The last question these 30 informants answered was how the other speakers’ Kochila Tharu made them feel. No respondents reported negative attitudes, suggesting no negative attitudes are held toward any of the varieties. Overall, little contact was reported between speakers of the different varieties. Of those who have interacted with speakers of other varieties, differences in their speech were reported. The western variety was reported as the most different. Despite differences, no one interviewed expressed negative attitudes toward the other varieties.

6.3 Attitudes summary

Post-RTT data shows that speakers of the eastern and western varieties recognize differences in their way of speaking. Contact appears to be low between the speakers of the different varieties of Kochila Tharu. When interaction has occurred between speakers of the different varieties, differences in their way of speaking are reported; however, negative attitudes were not reported. There is conflicting data making it difficult to determine if speakers of the central variety identify more closely with the eastern or western variety of Kochila Tharu.

7 Language vitality

The language vitality of Kochila Tharu appears to be high. The majority of informal interview respondents (91%) reported that of the various languages they may speak, they speak Kochila Tharu best. This, combined with the factors of domains of language use, intergenerational transfer, the extent the language is used for reading and writing, contextual factors, and the communities’ desires for language-based development, suggests high language vitality for these communities and an EGIDS level of 6a: Vigorous. As mentioned in section 1.3 the current EGIDS classification is 5: Developing, meaning “The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and has effective educational support in parts of the community.” However, because Kochila Tharu does not have educational support, this report recommends a reclassification to an EGIDS level of 6a: Vigorous, meaning “The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language.”

7.1 Domains of language use

Language use in the domain of the home is one of the most significant factors in language vitality. Children learning and using the mother tongue at home is an indicator of strong language vitality. 14

The use of Kochila Tharu in the home is high among all generations in the communities visited during this research. The majority of respondents (above 92%) reported that they use Kochila Tharu with their grandparents, parents, spouse (if married), and children in their own home. This shows very strong use of the mother tongue in the home domain within all generations. Within the domain of education, village leaders reported that children speak Kochila Tharu (or their own mother tongue) with other children, while in school. This is in contrast to the language used by the teachers for instruction, which is primarily Nepali. Although Nepali is used for instruction, explanations are sometimes given to the children in Kochila Tharu for easier understanding. In one school we visited in Morang district, we were told that non-Tharu teachers occasionally need assistance from Kochila Tharu speaking teachers to explain things. The ethnic make-up of teachers in all the areas we visited was mixed. While the language of education is Nepali, the fact that children do not speak Nepali before arriving at school suggests high vitality for Kochila Tharu. Another important domain of language use is village events, such as weddings and meetings. Village leaders in each of the varieties were asked what language is usually used for these events in their village. Regarding weddings, three of the four leaders said that their village uses Kochila Tharu for weddings. The other said that they use Nepali, Kochila Tharu, and Sanskrit for weddings. When asked about village meetings, these leaders said they usually use Kochila Tharu, although one of the four leaders said they use Nepali and Kochila Tharu equally. This further indicates high vitality in the communities. Religion is another domain of language use. The majority of individual interview respondents (76%) reported that they use Kochila Tharu for puja (worship) in their own home. Other languages reportedly used for puja were Nepali (13%), Sanskrit (7%), and Hindi (2%). Overall, the use of Kochila Tharu appears to be high in most domains.

7.2 Intergenerational transfer

An important aspect of language vitality is the extent to which the mother tongue is being passed to the next generation, known as intergenerational transfer. The Kochila Tharu communities of this survey appear to have a high degree of intergenerational transfer from parents to children. Informal interview respondents were asked what language they hear children in the village using with other children. Table 10 shows the answers to this question stratified by location.

Table 10. Reported language use among children

When you are in the village, what language do you hear children speaking when… Playing with other Kochila Playing with children from n= Tharu children? other castes? Western 15 100% 80% Central 13 100% 77% Eastern 17 100% 47%

All respondents (45/45) reported that in the village they hear children using Kochila Tharu when playing with other Kochila Tharu children. This shows high intergenerational transfer. When playing with children of other castes10, respondents reported varying data. In the western and central locations, the majority of informants reported that they hear children using Kochila Tharu. However, in the east, they reported Kochila Tharu (47%), and Nepali (53%). Observations in each location confirm the reported frequent use of Kochila Tharu by children. Intergenerational transfer appears to be high within the communities visited during this fieldwork. Contact with other languages does not appear to affect the ability of children to learn Kochila Tharu.

10 In this report, the term ‘caste’ is used to refer to an ethnolinguistic identity. Within the scope of this survey, the term ‘caste’ is used as a translation of the Nepali term ‘jati,’ referring to one’s ethnolinguistic group. Within this frame, speakers of Kochila Tharu reported their ethnolinguistic group to be Kochila Tharu. 15

7.3 Extent of reading and writing

As mentioned in Section 7.1, Nepali is the medium of instruction for schools in Kochila Tharu areas. No village leaders that we interviewed have heard of schools using Kochila Tharu textbooks. There are some Kochila Tharu publications, including Holi Pariwar magazine (Morang) and Chirka magazine (Siraha). We also encountered several people during fieldwork that have printed and published poems in Kochila Tharu. Of the 39 informal interview respondents that can read and write, 21 (54%) reported that they can read and write in Kochila Tharu. Kochila Tharu shares a script with Nepali and Hindi, and therefore it is difficult to determine the extent to which informants are able to read and write in Kochila Tharu versus Nepali or Hindi. That question was found to be beyond the scope of this research. There are some materials available in Kochila Tharu, but the language is not used formally in educational structures or taught on a wide-scale basis.

7.4 Contextual factors

It is common that people from many different language and ethnic groups live among the Kochila Tharu communities. This was the case in the villages we visited. However, although other castes were present in the communities, based on interviews with village leaders and observations, the vast majority of these communities were primarily Kochila Tharu in ethnic make-up. The location of each village affects the amount of ethnic mixing in the community. For example, the village of Jamtoki in Morang district is located only a few kilometers from the large city of Biratnagar. Approximately half the village is said to be Kochila Tharu and half the village is comprised of other castes. This is a much higher mix of castes than other villages located away from cities.

7.5 Desires for development

Informal interviews were used to gain a better understanding of the communities’ desires for language-based development. Ninety-one percent of informal interview respondents (42/46) said that they think children in their village should learn to speak Kochila Tharu first. Those respondents were then asked why Tharu should be spoken first. The most frequent responses included that it is their own language and culture and it is what parents know and villagers use. Other responses included teaching Kochila Tharu because it is easiest, it is tradition, and that Nepali can be taught in schools after the children already know Kochila Tharu. These responses suggest that people in the communities we visited expect their language to continue being spoken and their desire is that children continue to learn Kochila Tharu as their mother tongue.

7.6 Language vitality summary

Kochila Tharu appears to be the primary language used for all oral communication in the communities we visited. The only exception to this is educational instruction, which is generally in Nepali. Children are learning Kochila Tharu within these communities. The communities we visited expressed a desire to continue using Kochila Tharu as the first language for children in their villages. There is currently no educational system for teaching how to read and write Kochila Tharu. However, there are some people within the communities who have informally published written materials. Therefore, an EGIDS level of 6a: Vigorous should be assigned to Kochila Tharu, meaning “The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language.”

8 Summary of findings and implications for language-based development

This section will specify how the findings of this research can inform and guide the community as they pursue language-based development. 16

8.1 Location of speakers

Three major varieties of Kochila Tharu were identified through this research and have been geographically identified as western, central, and eastern.

8.2 Intelligibility

Based on Dialect Mapping facilitations, lexical similarity comparisons, RTT results, and informal interview responses, we conclude that: • The Tharu spoken between the districts of Parsa and Jhapa, including Udayapur, can, at least for the present, be considered varieties of the same language: Kochila Tharu. • RTT scores show that intelligibility of the eastern variety is very similar to the intelligibility of the western variety. • RTT scores suggest many people cannot understand the test stories. • Participants felt they understood more than results of the RTT showed. This suggests that the eastern and western varieties would be comparably intelligible by speakers of the other varieties, making either suitable for language-based development. However, these scores highlight the importance of extensibility testing during language development activities.

8.3 Attitudes

Responses to informal interview questions and post-RTT questions show the following: • Speakers of the eastern and western varieties recognize significant differences in their way of speaking Kochila Tharu. • Data is conflicting whether the central variety identifies more closely with the western or eastern variety’s way of speaking. • Contact between the Kochila Tharu areas included in this research is low. • No respondents expressed negative attitudes toward other varieties of Kochila Tharu. Even though Kochila Tharu speakers recognize differences in other varieties, no negative attitudes were expressed, suggesting that any variety could be acceptable for language-based development. Conflicting data regarding whether the central variety is more similar to the western or the eastern, may indicate that dialect differences are not very pronounced.

8.4 Language vitality

Informal interviews and observation reveal that the mother tongue is the primary language used for oral communication in all the communities visited. Therefore, this research suggests the appropriate EGIDS level for Kochila Tharu is 6a, Vigorous, meaning “The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language.” There are a variety of activities which are appropriate for a community at an EGIDS level of 6a that desires language-based development. Because vitality was uniformly high across the areas we surveyed, we suggest these activities be done across the entire Kochila Tharu area. Where language-based development is desired, fundamental literacy development would be an appropriate place to begin. The development of a practical orthography combined with development of literacy acquisition materials is recommended.

8.5 Overall recommendations

As a result of the research in Kochila Tharu communities, we conclude that the Kochila Tharu communities are ready and eager to engage in language-development activities. Based on intelligibility testing and language attitude results, it appears as though the entire Kochila Tharu area could share development materials. It is not readily evident that one geographic area or district would be more advantageous over another for language-based development. The recommendation of this report is that one variety be chosen for language-based development and then tested for 17 extensibility into the other varieties. This is because lexical similarity percentages and intelligibility testing results show that, although materials may be accepted by all varieties, the varieties may be too distinct from one another for combined use in language development. Kochila Tharu communities stated that they preferred to work together with speakers from other varieties to develop language-based products. However, because of the degree of linguistic differences present between the varieties, it is our concern that collaboration may necessitate making compromises which result in speakers not viewing the product as representative of their variety. In turn, this could lead to the rejection of materials. However, we do see value in participation and communication between speakers of all varieties, when possible. This is particularly important during product testing and distribution. This report further recommends that further testing be conducted within the central variety in order to assess its potential for language development.

9 अनसꅍधानबाटु प्रा� कु राह셂को सारांश तथा भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग सझावह셂ु 11

यस ख赍डले समदायलाईु उनीह셂ले भाषामा आधािरत �वकासलाई �नरꅍतरता �ददाँ यस अनसꅍधानबाटु प्रा� कु राले कसरी जानकारी �दन र अगवाइु गन셍 स啍छ भ�े कु रा प� पाछ셍 । ८.१ भाषा बो쥍नह셂कोे थान यस अनसꅍधानद्वाराु तीन प्रमखु �क�समका को�चला था셁का �व�वधताह셂 प�हचान गिरएका छन् र भौगो�लक 셁पमा प�हचान गिरएका प��मी ( पसा셍, बारा, रौतहट, र सला셍ही �ज�ाह셁), म鵍य (महो�री, धनषाु , �सराहा, उदयपरु र स�री �ज�ाह셂) र पूव� ( सनसरीु र मोर敍 �ज�ाह셁 ) हनु ् । ८.२ बोधग륍यता थान �वशेषको भाषाको न啍शाङ्कन प्र�क्रया, श녍दसू�चह셂को तलनाु काय셍, कथा ब畍नेु �मता परी�ण र अनौपचािरक अꅍतवा셍ता셍का जवाफह셂को आधारमा हामी �न륍न �नकष셍मा प嵍यौु :ं • उदयपरसमेतु पसा셍 र झापा �ज�ाह셁 बीचमा बो�लने था셁 भाषा एउटै �क�समको भाषा होः को�चला था셁 । • कथा परी�णको प्रा�ाङ्कले पू व셍को �क�समको भाषाको र प��मको �क�समको भाषाको वोधग륍यता धेरै समान (उतै) देखाउँछ । • कथाको परी�णको प्रा�ाङ्कले परी�ागत कथा셂 धेरै मा�नसह셂ले ब畍नु स啍दैनन् भ�े देखाउँछ । • सहभागीह셂ले उनीह셂को कथाको परी�णको प्रा�ाङ्कमा देखाइएको भꅍदा धेरै ब畍नु स啍ने कु रा बताएका छन् । यसबाट यो ब�झꅍछु �क पूव� र प��मी �क�समह셂 तलना配मक셁पमाु अꅍय �क�समकाह셂द्वारा वोधग륍य हꅍछनु ् र भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग जनैु प�न उपय�ु हꅍछनु ् । जे होस्, यी प्रा�ाङ्कह셂ले भाषा �वकासको �क्रयाकलापह셂 हदाुँ �वततताृ परी�णको मह配वमा जोड �दꅍछ । ८.३ मनोवृ��ह셁 अनौपचािरक अꅍतवा셍ता셍का प्र�नह셂 र प�छका परी�ागत कथाका प्र�नह셂का जवाफह셂ले �न륍न कु राह셂 देखाउँछन्ः • पू व셍को र प��मको �क�समको को�चला था셁 बो쥍ने तिरकाह셂मा प� �भ�ताह셂 भएको मा�नꅍछ । • बीचको �क�समको बो쥍ने तिरका, प��मको �क�समको बो쥍ने तिरका �क पू व셍को �क�समको बो쥍ने तिरका�सत बढी न�जक छ भ�े बारेमा त镍याङ्क बा�झꅍछ । • यस अनसꅍधानमाु समावेश गिरएका को�चला था셁 �ेत्रह셂 बीचमा स 륍 प क셍 कम छ । • को�चला था셁 बो쥍नेह셂लाई सो�धएको प्र�नको जवाफमा कु नै �क�समको बोली बो쥍नेले प�न अक� �क�समको बोली बो쥍ने बारे नकारा配मक मनोव��ृ प्रकट गरेनन् । यद्य�प को�चला था셁 बो쥍नेह셁ले अ셁 �क�समका बोलीह셂मा �भ�ता थाहा पाउँछन्, भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग कु नै एउटा �क�समको भाषालाई त ो के र 配यही नै �क�समको बोली वीकाय셍 हꅍछु भनेर अꅍय कु नै प�न �क�समको बोली बारे नकारा配मक मनोव��ृ प्रकट गरेका छै नन् । बीचको �क�समको बोली प��मको �क�समको�सत �क पू व셍को �क�समको�सत न�जक छ भ�े बारेमा बा�झएको त镍याङ्कले थान �वशेषको भाषाको �भ�ताले 配य�त धेरै मह配व रा奍दैन भ�े स ं के त �दन स啍छ । ८.४ भाषाको सजीवता अनौपचािरक अꅍतवा셍ता셍 र अ鵍ययन गदा셍 सबै भ्रमण गिरएका समदायह셂माु मौ�खक संचारका ला�ग प्रयोग गन� प्रयखु भाषा उनीह셂को मातभाषाृ नै हो भ�े दे�खꅍछ । अतः यस अनसꅍधानलेु को�चला था셁को उपय�ु प्रयोग तर सश� छ भ�े देखाउँछ, अथा셍त “यो भाषा सबै पताकाह셂द्वाराु प्र配य�셁पमा संचार गन셍का ला�ग प्रयोग गिरꅍछ र बालबा�लकाद्वारा उनीह셂को प�हलो भाषाको 셁पमा �स啍दै आएका छन् ।” हामीले सव ��ण गरेका स륍पूण셍 �ेत्रभिर

11 All Nepali translations in this report were translated by Krishna Rana. 18

भाषाको सजीवता एकै셁पले उ� भएको हदाुँ , भाषामा आधािरत �वकास ग�त�व�धह셂 सारा को�चला था셁 �ेत्रभिर संचालन गिरयोस् भ�े हाम्रो सझावु छ । भाषामा आधािरत �वकास अपे�ा गिरएको ठाउँमा, आधारभूत सा�रता �वकास श셁ु गन셍 उपय�ु ठाउँ हनेछु । सा�रता �स啍ने र 녍यावहािरक �ह煍जे �स啍ने सामग्रीह셂को संय�ु 셁पमा �वकास गन셍 �सफािरश गिरꅍछ । ८.५ समग्रमा �शफािरस को�चला था셁 समदायह셂माु गिरएको अनसꅍधानकोु पिरणामव셁प, हामीले को�चला था셁 समदायह셂ु भाषा �वकास �क्रयाकलापमा सिरक हनु तयार र इ楍छुक छन् भ�े �न�कष셍 �नकालेका छौ ं । बोधग륍यता जाचँ तथा भा�षक मनोव��कोृ पिरणामको आधारमा स륍पूण셍 को�चला था셁 �ेत्रमा एउटै �क�समका �वकास सामग्रीह셂 प्रयोग गन셍 स�कने जतै दे�खꅍछ । भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग कु नै एउटा भौगो�लक �ेत्र वा �ज�ा अक�भꅍदा फाइदाजनक भएको प� प्रमाण पाइदैनँ । यस प्र�तवेदनको �सफािरश यो हो �क कु नै एउटा �क�समलाई भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका ला�ग छा�नयोस् र तब अका셍 �क�समकाह셂मा �वतार काय셍का ला�ग जाचँ गिरयोस् । शा�녍दक समानता प्र�तशत तथा बोधग륍यता जाचकोँ पिरणामले यो देखाउने हनालेु , सबै �क�समकाद्वारा सामग्री वीकार गरेताप�न, भाषा �वकासमा संय�셁पमाु प्रयोग गन셍का ला�ग ती �क�समह셂 एक-अका셍मा धेरै �भ� हनु स啍छ । य�द सबै �क�समकाह셂 बीचमा भाषामा आधािरत �वकासका सामग्रीह셂मा सहयोग भयो भने, यो स륍भव छ �क ती �क�समका भाषाह셂 बो쥍नेह셂ले ती सामग्रीह셂मा अपन配व दे奍ने छै नन् र ती सामग्रीह셂लाई इꅍकार गन �छन् । यद्य�प यस प्र�तवेदनले कु नै एउटा �क�समको बोलीमा पूरा सामग्री तयार पान셍 �सफािरश गद셍छ, स륍भव भएको ख赍डमा, सबै �क�समकाह셂 बीचमा सहभा�गता तथा संचार गन셍 ु मू쥍यवान् हꅍछु । सामग्री जाचँ तथा �वतरणको अवसरमा यो �वशेषगरी मह配वपूण셍 हꅍछु । Appendix A: Wordlists

A.1 International Phonetic Alphabet chart

19 20

A.2 Lexical similarity comparison procedures

For a lexical similarity count, the wordlists are compared, in order to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two are rather similar. The criteria applied are:

Category 1

• Consonants (consonant-like) segments which match exactly • Vowels (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar consonant segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones, such as difference in only one articulatory feature) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words

Category 2

• All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words

Category 3

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item

Other criteria used specifically for the analysis of this survey are:

• Aspirated and unaspirated sounds are considered as category one • Nasalised vowels considered as similar with nasal consonants (i.e. /ũ/ and /n/) • Double consonants were considered one segment (i.e. /p/ and /pp/) • Retroflex and alveolar sounds that were otherwise the same, were considered similar (i.e. /ɖ/ and /d/) • Dipthongs were counted as one segment • /ɹ/, /ɾ/, and /r/ were all counted as similar due to transcription difficulties with these sounds • Palatalized stops (such as /kʲ/) were regarded as equivalent to their non-palatalized counterparts • Interconsonantal /ə/ was disregarded • Due to variation during transcription, /ɑ/, /a/, and /ə/ were all counted as similar. • An increase in the number of segments in category 3 is permitted if it is compensated by an increase in the number of segments in category 1 (see Table 11).

Table 11. Word length and lexical similarity

Word Category Category Category Length One Two Three 2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar, according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. For verbs, two different forms were elicited: the simple past for third person singular and the imperative for second person singular. This was done to identify a common root morpheme, rather than comparing the words as a whole. The common root morpheme was used for the comparison. During the process of wordlist elicitation, the researcher transcribes the words phonetically by using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The transcriptions should be done as accurately as possible. It would be best if only one person did the transcriptions, because each field worker eliciting words may hear and transcribe the sounds slightly differently. Wordlists for this survey were collected by multiple researchers. Therefore, in order to maintain accuracy, after the actual wordlist collection, the researchers listened to the recorded wordlists to account for and unify in notation all the variations that were thought to represent the same sound but marked in different ways. The Tharu varieties of this survey do not use tone, therefore tone was not considered during transcription and comparison. Some elicited words were excluded from the lexicostatistic count. Tharu and Nepali numbers use the same lexical term. In some cases, slight variation from the Nepali pronunciation were given. Clearly loan words, these words were not considered in the comparison. A few items were disqualified because of doubts as to whether people had really given a word with the same meaning. Those entries were disqualified in order to eliminate potential skewing. The final word count of the comparisons in this report were between 266 and 268 lexical items.

A.3 Wordlist biodata

Rautahat (West) Siraha (Central) Morang (East) 1. Informed Consent Given Given Given 3. Date 5-Apr-13 28-Apr-13 28-Feb-13 4. Village, District Simara, Rautahat Jahadi, Siraha Gidhaniya, Morang 5. Interviewer Jessica Mitchell Stephanie Eichentopf Jessica Mitchell 6. Language of elicitation Nepali Nepali Nepali 7. Language of responsea Nepali Nepali Nepali 8. Interpreter N/A N/A N/A 9. Sex Male Male Male 10. Name JRC RSC DBT 11. Age 51 48 59 12. Caste Tharu Tharu Tharu 13. Religion Hindu Hindu Hindu 14. Occupation Farmer Teacher Farmer 15. Have you ever been to Yes Yes No school? 15a. (If yes) Up to which 8 Plus 2 N/A class? 16. Mother tongue Tharu Tharu Tharu 17. Birthplace Simara Jahadi Gidhaniya 18. Where do you live now? Simara Jahadi Gidhaniya 19. How long have you been 51 years 48 years 59 years living there/here? 20. Have you lived anywhere else for more than No No No a year? 21. Where is your father Simara Jahadi Gidhaniya from? 22. Father’s mother tongue Tharu Tharu Tharu 23. What language did your father usually speak to you Tharu Tharu Tharu when you were a child? 24. Where is your mother Padari, Bara Jahadi Gakhuwa from? 25. Mother’s mother tongue Tharu Tharu Tharu 26. What language did your mother usually speak to you Tharu Tharu Tharu when you were a child? Tharu, Nepali, Tharu, Nepali, 27. What language(s) can Tharu, Nepali, English, Hindi, English, Hindi, you speak? English, Hindi Maithili Maithili 28. Which language do you a. Tharu b. Maithili a. Tharu b. Nepali c. a. Nepali b. Tharu c. speak best (a), second best c. Nepali Hindi Hindi (b), and third best (c)? a Interview questions were responded to in Nepali, with interpreters available for further explanation as needed.

A.4 Wordlist data, similarity grouping, and English and Nepali prompts

These three 268-item wordlists from Kochila Tharu villages were compared with five other wordlists collected in October 2011 from Dangaura Tharu and its closely related varieties (Deukhuri, Desauriya, and Malhoriya), as well as Kathariya Tharu. The comparison shown here only displays the data from the three Kochila Tharu wordlists of this survey. The grouping numbers used here are from the complete comparison of all eight wordlists and therefore may appear incomplete. The similarity percentage matrix for all eight wordlists is in Appendix A.5 following the Kochila Tharu comparison. Verbs were elicited in third person past and informal imperative in order to determine the verb root for comparison. Only the third person past form is displayed in the comparison.

