Igwebuike AN AFRICAN JOURNAL OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES ....academic excellence for positive change

www.igwebuikejournals.com

U

N

N

I

V

A

E I

R T

S

N I T

A Y T UMUNYA

T I A ET V S E N I RT U C I EST S POT AS A Publication of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya Indexing Services Coverage & Publication Information

Scientific Indexing Services RELEVANT WEB SEARCH

CiteFactorAcademic Scientific Journals

Igwebuike: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities

© IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities

ISSN: 2488-9210 E-ISSN: 2504-9038

Published by: Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State-Nigeria

Typesetting : Altograde Nigeria Limited, Yola

....academic excellence for positive change Editorial & Advisory Board

Editor - In - Chief Prof. Kanu, Ikechukwu Anthony, O.S.A Editor Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State Kanayor Louis Nwadialor, Ph.D [email protected] Nnamdi Azikiwe Univerity, Awka [email protected] [email protected] Managing Editor Ejikemeuwa J. O. Ndubuisi, Ph.D Manuscript Editor Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State Emmanuel Uche Kanu [email protected] Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola [email protected] Members Kolawole Chabi, Ph.D Ifeoma Obuasi, Ph.D Augustinian Patristic Institute, Rome University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Emmanuel Ifeanyi, Ph.D Matthew Ananlogho, O.S.A, Ph.D University of Ghana, Legon Augustinian Institute of Philosophy, Makurdi Romanus Chukwuma Ejim Ph.D Adophus E. Amaefule, SDV, Ph.D Pontifical Lateran University, Rome University of Calabar, Calabar Caroline Mbonu H.H.C.J., Ph.D Ejikemeuwa J. O. Ndubuisi, Ph.D University of Port Harcourt, Tansian University, Umunya Port Harcourt Jude Onebunne, PhD Nneka Umera-Okeke, Ph.D Federal College of Education (Technical), University of Port Harcourt, Umunze Port Harcourt Anikwe Ferdinand, Ph.D Paul. T. Haaga, Ph.D Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilization Federal University, Lafia (CBAAC), Abuja Chiugo C. Kanu, Ph.D Anetoh, Bonaventure Chike PhD University of Nigeria, Nsukka Tansian University Umunya

Advisory Board Prof. Chima Korieh Prof. Egbeke Aja Marquette University, USA University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Prof. Apollos Nwauwa Prof. B.A.C. Obiefuna Bowling Green State University, USA Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka

Prof Edmund Ugwu Agbo Prof. Innocent Izuchukwu Asouzu International Bio-research University, Italy University of Calabar, Calabar

Prof. Ada Uzoamaka Azodo Prof. J. I. Okonkwo Indiana University, Northwest Campus, USA Imo State Univeristy, Owerri

Prof Michael Plaisent Prof. John U. Ganwari University of Quebec, Canada Veritas University of Nigeria, Abuja

Prof. Martins Nkafu Nkemnkia Prof. Peter Bauna Tanko Pontifical Lateran University, Rome Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

Prof. Nkechinyere Nwokoye Prof. Oby Okonkwor Nnamdi University, Awka Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka

Prof. Madu Emeka Jude Prof. Philip C. Njemanze Nnamdi Azikwe University, Awka International Academy of Astronautics About Igwebuike

Preface Igwebuike: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities is a journal published by the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya- Nigeria. Igwebuike is purely dedicated to the publication of original academic papers in the areas of the Arts and Humanities. Results of research are presented as fresh theories, hypotheses, and analyses of new ideas or discoveries. Extensions of existing theories and review of books are also covered within the standard range of this journal. The journal has a vision to put Africa and African intellectuals on the global map. However, this does not imply that non-Africans cannot publish in it. The aim of founding Igwebuike: An African Journal of Arts and Humanities is to make it a world class academic journal with global brand recognition that would thrive on standard, quality and originality. It is published quarterly with a maximum of ten (10) articles including book reviews. Articles are welcomed from any of the following areas: Anthropology, cross-cultural studies, education, ethics, history, international relations, law, linguistics, methodology, philosophy, political science, population Studies, psychology, sociology, social welfare, literature, performing arts (music, theatre & dance), religious studies, visual arts, women studies etc. It would be preferred if articles for publication address issues from an African perspective. Submission of Manuscript All manuscripts must be original (hence, not under consideration anywhere) and submitted to the editor in Microsoft Word format via e-mail: [email protected] or [email protected]. The entire work can range from two to fifty double-spaced pages with a concise title, abstract, and a standard scholarly citation: do not place page numbers or paper title (on each page) on the manuscript; articles (or parts of articles) in English and French will be considered. All submissions must list the author's current affiliation and contact points (location, e-mail address, etc.). The recommended referencing style is the APA format. Camera ready manuscripts will receive first preference in the publishing cycle. All manuscripts are peer-reviewed and those approved by the editorial board will be published. Generally, Editors should be able to reach a decision including recommending corrections if any or acceptance of any paper within two weeks of receipt which is communicated to the corresponding author subsequently. Authors are, therefore, advised to avoid needless correspondences. Contributors would receive a copy of the journal but additional copies may be obtained at a fixed price. All correspondences including subscription and sponsorship to the Editor via: [email protected] or [email protected]. Review and Publication Process A full double-blind refereeing process is used that comprises the following steps. } Paper is sent to 2 reviewers for review. The reviewers' recommendations determine whether a paper will be accepted / accepted subject to change / subject to re-submission with significant changes / rejected. } For papers which require changes, the same reviewers will be used to ensure that the quality of the revised paper is acceptable. } If the paper is accepted by the reviewers, author(s) will be notified to pay the author fee. } Acceptance letter will be provided after the payment has been made. } Author/Corresponding Author will be notified about the possible date of publication (both online and print) } One hard copy of the published journal (Print) for each article will be sent to the author/corresponding author. } The review process takes maximum of two weeks. Copyright Copyright for article published in Igwebuike are retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal. The journal/publisher is not responsible for subsequent uses of the work. It is the author's responsibility to bring an infringement action if so desired. Subscription Please e-mail your subscription order (only for print copy) to the editor at [email protected] or [email protected] Contact Department of Philosophy & Religious Studies, Tel: +234-8036345466 Tansian University, Umunya. [email protected] Anambra State-Nigeria www.igwebuikejournals.com IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

A CRITIQUE OF FORCE IN AFRICAN WORLDVIEW

Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong Faculty of Arts, Department of Philosophy Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka [email protected]

Abstract Vital force is in hierarchical order in African worldview from God the supreme vital force through to the ancestors-the living dead, divinities, living humans, animals, plants and minerals. There are both material and non-material dimensions of force in African worldview which qualifies it to have a metaphysical (non-material) and scientific (material) basis simultaneously. Factual or material knowledge among the people of Africa is mainly restricted to matter of everyday living not really giving a place of prominence by way of in-depth reflection and analysis. It is also mostly the fundamental concerns of the artisans. But without any doubt, the work of artisans played a decisive role in establishing man's knowledge of and mastery over the material universe which precedes Western science as it is known today. Africans therefore, are very conscious materially only in the sense that they use the material force in the universe to enhance their life-force, healing and magical powers. This is why sacred plants, places, hills, rivers, valleys, mountains and animals are used by Africans to manipulate nature without any economic or infrastructural benefits accruing from such practices. The study employs the method of criticism and argues that focusing on the non-material aspect of reality wholly as the major preoccupation and explanation for every phenomenon in the African universe is the major reason why Africa is still scientifically and technologically underdeveloped. Thus, striking a balance in both the material and non-material aspect of force in African worldview or focusing more on research on the material aspect of reality devoid of non- material explanation will see to a new generation of Africans who will overcome present economic and infrastructural deficit by coming up with indigenous African science and technology for the peoples economic emancipation and wellbeing.

Keywords: Force, worldview, African, Development, Scientific, Technological, Material, Non-material.

Introduction That the mineral which is nature's material deposits whether solid, liquid or gaseous is at the lower wrung of the ladder of force in African worldview should be of great concern to contemplative Africans. This is because it may serve as an explanation to why Africa as a continent and her people are backward scientifically and technologically. Force in African