Abbreviations: IPA – International Phonetic Alphabet N/A – Not applicable

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 1 body जीउ dʒiu Morang (East) a:ŋ 3 Bara (West) dehə 2 Siraha (Central) dehə 2

2 head टाउको ʈauko Morang (East) muɾa 2 3 Bara (West) muɾ 3 Siraha (Central) muri 2 3

3 hair कपाल kʌpal Morang (East) dʒɔʈə 3 Bara (West) kʰẽⁱs 4 Siraha (Central) kʲes 4

4 face अनहारु / मखु ʌnuhar / mukʰ Morang (East) ənuhər 3 Bara (West) rupʰ 4 Siraha (Central) mũ 1

5 eye आखाँ ãkha Morang (East) ãkʰ 1 Bara (West) ãkʰ 1 Siraha (Central) əⁱkʰ 1

6 ear कान kan Morang (East) kan 1 Bara (West) kan 1 Siraha (Central) kan 1

7 nose नाक nak Morang (East) nãk 1 Bara (West) nak 1 Siraha (Central) nak 1

8 mouth मखु mukh Morang (East) mũkʰ 3 Bara (West) mũ 1 Siraha (Central) mũ (see face) 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 9 lips ओठ oʈh Morang (East) ʈʰor 3 Bara (West) õʈ 1 Siraha (Central) ʈʰɔr 3

10 tooth दातँ dãt Morang (East) d̪ãʈ 1 Bara (West) dãʈ 1 Siraha (Central) dãt 1

11 tongue �जब्रो dʒibɾo Morang (East) dʒʰiha 3 Bara (West) dʒiu 2 Siraha (Central) dʒi 2

12 chest छाती tʃʰati Morang (East) tʃʰat̪i 1 Bara (West) sati 1 Siraha (Central) tʃati 1

13 belly/stomach पेट peʈ Morang (East) pet 1 Bara (West) peʈ 1 Siraha (Central) peʈ 1

14 waist क륍म र kʌmːʌr Morang (East) ɖãɖə 3 Bara (West) ɖãr 3 Siraha (Central) dãr 3

15 whole arm हात hat Morang (East) hat̪ 1 Bara (West) hatʰ 1 Siraha (Central) hatʰ 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping ku(h)ino / 16 elbow कु �हनो / कु �हना Morang (East) kaunhi 1 ku(h)ina Bara (West) kehuni 1 Siraha (Central) kəhuni 1

17 palm ह 配 के ल ा hatkela Morang (East) tərhəti 3 Bara (West) tʰərhəʈi 3 Siraha (Central) tərəhəti 3

18 finger औलां ʌᵘla Morang (East) jɛŋur 1 Bara (West) əŋuri 3 Siraha (Central) ɔ̃ŋgəri 2 3

19 fingernail नङ nʌŋ Morang (East) nɔ̃hə 2 3 Bara (West) nũha 3 Siraha (Central) nɔ̃ʰ 1

20 leg खट्टाु khuʈʈa Morang (East) ʈʲaŋ 3 Bara (West) gɔr 1 Siraha (Central) ʈaŋ 3

21 knee घडाुँ gʰũɖa Morang (East) həʈʰun 1 Bara (West) ʈʰehun 2 3 Siraha (Central) tʰɛŋghun 2

22 skin छाला tʃhala Morang (East) ɖʰəla 1 Bara (West) sala 1 Siraha (Central) tʃala 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 23 bone हाड haɖ Morang (East) həɖ̚ɖi 2 Bara (West) həɖ̚ɖi 2 Siraha (Central) har 2

24 heart मटु ु muʈu Morang (East) muʈ̚ʈu 1 Bara (West) kɔ̃rh 2 Siraha (Central) muʈu 1

25 blood रगत ɾʌgʌt Morang (East) ləhu 3 Bara (West) lehu 3 Siraha (Central) ləhu 3

26 urine �पसाब pisab/p Morang (East) mut 1 Bara (West) mut 1 Siraha (Central) mũt 1

27 feces �दसा disa Morang (East) gũ 1 Bara (West) gũh (ə) 1 Siraha (Central) gũ 1

28 village गाउँ gaũ Morang (East) gã 1 Bara (West) gaũ 1 Siraha (Central) gam 1

29 house घर ghʌr Morang (East) gʰar 1 Bara (West) gʰar 1 Siraha (Central) ghar 1

30 roof छाना tʃana Morang (East) tʃəpəra 1 Bara (West) sanhi 4 Siraha (Central) tʃãⁱ 5

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 31 door ढोका ɖhoka Morang (East) kʲewar 2 Bara (West) kewari 2 Siraha (Central) kʲewar 2

32 firewood दाउरा dauɾa Morang (East) kaʈʰi 1 Bara (West) dʒarna 2 Siraha (Central) dʒərəna 2

33 broom कु चो kutso Morang (East) borɖʰən 3 Bara (West) bəhrni 2 3 Siraha (Central) bərhni 2 3

34 stick लट्ठी lʌʈʈhi Morang (East) laʈ̚ʈʰi 1 Bara (West) laʈi 1 Siraha (Central) laʈi 1

35 pestle लोहोरो / लोहरो lohoɾo / lohʌɾo Morang (East) lɔrɖʰa 1 Bara (West) lorha 1 Siraha (Central) loɖʰi 2

36 spice mortar �सलौटो silʌᵘʈo Morang (East) paʈi 1 Bara (West) silaᵘʈʰ 2 Siraha (Central) siloʈʰ 2

37 small hammer घन gʰʌn Morang (East) hət̪aᵘɖi / həʈaᵘɖa 1 4 Bara (West) həʈauɖi 1 4 Siraha (Central) hətaᵘdi 4

38 खकु ु री kʰukuɾi Morang (East) ɖəbija 3 large Nepali knife Bara (West) dabeja 3 Siraha (Central) dəbiha 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 39 sickle ह�सयाँ hãsija Morang (East) kətʃʰija 2 Bara (West) hə̃suwa 1 2 Siraha (Central) həsuwa 1 2

40 axe ब ꅍच रो bʌntsʌɾo Morang (East) kuɖʰar 1 Bara (West) taŋi 4 Siraha (Central) kuher 1

41 rope डोरी ɖoɾi Morang (East) ɖor 3 Bara (West) dʒãᵘr 4 Siraha (Central) gũdi 5

42 thread धागो dhago Morang (East) sut ̪̚tə 2 Bara (West) ɖɔra 1 Siraha (Central) dʰəga 1

43 needle �सयो sijo Morang (East) tipəni 3 Bara (West) tipəni 3 Siraha (Central) tipəni 3

44 cloth कपडा kʌpʌɖa Morang (East) kəpəɖa 3 Bara (West) kəpəɖa 3 Siraha (Central) kəpəda bəstə 3

45 hat टोपी ʈopi Morang (East) ʈopi 1 Bara (West) ʈopi 1 Siraha (Central) ʈopi 1

46 ring औठ�ं ãᵘʈhi Morang (East) əŋʈᵗi 3 4 Bara (West) aᵘnʈʰi 3 4 Siraha (Central) ãᵘʈija 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 47 gold सनु sun Morang (East) ʃonnɑ 2 Bara (West) sõnã 1 2 Siraha (Central) sʷəna 1 2

48 sun सय셍ु / सज�ु suɾija / surdʒe Morang (East) surudʒʰ 3 Bara (West) surudʒ 3 Siraha (Central) sərudʒ (kirin) 3

49 moon जून dʒun Morang (East) tsʰan 2 Bara (West) tʃənəmənə 4 Siraha (Central) idʒɔrija 3

50 sky आकाश akas / akaʃ Morang (East) megʰ 2 Bara (West) əkas 1 Siraha (Central) mɛg 2

51 star तारा taɾa Morang (East) t̪əra 2 Bara (West) təraⁱ 2 Siraha (Central) tara 2

52 rain पानी (पछ셍 ) pani (pʌɾtʃ[ʌ]) Morang (East) bərsətʃe excluded Bara (West) megʰ bərsaⁱ excluded Siraha (Central) paⁱn paritʃe excluded

53 water पानी pani Morang (East) pani 1 Bara (West) pani 1 Siraha (Central) paⁱn 1

54 small river खोला khola Morang (East) ləd̚di 2 Bara (West) lədi 2 Siraha (Central) lədi 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 55 cloud बादल badʌl Morang (East) badəl 3 Bara (West) badəl 3 Siraha (Central) mʲɛg 1

56 bolt of lightning च絍याङ tʃʌʈjæŋ Morang (East) bədʒəɖ 5 Bara (West) ʈʰə̃nka 4 Siraha (Central) tankə 4

57 rainbow इꅍ द्रेणी indɾeɳi Morang (East) sərbən 2 Bara (West) pəntʃoka (east) 1 Siraha (Central) pɛnsɔka 1

58 wind हावा hawa Morang (East) bəⁱjar 3 Bara (West) bʲar 3 Siraha (Central) bəsat 2

59 small stone ढङ्गाु / ढगाुँ ɖʰuŋga Morang (East) pat ̪̚t̪əl 2 3 Bara (West) pəʈʰall 2 3 Siraha (Central) pakʰən (dɔŋgə) 3

60 unirrigated field बारी baɾi Morang (East) baɖi 1 Bara (West) baɖi 1 Siraha (Central) bari 1

61 irrigated field खेत kʰet Morang (East) kʰɛt 2 Bara (West) kʰet 2 Siraha (Central) kʰɛt 2

62 path/road बाटो baʈo Morang (East) baʈ 2 Bara (West) pĩrɑ 3 Siraha (Central) pera 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 63 fire आगो ago Morang (East) agin 1 Bara (West) agi 1 Siraha (Central) aⁱg 1

64 smoke धवाु ँ dhuwã Morang (East) d̪ʰũma 1 Bara (West) dʰũwa 1 Siraha (Central) dʷija (duwija) 1

65 ash खरानी khʌrani Morang (East) tʃʰaᵒr 2 Bara (West) saur 2 Siraha (Central) tʃaᵘr 2

66 soil/clay माटो maʈo Morang (East) maʈ̚ʈi 1 Bara (West) maʈi 1 Siraha (Central) maⁱt 1

67 dust धलोु dhulo Morang (East) d̪ʰura 1 Bara (West) dʰura 1 Siraha (Central) gərda 3

68 tree 셂ख rukh Morang (East) gʰatʃʰ 2 Bara (West) gʰasi 2 Siraha (Central) gʰatʃ 2

69 leaf पात pat Morang (East) pət ̪̚t̪aⁱ 1 Bara (West) pəta 1 Siraha (Central) pəta 1

70 root (below जरा dʒʌɾa Morang (East) sir 2 ground) Bara (West) sur 2 Siraha (Central) sir 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 71 seed बीउ biu Morang (East) bitʃən 3 Bara (West) bia 1 Siraha (Central) bia 1

72 bark बोक्रो bokɾo Morang (East) ɖʰəla 2 Bara (West) səla 2 Siraha (Central) tʃala 2

73 thorn काडोँ / काडाँ kãɖo / kãɖa Morang (East) kãʈə̃ 1 Bara (West) kãʈʰ 1 Siraha (Central) kãʈ 1

74 flower फु ल phul Morang (East) pʰul 1 Bara (West) pʰula 1 Siraha (Central) pʰula 1

75 bamboo tree बासँ bãs Morang (East) bɑ̃s 1 Bara (West) bãs 1 Siraha (Central) bãs 1

76 bamboo shoot तामा tama Morang (East) tamə 1 4 Bara (West) tam 4 Siraha (Central) tama 1 4

77 fruit फल फू ल phʌlphul Morang (East) pʰəl pʰul 1 Bara (West) pəlepʰul 1 Siraha (Central) phal phul 1

78 mango आपँ ãp Morang (East) ãm 1 Bara (West) ãm 1 Siraha (Central) ãm 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 79 banana के र ा keɾa Morang (East) kela 1 Bara (West) kerdʒan 2 Siraha (Central) kela 1

80 wheat गहू ँ gʌ(h)ũ Morang (East) gõhəm 2 Bara (West) gə̃hum 1 2 Siraha (Central) gəhum 1 2

81 uncooked rice चामल tsamʌl Morang (East) tʃəᵒr 1 Bara (West) tʃaur 1 Siraha (Central) tʃaᵘr 1

82 unhusked rice धान dʰan Morang (East) dʰan 1 Bara (West) dʰan 1 Siraha (Central) dʰan 1

83 cooked rice भात bʰat Morang (East) bʰat 1 Bara (West) bʰat 1 Siraha (Central) bʰat 1

84 vegetable तरकारी tʌɾkaɾi Morang (East) sag 2 Bara (West) tiuna 1 Siraha (Central) sag 2

85 potato आल ु alu Morang (East) əlhu 1 Bara (West) əlu:i 1 Siraha (Central) aləhu 1

86 eggplant भꅍटा bʰʌnʈa Morang (East) baigən 1 Bara (West) bʰənʈa 2 Siraha (Central) bʰənʈa 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 87 groundnut बदाम bʌdam Morang (East) bədam 1 Bara (West) bedam 1 Siraha (Central) bədam 1

88 chili खोसा셍नी kʰoɹsani Morang (East) mərtʃʲɪn 1 Bara (West) martʃa 1 Siraha (Central) mertʃaⁱ 1

89 tumeric बेसार besar Morang (East) hərd̪i 1 Bara (West) hərɖi 1 Siraha (Central) hərdi 1

90 garlic लसनु lʌsun Morang (East) lesun 1 Bara (West) ləsune 1 Siraha (Central) ləsun 1

91 onion ꥍयाज pʲadʒ Morang (East) pijadʒ 1 Bara (West) pijadʒ 1 Siraha (Central) pʲodʒ 1

92 cauliflower काउली kauli Morang (East) pʰulkobi 1 Bara (West) kʰobʰi 1 Siraha (Central) kobi 1

93 ginger अदवाु ʌduwa Morang (East) ad̪ə 1 Bara (West) ad̚di 1 Siraha (Central) adi 1

94 tomato गोलभेडां golbhẽɖa Morang (East) golbʰənʈa 2 Bara (West) təmaʈər 1 Siraha (Central) təmatər 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 95 cabbage बꅍदकोबी bʌndʌkobi Morang (East) bənhakobi 2 Bara (West) munakobi 2 Siraha (Central) muna kobi 2

96 cucumber काक्रोँ kãkɾo Morang (East) kʰiɾa 1 Bara (West) kʰira 1 Siraha (Central) kʰira 1

97 oil तेल tel Morang (East) tel 1 Bara (West) tel 1 Siraha (Central) tel 1

98 salt नून nun Morang (East) nun 1 Bara (West) nun 1 Siraha (Central) nɔ̃ən 1

99 meat मास ु masu Morang (East) t̪imən 3 Bara (West) mas 4 Siraha (Central) timən 3

100 fat part of flesh बोसो boso Morang (East) t̪el 4 Bara (West) tel 4 1 Siraha (Central) tel (see oil) 4

101 fish माछा matʃha Morang (East) matʃʰə 1 2 Bara (West) mətʃəri 1 Siraha (Central) matʃ 2

102 chicken कु खराु kukʰura Morang (East) murga 1 Bara (West) murəgi 1 Siraha (Central) murga 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 103 egg फु ल phul / ʌɳɖa Morang (East) ɖima 2 Bara (West) ənɖa 1 Siraha (Central) dima 2

104 cow गाइ gai Morang (East) gəru 1 Bara (West) gaⁱje 1 Siraha (Central) gaⁱ 2

105 buffalo भैसीं bhʌisi Morang (East) bʰɑ̃ⁱs 2 Bara (West) bʰãisi 2 Siraha (Central) bʰãisi 2

106 milk दूध dudh Morang (East) d̪ud̪ʰ 1 Bara (West) dudʰ 1 Siraha (Central) dudʰ 1

107 horn �सङ siŋ Morang (East) siŋ 1 Bara (West) siŋ 1 Siraha (Central) siŋ 1

108 tail प 楍ु छ र puttʃhʌr Morang (East) nãŋər 1 2 Bara (West) ləŋəri 2 Siraha (Central) nəŋər 2

109 goat बाख्रा bakhɾa Morang (East) bəkəri 3 4 Bara (West) bəkəri 3 4 Siraha (Central) bəkri 3 4

110 pig संगु रु suŋguɾ Morang (East) sugər 2 Bara (West) sugər 2 Siraha (Central) sugər 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 111 dog कु कु र kukur Morang (East) kut̪a 2 Bara (West) kuta 2 Siraha (Central) kuta 2

112 cat �बरालो biɾalo Morang (East) bileⁱ 2 Bara (West) bilaⁱ 2 Siraha (Central) bilaⁱ 2

113 snake सप셍 / सापँ sʌrpʌ / sãp Morang (East) sãp 2 Bara (West) sãp 2 Siraha (Central) sãp 2

114 monkey बादरँ bãdʌr Morang (East) bãnər 1 Bara (West) bãnər 1 Siraha (Central) bãnər 1

115 bird चरा tsʌɾa Morang (East) tʃʰərai 3 4 Bara (West) tʃirəi 2 3 4 Siraha (Central) tʃire 1 3 4

116 wing पखेटा pʌkʰeʈa Morang (East) ɖenə 1 Bara (West) dəin 1 Siraha (Central) ɖɛn 1

117 feather ꥍव ा खँ pwãkʰ Morang (East) pekʰənə 1 Bara (West) pãkʰ 2 Siraha (Central) pãⁱkʰ 2

118 rat/mouse मसाु musa Morang (East) musa 2 3 Bara (West) mus 2 Siraha (Central) mus 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 119 mosquito लामखट्टेु lamkhuʈːe Morang (East) pəkʰijə 5 Bara (West) mɔ̃sər 3 4 Siraha (Central) mətʃər 4

120 fly �झंगा dʒʰiŋga / dʒʰiŋːa Morang (East) matʃʰi 1 2 Bara (West) masi 2 Siraha (Central) matʃi 1 2

121 honey bee माहरीु / माउरी ma(h)uɾi Morang (East) mədʰu 3 4 Bara (West) mɔdʰ 4 Siraha (Central) maɔhud 2

122 ant क�मला kʌmila Morang (East) tʃa�t̪̃ i 1 Bara (West) tʃimti 1 2 Siraha (Central) tʃɪti 1 2

123 spider माकु रा / माकु रो makura / makuro Morang (East) məkəra 1 Bara (West) məkəra 1 Siraha (Central) məkəra 1

124 louse जम्राु dʒumra Morang (East) dʰilə (head) 4 Bara (West) dʰil (head) 4 Siraha (Central) dʰɪl 4

125 bedbug उडुस uɖus Morang (East) bɪdʒija 4 Bara (West) uris 1 Siraha (Central) bɪgija 4

126 flea उ�पया ँ upijã Morang (East) upəɖa 3 Bara (West) upəɖa 3 Siraha (Central) upəra 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 127 leech पानी जकाु pani jʰuka Morang (East) tʃaməɽə 2 Bara (West) dʒɔ̃k (pani) tʰiŋi 3 Siraha (Central) dʒɔ̃k 3

128 person मा�नस / माꅍछे manis / mantʃʰe Morang (East) manus 4 Bara (West) ədmi 3 Siraha (Central) lok (most often) 2

lognemantʃhe / 129 man ल ो 嵍न माꅍ े छे / प셁षु Morang (East) marəd admi 3 purus Bara (West) marda 3 Siraha (Central) munsɑ (mərəd) 3

130 woman/female आइमाइ / म�हला aimai / mahila Morang (East) dʒəlna 1 Bara (West) maᵘgi 4 Siraha (Central) məᵘgi 4

131 baby ब 楍च ा bʌtsa / bʌttʃa Morang (East) bətʃa 3 Bara (West) laⁱkə 2 Siraha (Central) bətʃa 3

132 boy के ट ा keʈa Morang (East) tʃaᵘda 3 Bara (West) tʃaᵘra 2 3 Siraha (Central) tʃaᵘra 2 3

133 girl के ट ी keʈi Morang (East) tʃaᵘɖi 3 Bara (West) tʃaᵘri 3 Siraha (Central) tʃaᵘri 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 134 father बा / बबाु ba / buwa Morang (East) bɑ or bɑpu 2 Bara (West) babu 1 2 Siraha (Central) babu 1 2

135 mother आमा ama Morang (East) mɑ̃ 2 Bara (West) dai 1 Siraha (Central) məja 3

136 older brother दाज ु / दाई dadʒu / dai Morang (East) dəda 1 Bara (West) dada 1 Siraha (Central) dadə 1

137 younger brother भाई bhai Morang (East) bʰja 1 2 Bara (West) baᵘwa 1 Siraha (Central) bʰaⁱ 2

138 older sister �ददी didi Morang (East) dəi 2 Bara (West) didi 1 Siraha (Central) bərka dəja 3

139 younger sister ब�हनी bʌ(h)ini Morang (East) bəhin 4 Bara (West) bəje 1 2 Siraha (Central) dəja 1

140 son छोरा / छोरो tʃhoɾa / tʃhoɾo Morang (East) beta 4 Bara (West) beʈa 4 Siraha (Central) bɛʈa 4

141 daughter छोरी tʃhoɾi Morang (East) beti 3 Bara (West) beʈi 3 Siraha (Central) bɛʈi 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 142 husband ल ो 嵍न े / श्रीमान logne / sɾiman Morang (East) mərəd 3 Bara (West) marda 3 Siraha (Central) ghərbala 4

143 wife व ा न ी / श्रीमती swasni / sɾimʌti Morang (East) moᵘgi 3 Bara (West) maᵘgi 3 Siraha (Central) ghərbali 4

144 grandfather हजरु बा hʌdʒuɾ ba Morang (East) budʰənha bap excluded Bara (West) bʰuda babu excluded Siraha (Central) baba excluded

145 grandmother हजरु आमा hʌdʒuɾ ama Morang (East) budʰiha mʲa excluded Bara (West) bʰudi dai excluded Siraha (Central) dadi excluded

146 grandson नाती nati Morang (East) nɑti (daughter’s) 2 Bara (West) nati 2 Siraha (Central) naⁱt 2

147 granddaughter ना�तनी natini Morang (East) nɑti (daughter’s) 2 Bara (West) natini 1 2 Siraha (Central) natin 1 2

148 father’s older ठू लो बाब ु ʈhulo babu Morang (East) bərki bap excluded brother Bara (West) bəki babu excluded Siraha (Central) bərka bap (babu) excluded

149 father’s younger साना बाब ु sana babu Morang (East) kəka 1 brother Bara (West) kaka 1 Siraha (Central) kaka 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 150 फु पू phupu Morang (East) pisu 4 father’s older sister Bara (West) pʰuwa didi 3 Siraha (Central) didi 2

151 mother’s older मामा mama Morang (East) məmə 1 brother Bara (West) məme 1 Siraha (Central) mama 1

152 mother’s older ठू लो आमा ʈhulo ama Morang (East) bərki 2 sister Bara (West) bərki dai 2 Siraha (Central) mɔsi 3

153 mother’s younger साना आमा sana ama Morang (East) mõsi 1 sister Bara (West) kaki 2 Siraha (Central) mɔsi 1

154 friend साथी sathi Morang (East) sə̃ŋ 2 Bara (West) səŋhətija 1 Siraha (Central) mita or bəgərija 1

155 name नाम / नाउँ nam / naũ Morang (East) nã 1 Bara (West) nãu 1 Siraha (Central) nam 1

156 language भाषा bhasa Morang (East) bʰasa 1 Bara (West) bʰasa 1 Siraha (Central) bʰasa 1

157 day �दन din Morang (East) din 1 Bara (West) din 1 Siraha (Central) din 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 158 night रात ɾat Morang (East) rat 1 Bara (West) rat 1 Siraha (Central) raⁱt 1

159 morning �बहान bihanʌ Morang (East) bihan 2 Bara (West) bihan 2 Siraha (Central) bʰor or bʰɪnsər 4

160 afternoon �दउँसो diũso Morang (East) dopəhər 1 Bara (West) kəlaᵘ pəhər 3 Siraha (Central) dupəhər 1