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 1 2 A Crique of Force in African Worldview worldview is predominantly religious and metaphysical. Hence though it has a material dimension, it is however subsumed under the non-material to the point that the material aspect is accepted on the basis of the metaphysical. For the Bantu's as well as other Africans, it is a common belief that being is animated by force. This force has a supreme value which is life force, to live strong or vital force. This Bantu Ontology is contingent upon the worldview held by the people. Tempels emphasized this point lucidly when he asserts that, anyone who wishes to study primitive people or Evolues must give up all idea of attaining valid scientific conclusion so long as he has not been able to understand their metaphysic. To declare on apriori grounds that primitive peoples have no ideas on the nature of beings, that they have no ontology and that they are completely lacking in logic, is simply to turn one's back to reality. Force in African worldview can be understood from a firm logic of belief. This belief is centered on the Supreme Being or God. Thus, “the Bantu speak of God himself as “the strong One”, he who possesses Force in himself. He is also the source of the force of every creature. In the minds of Bantu, all beings in the universe possess vital force of their own: human, animal, vegetable, or inanimate. Each being has been endowed by God with a certain force, capable of strengthening the vital energy of the strongest being of all creation: Man”1 The unique thing about this force as subscribed by Africans is that they are metaphysical but with evidence in the physical or material realm. This suggests that “life force” or “vital force” has been enshrined in everything in creation by the supreme creator, God. To this end, there is force in everything in creation animate or inanimate. The understanding of the workings of this force is essential to the survival of the Bantu's as well as their unique knowledge of manipulating mind over matter. Tempels avers also that “the Bantu say, in respect of a number of strange practices in which we see neither rime nor reason, that their purpose is to acquire life, strength or vital force, to live strongly, that they are to make life stronger, or to assure that force shall remain perpetually in one's posterity”.2 The concept of force to traditional Africans has a dimension to which it is correlated to the scientific term “energy”. Energy in Western Science is uncreated and indestructible. Similarly, force in African worldview has the same connotation as it can only diminish one's being but it cannot be destroyed. Tempels explains this point lucidly thus: Those who think that, according to the Bantu, one being can entirely annihilate another, to the point that he ceases to exist, conceive a false idea. Doubtless one force that is greater than another can paralyze it, diminish it, or even cause its operation totally to cease, but for all that the force does not Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 3

cease to exist. Existence which comes from God cannot be taken from a creature by any created force.3 The Bantu African has a rich and profound philosophy of reality which captures the very essence of the people's worldviews, culture and logic. Their idea of being has a lot of relationship in many ways with that of the Westerners as can be implied, since being is a subject that has a lot of relevance to reality. Since force is at the centre of being, it becomes very germane to examine Africans understanding of force from her worldview and why it is not as systematized and utilized as that of the Westerners. One of the outcomes of such an interrogation will reveal why African theory of vital force though very unique, has not helped Africans fared well economically just like that of their Western counterparts because of the over concentration of the non-material aspect of reality to the detriment of the material. The study shall now proceed to examine the concept of a worldview as imperative to viewing and understanding reality.

What is a Worldview? A worldview or weltanschauung in German, closely associated with the philosopher and historian, Wilhelm Dilthey is an overarching philosophy or that which defines the most consistent cherished beliefs of a people. A worldview can be religious, philosophical and scientific which reflects reality or truth. A people's worldview is important because it determines beliefs and beliefs determine behavior invariably. A certain belief is accepted because it is believed that it produces a certain consequence. Worldviews are therefore implicit by their nature as people are not usually aware of the ways their categories, systems of logic and basic assumptions affect the way they view the world. According to Kraft: Worldview, the deep level of culture, is the culturally structured set of assumptions (including values and commitments/allegiances) underlying how a people perceive and respond to reality. Worldview is not separate from a culture. It is included in culture as the deepest level presuppositions upon which people based their lives.4 From the above, a worldview is a set of beliefs, a model that attempts to explain all of reality and not just some aspect of it. Geisler and Bocchino correspondingly aver that, “…a worldview is a philosophical system that attempts to explain how the facts of reality relate and fit together. In other words, a worldview shapes or colors the way we think and furnish the interpretative condition for understanding and explaining the facts of our experience”.5 Worldview is from where a people make sense of the meaning of life, existence, reality, the universe, values, afterlife, and the supernatural. It could also relate to any ideology, 4 A Crique of Force in African Worldview philosophy, theology, movement or religion that provides an overarching approach to understanding God, the world, and the familiar and unfamiliar features of the universe. Worldview is man's construct clearly embedded in culture and culture is diverse and dynamic sometimes leading to a shift or shock. In all, definitions of worldview could contain: fundamental cognitive structures, systems of beliefs, explains all of reality (cosmology, metaphysics), philosophical system, assumptions about reality (conscious or unconscious, true or false), significance of life (teleology, ontology), culturally constructed, religion, ideologies, associated with a group or society, nature of knowledge (epistemology), personhood (ontology), nature of human history (philosophy of history), fundamental values (axiology) and cultural norms (ethics). That being the case, what is force in African worldview?

Force in African Worldview The concept of force or “vital force” in African belief system as contained in her worldview is very primordial to the understanding of reality in its general form. The idea of force implies “being” as force is not different from being. According to Tempels: Force, the potent life, vital energy is the object of prayers and invocations to God, to the spirits and to the dead, as well as of all that is usually called magic, sorcery or magical remedies. The Bantu will tell you that they go to a diviner to learn the words of life, so that he can teach them the way of making life stronger. In every Bantu language it is easy to recognize the words or phrases denoting a force, which is not used in an exclusively bodily sense, but in the sense of the integrity of our whole being.6 The logic of explanation of Africans with respect to force is hinged on her cultural worldview. Africans do not isolate reality; they see reality from the whole and not in parts. This is very important if we must make sense of why Africans conceive force as such. Africans see reality in hierarchy, what we may call “hierarchy of being”. This is her own “…unique and peculiar way of viewing reality”.7 By hierarchy of being, the African builds a structure of reality according to primacy with God (the Supreme Being) at the apex from whom flow other existent realities such as (ancestors, spirit, deities), (man), (animals, plants and minerals). Interestingly, God is the causeless cause of other forces. Mbiti, in line with this view avers that: According to African peoples, man lives in a religious universe, so that natural phenomena and objects are intimately associated with God. They not only originate from Him but also bear witness to Him. Man's understanding of God is strongly colored by the universe of which man is himself a part. Man sees in the universe not only the imprint but the reflection of God.8 Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 5

In African worldview, it is difficult if not impossible to discuss being without beginning from God the supreme creator of the universe. Though a spirit, the Supreme Being is force personified and has power over every creature “matter” inclusive. In fact the force emanating from God it is believed animates or gives life to other creatures. This is perhaps the reason why Africans see 'life force” in everything both in the natural and supernatural. Affirming this point, Nkemnkia asserts that “the African's life is characterized by an organic whole within which it is difficult to distinguish clearly, as the Western classical conception does, the boundaries of the different realities forming the whole universe of the living. It is very difficult to differentiate clearly between man and the world, man and God, God and the world.9 Force in African worldview is not only reducible to the activities of the material but to the non-material as well. It means that non-material forces can also influence the material leading to active or passive causality. This is why there are certain herbs, roots and leaves that can be used to manipulate “mind” over “matter” and in the process used to influence humans positively or negatively. It is on this belief that the idea of sorcery, magic and even witchcraft finds expression in African worldview. It can be logical to infer that, if the force or energy emanating from the Supreme Being flows through to other beings, then there will be a replication of forces in everything created. Ibeabuchi, following this point avers thus: There is a conception of the Supreme Being as he who gives life, or he who gives force to other beings that are subordinate… These beliefs teach that gods are responsible for the creation of the world and the continuation of life in it, and that they control important events such as birth, death, disease and success. God's, unlike men, do not die; they live forever and restore force to created things that lost theirs.10 Under the hierarchy of force or being in African worldview, plants, animals and minerals are at the lower wrung of the ladder. After God, there are spirits/ancestors, man before rocks, trees, plants and animals. The reason is because man is at the centre of God's creation and he is made in his image and likeness. In the hierarchy of force then, man is of more importance than nature consisting of rocks, plants and animals. These existing things are subservient to man. However, deities like spirits according to Etim “are… localized in trees, rivers, hills etc. There is virtually a deity for everything of existential importance to the Africans like thunder, war, fertility, agriculture, fishing, family, etc”.11 The point being made here is that Africans have a belief system occasioned by naïve realism. By this, they see life forces as emanating from the Supreme Being which is God and animating every other form of reality. This is also to say that the life force of the creator is present in all creatures of His and in all things. Force then is being and relates in 6 A Crique of Force in African Worldview common to all existing things. Force in African worldview cannot be separated from being unlike in the Western worldview where the transcendental notion of being is separated from its attribute of force. It becomes easier following African conception of force to understand why Africans think the way they do and make sense of their universe as well. The study now proceeds to examine further dimension of force in African worldview.