161 evening बेलकाु beluka Morang (East) hɛʈpəhər excluded Bara (West) sãdʒi pəhər excluded Siraha (Central) sãdʒ excluded

162 today आज adʒʌ Morang (East) ɑdʒu 2 Bara (West) adʒu 2 Siraha (Central) aⁱ 3

163 yesterday �हजो hi(d)ʒo Morang (East) kalwɛ 2 Bara (West) kalʰu 1 2 Siraha (Central) kaⁱlihɛ 2

164 tomorrow भो�ल bholi Morang (East) kalu 1 Bara (West) bihan 2 Siraha (Central) kaⁱl 1

165 week ह�ा hʌpta Morang (East) həptə 1 Bara (West) həptə 1 Siraha (Central) həpta or səpta 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 166 month म�हना mʌhina Morang (East) maⁱhinə 1 Bara (West) mahinə 1 Siraha (Central) məhina 1

167 year बष셍 bʌrsʌ Morang (East) bətʃər (ə) 3 Bara (West) bəris 2 Siraha (Central) bəris 2

168 big ठू लो ʈhulo Morang (East) bərkə 1 Bara (West) bəɖigo 3 Siraha (Central) bərka 1

169 small सानो sano Morang (East) tʃʰuma 4 Bara (West) tənigo 5 Siraha (Central) tʃotka 6

170 heavy गह्रङ्गोु / ग셁ं गो gʌɾuŋgo Morang (East) bʰari 4 Bara (West) bʰari 4 Siraha (Central) bari 4

171 light हलकाु / हलङ्गोु hʌluka / hʌluŋgo Morang (East) halkə 1 Bara (West) həluka 1 Siraha (Central) həluk 1

172 old (thing) परानोु puɾano Morang (East) purnə 1 Bara (West) puran 1 Siraha (Central) purna 1

173 new नया ँ nʌjã Morang (East) ləja 1 Bara (West) ləja 1 Siraha (Central) ləbəka 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 174 good (person) असल / राम्रो ʌsʌl / ɾamɾo Morang (East) əsəl bəniha 4 Bara (West) nimən 5 Siraha (Central) nik or əsəl 4

175 bad (person) खराब / नराम्रो khʌɾab / nʌɾamɾo Morang (East) gʰinha 4 Bara (West) nənimən 3 Siraha (Central) nəⁱniman 3

176 wet �भजेको bhi(d)ʒeko Morang (East) t̪it̪ə 2 Bara (West) bʰidʒel 1 Siraha (Central) bʰidʒəl 1

177 dry स啍खु sukkhʌ Morang (East) sukʰnə 2 Bara (West) sukʰəl 1 Siraha (Central) sukʰəl 1

178 long (thing) लामो lamo Morang (East) namə 1 2 3 Bara (West) lam 2 Siraha (Central) nam 2 3

179 short (thing) छोटो tʃhoʈo Morang (East) kaʈə 2 Bara (West) tənigo 4 Siraha (Central) tʃɔtka 3

180 thin (person) द 녍ु ल ो dublo Morang (East) pɑtrə 2 Bara (West) pətəre 2 Siraha (Central) patər 2

181 hot (weather) गम� gʌɾmi Morang (East) gərrmi 2 Bara (West) gərəm 1 2 Siraha (Central) gərmi 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 182 cold (weather) जाडो dʒaɖo Morang (East) dʒar 1 Bara (West) dʒaɖ 1 Siraha (Central) dʒar 1

183 hot (water) तातो tato Morang (East) dʰɪpt̪ə 3 Bara (West) dikʰəl 2 Siraha (Central) dipəl and gərəm 2 3

184 cold (water) �चसो tsiso Morang (East) dʒurə 1 Bara (West) dʒur 1 Siraha (Central) dʒur 1

185 cracked/burst फु टेको / फु 絍यो pʰuʈeko / pʰuʈjo Morang (East) pʰutəla or pʰutə 1 Bara (West) pʰutəl 1 Siraha (Central) pʰutəl 1

186 broken/damaged �ब�ग्रएको bigɾieko Morang (East) bɪgardlə 1 Bara (West) bigərgel 1 Siraha (Central) bigəral 1

187 broken भाचेकोँ bʰatʃeko Morang (East) tutʰla 3 Bara (West) tutʰgel 1 Siraha (Central) tutal 1

188 empty खा�ल kʰali Morang (East) kʰali 1 Bara (West) kʰali 1 Siraha (Central) kʰali 1

189 full भरीभराउ bʰʌɾibʰʌrau Morang (East) bʰərti 2 Bara (West) bʰərəl 1 Siraha (Central) bʰərəl 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 190 few/a little थोरै tʰorəi Morang (East) kənhidʒənə 4 Bara (West) tənke 5 Siraha (Central) kəmʲɛ 6

191 many धेरै dheɾəi Morang (East) bɔhut 2 Bara (West) bəhut 2 Siraha (Central) bɔhut 2

192 all सबै sʌbʌi / sʌpːʌi Morang (East) sauna 2 Bara (West) səbʰe 1 Siraha (Central) səbəta 3

193 equal (same बराबार bʌrabar Morang (East) bərabar 1 amount) Bara (West) sər 2 Siraha (Central) bərabar 1

194 similar/same उ त ै ustʌi Morang (East) wəhɛrɛŋ 4 Bara (West) aᵘsənke 5 Siraha (Central) wɛhɛnʲa 4

195 different फ़रक pʰʌrʌk Morang (East) phərək 1 Bara (West) əlge əlge 2 Siraha (Central) pʰərək 1

196 various �ब�भꅍन bibʰinːʌ / biβinːʌ Morang (East) bəhut 1 Bara (West) bəhut 1 Siraha (Central) bəhutrəŋ 1

197–210 the numbers 1–12, Morang (East) 20, and 100 Bara (West) not applicable (excluded) Siraha (Central)

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 211 white सेतो seto Morang (East) udʒrə 3 Bara (West) udʒər 1 Siraha (Central) udʒər 1

212 black कालो kalo Morang (East) karijə 1 2 Bara (West) kərija 1 2 Siraha (Central) kari 2

213 red रातो ɾato Morang (East) lal 1 Bara (West) lal 1 Siraha (Central) lal 1

214 right दाया ँ / दा�हने dajã / dahine Morang (East) dəhinə 1 Bara (West) dəhina 1 Siraha (Central) dəhina 1

215 left बाया ँ / देब्रे bajã / debɾe Morang (East) bəmə 1 2 Bara (West) bəya 2 Siraha (Central) bəma 1 2

216 near न�जक / �नर nʌ(d)ʒik /niɾʌ Morang (East) ləgət 2 Bara (West) ləge 1 2 Siraha (Central) ləg 2

217 far टाढा ʈaɖha Morang (East) ɖur 1 Bara (West) bədiɖur 2 Siraha (Central) durahũ 3

218 here यहा ँ yahã Morang (East) jɛtʰaⁱ 5 Bara (West) dʒige 4 Siraha (Central) jɛta 5

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 219 there 配य हा ँ tyahã Morang (East) wɔtʲɛ 1 Bara (West) uhã 2 Siraha (Central) wɔta 1

220 at -मा -ma Morang (East) me 1 Bara (West) me 1 Siraha (Central) me 1

221 beside छे उमा tʃoma Morang (East) ləgət̪ 5 Bara (West) ləge 2 5 Siraha (Central) katmɛ 4

222 inside �भत्र bʰittra Morang (East) t̪əɾə (me) 2 Bara (West) bitəri 1 Siraha (Central) bitri 1

223 outside बा�हर bahirʌ Morang (East) bahar 1 Bara (West) bəhəra 1 Siraha (Central) bahar 1

224 above/on top of मा�थ mathi Morang (East) upər 1 Bara (West) upəri 1 Siraha (Central) upər 1

225 below/under तल /म�नु tʌlʌ / muni Morang (East) tər or hɛ̃t 1 Bara (West) nitʃa 2 Siraha (Central) nitʃa 2

226 around विरपिर waripari Morang (East) tʃarokat or tʃaᵘhədi 6 Bara (West) tʃaruri 2 7 Siraha (Central) tʃarubar 5 7

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 227 who को ko Morang (East) kʲe 1 Bara (West) ke 1 Siraha (Central) kʲɛ 1

228 whose कसको kʌsko Morang (East) kəkər 1 Bara (West) kekər 1 Siraha (Central) kʲɛkər 1

229 what के ke Morang (East) kun 2 Bara (West) kət̚ti 3 Siraha (Central) kətʰi 3

230 why �कन kinʌ Morang (East) kʲam 4 Bara (West) kahela 5 Siraha (Central) kətʰilɛ 6

231 where कहा ँ kʌhã Morang (East) kət̪e 2 Bara (West) kəhã 1 Siraha (Central) kətʰa 2

232 when क�हले kʌ(h)ile Morang (East) kəkʰəne or kəhiʲə 1 Bara (West) kəhija 1 Siraha (Central) kəhija 1

233 which कु न kun Morang (East) kunʈa 2 Bara (West) kaᵘn 1 Siraha (Central) kʷɔn 1

234 how many क�त kʌti Morang (East) kətənɛ 3 Bara (West) ketəna 3 Siraha (Central) kətʲɛk 1 2

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 235 how (what is it क त ो kʌsto Morang (East) kirɛŋ 1 like) Bara (West) kəⁱsən 3 Siraha (Central) kʲehɛn 2

236 how (to do कसरी kʌsʌɾi Morang (East) kirɛŋke 1 something) Bara (West) kəⁱse 2 3 Siraha (Central) kʲenake 1

237 this यो jo Morang (East) iʈa 2 Bara (West) ji 3 Siraha (Central) ji 3

238 that 配य ो tjo Morang (East) uʈa 2 Bara (West) u: 1 Siraha (Central) u 1

239 goa गयो gajo Morang (East) gele 3 Bara (West) gələⁱ 3 Siraha (Central) gʲɛle 3

241 come आयो ajo Morang (East) jɛli 2 Bara (West) a: 1 Siraha (Central) jeleⁱ 2

243 come down झय� dʒʰʌɾjo Morang (East) hɛ̃thele 1 Bara (West) dirgel 2 Siraha (Central) kəsəle / girale 3 a Between numbers 239 and 313, words are listed in pairs. For example, number 239 “go” is followed by its negative form “do not go” in number 240. For the purpose of this survey, only the root forms were used for analysis. Thus, the negative forms are not included in this list.

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 245 climb up च襍यो tʃʌɖjo Morang (East) tʃəɾ le 2 Bara (West) tʃəɖ əgel 2 Siraha (Central) tʃaᵘɖ le 2

247 climb down ओ쥍 셍यो oɾljo Morang (East) hɛ̃thele excluded Bara (West) uʈər gel 1 Siraha (Central) utər le 1

249 bring 쥍य ा यो ljajo Morang (East) an əlke 3 Bara (West) liaʲ lək 2 Siraha (Central) la balke 2

251 take down तल ल嵍 यो tʌlʌ lʌgjo Morang (East) ladʒ əlkə 3 Bara (West) leg ɛl 1 Siraha (Central) lag ɛle 1

253 take out � झ 啍य ो dʒʰikjo Morang (East) nikalke 2 Bara (West) gĩtʃlɛl nikəlel 2 Siraha (Central) nikaləlke 2

255 put in रा奍 यो rakhjo Morang (East) rakʰ əlke 2 Bara (West) rəkʰ de 2 Siraha (Central) rakʰ əlke 2

257 die म 셍य ो mʌɾjo Morang (East) moɾ le 2 Bara (West) mər gel 2 Siraha (Central) muⁱr gⁱɛle 2

259 be hungry भोक ला嵍यो bʰok lagʲo Morang (East) bʰokʰ lagələ 1 Bara (West) bʰũk lagɛlba 1 Siraha (Central) bũkʰ lagəle 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 260 be thirsty �तख셍 ला嵍यो tiɾka lagʲo Morang (East) pijas lagələ 1 Bara (West) pijas lagɛl 1 Siraha (Central) pʲas lagle 1

261 sleep स 配ु य ो sutjo Morang (East) sut əle 1 Bara (West) sut rəhələk 1 Siraha (Central) sʷit gʲɛle 1

263 lie down प쥍 絍 यो pʌlʈjo Morang (East) ɔgə likɛ 1 Bara (West) ləʈəg ɛl 2 Siraha (Central) waŋhəⁱr gʲɛle 3

265 sit down ब य ो bʌsjo Morang (East) baⁱʈʰ le 1 Bara (West) baⁱʈʰ igɛl 1 Siraha (Central) beⁱt ikəle 1

267 get up उ腍यो u ʈʰjo Morang (East) uʈʰ le 1 Bara (West) kʰara hogɛl 2 Siraha (Central) uⁱʈ igɛle 1

269 stand उ�भयो ubhijo Morang (East) tadʰə hɛle excluded Bara (West) kʰarabegɛl excluded Siraha (Central) utigɛle excluded

271 walk �हं蕍 यो hĩɖjo Morang (East) lər le 4 Bara (West) bule lagɛl 2 Siraha (Central) tʃal etʃe 3

273 fly (verb) उ蕍यो uɖjo Morang (East) uɖ le 1 Bara (West) uɖ gel 1 Siraha (Central) uⁱr gɛle 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 275 run द ग 셍ु य ो dʌguɾjo Morang (East) dauɖ əli 2 Bara (West) daᵘr e lagɛl 2 Siraha (Central) dəᵘr laⁱ 2

277 laugh ह ा ँ य ो hãsjo Morang (East) has le 1 Bara (West) hə̃s e lagɛl 1 Siraha (Central) həs əlaⁱ 1

279 cry रोयो rojo Morang (East) kan le 2 Bara (West) kan e lagɛl 2 Siraha (Central) kən əle 2

281 vomit बाꅍ ता ग 셍य ो banta gʌrijo Morang (East) bokəɾ əke 5 Bara (West) bəkɔre lagɛl 5 Siraha (Central) bokər əlke 5

283 spit थ 啍ु य ो thukjo Morang (East) tʰuk pʰekəlke 1 Bara (West) tʰũk 1 Siraha (Central) tʰuk pʰekəlke 1

285 eat खायो kʰajo Morang (East) kʰel ke 2 Bara (West) kʰal ɛl 2 Siraha (Central) kʰɛl kai 2

287 bite टो啍 यो ʈokjo Morang (East) dʰar əlke 2 Bara (West) kʰaʈ lelək 1 Siraha (Central) dʰər əlkaⁱ 2

289 drink �पयो pijo Morang (East) (same as eat) excluded Bara (West) pi le lək 1 Siraha (Central) pi jəlkəⁱ 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 291 give �दयो dijo Morang (East) delke 1 Bara (West) dedelək 1 Siraha (Central) dɛlkəⁱ 1

293 burn दाउरा बा쥍यो daura baljo Morang (East) pədʒar lke 2 Bara (West) dʒarnə bər gɛl 1 Siraha (Central) dʒarəna pədʒarəlkəⁱ 2

295 bury गा蕍यो gaɖjo Morang (East) gaɖ əlke 1 Bara (West) gaɖ el 1 Siraha (Central) garɖ əlkəⁱ 1

297 kill म ा 셍य ो maɾjo Morang (East) mar əlke 2 Bara (West) mua delək 1 Siraha (Central) mar əlkəⁱ 2

299 cut का絍 यो kaʈjo Morang (East) kaʈəlke 1 Bara (West) kaʈdel 1 Siraha (Central) kaʈəlkəⁱ 1

301 throw फा쥍 यो phaljo Morang (East) pʰek əlke 1 Bara (West) big delək 2 Siraha (Central) pʲɛk əlkəⁱ 1

303 talk/chat छलफल ग 셍य ो tʃʌlphʌl gʌɾjo Morang (East) bʰatbitʃar kər əlke 1 Bara (West) bitʃar ka ⁱlək 3 Siraha (Central) tʃʰəl pʰəl sarsəla kʲɛ lke 2

305 say/tell भ ꅍय ो bʰʌnjo Morang (East) kəhəlke 1 Bara (West) kəhələk 1 Siraha (Central) kʰəhəlke 1

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 307 hear/listen स ꅍु य ो sunjo Morang (East) sunəlke 1 Bara (West) sunlɪl 1 Siraha (Central) sunəlke 1

309 watch/see द 奍े य ो dekʰjo Morang (East) dekəlke 1 Bara (West) dekʰlelək 1 Siraha (Central) dekʰəlke 1

310 look हेय� heɾjo Morang (East) (same as watch/see) excluded Bara (West) (same as watch/see) excluded Siraha (Central) (same as watch/see) excluded

312 wash धोयो dhojo Morang (East) dʰo alke 1 Bara (West) dʰo lelək 1 Siraha (Central) dʰuw əlke 1

314 my मेरो mero Morang (East) məmər 2 Bara (West) həmər 2 Siraha (Central) hamər 2

315 our हाम्रो hʌmro Morang (East) həmər siake 2 Bara (West) həmnike 2 Siraha (Central) haməraᵘrke 2

316 your तपाℂको tʌpaĩko Morang (East) tor 2 (formal/singular) Bara (West) tʰohər 3 Siraha (Central) tʰɔhər 3

317 your तपाℂह셁को tʌpaĩhʌruko Morang (East) tor siake 3 (formal/plural) Bara (West) ji ho səbke 4 Siraha (Central) tʰɔrɑᵘke 3

Number English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA Variety Transcription Grouping 318 his/her उहाकोँ uwã(ha)ko Morang (East) uakər 3 Bara (West) ɔkər 3 Siraha (Central) wəkər 3

319 their (formal) उहाह셁कोँ uwã(ha)hʌruko Morang (East) okər siake 3 Bara (West) usəbke 4 Siraha (Central) wəkəraᵘke 5

320 I म mʌ Morang (East) həme 2 Bara (West) həmər 2 Siraha (Central) həm 2

321 you तपाℂ tʌpaĩ Morang (East) tʲã 2 (singular/formal) Bara (West) tohər 3 Siraha (Central) tũ 4

322 he/she (formal) उहा ँ uhã Morang (East) we 4 Bara (West) ɔkər 5 Siraha (Central) u 2

323 we हामी hami Morang (East) həmra sia 3 Bara (West) həmni 2 Siraha (Central) haməraᵘr 4

324 you तपाℂह셁 tʌpaĩhʌɾu Morang (East) torə sia 2 (plural/formal) Bara (West) ji səb jana 3 Siraha (Central) tʰɔraᵘr 4

325 they (formal) उहाह셁ँ wahahʌɾu Morang (East) okra sia 3 Bara (West) ɔkəni səb 4 Siraha (Central) wəkəraᵘr 5

A.5 Lexical similarity percentage matrix for eight Tharu wordlists

Malhoriya 85% Deukhuri 82% 83% Dangaura 82% 80% 75% Desauriya 73% 71% 69% 73% Kathariya 56% 55% 51% 55% 59% Bara 52% 52% 49% 51% 52% 73% Siraha 51% 49% 46% 49% 51% 65% 70% Morang

Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing

B.1 Standard procedure for recorded text testing12

The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of recorded texts. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a narrative text of another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of that text. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an indicator of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the amount of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred. The recorded text testing used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). Short, personal-experience narratives are deemed to be most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material that is widely known is avoided. A three to five minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular, and then checked with a group of speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area. The story is then transcribed and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. A set of fifteen to twenty questions is initially prepared. Some of the questions will prove unsuitable because the answer is not clear in the text or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are then deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. To ensure that measures of comprehension are based on the subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions, these questions must be recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This requires an appropriate dialect version of the questions for each RTT for each test location. In the RTTs, test subjects hear the complete story once, after which the story is repeated with test questions and the opportunities for responses interspersed with necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of their memory, intelligence, or reasoning. The average or mean of the scores obtained from subjects at one test location is taken as a numerical indicator of the intelligibility between speakers of the dialect represented. In order to ensure that the RTT is a fair test of the intelligibility of the test variety to speakers from the regions tested, the text is first tested with subjects from the region where the text was recorded. This initial testing is referred to as the hometown test (HTT). The hometown test serves to introduce subjects to the testing procedure in a context where intelligibility of the dialect is assumed to be complete since it is the native variety of test subjects. In addition, hometown testing insures that native speakers of the text dialect could accurately answer the comprehension questions. Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions, with an average score of 90% or above, the test is considered validated. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly because they do not understand what is expected. This is especially true with uneducated subjects or those unacquainted with test-taking. Therefore, a short pre-test story with ten questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of the pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected according to the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed that they would serve as a suitable subject. Occasionally, a subject fails to perform adequately on an already validated hometown test. Performances of such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing the test results. Generally, subjects performing at levels of less than 70% on the pre-test are eliminated from further testing. When some subjects have had significant previous contact with the speech form recorded on the RTT, while others have not, the scores usually vary considerably, reflecting the degree of learning that has gone on through contact. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion

12 The description of recorded text test procedures is adapted from that found in Appendix A of O’Leary (ed. 1992) which was written by Clare O’Leary.

60 61 which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean -- the Standard Deviation. On a RTT with 100 possible points (100 percent), standard deviations of more than 12 to 15 are considered high. If the standard deviation is relatively low (10 or below) and the mean score for the subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well. This might occur either because the language being tested has high inherent intelligibility with the speakers’ own language, or because this variety has been acquired rather consistently and uniformly throughout the speech community. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean score, one implication is that some subjects have learned to comprehend the test variety better than others. In this last case, inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency, which results from learning through contact. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in Table 12.

Table 12. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation

High Low Average High Situation 1 Situation 2 score Many people understand the Most people understand the story story on the test tape well, but on the test tape. some have difficulty Low Situation 3 Situation 4 Many people cannot understand Few people are able to understand the story, but a few are able to the story on the test tape answer correctly.

High standard deviations can result from many causes, such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring or differences in attentiveness of subjects. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. Questionnaires administered at the time of testing can help researchers discover which factors are significant in promoting contact that facilitates acquired intelligibility. Travel to or extended stays in other dialect regions, intermarriage between dialect groups, or contacts with schoolmates from other dialect regions are examples of the types of contact that can occur. In contrast to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT cannot be completely isolated from potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of around 80% or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT means below 60% are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility. Responses to questions asked after the administration of an RTT can reflect attitudes held toward the test dialect. These opinions, then, can also help the researcher interpret the scores obtained on the tests. All storytellers and participants involved in the Recorded Text Testing gave oral and recorded informed consent before assisting with this research.

B.2 Pre-RTT questions

My name is ____. We are from Tribhuvan मेरो नाम _____ हो। हामी �त्रभुवन University. We are here to learn about how your � व � व �व饍यालयबाट आएका ह�। हामी तपा�ह셁को language is used for speaking and writing. We भाषा कसर� बो�लने रहेछ कसर� ले�खने रहेछ will ask you questions about yourself and your भ ꅍ न े कु रा जाꅍ नका ला�ग आएका ह�। तपा� र language. The information that you give us about तपा�को भाषाका बारेमा हामी केह� प्र�ह셁 न your language, we will give to others. Can you सो鵍छ� । तपा�ले �दनु भएको भाषास륍 बꅍ ध ी give us help? जानकार� अ셂 मा�नसलाई प�न देखाउने छ�। तपा�ले हामीलाई सहायता गन셍 स啍नुहुꅍछ? 1. Informed Consent: Given / Not Given 2. Subject Number: 3. Date (DD-MM-YY): 4. Village Name: 5. Interviewer Name: 6. Language of Elicitation: 7. Language of Response: 8. Interpreter Name: 9. Sex 10. Full Name तपा�को पूरा नाम के हो? 11. Age: तपा�को उमेर क�त भयो? 12. Caste: तपा�को जात कु न हो? 13. What religion do you practice? तपा� कु न धम셍 माꅍनुहुꅍछ? 14. What is your occupation? तपा� के काम गनु셍हुꅍछ ? 15. Have you ever been to school? तपा�ले क ू लमा प襍 नुभयो? 15a. 15a. (If yes) Up to which class? क�त 啍ला सस 륍 म (क�ास륍म )? 16. What is your mother tongue? तपा�को मात ृ भाषा (आ 굍 न ो भाषा) कु न हो? 17. Where were you born? तपा� कहाँ जꅍ मनुभयो? 18. Where do you live now? तपा� आजभो�ल कहाँ बन ुह ु ꅍ छ? 19. How long have you been living there/here? तपा� यो ठाउँमा क�त बष셍 बन ुभयो? 20. Have you lived anywhere else for more तपा� आ셁 ठाउँमा एक बष셍भꅍदा बढ� ब  नु भएको than a year? छ? 20a. Where? कहाँ? 20b. When? क�हले? 20c. How long did you live there? क�त समयस륍म? 21. Where is your father from? तपा�को बुवाको खास गाउँ कु न हो? 22. What is his mother tongue? उहाँको मात ृ भाषा के हो? 23. What language did your father usually तपा� सानो हुँदा तपा�को बुवाले तपा�सगँ कु न speak to you when you were a child? भाषामा बो쥍नहु ुन镍 यो? 24. Where is your mother from? तपा�को आमाको माइ�तघर कहाँ हो? 25. What is her mother tongue? उहाँको मात ृ भाषा के हो? 26. What language did your mother usually तपा� सानो हुँदा तपा�को आमाले तपा�सँग कु न speak to you when you were a child? भाषामा बो쥍नहु ुन镍यो ? 27. What language(s) can you speak? तपा� कु न कु न भाषा बो쥍न स啍न हु ु ꅍ छ? 28. Which language do you speak… �त भाषाह셂म鵍ये तपा� कु न भाषा ______बो쥍 नहु ु ꅍ छ ? 28a. 28a. Best? सबै भꅍदा राम्रो? 28b. 28b. Second best? दोस्रो राम्रो? 28c. 28c. Third best? तेस्रो राम्रो? 29. (If MT was not listed as best language) को�चला था셁 भाषा धेरै राम्रो �क �ठक �ठकै �क Please estimate how well you speak अ�ल अ�ल बो쥍 न स啍 नुह ु ꅍ छ ? Kochila Tharu: Very well (a), Some (b), Only a little (c)

B.3 Post-RTT questions

PM1 Where do you think the storyteller is from? यो कथा भꅍने माꅍछेको घर कहाँ होला? PM2 How did you like their speech? उहाँले बोलेको भाषा कतो ला嵍यो? How much of the story did you यो कथा क�त बु畍नुभयो? PM3 understand? (पुरा, एउटा दईटाु कु राबु畍न भएन, आधी, (All, Most, Half, Less than half) आधीको कम) Is the language in this story the same, a यहाँ बो�लएको भाषा कथामा उतै छ �क PM4 little different, or very different from the आ�लआ�ल फरक छ, �क धेरै फरक छ? language spoken here? PM5 Did he speak Tharu purely? उहँले शु鵍द था셁 भाषामा बो쥍नुभयो? PM5a If no, in what way is his speech not pure? �कना सुधा छैन?

B.4 Practice story

English Nepali Answer When I was a child, my father 1. म सानो हंदा मेरो बवाले गाई �कꅍन भयो । bought a cow. ु ु ु उसका बुवाले के �कꅍनु Q1. What did the father buy? cow / गाई भयो? He bought the cow because we 2. हामीलाई दध चा�हएकोले गाई �कꅍनभयो। needed milk. ु ु Q2. Why did he buy a cow? �कन गाई �कꅍनुभयो? for milk / दधु जा�हयो 3. He paid Rs. 600 for it. यसलाई छ सय पय्रो । How much did the father pay Q3. गाईलाई क�त पय�? 600 / छ सय for the cow? One day as I was milking the एक �दन मैले गाईको दध द�हरहंदा एउटा मौर�ले 4. ु ु cow a bee bit the cow. गाईलाई टो啍यो । Q4. What bit the cow? गाईलाई केले टो啍यो? bee / मौर� The cow got upset and kicked 5. गाईलाई �रस उ腍यो र दधको बा쥍ट�लाई ला配तीले हाꅍयो the milk pail, ु kicked milk pail / दधको Q5. What did the cow do? गाईले के गाय�? ु बा쥍ट�लाई ला配तीले हाꅍयो 6. and all the milk was spilled. र सबै दधु पो�खयो । Q6. What happened to the milk? दधु के भयो? spilled / पो�खयो Because my mother would be 7. आमा �रसाउनहꅍछ भनेर मलाई डर ला嵍यो। angry, I was afraid. ु ु बो쥍ने माꅍछेलाई कतो Q7. How did the speaker feel? afraid / डर ला嵍यो ला嵍यो? I tried to borrow milk from the मैले �छमेको बाट पचो� �लने को�शष गर� तर उनीहा셁सगं 8. neighbors, but they had none दध �थएन । to spare. ु How much milk did the �छमेक�ले क�त दध पचो� Q8. ु none / कि配त प�न �दएन neighbors give? �दयो? When my mother found out जब आमाले दध पो�खएको करा थाहा पाउनुभयो मलाई 9. about the spilled milk, she ु ु गाल� गन셍भयो । scolded me. ु Q9. What did the mother do? आमाले के गनु 셍 भयो? scold / गाल� गनु셍भयो As a punishment, I had to go 10. सजयको 셁पमा मलाई एक हꥍतास륍म दध खान पाइन। without milk for one week. ु How long did the speaker बो쥍ने माꅍछेले क�त Q10. one week / एक हꥍता have to go without milk? समयस륍म दधु खानपाएन?

B.5 West story with RTT questions

Tharu सोहन चौधर� रहे Nepali सोहन चौधर� �थयो Free Nep सोहन चौधर� �थयो। Free Eng There was a man named SC.

Tharu औकरा एगो ल蕍का रहे खुसी चौधर� Nepali उसको एउटा छोरा �थयो खुसी चौधर� Free Nep उसको एउटा छोराको नाम खुसी चौधर� �थयो। Free Eng He had one son named KC.

Tharu खुसी चौधर�के जनमेसेह� मान�सक कमजोर� रहे Nepali खुसी चौधर�को जꅍमैदेखी मान�सक कमजोर� �थयो Free Nep खुसी चौधर�लाई जꅍमैदे�ख मान�सक कमजोर� �थयो। Free Eng From birth, KC’s mind was weak.

Tharu मान�सक समया रहे अँ ओकराबादमे जबान भेल Nepali मान�सक समया �थयो र 配यसप�छ जवान भयो

Free Nep मान�सक समया �थयो र 配यसप�छ ऊ जवान भयो। Free Eng There was a mind problem. And he became a youth.

Tharu �बबाहको बाद ओकरा दगोु ल蕍क� भेल आ ऐगो ल蕍का भेल Nepali �बबाह प�छ उसका दईवट�ु छोर� भए र एउटा छोरा भयो Free Nep �ववाहप�छ उसका दईवट�ु छोर� भए र एउटा छोरा भयो। Free Eng After marriage, he had two daughters and one son.

Q1 Tharu खुसीके कैएगो बेटा रहे? ऐगो Nepali खुसीका क�तवटा छोरा �थए? एउटा English How many sons did Khusi have? One

Tharu ओकराबादमे ओकर प�रबार �बमार परगेल Nepali 配यसप�छ उसक� श्रीमती �बरामी भई

Free Nep 配यसप�छ उसक� श्रीमती �बरामी भई। Free Eng Then his wife became sick.

Q2 Tharu खुसीके , प�रवारके कथी भेल रहे? �बमार� भेल रहे Nepali खुसीक� श्रीमतीलाई के भएको �थयो? �बरामी भएको �थयो English What happened to Khusi’s wife? Became sick

Tharu �बमार परगेलाके बादमे आ�थ셍क अवथा कमजोर रहे Nepali �बरामी परे प�छ आ�थ셍क अवथा कमजोर भयो

Free Nep �बरामी परेप�छ आ�थ셍क अवथा कमजोर भयो। Free Eng After becoming sick, his financial condition went bad.

Tharu ओकराबादमे गावसमाजमे ऋ ण ल ेके अपन प�रवारके उपचारकेलेल होस�पटल लेगेल Nepali 配यसप�छ गाउँ-समाजमा ऋण �लएर आ굍नी श्रीमतीको उपचारको ला�ग अपताल �लएर गयो Free Nep 配यसप�छ गाउँ-समाजमा ऋण �लएर उपचारको ला�ग श्रीमतीलाई अपताल �लएर गयो। Free Eng Then, taking a loan from the village, he took his wife to the hospital for treatment.

Tharu होस�पटल भेल आ होस�पटलमे उपचार कैएलख Nepali अपतालमा गयो र अपतालमा उपचार गरायो

Free Nep अपतालमा गएर उपचार गरायो। Free Eng She was given treatment at the hospital.

Tharu दवाइसव चलल ले�कन ओकर प�रवार वाचेनसकल Nepali औषधी ग 셍 य ो तर उसक� श्रीमती बाँ楍न स�कन

Free Nep औषधी ग셍 यो तर उसक� श्रीमती बाँ楍न स�कन। Free Eng Treatment was given to her, but she did not live.

Tharu तअ ओकराबादमे खुसी ऐगो �बबाहके लेल तयार� बतैएलख Nepali अँ 配यसप�छ खुसी एउटा �ववाहको ला�ग तयार� बनाइयो Free Nep 配यसप�छ खुसी एउटा �ववाहको ला�ग तयार� बनाइयो। Free Eng Then Khusi was made ready for another marriage.

Tharu आ �बबाह कैएलख ओकराबादमे द ु बर�स त घर प�रवार बिꅍहयासे चलैएलख Nepali र �ववाह ग 셍 य ो 配यसप�छ दईु वष셍 त घर प�रवार राम्रोसँग चलायो Free Nep र �ववाह ग 셍 य ो 配यसप�छ दईु वष셍 त घर-प�रवार राम्रोसँग चलायो। Free Eng He got married. And for two years he ran the family well.

Q3 Tharu कै इ स े घर-प�रवार चलैएलख? बꅍह�यासे Nepali कसर� घर-प�रवार चलाएको �थयो? राम्रोसँग English How did he run the family? Well

Tharu ओकराबादमे ओकर जवन प�रवार जवत दोसर �बबाह क के टयैले रहे Nepali 配यसप�छ उसको जुन श्रीमती जुन दोस्रो �ववाह गरेर 쥍याएको �थयो Free Nep 配यसप�छ उसले जुन अक� श्रीमती �ववाह गरेर 쥍याएको �थयो, Free Eng Then, his second wife...

Tharu ऊ एगो योजना बनैलख �क एकर जवन प�हले होएलवाला बालब楍चा Nepali उसले एउटा योजना बनायो �क यसको जुन प�हले जꅍमेको सꅍतान Tharu बा ओ क र ा के खतम करद ु कहके मारद ु कहके योजना बनैलख Nepali छ उनीह셁लाई खतम गर�दनु भनी मा�र�दनु भनेर योजना बनायो Free Nep उसले प�हलेक� श्रीमतीबाट जꅍमेका सꅍतान मारेर खतम पान� योजना बनाई। Free Eng made a plan to kill the children from his first marriage.

Tharu ओकरबादमे खुसी तयार भेलख ऊ बालबा楍चाके मारेके लेल Nepali 配यसप�छ खुसी तयार भयो 配यो सꅍतानलाई मान셍को ला�ग Free Nep 配यसप�छ खुसी ती सꅍतानलाई मान셍को ला�ग तयार भयो। Free Eng Then Khusi became ready to kill the children.

Tharu त उ समयमे नौ बजैतरहे नौ बजे रात होइतरहे Nepali त 配यो समयमा नौ ब煍दै�थयो नौ बजे रात भएको �थयो Free Nep 配यो समयमा रातको नौ बजेको �थयो। Free Eng It was nine o’clock at night by that time.

Q4 Tharu उ समयमे र ा त के के त न ा बजैइत रहे? नौओ बजैरात रहे Nepali 配यो समय रातको क�त बजेको �थयो? नौ बजेको �थयो English What time at night was it? Nine o’clock

Tharu त ओकर बालब楍चा सब सबै सुतरहलरहे सु�तसकेको Nepali त उसको सꅍतान ह셁 सबै �थयो

Free Nep उसका सꅍतान सबै सु�तसकेका �थए। Free Eng All his children were sleeping.

Q5 Tharu ओकर कै ए ज न ा बालब楍चा सुतल रहे? सभे (सब) Nepali उसका क�तवटा ब楍चाह셂 सुतेका �थए? सबै English How many of his children were sleeping? All

Tharu त ओकरा मारेकेलेल यी दनु ुकोई योजना बनैलेरहे टाङ� रखले रहे Nepali तब उनीह셂लाई मान셍को ला�ग यी दईजनाु योजना बनाएको �थयो बꅍचरो राखेको �थयो Free Nep तब उनीह셂लाई मान셍को ला�ग दईजनालेु योजना बनाएका �थए। बꅍचरो राखेका �थए। Free Eng Then, the two had made a plan to kill them. They had an axe ready.

Q6 Tharu ओकनीके मारेकेलेल कथी रखले रहे? टाङ� Nepali उनीह셂लाई मान셍लाई के राखेको �थयो? ब祍चरो English For killing them, what had they kept? Axe

Tharu और ऊ सुतलरहे ऊ दनु ु ब楍चा आ ओकर जेठका Nepali अ�न ऊ सु�तरहेको �थयो ती दईटैु ब楍चा र उसको जेठो Tharu लडका दोसर कोठामे सुतलरहे Nepali छोरा अक� कोठामा सु�तरहेको �थयो Free Nep अ�न ऊ स�तरहेकोु �थयो। ती दईटैु ब�ा र उसको जेठो छोरा अक� कोठामा स�तरहेकाु �थए। Free Eng He was sleeping. Two children and his eldest son were sleeping in the next room.

Q7 Tharu के दोसर कोठामे सुतल रहे? ओकर जेठका ल蕍का Nepali अक� कोठामा को सु�तरहेको �थयो? उसको जेठो छोरा English Who was sleeping in the other room? His eldest son

Tharu त ज ा के ऊ टाङ� उठाके दनु ु लडक�याके टाङ�से मारदेल Nepali त गएर ऊ बꅍचरो उदाएर दईटैु छोर�लाई बꅍचरोले मा�र�दयो Tharu काटदेल पुरा मुरउर क ा ट के मुआदेल Nepali का�ट�दयो पूरै टाउकोसाउको काटे र मा�र�दयो Free Nep ऊ गएर बꅍचरो उदाएर दईटैु छोर�लाई बꅍचरोले मा�र�दयो, पूरै टाउकोसाउको का�ट�दयो। Free Eng He sharpened the axe. He killed the two girls by cutting off their heads with the axe.

Q8 Tharu टाङ�से कथी काटके मुयादेलख? म ु र � क ा ट के मुयाकेलख Nepali ब祍चरोले के काटेर मा셍 यो? (छोर�ह셁को के काटेर मा셍 यो)? टाउको काटेर English What did the axe cut? (What was cut on the daughters)? Head

Tharu त ओकर बाबा गेटे मे सुतलरहे Nepali त उसको हजुरबुबा ढोकामै सुतेको �थयो Free Nep अ�न उसको हजुरबुबा ढोकामै सुतेको �थयो। Free Eng His grandfather was sleeping by the gate/door.

Q9 Tharu गेटमे के सुतल रहे? ओकर बाबा Nepali गेटमा को सुतेको �थयो? उसको हजुरबुबा English Who slept at the gate? His grandfather

Tharu त जवन अवाज देलख त ऊ अवाजसे ओकर �नन टटगेलु Nepali त जुन अवाज �दयो त ऊ अवाजले उसको �नद्रा भङ्गभयो Free Nep 配यो आवाजले उसको �नद्रा भ敍गभयो। Free Eng The sound woke him up.

Q10 Tharu ओकर बाबाके आवाज सुनके कथी भेलेल? �नन टुटगेल Nepali अवाज सुनेर उसको हजुरबुबालाई के भयो? �नद्राले छो蕍 यो English What did his grandfather do after hearing the sound? Woke up

Tharu �नन टुटलाकेबादमे घरमे देखेलागल जे क�थ भेल घरमे क ह के Nepali �नद्रा भ敍गभएप�छ घरमा हेन셍 था쥍यो �क के भयो घरमा भनेर Free Nep �नद्रा भ敍गभएप�छ घरमा हेन셍 था쥍यो, के भयो भनेर। Free Eng After waking, he looked in the house. “What happened?,” he asked.

Tharu त घरमे देखैत त दनु ु बा楍चाके मारदेले रहे त Nepali 配यसप�छ घरमा दे奍दा त दइटैु ब楍चालाई मा�र�दएको �थयो त Free Nep 配यसप�छ घरमा दे奍दा त दइटैु ब楍चा मा�रएका �थए। Free Eng Then, in the house he looked and the two girls were murdered.

Tharu ओकराबादमे ह쥍ला कै ल ख ओकर बाबा त गाँव समाजके लोग पूरा सवके Nepali 配यसप�छ ह쥍ला ग 셍 य ो उसको हजुरबाबाले 配यसर� गाउँ समाजको माꅍछेह셂लाई Tharu जानकार� भेल Nepali जानकार� भयो Free Nep �सपिछ उसको हजुरबाबाले ह�ा ग 앍 य ो अिन गाउँ -समाजका माꅍछेह�लाई जानकारी भयो। Free Eng Then the grandfather made noise and people in the village came to know what happened.

Tharu तब यी दनु ु भागल जाइतरहे घर छ ो र के घरसे �नकलके दनु ु Nepali तब यी दईटैु भागेर जाँदै �थयो घर छोडेर घरबाट �नकेर दईटैु Tharu भागलजाइतरहे ओकरबादमे गाँव समाज सब गेल आ प क र के लेआएल Nepali भागेर जाँदै �थयो 配यसप�छ गाउँ समाज ह셂 गयो र प क्रे र 쥍यायो Tharu और प्रहर�के जानकार� देलख Nepali अ�न प्रहर�लाई जानकार� �दयो Free Nep ती दबैजनाु घरबाट �नकेर घर छोडेर भागेर जाँदै �थए। 配यसप�छ गाउँ-समाज गएर उनीह셂लाई पक्रेर 쥍याए र प्रहर�लाई जानकार� �दए। Free Eng The two were fleeing from the house. Then the villagers went, caught them, and informed the police.

Q11 Tharu यी दनु ुजना कहाँसे भागल जाईत रहे? घरसे �नकलके भागल जाईत रहे Nepali दईजनाु कहाँबाट भागीरहेको �थयो? घरबाट �नकलेर भागीरहेका �थए English Where did the two people flee from? They fled from the house

Tharu प्रहर� आएल प्रहर�के साथमे उ सबके कानुन प्र�क्रयाअनुसार �नयम Nepali प्रहर� आयो प्रहर�को साथमै उनी ह셂लाई कानुन प्र�क्रयाअनुसार �नयम Tharu कानुनअनुसार ओकरा िज쥍ला लेगेल एतने Nepali कानुनअनुसार उनीह셁लाई िज쥍ला ला�गयो य�त Free Nep प्रहर� आए। प्रहर�को साथमै उनीह셂लाई कानुन प्र�क्रयाअनुसार, �नयम-कानुनअनुसार िज쥍ला ला�गयो। Free Eng The police came and, according to the legal process and law, the two were taken to the district police office.

Tharu िज쥍लामे िज쥍लामे लेगेल ओकराबादमे ओकरा जेल देदेलख और ओकरा जवन Nepali िज쥍लामा िज쥍लामा ल�गयो 配यसप�छ उसलाई जेल �दइयो अ�न उसको जुन Tharu बालब楍चा वा आजु ओकरो साद� �बबाह भेल अ आजु खुसीसे वा Nepali बालब楍चा छ आज उसको प�न �ववाह भयो अ आज खुसीसँग छ उनीह셂लाई िज쥍ला-िज쥍लामा ल�गयो अ�न जेलमा थु�नयो। अ�न उसका बालब楍चाको प�न अ�हले �ववाह भइस啍यो। आज उनीह셂 खुसीसँग Free Nep बसेका छन।् Free Eng They were taken from district to district and put into jail. His children are already married. Today they are living happily.

Tharu घर प�रवरमे ओकर जवन वाचल रहे ओकर �बबाह होगेल Nepali घर प�रवारमा उसको जुन बाँचेको �थयो उसको �ववाह भयो Tharu आजु खुशीसे वा आजु वरामत वा Nepali आज खुशीसँग छ आज सु�खत छ Free Nep घर-प�रवारमा जुन ब楍चा बाँचेको �थयो, उसको �ववाह भयो। आज ऊ खुसीसँग बसेको छ। Free Eng The child that was saved has gotten married. Today he is living happily.

Tharu यीहे घटल घटना वा Nepali यह� घटे को घटना हो

Free Nep घटेको घटना यह� हो। Free Eng This is the event that happened.

B.6 East story with RTT questions

Tharu हम आपन ए�ा जे ह 륍 र ा ��गत घट्ना घट्लीस उटा Nepali म आ굍नो एउटा जो मेरो ��गत घटना घटेको �ो घट्नाके बारे मे अँ ऐते हम किहरहलिछन् Tharu घटनाको बारे मा अँ यहाँ म भिनरहेकोछु Nepali म मेरो ��गत घटना भ � ेछु । Free Nep Free Eng I will tell my personal event.

Tharu हमे एकबेर चलगेनीछल निनया ससुर कते सकटी मे मेजवान Nepali म एकप� गएको ि थ एँ श्रीमतीको आमाको बुबा ससुर कहाँ मङनीमा पा�ना म एकप� श्रीमतीको आमाको बुबा ससुराकहाँ मङ्नीमा पा�ना गएको ि थ एँ । Free Nep Free Eng I once had been to my wife’s father’s home (as a guest) to ask for her hand in marriage.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी ककर कते मेजवान गेलीछल निनया ससुर कते Q1 Tharu ? बो쥍ने मािनस कसकोमा पा�ना गएको िथयो बाजे ससुराकोमा Nepali ? English Where did the speaker go as a guest for the proposal? Father-in-law’s house

हालाकी मेजवान गेनीछल त हमर प�रवारो गेलीछल Tharu Nepali �नत पा�ना गएको ि थ एँ त मेरो श्रीमती पिन गएको िथयो श्रीमती पिन मसँग पा�ना गएिक िथई। Free Nep Free Eng My wife also accompanied me (as a guest).

प�रवार के साथै साथै ए�ा छौडीवो गेलीछल् Tharu Nepali श्रीमती को सँग सँगै एउटा के ट ी पिन गएको िथयो श्रीमतीसँग एउटी के ट ी पिन गएिक िथई। Free Nep Free Eng There was also a girl that went with my wife.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी के प�रवार स ङे के गेलीछल् छौडी Q2 Tharu ? बो쥍ने मािनसको श्रीमतीसँग को गएको िथयो छोरी के ट ी Nepali ? ( ) English Who also went with the speaker’s wife? A young lady

Tharu लेकीन कु न हेली ओतेकरा जब पु�ी सहकटीरा घर ल嵍ता जते Nepali िकनभने के भयो �हाँ जब पुगे मङ्नी घर निजक जहाँ Tharu मेजवान �ा गेनी हमर प�रवार प�ारी दने ऐ ङ् न ढु की गेली Nepali पा�ना खान गएको मेरो श्रीमती पछाडी बाट आँगन िछय� मेरी श्रीमती मङ्नी घरको पछािडबाट आँगनमा िछरी। Free Nep Free Eng My wife entered the courtyard from behind the house.