Causes and Interaction of Force in African Worldview In African worldview, events are caused; events and motion are a product of “force”. Force has the same ontological status as being in African thought; nothing just happened to an African. This suggests that there is some kind of deterministic belief that the Africans hold. Interestingly, the non-material realm is more profound to the African and that is where reality to him is determined and understood. The material plane to the African is far lesser and real compared to the non-material where God dwells as well as the ancestors and spirits. Before anything happens in the material plane, it must have happened in the non- material plane. Teffo and Roux assert that: Since metaphysical discourse is generally about non-physical aspects of phenomena that transcend space and time, the bulk of the subject matter of African metaphysics falls under the category that is traditionally described in western metaphysics as “supernatural”. Two considerations are important here. On the one hand, as will be emphasized repeatedly, dualism which is the stock-in-trade of western metaphysics, such as those between matter and mind/soul/spirit, do not appear in African metaphysics.12 That Africans place a very high premium on the non-material plane should not be misunderstood. It does not in any way mean they do not exist in time and space. Much of the African day to day lives are based on empirically verifiable facts. The only difference is that, the African reduces all of these facts to a non-material cause so that all the activities that takes place in the material plane is a direct consequence of what goes on in the non- material or supernatural realm through causal interaction. Causality in African worldview is founded upon beliefs. This is different from how it is perceived in Western worldview of science. For a statement to be considered causal in Western worldview of science, it has to fulfill “three properties which mean that the cause must precede the effect, cause and effect must be materially related, and whenever the cause happens, the effect must take place”.13 Explaining causality from cause can be non- materially or supernaturally determined by Africans. For instance, a material cause can be informed by a non-material interaction or means. This view is predicated on the “being” of God. Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 7

God or the Supreme Being in African worldview system is a “spirit being”. The nature of his being is such that can affect matter even by mere spoken words. For the Africans, each reality whether material or non-material appears and disappears into and takes the nature of the opposite reality.14 This point seems to follow the principle of Newton's third law of motion in science. In other words, there is a constant interaction between these parallel universes. Thus, “…reality is cyclical. The spiritual appears as a physical reality and goes back to the spiritual world and the cycle continues. This means that the physical has an inbuilt spirituality and the spiritual has an inbuilt physicality.15 The reality of this belief accounts for the explanation by an African of certain events that do not make meaning within the purview of Western science. For instance, when a person is to be poisoned in Africa, it is not necessary that the poison should have direct contact with say, the food or drink. Just holding the bottle or glass is enough to transmit the poison into the content after the necessary incantations. Just like there is the presence of radio waves everywhere in the material universe, there is also a web of interaction with regards to force in the African universe. As long as the force being talked about is fundamentally non-material, it is believed that it can affect the material aspect of reality. Mbiti asserts here that: The whole psychic atmosphere of African village life is filled with belief in this mystical power. African peoples know that the universe has a power, force or whatever else one may call it, in addition to the items in the ontological categories. It is difficult to know exactly what it is or how it functions. Even where allowance is made for conjuring tricks, obvious cheating, superstition, manipulating of hidden means of communication and other skilled use of laws of nature, one is left and confronted with phenomena which as yet cannot be scientifically explain away.16 Cause in African worldview works by interaction. The interaction is from the non- material or supernatural to the material or natural and vice versa. The Supreme Being interacts with his creatures by infusing “life force” into them and all of creation exhibits this causal life force. It is in rocks, trees, flowers, birds, plants, animals, man and so on. It animates existence and forms the bedrock of everything living or has the possibility to being in existence. Knowledge of the existence of these realities is important in harnessing their vital force. Force can be used constructively or destructively in African worldview depending on the spirits behind it as there are good spirits and evil spirits. Mbiti further avers that “there is mystical power which causes people to walk on fire, to lie on thorns or nails, to send curses or harm, including death, from a distance to change into animals (Lycanthropy), to spit on snakes and cause them to split open and die…”17 The study now examine how material force is a consequence of non-material cause in African worldview. 8 A Crique of Force in African Worldview