Tharu हमे चलगेनु ि स द् व ा रीमे ह 륍 र ा त कोइ िच�ेनै कर�ी के इ Nepali म गए ठू ल ो आँगनमा मलाई कसैले ची�ै स के न के ऊ बाऊज�ा छे क ी क ि ह के Tharu �ाइँ हो भनेर Nepali म ठू ल ो आँगनमा जाँदा कसैले पिन �ाइँ हो भनेर िच� स के न न ्। Free Nep Free Eng As I went to the big courtyard, nobody recognized me as the son-in-law.

Tharu हालाकी ओते सक�ा सौ मे�ान सब छे ल ी सक�ा स ङे Nepali �नत �हाँ मङ्नीमा आएको ह� पा�ना सबै िथयो मङ्नीमा आएको सँग हमु रहनी खेनी िपनी Tharu म रहे खाए पीए Nepali मङ्नीमा आएकाह�सँग मैले ख ा एँ रहेँ ि प एँ । Free Nep , , Free Eng I ate, stayed, and drank with other people that had come for the proposal event.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी ककर स ङे रहली खे�ी िप�ी सकट् या स ङे Q3 Tharu , , ? बो쥍ने मािनस कोसँग बसेर खाना खायो िपयो मगनीमा आएकाह�सँग Nepali , ? English With whom did the speaker stay, eat, and drink? With the people that had come for the proposal event

Tharu सक�ाना चलगेली घर हमे मे�ान आदमी कते जेउ घर साझो हेली मङ्नीमा Nepali आएकोह� गए घर म पा�ना मािनस कहाँ जाउ घर साझ भयो मङ्नीमा आएकाह� सबै घर फ क� । म पा�ना कहाँ घर जानु साँझ पिन प � र स के क ो िथयो। Free Nep , Free Eng The people that came for the proposal all returned home. Me, as a guest, where would I go? It was also getting dark.

प ा छु ओते किहनो िकिसमसे रात रहनी Tharu Nepali पिछ �हाँ जसो तसो रात रहे पिछ �हाँ जसोतसो बास बस�। Free Nep Free Eng Later, I spent the night there.

ए�ा ओिहनेङ िचना जाना छे ल ी Tharu Nepali एउटा �सतै िचनेको जानेको िथयो मैले िचनेजानेको एकजना म ा ꅍ छे िथयो। Free Nep Free Eng There was a person I knew.

ओ ि ह न ेङे ओतेकरा क�ा झना िचना जाना छे ल ी एकझना ए�ा Q4 Tharu ? ( ) �सरी नै �हाँिनर उता कित जना िचने जानेका िथए एक जना एउटा Nepali - ? ( ) English How many people were there that he knew? One

पहे�रो उटा गावमे ओ 啍 र े कते � ा के रातरहनी Tharu Nepali पिछलेको �ो गाउँमा उ कहाँ जएर रातरहे म �स गाउँ मा �ो मािनसकहाँ गएर बास बस�। Free Nep Free Eng I spent the night with that man in the village.

Tharu वादमे बाप हमर कह�ी छल ओते मेजवान जेवे क�ा� उटा Nepali एकिछनमा बुबा मेरो भ�ुभएको िथयो �हाँ पा�ना गइरहेछौ �ो Tharu गाँव से पू� एक िठना छे ल ी िबहा जो ओतेकरा िबहामे Nepali गाँउको पूब� एक ठाँउ िथयो िववहा जाऊ �हाँ िववहामा चुमान तुमान दया िदहान चलआविहयान Tharu दि�ना ति�ना िदइ दे उ फ क� र आऊ Nepali पिछ मेरो बुबाले भ�ुभएको िथयो �ो गाउँ को पूव�पि� अक� गाउँमा िववाह छ। �हाँ गएर दि�णा िदएर फ क� । Free Nep Free Eng Later, my father told me that eastward, in the next village, there was a wedding. I had to go and return after giving a financial gift.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी के गाँव से पू� िवहा छु क ि ह के के कह�ी बाप Q5 Tharu , ? बो쥍ने मािनसको गाउँ दे �ख पूव� िववाह छ भनेर कसले भ�ो बुवाले Nepali , ? English Who told the speaker that there was a wedding to the east of the village? Father

Tharu ह 륍 � अ�े हेली ओतेकरा िच�ोनी कर�ी तकर िबहान उठी सुठी Nepali मलाई असलै भयो �हाँ िच�ै स के न �सको िबहान उ ठे र Tharu के जतेजे रात रहनी ओते चाइयो ताइयो �ादे �ी चाइ ताइ � ा के जहाँ रात रहेको िथयो �हाँ िचया खान िदयो िचया खाइसकेर Nepali चलगेनी ओतेकरा चुमान दे वे Tharu ग एँ �हाँ दि�णा िदन Nepali मलाई ि ठ कै भयो �हाँ कसैले मलाई िचनेनन् र बास बसेको ठाउँ मा िचया िपउन िदए। �सपिछ दि�णा िदन ग एँ । Free Nep Free Eng It was good for me. Nobody knew me there. They gave me tea at the house where stayed. Then I went to give the financial gift.

चाइ � ा के बोलेवला आ द् म ी क�े चलगेली चुमान दे वे Q6 Tharu , ? िचया खाएर बो쥍ने मािनस कहाँ कता गयो उपहार िदन Nepali - ? English After drinking tea, where did the speaker go? To give the gift

Tharu तकरवाद ओते � ा के चुमान तुमान द् य ा के दोसर िदना �ा िपिवके Nepali �सपिछ �हाँ गएर दि�णा िदएर अक� िदन खाएर िपएर जब हमे घुन� Tharu जब म फ क� Nepali �हाँ िववाहमा दि�णा िदएर अक� िदन खाई िपई गरी फ क� । Free Nep - Free Eng The next day I returned after eating, drinking, and giving the financial gift.

Tharu तब फे र ओतेकरा ऐनी याहारा गाव दने अब गेनीछल् सङहै Nepali तब फे र ी �हाँ आए यही गाउँ बाट अब गएको िथए सँगै Tharu मेजवान ओ 啍 र ा त � ा के आवे पल� नी आपन प�रवार के Nepali प�ना उसलाई त िलएर आउनु प छ� नी आ굍नो श्रीमती लाई अब जुन गाउँमा पा�ना खाएर गएको ि थ एँ �ही बाटो भएर श्रीमतीलाई पिन �ो गाउँबाट िलएर जानु पद� �ो। Free Nep , Free Eng Now, in that village where I had been a guest, eaten, and left, I had to walk with my wife through the same village.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी क 啍 र ा � ा के आवे पित� प�रवार के Q7 Tharu ? बो쥍ने मािनसले कसलाई िलएर आउनु प�� श्रीमतीलाई Nepali ? English Who did the speaker have to bring? His wife

Tharu त ओतेकरा आिवके ग ा ँव र ा के बाहारमे ए�ा छौडा के कहनी Nepali त �हाँ आएर गाउँ को बािहरमा एउटा के ट ा लाई भने Tharu रे कालु सहकटी हेली सहकटी रा घरमे ए�ा मेजवान Nepali ए िहजो मङ्नी भयो मङ्नी भएको घरमा एउटा पा�ना म गाउँ को बािहर एउटा केटालाई मङ्नी भएको घरमा पा�ना � न ेछु भनेर भन�। Free Nep Free Eng Out of the village, I told one boy that I was going to be a guest at the house where the proposal event had taken place.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी ग ा ँव र ा के बाहारमे ककर स ङे बात कर�ी छौडा स ङे Q8 Tharu ? बो쥍ने मािनसले गाउँ को बािहर कोसँग कु र ा ग 앍 य ो के ट ा स ँग Nepali ? English Who did the speaker talk to outside the village? With a young man

ओ 啍 र ा क ि ह के आ श ेछु �ा क ह �ु घर ज ेछु Tharu Nepali उसलाई भ�ु प�ख�रहेकोछ जान भ�ै छ घर जाँदै छ उसलाई भ�ु घर जानलाई प�ख�रहेकोछ। Free Nep Free Eng Tell them that I’m waiting to go home.

Tharu तब ओते ह�ा ख�ा भेली जे बाप रे तब � ा के Nepali तब �हाँ होह�ा भयो जुन बाबा हे तब जएर उ�ा मे�ान द् य ा के सु�ीछल् एली Tharu �ो पा�ना बारे मा सुनेको िथए आएको िथए Nepali तब �हाँ होह�ा भयो। ए �ो पा�नाको बारे मा सुनेको िथयौं आएको छ भनेर। Free Nep “ , ” Free Eng Now there was a commotion. They said, “Oh! Yes, we heard about that guest; he had come.”

Tharu आ राती कोइ नइ िचन�ी साझ िबहान उठी स ुठ ी के चलगेली Nepali अँ राित कसैले पिन िचनेनन् साँझमा िबहान उ ठे र गए साँझ भएकोले कसैले िचनेनन्। िबहानै उठी ग एँ । Free Nep Free Eng Because it was evening, nobody recognized me. Waking up early in the morning, I left.

Tharu अँ सꅍजोगवस एली त�े ओतेसे � ा के ह�र ना ममीया अँ सꅍजोगवस आए �स वखत् �हाँबाट गएर मेरो मामा Nepali ससुर निनया ससुर ऐली �ा� Tharu ससुरा बाजे ससुर अएर लगे Nepali संजोगवस आएको कारण उसको मामा ससुरा बाजे ससुराले मलाई ल�ो। Free Nep , Free Eng Because of having come coincidentally, my wife’s uncle took me to his place.

Tharu का�ाह आग्रह क � र के �ा नैहे िचने सा�ी ऐने ओने धे रै आग्रह गरे र ल िच� सिकन य�ो ��ो Nepali ब�त िकिसम क ि ह के �ा�े Tharu धे रै िकिसम भनेर ल�ो Nepali िच� सिकन भनी माफ मा�ै मलाई लानुभयो। Free Nep Free Eng Saying “I’m sorry I could not recognize you,” he took me to his place.

तकरवाद ओतेकरा ह 륍 र ा दुइ रात शख� Tharu Nepali �सपिछ �हाँ मलाई दुइ रात राखे �सपिछ मलाई �हाँ दुइरात पा�ना राखे। Free Nep Free Eng Then, they kept me for two nights as a guest.

बोलेवला आ द्म ी के ओतेकरा क�ा रात राख�ी दुइ रात Q9 Tharu ? बो쥍ने मािनसलाई �हाँिनर उता कित रात रा�ो दुई रात Nepali / ? English How many nights did he stay there? Two nights

तब दुइ रात र ि ह के तब ह 륍 र ा सौ घर ऐनी Tharu Nepali तब दुइ रात रहेर तब हामीह�सबै घर आयौं �हाँ दुइरात बसेर घर फ��। Free Nep Free Eng After staying two nights there, we returned home.

तब दुइरात र ि ह के ओकरिसहा कु न कर�ी घर ऐली Q10 Tharu ? अिन दुईरात बसेर उनीह�ले के गरे घर आए Nepali ? English After staying two nights, what did they do? Returned home

B.7 Recorded text testing results and post-RTT responses in the Western Region13

B.7.1 Results from the Eastern RTT among speakers in the Western Region (Bara/Rautahat)

Practice Subject Test ERTT1 ERTT2 ERTT3 ERTT4 ERTT5 ERTT6 ERTT7 ERTT8 ERTT9 ERTT10 Number Score W3S01 90 No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes W3S02 90 Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes W3S03 90 Yes No No Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes W3S04 100 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes W3S05 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes W3S06 80 Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes W3S07 80 No No No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes B3J01 80 No No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes B3J03 80 No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes B3J07 100 No Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes

*See Appendix C for subjects’ biodata.

13 Pre-RTT responses are included in the Informal Interview data and are not listed here, as the questions are the same for both. Three subjects were administered post-RTT questions only and not the complete RTT. That data is included here.

B.7.2 Post-RTT responses from the Eastern RTT among speakers in the Western Region (Bara/Rautahat)

East PM1 East PM2 East PM3 East PM4 East PM5 East PM5a Subject Where do you How did you like How much of the Is the language in the story Did he speak If no, in which way Number think the their speech? story did you the same, a little different, Tharu was the speech not storyteller is from? understand? or very different than the purely? pure? language spoken here? B3J04 Saptari Good less than half a little different no understood but different. We W3S01 Saptariya/Sunsari Good all can’t speak like that, but we no understand it It’s okay, but they it is tharu, not mixed languages a words are the same but W3S02 Sunsari 75% understood pure for us little hard to speaking is different here understand Toward east Good, okay, 1 or 2% didn’t W3S03 little no maithili bhasa Siraha/Saptari sounds good understand Not as good as the W3S04 Sarlahi first one (cow most very no story) no (the first W3S05 Sarlahi Very good all very was - cow story) W3S06 Mohattari Okay a little bit Someone else W3S07 Good most little no answered for her Felt good - B3J01 Toward Lahan all very different yes maithili B3J03 Siraha Saptari Good all very different ghumera no maithili mix Couldn’t B3J07 Dhanusa most very different no understand a little

B.8 Recorded text testing results and post-RTT responses in the Central Region14

B.8.1 Results from the Western RTT among speakers in the Central Region (Siraha)

Subject Practice WRTT1 WRTT2 WRTT3 WRTT4 WRTT5 WRTT6 WRTT7 WRTT8 WRTT9 WRTT10 WRTT11 Number Test Score C3J14 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No C3J07 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No C3J11 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No C3S04 90 No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes C3S05 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No C3S06 80 No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes C3S08 70 No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No C3S10 90 Yes No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No C3J13 80 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No C3J04 80 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No

14 Three subjects were administered Post-RTT questions, but not the full West RTT. Two subjects were administered Post-RTT questions, but not the full East RTT. That data is included here.

B.8.2 Post-RTT responses from the Western RTT among speakers in the Central Region (Siraha)

West PM1 West PM2 West PM3 West PM4 West PM5 West PM5a Subject Where do you think How did you like How much of the Is the language in the story Did he speak If no, in which Number the storyteller is their speech? story did you the same, a little different, Tharu purely? way was the from? understand? or very different than the speech not language spoken here? pure? C3J02 here (Jahadi) Good all little yes C3S02 Not in Siraha - west It works all little no C3S03 Morang Good half little no C3J14 Jahadi Very good half same yes C3J07 Other district Okay all little no C3J11 Jahadi nikje lagle most same yes C3S04 Siraha/Saptari Good (we speak that) all same yes Tharu, but a little yes, but a little C3S05 Mahattori district all little like Bhojpuri like bhojpuri C3S06 Dang Good all same yes C3S08 Morang Okay less than half little yes C3S10 Siraha (but not here) Good all little yes C3J13 jahadi Very good half same yes ali nai lagyo - yes for his C3J04 Toward Bara understood, but all little district couldn’t respond

B.8.3 Results from the Eastern RTT among speakers in the Central Region (Siraha)

Subject Practice ERTT1 ERTT2 ERTT3 ERTT4 ERTT5 ERTT6 ERTT7 ERTT8 ERTT9 ERTT10 Number Test Score C3J14 90 No Yes No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes C3J07 100 Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes C3J11 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes C3S04 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes C3S05 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes C3S06 80 No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes C3S08 70 No Yes No No Yes No No Yes Yes No C3S10 90 Yes No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes C3J13 80 No Yes No No No Yes Yes No Yes Yes C3J04 80 Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No

B.8.4 Post-RTT responses from the Eastern RTT among speakers in the Central Region (Siraha)

East PM1 East PM2 East PM3 East PM4 East PM5 East PM5a Subject Where do you think How did you like How much of the Is the language in the Did he speak If no, in which Number the storyteller is their speech? story did you story the same, a little Tharu purely? way was the from? understand? different, or very speech not different than the pure? language spoken here? C3S02 Toward east understand all 45% different yes C3S03 West Good half little no C3J14 Other district Very good most little yes C3J07 Pacheem Good most very different no C3J11 Siraha nike lagle all same yes It works and is good, for them maybe, I C3S04 pura patiko most little but a little different don’t know good, but different from our C3S05 Sunsari understanding is half 50% different district hard C3S06 Morang Good all little a little only C3S08 Siraha Okay all little yes C3S10 Toward Sunsari Good most little yes C3J13 Other district Very good most little yes C3J04 Sunsari, Morang It is good all little yes, very

B.9 Recorded text testing results and post-RTT responses in the Eastern Region15

B.9.1 Results from the Western RTT among speakers in the Eastern Region (Morang)

Subject Practice WRTT1 WRTT2 WRTT3 WRTT4 WRTT5 WRTT6 WRTT7 WRTT8 WRTT9 WRTT10 WRTT11 Number Test Score MJ04 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes MJ09 70 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes M3S02 80 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes M3S04 100 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No M3S08 90 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No M3S09 80 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes M3J02 80 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes M3J04 90 No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes M3J06 90 No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes M3J07 100 Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes M3J08 90 No Yes No No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes MS07 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes M3S05 80 No No No No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No *See Appendix C for subjects’ biodata.

15 Six subjects were administered Post-RTT questions, but not the full West RTT. That data is included here.

B.9.2 Post-RTT responses from the western RTT among speakers in the eastern region (Morang)

West PM1 West PM2 West PM3 West PM4 West PM5 West PM5a Subject Where do you think How did you like their How much of the Is the language in Did he speak If no, in which Number the storyteller is from? speech? story did you the story the same, Tharu purely? way was the understand? a little different, or speech not very different than pure? the language spoken here? Good (but can’t M3S07 Saptariya most No response Not clear understand) a little maithili M3J01 Morang Good all same no mixed his speech was M3J03 Saptari Good most little yes different, that’s why Sunsari because a little a little hard to MJ04 most little probably, not ours difficult to understand understand MJ09 Saptari Good all little no hindi mix M3S02 West, but nearby It’s like Saptariya most very Maybe for them didn’t ask M3S04 Gidhaniya Good most little Yes From the west. Things different from M3S08 like this happen in Okay most little No ours Saptariya. Culture isn’t the M3S09 Saptariya Okay - understood all little no same this language M3J02 Sunsari (east) Good most little no here is straight our language but M3J04 No response Good most little no different M3J06 Saptari Good half little no M3J07 Saptari Good most little no Biratnagar (not sure, M3J08 Good half little no really just guessing)

Appendix C: Informal Interviews

C.1 Informal interview schedule

My name is ____. We are from Tribhuvan University. मेरो नाम _____ हो। हामी �त्रभवनु � व �व �वद्यालयबाट We are here to learn about how your language is आएका हौ।ं हामी तपा℁ह셁को भाषा कसरी बो�लने used for speaking and writing. We will ask you रहेछ कसरी ले�खने रहेछ भ ꅍन े कु रा जाꅍ नका ला�ग questions about yourself and your language. The आएका हौ।ं तपाℂ र तपाℂको भाषाका बारेमा हामी information that you give us about your language, के ह ी प्र � न ह셁 सो鵍 छौ।ं तपाℂले �दन ु भएको we will give to others. Can you give us help? भाषास륍 बꅍध ी जानकारी अ셂 मा�नसलाई प�न देखाउने छौ।ं तपाℂले हामीलाई सहायता गन셍 स啍नहु ꅍछु ? 1. Informed Consent: Given / Not Given 2. Subject Number: 3. Date (DD-MM-YY): 4. Village Name: 5. Interviewer Name: 6. Language of Elicitation: 7. Language of Response: 8. Interpreter Name: 9. Sex 10. Full Name तपाℂको पूरा नाम के हो? 11. Age: तपाℂको उमेर क�त भयो? 12. Caste: तपाℂको जात कु न हो? 13. What religion do you practice? तपाℂ कु न धम셍 मा�हु ꅍछु ? 14. What is your occupation? तपाℂ के काम ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? 15. Have you ever been to school? तपाℂले क ू लमा प襍 नभयोु ? 15a. (If yes) Up to which class? क�त 啍ल ा सस륍म (क�ास륍 म)? 16. What is your mother tongue? तपाℂको मात ृ भाषा (आ굍 नो भाषा) कु न हो? 17. Where were you born? तपाℂ कहा ँ ज ꅍम नभयोु ? 18. Where do you live now? तपाℂ आजभो�ल कहा ँ ब  न हु ꅍु छ ? 19. How long have you been living there/here? तपाℂ यो ठाउँमा क�त बष셍 ब  न भयोु ? 20. Have you lived anywhere else for more than a तपा℁ आ셁 ठाउँमा एक बष셍भꅍदा बढी ब  न भएकोु year? छ? 20a. Where? कहा?ँ 20b. When? क�हले? 20c. How long did you live there? क�त समयस륍म? 21. Where is your father from? तपाℂको बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो? 22. What is his mother tongue? उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा के हो? 23. What language did your father usually speak तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको बवालेु तपा℁सगँ कु न to you when you were a child? भाषामा बो쥍नहु न镍ु यो? 24. Where is your mother from? तपाℂको आमाको माइ�तघर कहा ँ हो? 25. What is her mother tongue? उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा के हो? 26. What language did your mother usually speak तपाℂ सानो हदाुँ तपाℂको आमाले तपा℁सगँ कु न to you when you were a child? भाषामा बो쥍नहु न镍ु यो? 27. What language(s) can you speak? तपाℂ कु न कु न भाषा बो쥍 न स 啍न हु ꅍु छ ? 28. Which language do you speak… �त भाषाह셂म鵍ये तपाℂ कु न भाषा ______ब ो 쥍 नहु ꅍु छ? 28a. Best? सबै भꅍदा राम्रो? 28b. Second best? दोस्रो राम्रो? 28c. Third best? तेस्रो राम्रो?

91 92

29. (If MT was not listed as best language) Please को�चला था셁 भाषा धेरै राम्रो �क �ठक � ठ कै �क estimate how well you speak Kochila Tharu: अ�ल अ�ल बो쥍 न स 啍न हु ꅍु छ ? Very well (a), Some (b), Only a little (c) 30. Among the languages that you speak which तपा℁ले बो쥍ने भाषाह셂 म鵍ये कु न चा�ह ँ सबै भꅍदा one do you love the most? बढी मन पराउनहु ꅍछु ? 31. What language do you usually use when तपाℂको हजरबाु हजरआमासु गँ तपाℂ धेरै जसो कु न talking with your grandparents? भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? 32. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , बाआमासगँ , गफ गदा셍 language do you usually use when chatting धेरै जसो, कु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? with your parents? 33. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , बाआमालाई कथा language do you usually use when telling a सनाउु ँदा, धेरै जसो कु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? story to your parents? 34. Are you married? तपाℂको �ववाह भ इ स 啍य ो ? 35. What is his/her mother tongue? उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा कु न हो? 35a. Can your spouse speak Kochila Tharu? तपाℂको श्रीमाꅍ/श्रीमती को�चला था셁 भाषा बो쥍 न स 啍न हु ꅍु छ ? 36. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , श्रीमान / श्रीमतीसगँ , गफ language do you usually use when chatting गदा셍 धेरै जसो कु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? with your spouse? 37. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , श्रीमान (श्रीमती)लाई कथा language do you usually use when telling a सनाउु ँदा, धेरै जसो कु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? story to your spouse? 38. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , केटाकेटीसगँ , गफ गदा셍 language do you usually use when chatting धेरै जसोकु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? with a child? 39. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नो घरमा हदाुँ , केटाकेटीलाई कथा language do you usually use when telling a सनाउु ँदा, धेरै जसो कु न भाषा प्रयोग ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? story to a child? 40a. When you are in the village, what language तपा℁ यो गाउँमा हदाुँ , केटाकेटीह셂 था셂 do you hear children speaking when playing साथीह셂सगँ खे쥍दा प्राय जसो कु न भाषा बोलेको with Tharu children? स ꅍु न हु ꅍु छ ? 40b. When you are in the village, what language तपा℁ यो गाउँमा हदाुँ , केटाकेटीह셂 अ셂 जातका do you hear children speaking when playing साथीह셂सगँ खे쥍दा प्राय जसो कु न भाषा बोलेको with children from other castes? स ꅍु न हु ꅍु छ ? 41. Do you have children? तपा℁का छोराछोरी छन् �क छै नन्? 41a. Do all your children speak Kochila Tharu? तपा℁का सबै छोराछोरीले को�चला था셁 भाषा बो쥍छन्? 42. Do you pray in your own home? तपाℂ आ굍 नै घरमा, पूजा (प्राथ셍ना) ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? 42a. When you are in your own home, what तपाℂ आ굍 नै घरमा हदाुँ , तपाℂ कु न भाषामा पूजा language do you use for prayer? (प्राथ셍ना) ग न 셍 हु ꅍु छ ? 43. In your opinion, what language do you think हपाईको �बचारमा, बाल-ब�लकाह셁ले प�हले कु न children should learn to speak first? भाषा बो쥍न �स啍न ु पछ셍 ? 44. Why? �कन? 45. What language do you prefer for the children गाउँका केटाकेटी क ु ल जादाँ , 配य हा ँ कु न भाषामा of your village’s medium of instruction at उ�नह셂लाℂ पढाएको, तपाℂ चाहनहु ꅍछु ? primary level? (तपाℂको मात ृ भाषा, नेपाली, अंग्रेजी, अꅍय) (MT, Nepali, English, Other) 46. Are you able to read and write? तपाℂ प襍 न-ल 奍े न स 啍न हु ꅍु छ ? 47. (If yes) In what languages? कु न-कु न भाषामा?

48. (If no) If you were going to learn to read and तपाℂ प 襍न लेखन � स 啍न च ा ह न हु ꅍु छ भने, तपाℂ write, which languages would you want to कु न कु न भाषाह셂 प 襍न र ल 奍े न चाहनहु ꅍु छ? read and write in? 49. (If KT not mentioned) Are there other तपाईले प 襍न चाहने अ셂 भाषाह셂 प�न छन? languages you would like to be able to read? 49a. Which other languages would you like to be कु न कु न अ셂 भाषा तपाई प襍 न चाहनहु ꅍु छ? able to read? 50. Which language do you enjoy reading most? कु न भाषामा प襍न रामाइलो ला嵍छ? 51. Why? �कन? 52. In your opinion, where is Kochila Tharu तपाℂको �बचारमासबै भꅍढा श鵍दु को�चला था셁 spoken most purely? कहा ँ बो�लꅍछ? 53a. Have you spoken with Kochila Tharu speakers मोरङ �ज�ाका को�चला था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने from Morang district? माꅍछेह셁संग, तपाℂले करा गन셍भएकोु छ? 53b. Is the way people speak who are from Morang मोरङको माꅍछे को था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने तिरका र the same, a little different, or very different यहाकोँ बो쥍ने तिरका उतै छ क� आ�ल आ�ल from people here? फरक छ क� धेरै फरक छ? 53c. How does their way of speaking Tharu make उ�नह셁ले बोलेको भाषा हपाईलाई कतो ला嵍छ? you feel? (खशीु ला嵍छ, � ठ के , द:ु ख ला嵍छ) (Happy, Indifferent, Sad) 54a. Have you spoken with Kochila Tharu speakers �सराहा �ज�ाका को�चला था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने from Siraha district? माꅍछेह셁संग, तपाℂले करा गन셍भएकोु छ? 54b. Is the way people speak who are from Siraha �सराहाको माꅍछे को था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने तिरका र the same, a little different, or very different यहाकोँ बो쥍ने तिरका उतै छ क� आ�ल आ�ल from people here? फरक छ क� धेरै फरक छ? 54c. How does their way of speaking Tharu make उ�नह셁ले बोलेको भाषा हपाईलाई कतो ला嵍छ? you feel? (खशीु ला嵍छ, � ठ के , द:ु ख ला嵍छ) (Happy, Indifferent, Sad) 55a. Have you spoken with Kochila Tharu speakers बारा �ज�ाका को�चला था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने from Bara district? माꅍछेह셁संग, तपाℂले करा गन셍भएकोु छ? 55b. Is the way people speak who are from Bara बाराको माꅍछेको था셁 भाषा बो쥍ने तिरका र the same, a little different, or very different यहाकोँ बो쥍ने तिरका उतै छ क� आ�ल आ�ल from people here? फरक छ क� धेरै फरक छ? 55c. How does their way of speaking Tharu make उ�नह셁ले बोलेको भाषा हपाईलाई कतो ला嵍छ? you feel? (खशीु ला嵍छ, � ठ के , द:ु ख ला嵍छ) (Happy, Indifferent, Sad)

C.2 Key to abbreviated terms

Lang Language Subj Subject number Lang(s) Language or languages IC Informed consent KT Kochila Tharu Yr Year MT Mother tongue Yrs Years M Male Diff Different F Female Int International Y Yes Nr No response N No N/A Not applicable

C.3 Participant Biodata and Informal Interview Data

C.3.1 Biodata Questions 3-12

4a. Village 5. 6. Lang of 7. Lang of 8. 9. 11. Subject 3. Date 4b. District 12. Caste Name Interviewer Elicitation Response Interpreter Sex Age B3J01 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 25 Chaudhary Kochila B3J03 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 33 Tharu B3J04 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali Yes F 30 Tharu Kochila B3J07 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 29 Chaudhary C3J01 28-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 35 Tharu C3J02 28-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F ~40 Tharu C3J03 28-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 60 Tharu C3J04 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 40 Tharu C3J06 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 24 Tharu C3J07 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 18 Tharu C3J08 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 37 Tharu C3J11 29-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 24 Tharu C3J13 28-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 35+ Tharu C3J14 29-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 18 Tharu C3S01 28-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 48 Tharu C3S02 28-Apr-13 Ghamariya Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 35 Tharu C3S03 28-Apr-13 Near Jahadi Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 20 Chaudhary/Tharu C3S04 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 59 Tharu C3S05 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 20 Tharu C3S06 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 20 Tharu C3S08 29-Apr-13 Sisawani Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 20 Tharu C3S10 29-Apr-13 Jahadi Siraha Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 16 Tharu

4a. Village 5. 6. Lang of 7. Lang of 8. 9. 11. Subject 3. Date 4b. District 12. Caste Name Interviewer Elicitation Response Interpreter Sex Age JB01 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 21 Tharu JB02 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 18 Chaudhary JB03 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 35 Tharu JB06 5-Apr-13 Chocha Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 35+ Tharu JB07 5-Apr-13 Chocha Bara/Rautahat Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 35 Tharu M3J01 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 32 Chaudhary M3J02 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 42 Tharu Chaudhary M3J03 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 27 Tharu M3J04 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 19 Chaudhary M3J05 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 18 Tharu M3J06 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 21 Tharu M3J07 25-Apr-15 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 16 Tharu M3J08 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 20 Tharu M3S01 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 35 Chaudhary M3S02 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 38 Tharu M3S03 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 19 Madhesi (Tharu) M3S04 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 15 Tharu M3S05 25-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali, Tharu Yes F 35 Tharu M3S08 26-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali, Tharu Yes F 22 Chaudhary Tharu M3S09 26-Apr-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 30 Tharu MJ01 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali Yes M 70 Tharu Kochila MJ02 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali Yes F 24 Tharu MJ03 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali Yes M 17 Tharu MJ04 28-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No F 19 Tharu MJ05 28-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Tharu Yes M 40 Chaudhary MJ09 28-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Jessi Nepali Nepali No M 17 Tharu MS01 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 61 Tharu

4a. Village 5. 6. Lang of 7. Lang of 8. 9. 11. Subject 3. Date 4b. District 12. Caste Name Interviewer Elicitation Response Interpreter Sex Age MS02 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 15 Tharu MS04 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 35 Tharu MS05 24-Feb-13 Jamtoki Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 30 Tharu MS06 24-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 70 Tharu MS07 27-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 42 Tharu MS10 28-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 30 Chaudhary MS13 1-Mar-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 34 Tharu MS15 28-Feb-13 Gidhaniya Morang Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 30 Tharu SB01 1-Apr-13 Pardari Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali, Tharu Yes M 75 Tharu SB03 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 27 Tharu SB04 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 22 Tharu SB05 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 17 Tharu SB06 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 20 Tharu SB07 4-Apr-13 Balchanpur Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 16 Tharu SB08 5-Apr-13 Chocha Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 54 Tharu SB09 5-Apr-13 Chocha Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Tharu Yes F 36 Chaudhary SB10 5-Apr-13 Chocha Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali Yes F 31 Tharu SB11 5-Apr-13 Simra Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 41 Tharu W3S01 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 32 Tharu W3S02 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 37 Tharu W3S03 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No M 38 Tharu/Chaudhary W3S04 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 24 Chaudhary W3S05 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 28 Chaudhary W3S06 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 30 Chaudhary Tharu W3S07 1-May-13 Mothiyahi Bara/Rautahat Stephanie Nepali Nepali No F 24 Tharu

C.3.2 Biodata Questions 13-18

15. 15a. Which Subject 13. Religion 14. Occupation 16. MT 17. Birthplace 18. Live now School class B3J01 Hindu Computer Yes 10 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi B3J03 Kochila Politician Yes Intermediate Tharu Rangpur Ward 4, Capur Ward 8 Rautahat B3J04 Hindu Farmer No N/A Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi B3J07 Hindu Farmer Yes 12 Tharu Santapur, Rautahat Mothiyahi C3J01 Christian Housework/family/farming No N/A Maithili Dunmuni, Siraha Jahadi C3J02 Christian Farmer No N/A Maithili Jahadi Jahadi C3J03 Gosai Farmer/housework No N/A Tharu Laharniya Bharajpur, Gamadiya near border C3J04 Boda' Overseas Yes Campus Tharu Sisawani, Ward 5, Sisawani (Buddhist) Siraha C3J06 Hindu House wife Yes 12 Maithili Mahan, Saptari Sisawani C3J07 Hindu student Yes SLC Maithili Sisawani Sisawani C3J08 Hindu Housework/shop Yes 8 Tharu Botoli jilla Sisawani C3J11 Hindu Housework No N/A Tharu Jahadi Jahadi C3J13 Hindu Teacher Yes SLC pass, BA Tharu Jahadi Jahadi C3J14 Hindu Student Yes 10 Tharu Jahadi Jahadi C3S01 Hindu Teacher Yes 12 Tharu Jahadi Jahadi C3S02 Hindu Farmer Yes 5 Tharu Ghamariya Ghamariya C3S03 Hindu Neighbor work Yes 9 Tharu Here, near Jahadi Here, near Jahadi C3S04 'Tharu jat ko Farmer/'jantako sewa' Yes SLC Tharu Naradigo, Siraha Sisawani bhot' C3S05 Hindu Medical shop Yes Bachelor Tharu Saptari Sisawani C3S06 Hindu Housework Yes 10 Tharu Saptari Sisawani C3S08 Hindu Student Yes 12 Tharu Sisawari Sisawani C3S10 Christian Student Yes 9 Tharu Jahadi Jahadi

15. 15a. Which Subject 13. Religion 14. Occupation 16. MT 17. Birthplace 18. Live now School class JB01 Christian Student Yes First level Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur JB02 Hindu Student Yes 10 SLC Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur JB03 Tharu Farmer No N/A Chaudhary Balchanpur Balchanpur Shipsharcha JB06 Hindu Housework No N/A Tharu Simara Chocha JB07 Hindu Housework Yes SLC Tharu Manahuwar, Chocha Rautahat M3J01 Hindu Teacher Yes SLC Tharu Sidhara, Morang Gidhaniya M3J02 Hindu House wife No N/A Tharu Hatimuda, Morang Gidhaniya M3J03 Hindu Housework Yes 8 Tharu Gidhaniya Bausapati, Tetariya 7, Morang M3J04 Hindu Student Yes 10 Chaudhary Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3J05 Hindu Factory Yes 8 Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3J06 Hindu Kitchen Yes 12 Tharu Morang Gidhaniya M3J07 Hindu Student Yes SLC Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3J08 Hindu Housework Yes 12 Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3S01 Hindu 'Sati Jhutmil' worker Yes 8 Chaudhary Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3S02 Hindi Welding/Mechanics Yes SLC Maithali/Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya ("same thing") M3S03 Hindu Mill work Yes 6 Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3S04 Isai (Christian) Student Yes 9 Maithali ("aka Gidhaniya Gidhaniya Tharu") M3S05 Isai ‘Bhaniyari' No N/A Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3S08 Hindu Housework Yes SLC Chaudhary Gidhaniya Gidhaniya M3S09 Hindu Nepal Army Yes 11 Tharu Kasine Ward 9, Kasine Morang MJ01 Hindu Farmer Yes 10 Tharu Jamtoki Jamtoki MJ02 Hindu Nurse Yes 10 Tharu Jamtoki Jamtoki MJ03 Hindu Student Yes 11 Tharu Jamtoki Jamtoki

15. 15a. Which Subject 13. Religion 14. Occupation 16. MT 17. Birthplace 18. Live now School class MJ04 Christian Student Yes BBS first yr - Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya commerce MJ05 Darampara Farmer No N/A Tharu Hakpara Belaha VDC, Gidhaniya Sunsari MJ09 Hindu Student Yes 10 Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya MS01 Christian No work, but farmer in Yes 5 Tharu Sunsari, Kanar, Ward Biratnagar Pokhariya past 1 MS02 Hindu Student Yes 9 Tharu Jamtoki Jamtoki MS04 Hindu Farmer Yes 7 Tharu Bhaluwa, Sunsari Jamtoki MS05 Hindu Teacher Yes 10 Tharu Jamtoki Jamtoki MS06 Christian Retired, previously banker Yes Degree part Chaudhary Pothiya, Morang (2 Gidhaniya 1 km away) MS07 Christian Pastor Yes 10 Tharu Pachira, Sunsari Gidhaniya MS10 Hindu Industry Yes 10 Chaudhary Gidhaniya Gidhaniya MS13 Hindu Research Yes SLC Tharu Gidhaniya Gidhaniya MS15 Hindu Housework Yes 5 Tharu Bhatrahagata, Gidhaniya Morang SB01 Sanatan Agriculture (past) No N/A Kochila Tharu Pardari Pardari SB03 Christian Agriculture Yes SLC Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur SB04 Christian Student Yes BA 3rd yr Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur SB05 Christian Student Yes 11 Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur SB06 Christian None Yes 12 Tharu Barerba, Rautahat Balchanpur SB07 Christian Student Yes 8 Tharu Balchanpur Balchanpur SB08 Hindu Farmer Yes SLC Tharu Chocha Chocha SB09 Hindu Farmer No N/A Tharu Siripur, Rautahat Chocha SB10 Hindu Housework No N/A Tharu Baijnathpur, Chocha Rautahat SB11 Hindu Farmer Yes Intermediate Tharu Simra, Rautahat Simra W3S01 Hindu Medical Yes 10 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi

100

15. 15a. Which Subject 13. Religion 14. Occupation 16. MT 17. Birthplace 18. Live now School class W3S02 Hindu Farmer Yes 9 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi W3S03 Hindu School Teacher Yes 8 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi W3S04 Hindu Housework Yes 8 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi W3S05 Hindu Housework/shop Yes 6 Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi W3S06 Hindu Housework No N/A Tharu Sarlahi Mothiyahi W3S07 Hindu No work Yes Intermediate Tharu Mothiyahi Mothiyahi

C.3.3 Biodata Questions 19-22

19. For how 20. Elsewhere 21. Father Subject 20a. Where 20b. When 20c. How long 22. Father MT long > 1 yr from B3J01 20 yrs Yes Okhaldunga; came back a few months 13 months; here Tharu Sindhuli; Jaleswor ago from Okhaldunga 2 yrs; 2 yrs B3J03 29 yrs Yes Kathmandu nr 4 yrs Rangpur Tharu B3J04 30 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu B3J07 21 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Santapur Tharu C3J01 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Dunmuni Maithili C3J02 nr Yes nr nr nr Jahadi Maithili C3J03 since marriage, No N/A N/A N/A Bharajpur Maithili long time C3J04 38 yrs Yes Kathmandu nr 1 or 2 yrs Sisawani Tharu C3J06 1.5 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Mahan, Saptari Tharu C3J07 18 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Sisawani Maithili C3J08 20 yrs Yes Kathmandu nr 2 yrs Motori jilla Tharu C3J11 24 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu C3J13 life Yes Lahan 2050 5 yrs Jahadi Tharu C3J14 18 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jahadi Tharu C3S01 48 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jahadi Tharu

101

19. For how 20. Elsewhere 21. Father Subject 20a. Where 20b. When 20c. How long 22. Father MT long > 1 yr from C3S02 33 yrs Yes Bombay 1999 2 yrs Ghamariya Maithili C3S03 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Mandranagar, Tharu Siraha C3S04 59 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Naradigo, Tharu Siraha C3S05 2 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Saptari Tharu C3S06 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Kathmandu Tharu C3S08 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Sisawari Tharu C3S10 16 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jahadi Tharu JB01 21 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Balchanpur Tharu JB02 18 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Balchanpur Tharu JB03 35 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Balchanpur Tharu JB06 12 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Simara Tharu JB07 18 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Manahuwar, Tharu Rautahat M3J01 8 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Sidhara, Tharu Morang M3J02 42 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Hatimuda, Tharu Morang M3J03 4 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Tharu M3J04 17 yrs Yes Kathmandu 2 yrs ago 2 yrs here Chaudhary M3J05 18 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu M3J06 3 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Lohasur, Tharu Morang M3J07 16 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Tharu M3J08 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu M3S01 35 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Chaudhary M3S02 37 yrs Yes Kalkata 2058 1 yr Gidhaniya Same M3S03 19 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Tharu

102

19. For how 20. Elsewhere 21. Father Subject 20a. Where 20b. When 20c. How long 22. Father MT long > 1 yr from M3S04 15 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Beriya, Morang Tharu/Maithili M3S05 35 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Tharu M3S08 22 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Chaudhary M3S09 27 yrs Yes Bhojpur 2062-2065 3 yrs Kasine Tharu MJ01 70 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jamtoki Tharu MJ02 24 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jamtoki Tharu MJ03 17 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jamtoki Tharu MJ04 13 yrs Yes Dharan, Sunsari; 5 to 8 yrs old; 14 to 16 3 yrs; 3 yrs Gidhaniya Tharu KTM yrs old MJ05 20 yrs Yes Nirgoliya, Morang N/A N/A Nirgoliya, Tharu Morang MJ09 17 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Tharu MS01 5 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Kanar, Sunsari Tharu MS02 15 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jamtoki Tharu MS04 22 yrs Yes Dharan, Sunsari 6 yrs ago 1 yr Bhaluwa, Tharu Sunsari MS05 30 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jamtoki Tharu MS06 22 yrs Yes Dharau; Patapur 10 yrs ago; 10 yrs ago 1 yr; 2 yrs Pothiya Tharu Bazar MS07 26 yrs Yes Pokhara 2063 14 months Gidhaniya Tharu MS10 30 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Gidhaniya Chaudhary MS13 34 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Photiya Tharu MS15 30 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Bhatrahgata, Tharu Morang SB01 72 yrs Yes Chitwan 2009 3 yrs Pardari Tharu SB03 26 yrs Yes India 2060 1 yr Balchanpur Tharu SB04 22 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Balchanpur Tharu SB05 17 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Isarpur, Sarlahi Tharu

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19. For how 20. Elsewhere 21. Father Subject 20a. Where 20b. When 20c. How long 22. Father MT long > 1 yr from SB06 20 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Barerba Tharu SB07 16 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Balchanpur Tharu SB08 52 yrs Yes Birganj 34 yrs ago 2 yrs Chocha Tharu SB09 36 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Siripur, Tharu Rautahat SB10 31 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Baijnathpur Tharu SB11 38 yrs Yes Hetauda, 3 yrs ago 3 yrs Simra Tharu Makwanpur W3S01 25 yrs Yes Birgunj, Parsa 11/12 yrs ago 7 yrs here Tharu W3S02 35 yrs Yes New Delhi 5 yrs ago 2 yrs here Tharu W3S03 36 yrs Yes Sarlahi 49-50 1.5 yrs here Tharu W3S04 24 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu W3S05 28 yrs No N/A N/A N/A here Tharu W3S06 16 yrs No N/A N/A N/A Jurpari, Sarlahi Tharu W3S07 24 yrs Yes Birgunj, Parsa 6 yrs ago 1.5 yrs here Tharu

C.3.4 Biodata Questions 23-29

25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… B3J01 Tharu Baijathpur Tharu Tharu Tharu, English, Tharu Nepali English N/A Maithili, Nepali B3J03 Tharu Bara Tharu Tharu Nepali, Hindi, English, Tharu Hindi Nepali N/A Muslim, Tharu B3J04 Tharu here Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A B3J07 Tharu Taskaur Tharu Tharu Nepali, Bhojpuri, Tharu Nepali Bhojpuri N/A Tharu

104

25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… C3J01 Maithili Karmania Maithili Maithili Maithili, Nepali Maithili Nepali N/A N/A near India C3J02 Maithili Jahadi Maithili Maithili Maithili, Nepali (a Maithili Nepali N/A N/A little) C3J03 Maithili Madjora this one here's Own and understand Own N/A N/A N/A Nepali C3J04 Tharu Pokharvinda Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A English, Hindi C3J06 Nepali Singrahi, Maithili Nepali Nepali, Maithili Nepali Maithili N/A Some Siraha C3J07 Maithili Gobendapur, Maithili Maithili Maithili, Nepali, Maithili Nepali Hindi N/A Siraha English, Hindi C3J08 Tharu Sarlahi Tharu Tharu Tharu, Maithili, Tharu Maithili Nepali N/A Nepali C3J11 Tharu Balkaba Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A C3J13 Tharu Nabrajpur Tharu Tharu English, Nepali, English Nepali Maithili Some Maithili, Tharu (observation disagrees) C3J14 Tharu Ghamadiya Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A C3S01 Tharu Jahadi Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Hindi, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A English C3S02 Maithili Lahan Maithili Maithili Hindi, Maithili, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Nepali, Tharu, Bengali, Marashtan (Bombay) C3S03 Tharu here Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A C3S04 Tharu Tharimat, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Tharu Nepali Madheshi N/A Saptari Madheshi (Maithili) C3S05 Tharu Saptari Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Hindi, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A English

105

25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… C3S06 Tharu Saptari Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A C3S08 Tharu Balkalwa, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, English Tharu Nepali English N/A Siraha C3S10 Tharu Dhunmuni Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, English Tharu Nepali English N/A JB01 Tharu Bara Tharu Tharu Hindi, Nepali, Tharu, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A English JB02 Tharu Bara Tharu Tharu Nepali, English, Tharu Nepali English N/A Bhojpuri, Tharu JB03 Tharu Bhanbahuri, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat JB06 Tharu Manharaba, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat JB07 Tharu Bhamanipur, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat M3J01 Chaudhary Gaigara, Tharu Tharu Chaudhary, Nepali Chaudhary Nepali N/A N/A Morang M3J02 Tharu Hatimuda, Tharu Chaudhary Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Morang M3J03 Tharu Sunsari Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Saptari Tharu Nepali Saptari N/A Tanghunasa M3J04 Chaudhary Singa, Chaudhary Chaudhary Nepali, Hindi, English, Nepali Chaudhary Hindi Very Well Morang Chaudhary M3J05 Tharu Sunsari Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Hindi Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A M3J06 Tharu Lashur Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A M3J07 Tharu Gidhaniya Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, English Tharu Nepali English N/A M3J08 Tharu Bangula Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A M3S01 Chaudhary Goigara, Chaudhary Chaudhary Nepali, Chaudhary, Chaudhary Nepali English N/A Morang English