Non-Material Force with a Material Effect in African Worldview. The major reason why it seems weird or absurd for something non-material or spiritual to affect a material object is because of our outlook to reality via a worldview. When discussing the concept of cause from the Western point of view for instance, it is expected that there must be material connection which in turn produces material effect. To say that something A is the cause of an effect B is to be understood from a material perspective. This kind of explanation is not really necessary when we shift our attention to African worldview. Africans believe that every material effect has a non-material cause as “matter” itself is a product of the non-material or supernatural. Tempels makes the point lucidly when he declares that: The fundamental notion under which being is conceived lies within the category of force. Metaphysics studies this reality, existing in everything and in every being in the universe. It is in virtue of this reality that all beings have something in common, so that the definition of this reality may be applied to all existent forms of being. To arrive at this reality common to all beings, or rather which is identical in all beings, it is necessary to eliminate all forms of reality which belong to one category only among beings. We pay attention to the elements, which are common to all beings. Such elements are, e.g. the origin, the growth, the changes, the construction or the achievement of the beings, passive and active causality and particularly the nature of the being as such supporting those universal phenomena. These elements constitute the object of metaphysical knowledge, that is to say, of knowledge embracing all the physical or the real.18 In Western worldview, there is a place for invincible forces of nature. But the difference is that, they are all reduced to material or natural processes. For instance most parts of the universe are just forces and its fields leading to the concepts of black holes and dark matter. These realities are not apprehensible by observation except through their effects. We know about the presence of the wind when we see the leaves shaking. There is a lot in the universe that also seems to be hidden from human consciousness with philosophical appendages as it was only in the 17th Century that physics became an independent discipline; before that time, it was called Natural Philosophy. That said, the window through which the material is known by scientists is through the senses, majorly five. The non-material or supernatural realm has been a very contentious subject for the Westerners because Western science reduces all of the material including man to “matter” and their descriptions. Man is therefore held to be just a composite of matter or atoms without a soul and spirit. Thus, any claim to the non-material or supernatural realm in Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 9 science would be described as hallucination or delusion something that is not real with regards to material reality. As Mawere and Mubaya will opine, “while we appreciate the universality of philosophy as a discipline anchored on rationality and critical inquiry, we examine the question in cultural and geographical frames in order to try to bring out to the surface that which distinguishes Africa-philosophy from other philosophies such as Western philosophy or Chinese philosophy”.19 From a scientist's angle, it will sound absurd to assert that a non-material or supernatural entity or force without form or shape can influence matter. But to doubt this possibility is to also be coming from another worldview. To dismiss the belief of mind over matter as utter balderdash is to be judgmental based on a supposed superior worldview. Africans have often been berated by the Westerners on account of their belief system with regards to the non-material or supernatural. Thus it is a belief in African worldview well held that the non-material or supernatural is a plane more real than the material. Consequently, the Westerners have a worldview about reality that is material with a reductionists approach so that the mind is just a brain activity and not an independent entity as captured in the Cartesian dualism. The scientist then is “someone who is prepared to say that every event can be described in micro-structural terms, a description which mentions only elementary particles, and can be explained by reference to other events so described.20 Furthermore, with regards to the mind, the scientists will say indifferently that we are dispensing with mental states and events in favour of a bodily ones or explaining mental states and events as bodily ones.21 Safro Kwame corroborating the thesis of physicalism, captures Kwasi Wiredu words, what he calls quasi-physicalism thus: Quasi physicalism does for physicalism what physicalism did for materialism expressed exclusively in terms of atoms and other elementary particles. It stretches the limits of matter or materialism as far as is compatible with what we know or do not know, without embracing dualism. It admits the possibility of quasi-physical objects as belonging to a category between the realm of the obviously physical, i.e. those objects that obey the known laws of physics and the realm of the so-called spiritual or completely immaterial objects that do not obey any of the known laws of physics. These are the “fuzziest” objects that quasi-physicalism recognizes as being compatible with a limited version of physicalism. They, unlike outright spiritual or immaterial objects, are recognized as existing together with atoms, fields, energies, sets and numbers.22 When an African is talking about the non-material or spiritual affecting the physical or material, he is doing that from a face valued point of view. He is not referring to brain or 10 A Crique of Force in African Worldview mental processes but to a being outside of matter which can influence it. The influence in question is outside of the material; it is a supernatural influence over the material. The study will now examine briefly the purpose of man's existence in a material universe and why he should maximize the potentials available to him to lived a fulfilling life.