106

25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… M3S02 Same Gidhaniya Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Tharu Nepali Saptariya N/A Saptariya, Batar, Teli, Rajbansi M3S03 Tharu Gidhaniya Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A M3S04 Tharu Gidhaniya Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A M3S05 Tharu Letankari, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Hindi, Tharu Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Morang M3S08 Chaudhary Dhangara, Chaudhary Chaudhary Nepali, Chaudhary Nepali Chaudhary N/A Some Morang M3S09 Tharu Balkut Ward Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Nepali Tharu English Very Well 9, Sunsari English, Bengali MJ01 Tharu Tanmuna, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Hindi Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Sunsari MJ02 Tharu Danga, Tharu Tharu Tharu, English, Tharu Nepali English N/A Morang Maithili, Hindi, Nepali MJ03 Tharu Bhalwa, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Sunsari English, Hindi MJ04 Tharu Pachira (45 Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, English Tharu Nepali English N/A mins away) MJ05 Tharu Telkuri, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Nepali and Nepali and N/A N/A Morang Tharu Tharu equally equally MJ09 Tharu Prastoriya (1 Tharu Tharu Tharu, Hindi, Nepali, Nepali Tharu Hindi Very Well hr away) English MS01 Tharu Dubi, Sunsari Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Hindi Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A MS02 Tharu Jamtoki Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Hindi, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A English MS04 Tharu Parashtoki, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Hindi Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Sunsari

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25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… MS05 Tharu Koraduwa, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Nepali Tharu N/A Very Well Morang MS06 Tharu Nearby, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Tharu Maithali Nepali N/A doesn't know English, Maithali MS07 Tharu Pachira, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Hindi, Nepali Tharu Hindi Very Well Sunsari English MS10 Tharu Patragata Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, English Tharu Nepali English N/A MS13 Tharu Dangraha Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Tharu Nepali Saptariya N/A VDC Saptariya, Tali, Bhojpuri, Maithali, Gurung, English, Hindi MS15 Tharu Opraliya, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Morang SB01 Tharu Singhasani, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Bara SB03 Tharu Dhumariya Tharu Tharu Nepali, Rastriya, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A (next village) Tharu, Bhojpuri, Hindi, English SB04 Tharu Paradiya, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat SB05 Tharu Balchanpur Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, English Tharu Nepali English N/A SB06 Tharu Kanakpur, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, English Tharu Nepali English N/A Rautahat SB07 Tharu Patra, Parsa Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A SB08 Tharu Sarlahi Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Hindi, Tharu Nepali English N/A English SB09 Tharu Bawanipur, Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A N/A Rautahat SB10 Tharu Rungurpur, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat

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25. 29. You 23. Lang 24. Mother 26. Lang 27. Languages you Subject Mother 28a. Best 28b. Second 28c. Third speak w/Father from w/Mother speak MT KT… SB11 Tharu Baktaura, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Neplai, Hindi, Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Rautahat English W3S01 Tharu Rangapur, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Nepali Tharu N/A Some Rautahat W3S02 Tharu Dhumariya, Tharu Tharu Hindi, Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali Hindi N/A Rautahat W3S03 Tharu Rautahat, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu, Nepali Tharu Hindi Very Well Santpur VDC Maithili, Bhojpuri, Hindi, English W3S04 Tharu Parariya, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat W3S05 Tharu Monharwa, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Rautahat W3S06 Tharu Khaira, Tharu Tharu Nepali, Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Sarlahi W3S07 Tharu Patapur, Tharu Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Tharu Nepali Bhojpuri N/A Bara Bhojpuri

C.3.5 Informal Interview Data Questions 30-37

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30. Love 31. With 32. Chatting 33. Stories 35. Spouse 35a. Spouse 36. Chatting 37. Stories Subject 34. Married most Grandparents w/Parents w/Parents MT speak MT w/Spouse w/Spouse C3S01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu C3S02 Nepali Maithili Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu C3S03 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu C3S04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu C3S05 Tharu and Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu Nepali C3S06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu C3S08 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A C3S10 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A JB01 Nepali and Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A English JB02 Nepali Tharu Tharu Nepali No N/A N/A N/A N/A JB03 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu JB06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu JB07 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu M3J05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A M3S01 Chaudhary Chaudhary Chaudhary Chaudhary Yes Chaudhary N/A Chaudhary Nepali M3S03 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A M3S05 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu MJ01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu MJ02 English Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A Tharu Tharu MJ03 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A N/A N/A MJ05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu MS01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu MS02 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu No N/A N/A Tharu Tharu MS04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Tharu Tharu MS05 Nepali Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Tharu N/A Nepali Nepali (but both used)

110

C.3.6 Informal Interview Data Questions 38-43

38. Chatting 39. Stories 40a. Children 40b. Children 41a. Speak 42b. Prayer Subject 41. Children 42. Pray 43. First lang w/Child w/Child w/Tharu w/Others MT lang C3J01 Maithili Maithili Maithili Maithili Yes Yes Yes Maithili Maithili C3J03 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu C3J04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu C3J06 Maithili Maithili Maithili Maithili Yes N/A Yes Maithili Tharu C3J08 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu "whatever they need" C3J13 Maithili Maithili Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Sanskrit Maithili (priest)

111

38. Chatting 39. Stories 40a. Children 40b. Children 41a. Speak 42b. Prayer Subject 41. Children 42. Pray 43. First lang w/Child w/Child w/Tharu w/Others MT lang C3S01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Sanskrit Tharu C3S02 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu C3S03 Tharu Tharu nr nr No N/a No N/A Tharu C3S04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu C3S05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali No N/A Yes Tharu Tharu C3S06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu C3S08 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Yes Tharu Tharu C3S10 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Nepali Tharu JB01 In village: Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Nepali Tharu Tharu, in city: Nepali JB02 Tharu Tharu Tharu Bhojpuri N/A N/A Yes Tharu Tharu JB03 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Nepali JB06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu JB07 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu M3J05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Yes Hindi Nepali M3S01 Chaudhary Chaudhary Chaudhary Nepali Yes N/A Yes Chaudhary Chaudhary (later Nepali) M3S03 Nepali and Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Tharu Tharu Tharu both M3S05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu MJ01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu MJ02 Tharu Nepali Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Yes Tharu Tharu MJ03 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali N/A N/A Yes Tharu Tharu MJ05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu and Nepali MS01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu MS02 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali No N/A Yes Tharu Tharu MS04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu

112

38. Chatting 39. Stories 40a. Children 40b. Children 41a. Speak 42b. Prayer Subject 41. Children 42. Pray 43. First lang w/Child w/Child w/Tharu w/Others MT lang MS05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu first, Tharu then Hindi MS06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu, then Yes Yes Yes Nepali, then Tharu Maithali Tharu MS07 Nepali Nepali Tharu mixed Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu with Nepali MS10 Tharu Nepali Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Sanskrit Tharu MS13 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu MS15 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu SB01 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu SB03 Tharu Tharu Tharu "their own Yes N/A Yes Nepali Tharu MT" SB04 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Nepali Tharu SB05 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Nepali Tharu SB06 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes N/A Yes Tharu Tharu SB07 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu N/A N/A Yes Nepali Tharu SB08 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu SB09 Tharu Tharu Tharu Nepali Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu SB10 Tharu Tharu Tharu "Their own Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu lang" SB11 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Yes Yes Yes Tharu Tharu

C.3.7 Informal Interview Data Questions 44-49

45. Primary Subject 44. Why 46. Read/Write 47. Languages 48. Languages Instruction C3J01 nr Nepali Yes Read Nepali Bible N/A C3J03 According to the place nr No N/A I'm too old, weak eyes

113

45. Primary Subject 44. Why 46. Read/Write 47. Languages 48. Languages Instruction C3J04 If they don't know the language the Own language Yes English, Nepali, Hindi, Tharu N/A culture how will they know; difficult C3J06 Where you're born, you should speak that Nepali Yes Nepali N/A language. Mom and dad speak. C3J08 nr MT No N/A Nepali, Hindi C3J13 Because it's the language of the house Nepali Yes English, Nepali, Hindi, Tharu N/A and village C3S01 Easy to understand Tharu Yes Tharu, Nepali, Hindi, English N/A C3S02 Moms and dads know it; parents don't English Yes Nepali N/A know other languages C3S03 Should learn to speak Tharu first and MT Yes Nepali N/A then Nepali in school C3S04 Our language, our jat [caste]. We teach Tharu Yes Nepali, Tharu, Hindi N/A them from birth. C3S05 Not asked English Yes Nepali, English N/A C3S06 Our own parents taught it to us Nepali Yes Nepali, Tharu N/A C3S08 In the village Tharu Yes Tharu, Nepali, English N/A C3S10 We are all Tharu in the village Nepali Yes Nepali, English, Tharu N/A JB01 To save our own culture Tharu and English Yes Nepali, English N/A JB02 Mom and dads first [language] Tharu Yes Nepali, English N/A JB03 We are in Nepal and its easy for going Nepali and English No N/A Nepali here and there JB06 They should speak Tharu Nepali No N/A Tharu, Nepali JB07 Tharu people, what do they speak if not Nepali Yes Nepali, Tharu N/A Tharu? M3J05 It's needed Nepali Yes Nepali N/A M3S01 Chaudhary is always used Nepali Yes Nepali N/A M3S03 From when small, they are Tharu Nepali Yes Nepali, Tharu N/A M3S05 Not asked Nepali Yes Nepali N/A

114

45. Primary Subject 44. Why 46. Read/Write 47. Languages 48. Languages Instruction MJ01 Tharu should learn Tharu Tharu, English, Yes Tharu, Nepali, English N/A Nepali MJ02 According to each religion/culture English Yes Nepali, Tharu, English N/A MJ03 Our tradition and grandparents language. English Yes Nepali, English N/A Our first MJ05 nr Whatever children No N/A Doesn't want to study will understand MS01 Own tradition/custom MT, then Nepali Yes Nepali N/A MS02 Own language English Yes Nepali, Tharu, English N/A MS04 Because it's our own jat [caste] MT Yes Nepali N/A MS05 It's our own MT Yes Tharu, Nepali, English N/A MS06 Own language Nepali, because Yes Nepali, Tharu N/A mixed jat [caste] at school MS07 Because we are Tharu English Yes Tharu, Nepali, Hindi, English N/A MS10 It's our Chaudhary Nepali and English Yes Nepali, English, Tharu N/A MS13 In the home with family, it's the easiest English Yes Nepali, English, Hindi, Tharu, N/A and fastest Maithali, Bhojpuri, Saptariya MS15 Own Nepali Yes Nepali N/A SB01 Other languages are learned in school. Tharu (but books Yes Nepali, Tharu, Sanskrit N/A Need Tharu first. are in Nepali) SB03 It's our jat's [caste] language Nepali Yes Nepali, Tharu, Hindi, English N/A SB04 It's all our own Nepali Yes Nepali, Tharu, English N/A SB05 Our own - moms and dads speak it to Nepali Yes Nepali, English, Bhojpuri N/A them SB06 It's the lang of their parents Nepali Yes English, Nepali N/A SB07 It's the lang of the village Nepali Yes Nepali, English N/A SB08 From when small, it should be own lang. Nepali Yes Nepali, Hindi, English N/A Nepali later.

115

45. Primary Subject 44. Why 46. Read/Write 47. Languages 48. Languages Instruction SB09 Not asked Nepali No N/A Tharu (prompted to answer this way) SB10 Not asked Nepali No N/A Tharu (prompted to answer this way) SB11 All the parents speak it Nepali Yes Nepali, English, Hindi, Tharu N/A

C.3.8 Informal Interview Data Questions 49-52

Subject 49. Other 49a. Which 50. Enjoy Most 51. Why 52. Most Pure

C3J01 Yes Tharu N/A N/A here C3J03 N/A N/A N/A N/A here C3J04 N/A N/A Tharu there's more available in Nepali, but Tharu when Siraha, Saptari, Sunsari, Morang available C3J06 No N/A N/A N/A Haven't been lots of places, spoken everywhere C3J08 N/A N/A N/A N/A ours Siraha, Saptari C3J13 N/A N/A English Boarding (school) spoke English a lot Saptari C3S01 N/A N/A Nepali Learned in Nepali first Saptari C3S02 No N/A N/A N/A East C3S03 Yes English N/A N/A here C3S04 N/A N/A Tharu It's not difficult for us Saptari because there's not as many of us. Then Dang/Deukhuri. C3S05 No N/A N/A N/A Saptari C3S06 N/A N/A Nepali We learned as students here (Siraha) C3S08 N/A N/A Nepali/English N/A nr C3S10 N/A N/A Tharu Everyone here speaks Tharu Sunsari, all areas good JB01 No N/A N/A N/A Dang

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Subject 49. Other 49a. Which 50. Enjoy Most 51. Why 52. Most Pure

JB02 Yes Tharu Nepali nr Dang JB03 N/A N/A N/A N/A Parsa JB06 N/A N/A N/A N/A Rautahat JB07 N/A N/A Nepali It's easy Rautahat M3J05 Yes Tharu N/A N/A Morang M3S01 Yes English, N/A N/A Here - Gidhaniya Chaudhary M3S03 N/A N/A Nepali Easy Gidhaniya, Morang M3S05 Yes English N/A N/A Here - Gidhaniya MJ01 N/A N/A Nepali Because it's spoken Morang/Sunsari MJ02 N/A N/A English Studied from the beginning Morang/Sunsari MJ03 No N/A English International language used in school, practiced it Morang/Sunsari for a long time MJ05 N/A N/A N/A N/A Morang - in families, in the villages MS01 Yes Tharu N/A N/A Morang MS02 N/A N/A Nepali Easiest Here (Jamtoki) MS04 Yes Tharu N/A N/A Morang/Sunsari MS05 N/A N/A Nepali I was small when I learned it Morang/Sunsari MS06 N/A N/A Tharu Mother tongue Morang/Sunsari MS07 N/A N/A English Because English you don't have to draw the line In the village - Bhishja Sunkja across the top of the letters like Nepali MS10 N/A N/A English International, all understand Older people - they know it MS13 N/A N/A Tharu and Tharu because it's my own. English because more Morang/Sunsari English people understand. MS15 Yes English N/A N/A Morang/Sunsari SB01 N/A N/A Tharu Kids know it In the village SB03 N/A N/A Nepali Our Bible is in Nepali Rautahat/Bara SB04 N/A N/A Nepali Our national language Bara

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Subject 49. Other 49a. Which 50. Enjoy Most 51. Why 52. Most Pure

SB05 No N/A Nepali Best for understanding Sarlahi SB06 No N/A Nepali I understand it well Parsa SB07 No N/A Nepali It's easy to read Rautahat SB08 No N/A Tharu It's our own, so I'm happy nr SB09 N/A N/A N/A N/A My own SB10 N/A N/A N/A N/A Where there are many KT SB11 N/A N/A Nepali Because I live in Nepal Simra, Rautahat

C.3.9 Informal Interview Data Questions 53-55

53a. 53b. Way of 53c. 54b. Way of 55b. Way of Subject 54a. Siraha 54c. Feeling 55a. Bara 55c. Feeling Morang Speaking Feeling Speaking Speaking C3J01 Yes A Little Happy N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A Different C3J03 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3J04 Yes A Little Happy N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Happy Different Different C3J06 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3J08 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Indifferent Different C3J13 Yes A Little Indifferent N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A Different C3S01 Yes A Little Indifferent N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A Different C3S02 Yes 50% diff Happy N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Indifferent Different C3S03 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3S04 Yes A Little Happy N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Happy Different Different

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53a. 53b. Way of 53c. 54b. Way of 55b. Way of Subject 54a. Siraha 54c. Feeling 55a. Bara 55c. Feeling Morang Speaking Feeling Speaking Speaking C3S05 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3S06 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3S08 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A C3S10 No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A JB01 No N/A N/A Yes A Little Indifferent N/A N/A N/A Different JB02 Yes A Little Indifferent No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Different JB03 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A JB06 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A JB07 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A M3J05 N/A N/A N/A Yes A Little Happy No N/A N/A Different M3S01 N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Happy No N/A N/A Different M3S03 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A M3S05 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A MJ01 N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes A Little Indifferent Different MJ02 N/A N/A N/A Yes A Little Indifferent N/A N/A N/A Different MJ03 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A MJ05 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A MS01 N/A N/A N/A Yes Very nr No N/A N/A Different MS02 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A MS04 N/A N/A N/A Yes A Little Happy No N/A N/A Different

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53a. 53b. Way of 53c. 54b. Way of 55b. Way of Subject 54a. Siraha 54c. Feeling 55a. Bara 55c. Feeling Morang Speaking Feeling Speaking Speaking MS05 N/A N/A N/A Yes A Little Indifferent No N/A N/A Different MS06 N/A N/A N/A Yes A Little Indifferent Yes Very Indifferent Different Different MS07 N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Indifferent Yes Very Indifferent Different Different MS10 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A MS13 N/A N/A N/A Yes Very Happy Yes Very Happy Different Different MS15 N/A N/A N/A No N/A N/A No N/A N/A SB01 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB03 Yes Very Happy Yes Very Happy N/A N/A N/A Different Different SB04 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB05 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB06 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB07 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB08 Yes A Little Happy Yes A Little Happy N/A N/A N/A Different Different SB09 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB10 No N/A N/A No N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A SB11 No N/A N/A Yes Very nr N/A N/A N/A Different

Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview

D.1 Knowledgeable insider interview schedule

My name is ____. What is your name? We are from मेरो नाम...... हो। तपाℂको नाम के हो? हामी the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan �त्रभवनु � व �व �वद्यालय भाषा�व�ान केꅍद्रीय University. We have come to study and research �वभागबाट आएका हौ।ं हामी तपाℂह셂ले बो쥍ने your language. We want to ask you questions about भाषाको अ 鵍य यन अनसꅍु धा न गन셍 आएका हौ।ं your village and the languages of your village. The तपा℁को गाउँ र तपा℁ह셂ले बो쥍ने भाषाका बारेमा information that you give us about your language, हामी के ह ी प्र � न ह셁 सो鵍न चाहꅍछौ।ँ तपाℂले �दन ु we will give to others. Can you give us help? भएको भाषास륍ब ꅍध ी जानकारी अ셂 मा�नसलाई प�न देखाउने छौ।ं तपाℂले हामीलाई सहायता गन셍 स啍नहु ꅍछु ? 1. Informed Consent: Given / Not Given 2. Subject Number: 3. Date (DD-MM-YY): 4. Village Name: a. Ward Number b. VDC/Municipality c. District d. Zone 5. Interviewer Name: 6. Language of Elicitation: 7. Language of Response: 8. Interpreter Name: 9. Sex 10. Full Name तपाℂको पूरा नाम के हो? 11. Age: तपाℂको उमेर क�त भयो? 12. Caste: तपाℂको जात कु न हो? 13. What is your mother tongue? तपाℂको मात ृ भाषा (आ굍 नो भाषा) कु न हो? 14. Where were you born? तपाℂ कहा ँ ज ꅍम नभयोु ? 15. Where do you live now? तपाℂ आजभो�ल कहा ँ ब  न हु ꅍु छ ? 16. How long have you been living there/here? तपाℂ यो ठाउँमा क�त बष셍 ब  न भयोु ? 17. Have you lived anywhere else for more than तपा℁ आ셁 ठाउँमा एक बष셍भꅍदा बढी ब  न भएकोु a year? छ? 17a. Where? कहा?ँ 17b. When? क�हले? 17c. How long did you live there? क�त समयस륍म? 18. Where is your father from? तपाℂको बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो? 19. What is his mother tongue? उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा के हो? 20. Where is your mother from? तपाℂको आमाको माइ�तघर कहा ँ हो? 21. What is her mother tongue? उहाकोँ मात ृ भाषा के हो? 22. What do you call your language? तपाℂको भाषालाई के भ�नꅍछ? 23. What names do non-native speakers give तपाℂको भाषा नबो쥍ने माꅍछेले तपा℁को भाषालाई your language? के भꅍछन्? 24. How many homes are located in your तपाℂको गाउँमा क�त घरधरीु छन् ? village? 25. How many KT homes are located in your तपाℂको गाउँमा को�चला था셁 घरह셂 क�त छन? village? 26. What ethnic groups live in your village? तपाℂको गाउँमा कु न-कु न जा�त बदछन? 27. What languages are spoken by those groups? �त जा�तह셂ले कु न-कु न भाषा बो쥍छन्? 28. Which language is used the most between all यो गाउँका सबै जा�तह셂को बीचमा, कु न भाषा the groups in this village? सबभꅍदाबढी बो�लꅍछ? 29. Where do most children from this village go यो गाउँको धेरैजसो बालबा�लकाह셂 कु न प्राइमेरी to primary school? कु ल जाꅍछन?

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30. Which ethnic group(s) are the teachers from? �श�क �श��काह셁 कु न जातको हनु हु ꅍछु ? 31. In this school, what language(s) do teachers उहाह셁लेँ क�ामा पढाउँदा कु न भाषा बो쥍नहु ꅍछु ? use with children in the classroom? 32. In this school, what language(s) do children यो कु लमा, बालबा�लकाले अ셂 बालबा�लकासगँ use with other children? बो쥍दा कु न भाषा प्रयोग गछ셍 न्? 33. Have you heard of any schools कु लमा को�चला था셁मा पढाएको स�ु भएकोु छ? teaching/instructing using Kochila Tharu 33a. Where? कहा?ँ 34. Where is the nearest clinic/health post? न�जकको वा镍य चौक� कहा ँ छ? 35. What ethnic groups are the doctor and/or वा镍य चौक�मा काम गन� डा啍टर अथवा staff at the clinic/health post? कम셍चारी (नस셍) कु न जा�तको हनु हु ꅍछु ? 36. What language is used in the clinic/health वा镍य चौक�मा कु न भाषा बो�लꅍछ? post? 37. How common is it for people from this यो गाउँको मा�नसह셁ले ______को village to marry someone from ______? मा�नसह셁संग �ववाहगन� प्रचलीत छ? 37a. Morang 37b. Siraha Frequently, Some, धेरैजसो, क�हलेकाही,ं अ�लअ�ल, क�हलै गढ �न 37c. Bara Rarely, Never 37d. Other 38. In this village, which language(s) is used for यो गाउँमा �बहाबारी गदा셍, कु न भाषाह셂 प्रयोग wedding ceremonies? गिरꅍछन? 39. What language(s) is used for village गाउँको �म�टङ (बैठक)मा कु न कु न भाषाह셂 meetings? बो�लꅍछ? 40. Do you know of materials that are written in तपाईलाई को�हला था셁मा लेखेएको कु नै Kochila Tharu? सामाग्रीह셁 ताहा ँ छ? 41. What kind of materials? (books, textbooks, कतो प्रा�को (�क�समको)? (�कताब, �वधालयको magazines, newspaper, pamphlets, other) �कताब, प�त्रका, समाचारपत्र, पचा셍, अꅍय) 42. Do you know of any organizations promoting को�चला था셁 भाषाको �बकास र �बतार गन� कु नै language development of Kochila Tharu? सघ-संथा थाहा ँ छ? 42a. What are their names? (Please name those 配यो नामह셂 के हो? (कु न-कु न सघ-संथाह셁, नाम organizations) भनी �दनहोसु ्।) 43. Contact Information स 륍 प क셍 जानकारी 44. We are thinking of listing your name in this हामीले तपाℂसगँ �लने यो जानकारीमा तपाℂको information, but if you don’t want your नाम रा奍ने �वचार गरेका छौ,ं तर य�द तपाℂले name to be listed, we won’t. Shall we keep आ굍नो नाम रा奍न चाहनहु �ु भने, हामीले रा奍दैनौ।ं your name or not? तपाℂको नाम राखौ ं �क नराखौ?ं

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D.2 Knowledgeable insider interview data

Mothiyahi, Jahadi, Siraha Gidhaniya, Jamtoki, Rautahat Morang Morang 1. Informed Consent Given Given Given Given 2. Subject Number BK01 CK01 MK02 MK01 3. Date 1-May-2013 28-April-2013 26-Feb-2013 24-Feb-2013 4. Village Name Mothiyahi Jahadi Gidhaniya Jamtoki 4a. Ward Number 9 3 5 2 4b. VDC/Municipality Chapur Sisuwani Tetariya Katari 4c. District Rautahat Siraha Morang Morang 4d. Zone Narayani Safarmatha Kosi Kosi 5. Interviewer Name Jessica Mitchell Jessica Mitchell Jessica Mitchell Jessica Mitchell 6. Lang of Elicitation Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali 7. Lang of Response Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali 8. Interpreter Name N/A SKC PLG AC 9. Sex Male Male Male Male 10. Full Name RKC DAT HLT PM 11. Age 54 67 69 39 12. Caste Chaudhary Tharu Tharu Tharu (Kochila) What is your 13. Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu mother tongue? Where were you Sidhara (4km 14. Mothiyahi Jahadi Jamtoki born? away) Where do you live 15. Mothiyahi Jahadi Gidhaniya Jamtoki now? How long have you 16. 54 years 67 years 24/25 years 39 years been living there? Have you lived 17. anywhere else for No No No No more than a year? Where is your 18. Mothiyahi Jahadi Tuthe, Sunsari Jamtoki father from? What is his mother 19. Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu tongue? Where is your Simarbona, 20. Mothiyahi Nargi, Siraha Bhanigama, 5 mother from? Sunsari What is her mother 21. Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu tongue? What do you call Chaudhary, 22. Tharu Tharu Tharu your language? Tharu What names do 23. non-native speakers Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu give your language? How many homes 24. are located in your 200 300 400 600 people village? How many KT 25. homes are located 175 No response 375 Tharu 300 people in your village?

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Mothiyahi, Jahadi, Siraha Gidhaniya, Jamtoki, Rautahat Morang Morang Danwar, Tharu, What ethnic groups Khami, Sarki, Musar, Thelisa, Tharu, Muslim, 26. Yadav, Kamat, live in your village? Muslim, Thakur Thakul, Bantar Rai, Limbu Sadai Tharu speak What languages are Tharu; all other 27. spoken by those Tharu All speak Tharu Their own speak their own groups? lang Which language is used the most 28. between all the groups in this village? Boarding school Where do most Government in Biratnagar, but children from this 29. Here Jahadi school in the most kids go to village go to village gov school in this primary school? village Which ethnic Yadav, Ghimire, Yadav (Maithili) Tharu, Rajbanshi, 30. group(s) are the Tharu Tharu and Tharu Musahar teachers from? In this school, what Nepali books, but language(s) do speak Tharu for 31. teachers use with Nepali Tharu Nepali easy children in the understanding classroom? In this school, what language(s) do 32. Tharu Tharu Tharu Own with own children use with other children? Have you heard of No-Nepali books, any schools but speak Tharu 33. teaching/instructing No No No, until now no for easy using Kochila understanding Tharu? Where is the nearest VDC, but 34. Chapur VDC Near the school clinic/health post? Biratnagar closest What ethnic groups Yadav, Busane, Dr is Nepali, Nepali (there are 35. are the doctor Mandal, Yadav Thakur Nurses are Tharu Tharu) and/or staff? What language is Tharu-doctor uses 36. used in the Nepali Tharu Nepali Tharu also clinic/health post? How common is it for people from this 37a. village to marry Rarely Frequently N/A N/A someone from Morang? How common is it for people from this Rarely – language 37b. village to marry Frequently N/A Rarely isn’t the same. someone from Siraha?

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Mothiyahi, Jahadi, Siraha Gidhaniya, Jamtoki, Rautahat Morang Morang How common is it Not in this for people from this village, but in 37c. Frequently Some Rarely village to marry this district there someone from Bara? are How common is it for people from this Never (except for 37d. village to marry Rarely N/A N/A love marriage) someone from Other? In this village, which language(s) Nepali, Tharu, 38. Tharu Tharu Tharu is used for wedding Sanskrit ceremonies? What language(s) is If it’s just Tharu; 39. used for village Nepali and Tharu Tharu Tharu but with meetings? everyone Nepali Do you know of materials that are 40. No Yes No Yes written in Kochila Tharu? Books: Kabita What kind of Sangraha wrote Magazines: Holi 41. N/A N/A materials? it, Magazines: pariwar chirka Do you know of any organization 42. promoting language No Yes Yes No development of Kochila Tharu? What are their Tharu Kalyankari Tharu Khalankiya 42a. N/A N/A names? Sabha Sawa 43. Contact Information - - - - We are thinking of listing your name in this information, but if you don’t 44. Yes Yes Yes Yes want your name to be listed, we won’t. Shall we keep your name or not?

Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Participatory Method

E.1 Dialect mapping procedures in English

The purpose of this tool is to assist speakers of a specific dialect in discussing information they already know about the dialects and levels of comprehension between dialects. Another purpose is to encourage them to think about which varieties of their language could use a single set of written or oral materials. With members of the community, use the following steps: 1. What is the name of your language? What is the name of your people? (Write all the language names on one piece of paper and all the names of the people on another. If there is more than one name for the people or language, then ask which name is the one they prefer). 2. Please name all the districts/villages where [L1] is spoken. (Write each on a separate piece of paper). In some situations, rather than district or village one could ask for the names of all the dialects, clans, rivers, or other feature where [L1] is spoken. 3. Place these papers on the ground to show which dialects/municipalities/districts are next to each other. 4. You have just shown the places where the different varieties of [L1] is spoken. We now want to think about languages that are just a little different from your own language. What other languages are so similar to [L1] that when they speak, you can understand at least some words? Write the names of these languages on pieces of paper and add them to the “map” on the ground. 5. Do any groups of villages all speak [L1] in the same way? If so, place a small loop of string around each such group. 6. Which variety do you understand best? Second best? Place the appropriate number written on cardboard next to each municipality, language or group of municipalities. 7. Now we want to show which of these varieties you understand completely, which you understand most, which you understand about half, and which you only understand a little. In which of these villages can you understand the way they speak completely? (Place the Key with complete, most, half, a little. Show them the smiley faces and explain the meaning of each. Have them place the faces for “completely” first. Repeat for each other category of comprehension). 8. Now we want to think about what language(s) you and the people from these places speak to each other. (Show the key for “we each speak our own variety”, “we use ours, they use another variety” “we use another variety, but they use their we use own” and “we each use another variety”. Use a different color or coin to symbolize each usage pattern). 9. Some people have said they want to start writing books in [L1]. If books were written in [L1], which villages would be able to use those books? (Have them put a long string around those varieties). (If they do not think books can or should be written in their language, then you may say they want to start making CDs using [L1]). 10. Out of all these you have grouped together, which variety should be used as the one for writing (or recording) [L1] so that all the others will understand it well? (Have them place letter A). If that one could not be used, then which one? (Use B and C written on cardboard). This tool should be adapted to the local geographic terms such as municipality, district. Labels should usually refer to “[L1] spoken in [place name]”. Some aspects of this tool may seem redundant, but each step contributes to a fuller picture of the local perception of the language situation.

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E.2 Dialect mapping procedures in Nepali

भािषका रेखाङ्कन िविध यो िविधको उद्धे�य भाषा बो쥍नेह�लाई आ굍नो भाषामा रहेको भािषकाको बारेमा जानकारीको बारेमा छलफल र कित राम्ररी बोलाईमा सबैले सहमत भइ एक�पता 쥍याउन स啍छन भꅍने बारेमा सो楍न प्रो配सहान िदन हो। यसले शा�रता काय셍कता셍ह�लाई कु न ठाँउमा फरक त�रकाले बोिलꅍछ र सामाग्रीह�लाई 配यँहा जाँ楍न सिकꅍछ 配यसै गरी आव�यकता अनसारु पाठ छाꅍन सिकꅍछ। �परेखा १. तपाईह�को भाषको नाउ के हो? <भाषाको नाम सबै ले奍नहु �ोस> तपाईह�ले आꥍनो जाती समहलाईु के भꅍनहु �ꅍछ? 配यो नाँउह� सबै कागजमा ले奍नहोस।ु यिद एउटा भꅍदा बडी नाम आएमा 配यसो भए उनीह�लाई मन परेको नाम छाꅍन लगाउनहोस।ु २. थाहा भएका L1 बोिलने सबै िज쥍ला/गाँउह�को नाउ सोद्धनहोस।ु हरेकलाई भीꅍन िभꅍनै कागजमा लेखी भइमाु रा奍नहोस।ु <कु नै प�रिथितमा यसको अलावा तपाईले भािषका, जाती, खोलाह�, वा अꅍय च�रत्रह� जसले L1 भाषाको बारेमा देखाँउछ। ३. िय सबै गाँउ/िज쥍लाह�लाई भौगोिलक �पमा िमलाइ रा奍नहोस।ु ४. तपाईह�ले L1 कहाँ िभꅍदा िभꅍदै प्रकारले प्रयोग ग�रꅍछ भनी देखाउन ु भयो। अब L1 भꅍदा के ि ह फरक त�रकाले बोिलने (श녍दह� के ि ह बिझꅍछु ) भाषाह�लाई कता बोिलꅍछ भनी सो楍नहोसु र यसलाई पꅍनामा लेखी भइमाु रा奍नहोस।ु भइमाु भएको न啍सामा सोिचकन िठक ठाँउमा रा奍ने। पꅍनाह�को छेउमा L लेखी उ쥍लेख गन셍होस।ु ५. के कु नै गाँउह�ले L1 उतै प्रकारले बो쥍छन त? यिद बो쥍छन भने 配यो गाँउह�लाई डोरीले घेरा लगाउनहोस।ु <डोरीह� उनीह�लाई नै रा奍न िदनहोस।ु ६. अब हामी बझाइकोु िहसाबले, कहाँ बोिलने भाषा सबैभꅍदा राम्री बिझꅍछु , दोस्रो राम्ररी, आिद भनी छु ट्याँउदै अङ्कह� राखी सो楍न था쥍ने। हरेक गाँउ/ िज쥍ला इ配यािदह�मा बझाइकोु आधारमा अङ्क रा奍न लगाउनहोस।ु <उँहाह�लाई अङ्कह� भएको माक셍रह� िदनहोस। ७. अब हामीले अनहारु भएका िचत्र चलाइ कु न ठाँउका भाषाह� परैु , प्राय, आधा र के ि ह बिझꅍछु भनी छुट्यानेछौँ। परैु , प्राय, आधा, के ि ह भएका िचꅍहह�। हरेक अनहारह�कोु अथ셍 बझाइिदनु होस।ु पिहले परैु स ङ् के त गन� अनहारलाईु रा奍न लगाउने। 配यसपिछ अ� अनहा�ह�कोु लािग पिन 配यतै गन�। ८. अब तपाईह�ले र तपाईह�ले रा奍नभएकाु िय ठाँउमा भइका मािनसह�ले एक-अका셍ह�सँग के बो쥍छन भनी सो楍नहोस।ु हामीले ४ओटा छनौट गन셍 स啍छौँ: हामी दवैु प�ले एउटै प्रकारले बो쥍छौँ, हामी आ굍नै प्रकारले बो쥍छौँ र उनीह�ले उनीह�को प्रकारमा बो쥍छन, उनीह� आ굍नै बो쥍छन र हामी हाम्रो बोली प�रवत셍न गछ�,ँ हामी दवैु अ क� भाषामा प�रवत셍न गछ�।ँ <जसै तपाई बो쥍नहु �ꅍछ ित स ङ् के त गन� माक셍रह� देखाउनहोस।ु उनीह�लाई कु न रङ्गले कु न वग셍 िचनाँउछ छाꅍन िदनहोसु र 配यसलाई 配यही अनसारलेु रा奍नहोस।ु > ९. कित मािनसह�ले L1मा िकताब ले奍न चाहꅍछन। यिद L1मा िकताब लेिखयो भने कु न-कु न गाँउह�ले यो प्रयोग गन셍 स啍छन? सबै गाँउह� जसले यो िकताब प्रयोग गन셍 स啍लान 配यसलाई लामो डोरीले घेरा लाइिदने। <लामो डोरी िदई, घेरा लाउन िदने। रा奍न िदनहोस।ु > (* यिद उनीह�ले आ굍नो भाषामा िकताब ले奍ने बारेम सो楍न चाहनꅍन ् भने, “कोिह मािनसह�ले L1मा CD बनाउन चाहनहु �ꅍछ भनेर छलफल अगािड बनाउन सिकꅍछ) १०. यिद यो घेरा लाइएको समहलेु एउटै िकताब प्रयोग गन셍 स啍छन भने, िय म鵍य पिन कु न भाषा प्रकारलाई ले奍न (रेकड셍 गन셍)प्रयोग गन셍 सिकꅍछ तािक सबैले ब畍नेछनु ?् ‘क’, ‘ख’, ‘ग’ लेिखएको माक셍र िदई ितन छनौटलाई क्रमवद्ध �पमा रा奍ने। <’क”’ख’’ग” माक셍रह� िदनहोसु िचꅍहो लागाउनलाई।>

यो िविधलाई सꅍदभ셍 अनसारु भौगोिलक, वा सांकृ ितक श녍दह� जतै 配यँहाका नगरपािलका, गा.िव.स., खोला, प्राꅍत, जाती, आिदका िठक नाँउ प्रयोग गद� प�रमाज셍न गन셍 सिकꅍछ। “L1 ठाँउमा प्रयोग ग�रꅍछ” भनेर लेखे सिजलो ह�नस啍छ। कित पाइलाह� दोहोरीएको जतो ला嵍न स啍छ तर 配यस समदायकोु आ굍नो भाषा िथित प्रित भएको पराू िचत्र ब畍नु सहयोग िम쥍छ।

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E.3 Dialect mapping data

The dialect mapping data for the following sixteen maps was collected in May 2013 by Mr. PLG, Mr. SLC, Mr. ALC, Mr. TNC, Mr. AC, Mr. DC, and Mr. PC. This data is currently available only in Nepali.

Bakuliya, Bara

128

Padari, Bara

129

Auraha, Dhanusha

130

Bhangaha, Mahottari

131

Meghraul, Mahottari

132

Gidhaniya, Morang

133

Jamtoki, Morang

134

Solakhpur, Parsa

135

Rangapur, Rautahat

136

Bajrahi Guthi, Saptari

137

Karmaniya, Saptari

138

Siswa, Sarlahi

139

Padariya, Siraha

140

Chimadi, Sunsari

141

Tanmuna, Sunsari

142

Gaighat, Udayapur

Appendix F: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

(Taken from “Making EGIDS Assessments for the Ethnologue”) Gary Simons and Paul Lewis” 6 December 2010 Last revised: 10 Feb 2011

In our 2010 article, “Assessing language endangerment: Extending Fishman’s GIDS,” we introduce the Extended Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. Response to the scale has been positive, both within SIL and without. We are thus planning to include an assessment of the EGIDS level for every language in the next edition of the Ethnologue. In attempts thus far by a number of users to apply the decision tree in the article to the task of making EGIDS assessments, we have found that the decision tree does not always lead to the right answer. We are thus working on refining the definitions and the decision tree to better incorporate the insights of the Sustainable Use Model. In the meantime, however, we offer this “job aid” to assist in making the assessments. On the next page is a revision of the table of EGIDS levels in which definitions for some of the levels have been refined. These revisions are designed to address the kinds of questions we have been getting about deciding on unclear cases. In addition, the following subsections offer further commentary on each of the levels. If you still have a question about how to classify a given language after consulting the revised chart on the next page, try to resolve the problem by reading the commentary for the levels you are trying to decide between. If you still cannot decide how to classify the language, please let us know about the situation you are trying to classify.

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Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (adapted from Fishman 1991)*

LEVEL LABEL DESCRIPTION UNESCO

The language is widely used between nations in trade, 0 International Safe knowledge exchange, and international policy.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, 1 National Safe and government at the nationwide level.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, 2 Regional and government within officially recognized regions Safe of a nation.

The language is used in work and mass media without 3 Trade official status to transcend language differences across Safe a region.

The language is vigorous and literacy in the language 4 Educational is being transmitted sustainably through a system of Safe public education.

The language is vigorous and is effectively used in 5 Written written form in parts of the community though Safe literacy is not yet sustainable.

The language is used orally by all generations and is 6a Vigorous Safe normally learned by children as their first language.

The language is still used orally within all generations but there is a significant threat to sustainability, 6b Threatened particularly a break in transmission to the next Vulnerable generation by a significant portion of the child- bearing generation.

The child-bearing generation can use the language Definitely 7 Shifting among themselves but they do not normally transmit Endangered it to their children.

The only remaining active speakers of the language Severely 8a Moribund are members of the grandparent generation. Endangered

The only remaining speakers of the language are Critically 8b Nearly Extinct elderly and have little opportunity to use the Endangered language.

There are no proficient speakers, but some symbolic 9 Dormant use remains as a reminder of heritage identity for an Extinct ethnic community.

No one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated 10 Extinct Extinct with the language, even for symbolic purposes.

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0. International For this level, we are taking the United Nations as the authority. There are six languages that are recognized as official for this body—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish—and these are the languages we place in this category. Other languages used across a number of countries (like Portuguese) are classed as a national language in multiple countries.

1. National The primary component of Level 1 status is that the written language is used to conduct the business of national government. This need not take the form of being declared “official” in law. A language that is used nationally for oral communication, but which is not used in writing to record the laws of the land or the decisions of the courts, is classed as Level 3.

2. Regional As with Level 1, the key defining characteristics for this level is use in written form to conduct the business of government. At Level 2 the government in focus is not the national government, but the government of an officially recognized administrative subdivision of the country (for instance, a province or state).

3. Trade A Level 3 language lacks such recognition as a language for conducting the written business of government. It is still “vehicular”, however, and used by native speakers of other languages across a region for purposes of work or mass media. The general pattern in the EGIDS is that each level adds to what is true in the next lower level; this is the one point where an exception is possible. It is not a requirement of Level 3 that it also be used in formal education as in Level 4. The key component here is verhicularity (that is, being used widely by people who speak different first languages). The original logic of the GIDS as defined by Fishman is that successively higher levels are stronger and less susceptible to language shift. Clearly an unwritten trade language with millions of speakers is in a stronger position than a written local language with only thousands of speakers, even if the latter has achieved formal support in public education.

4. Educational A Level 4 language is one that is vigorous and non-vehicular and that has achieved sustainable literacy. The fact of educational use of the written language is not enough to qualify as Level 4 (as was implied in the definition in the published paper). Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions as spelled out in the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence: • Adequate vernacular literature exists in the domains for which vernacular writing is desired. • Vernacular literacy is being taught by trained teachers under the auspices of a sustainable institution. • Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of reading and writing in the local language. • Official government policy calls for the cultivation of this language and cultural identity and the government has put this policy into practice by sanctioning an official orthography and using its educational institutions to transmit local language literacy. • Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language in writing versus when to use a more dominant language. If there is a significant lack of any of these conditions such that removing the government support for education in the language would likely lead to the immediate disuse of literacy, then literacy should still be viewed as incipient and the language should be classified as Level 5.

5. Written A Level 5 language is a vigorous language in which literacy is incipient. The mere fact that somebody has devised a writing system or even produced a piece of printed literature is not enough to lift a language from Level 6a to Level 5. Rather, the definition requires that some segment of the language community is effectively using literacy in the language. If this is true, but oral language use is significantly threatened, then the language should be classified as Level 6b. That is, if by ignoring the factor of literacy, it is clear that the language would be classified as Level 6b rather than 6a, then the overall assessment should be 6b since the language cannot be considered vigorous.

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6a. Vigorous A Level 6a language is an oral language that is maintaining sustainable oral use among all generations in the home domain. The most salient indicator of this level is the fact that the language is being transmitted to all children in the home. By “all” children we do not mean literally 100%, but that it is the societal norm and it is typically followed. A few exceptional cases are not seen as a threat to sustainability, but when a significant number of exceptions emerge such that the community becomes aware that the norm is eroding, then there is a threat to sustainability and the language should be classified as Level 6b. While unbroken intergenerational transmission is the primary indicator of Level 6a, it is not sufficient by itself. Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions of the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence: • Adequate oral use exists in every domain for which oral use is desired. • There is full oral transmission of the vernacular language to all children in the home. • Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of using their language orally. • Official government policy affirms the oral use of the language. • Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language orally versus when to use a more dominant language. If there is a significant lack of any of these five conditions, then sustained oral use is under threat and the language should be classified as Level 6b. For instance, if the community perceives so little value to using their local language that they would immediately begin transmitting the more dominant language if only they could learn it, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b. Or, if the official government policy is hostile toward ethnolinguistic diversity and calls for the elimination or suppression of this language, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b.

6b. Threatened A Level 6b language is one that has started tipping away from sustainability. If an effort can be made to address any of the above conditions that are undermining the local language, then it may be possible to pull the language back toward sustainability; however, in the absence of such efforts, the community will be likely to continue shifting toward greater use of the more dominant language.

7. Shifting A Level 7 language is teetering on the tipping point of sustainability. It is no longer the norm for parents to transmit the language to their children, but the parents still know the language, so it would be possible for intergenerational transmission to resume if the community could be convinced of the value of their language. Level 7 does not mean that transmission to children has completely stopped, but that it is now exceptional. Full transmission happens so infrequently that children who are learning the language will have difficulty finding peers to speak the language with (including a spouse) when they are adults.

8a. Moribund A Level 8a language is still in everyday use in some homes, but only among those who are beyond child-bearing age. Thus, the normal cycle of intergenerational transmission has been broken. There may be younger adults who know the language at least somewhat, but they do not regularly speak it with their peers and are not fully proficient.

8b. Nearly extinct A Level 8b language is no longer used in any home. Those who can still speak the language no longer have a spouse who can speak the language and find little opportunity to use it since there are so few other speakers.

9. Dormant A Level 9 language is no longer the first language of any living individual. However, it is still the recognized heritage language of an ethnic community and it still serves as a marker of ethnic identity. Some vestiges of the language remain and are passed on within the community to strengthen the heritage identity. This could include names of cultural objects, local place names, traditional greetings, formulaic use of the language in traditional rituals, or even the continuing use of ancient scriptures within in a faith community.

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10. Extinct At this level the language is known only through the historical records. There is no living community that still looks to the language as a marker of its heritage identity.

Extended GIDS Diagnostic Decision Tree

References

Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys. Publications in Linguistics 96. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington. Boehm, Kelly. 1997. Language use and language maintenance among the Tharu of the Indo-Nepal Terai. The University of Texas at Arlington. MA thesis. Ms. Casad, Eugene. 1974. Dialect intelligibility testing. Norman, OK: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Eichentopf, Stephanie R., and Jessica R Mitchell. 2016. A sociolinguistic study of Dangaura Tharu and related varieties. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2014-009. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Krauskopff, Gisele. 1995. The anthropology of the Tharus: An annotated bibliography. A Journal of Himalayan Studies 17.3 & 4:185–213. Krauskopff, Gisele. 2007. An ‘indigenous minority’ in a border area: Tharu ethnic associations, NGOs and the Nepalese state. In David N. Gellner (ed.), Resistance and the state: Nepalese experiences. New York: Berghahn Books. Lewis, M. Paul, and Gary F. Simons. 2010. Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS. Revue Roumaine de Linguistique 55.2:103–120. Lewis, M. Paul, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig, eds. 2014. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Seventeenth edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/17/. O’Leary, Clare F., ed. 1992. Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies and SIL. Regmi, R. R. 1973. Kosika Tharu samudaya ra tinko parivartansila saskrti. Ancient Nepal 23. VS 2030. 13–49. Regmi, R. R. 1977. Kosika Tharu, Ek srot, tin dhara, bagh 3, Kathmandu: Sajha Prakashan, VS 2034. (Reprint of previous article.) van Driem, George. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas. Leiden: Brill. Webster, Jeff. 2017. A sociolinguistic profile of the Tharu dialects of the western Indo-Nepal Terai. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2017-003. Dallas, TX: SIL International.

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