Why do Man and the Universe Exists? From the African worldview, man and the universe exists as God's creation. God created the universe and placed man in it out of his own will or pleasure. Thus “man is not the first or creative cause of life but he sustains and adds to the life of the forces which he finds below him within his “ontological” hierarchy”.23 This suggests that the material universe was created for man to aid his existence, which is why man co-habits with nature or the universe and this affects his activities in the environment in several ways either positively or negatively. Man does not see his material life as all there is to his existence neither the material universe. He is in the material universe in order to prepare himself for the spiritual universe and that has an adverse effect on his preference on the non-material or spiritual reality. Kanu declares that: Man's coming to the world cannot be understood within the western category which sees the human person in mechanistic terms. Man in African worldview has a purpose and mission to fulfill; he comes into the world as a force amidst forces and interacting with forces. Good status, good health and prosperity are signs of the wellbeing of a person's life-force, and man struggles to preserve it through an appropriate relationship with the spiritual forces around him.24 When a man has lived a good life here on earth, he goes into the world beyond, a spiritual universe of the living-dead where he continues his life as an ancestor. The material universe came about as a result of God's benevolence and magnanimity expressed to man his choice possession. This suggests that the universe has a moral purpose which is for the good of man. Most works of African worldview are silent about what the ultimate fate of the material universe will be just as it is in the Western worldview of science. This may be that way because there is a better spiritual universe which is more important and sustaining than this one which man should strive to get to. We shall now evaluate why Africa with its vast knowledge of the workings of the non-material universe has not been able to develop a functional material science and by extension technology for the benefit and utility of its people and the world at large just as the Westerners and Orientals have done. Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 11

Evaluation African worldview makes no pretense in asserting that there is a hierarchy of force of which man and the material universe is one. Man may be the wisest and most intelligent force compared to plants, animals and mineral resources but not to the ancestors, divinities or God who gives him divine inspiration and knowledge in general. Thus man is not just a composite of matter alone; he has an immortal soul that lives on after the body dies. As such, African worldview does not confer such loose freedom on man to live his life any how he deems fit. There has to be some regulations that will bring about order in the society. If man still chooses to live a reckless life, he will have to bear the consequences for such a choice. Etuk makes the point that “the first thing that the new humanism affirms therefore, is that the environment is God's gift to man; secondly, the new humanism affirms that as important as science has been in human development, science is not everything”.25 However, while the Western worldview of science makes room for only man, the material universe and everything in it, African worldview makes room for man, the universe and God. This is the reason why force as a concept is materially inclined to the Westerners and they have invested heavily in research in that area with attendant economic and infrastructural gains. But it appears that the Western worldview of science is now stretching its boundary as it is now moving towards the non-material and non-observable like dark matter and blackhole after having made so much progress in the material dimension of reality. Hence, all the four fundamental forces in the material universe are all connected in the Western worldview of science and none is held as non-material at face value. That made it easier for research to be made in that aspect using complex mathematical formulations and axioms. At the same time, they are all unobservable and metaphysically explained through causality. Probing into what force is in itself, Western worldview of science will simply assert that it is a material property which causes object's motion whereas in African worldview, forces have a supernatural dimension intermingling with the material. Africans can invoke a non-material or supernatural force that can suspend the laws of nature but have not been able to harness the same knowledge to solve her existential problems bedeviling them as a people especially economic poverty. Since beliefs are held as being without substantive material evidence and different from knowledge which is evidenced based, it cannot be said one believes what is already known. African claims based on belief are usually discountenance by the Westerners because belief does not translate to knowledge as one can believe just anything even a lie. However, for the Africans, as contained in her worldview, beliefs are founded upon prior knowledge so that when the evidence cannot be repeated again or not immediately handy, 12 A Crique of Force in African Worldview belief would do. For instance, if a certain people had a deity visits them who performed certain wonders which defy the laws of physics, after that encounter, the event can be transmitted to a later generation who would then believe though without evidence of a repeated occurrence. Beliefs also have some psychological satisfaction it gives to those who hold on to it and this is why the Western worldview of science hold theories that do not have empirical evidence like the big bang, evolution, abiogenesis, superstring, quantum gravity and the four fundamental forces. The reason for emphasizing this dimension of belief is because of the dichotomy between belief and knowledge as pushed by the Western worldview of science. Science holds that knowledge is only gained from experience hence, belief doesn't give demonstrable knowledge. Accordingly, knowledge is knowledge because there is evidence to prove that a thing is the case, some kind of correspondence with an actual state of affair or event which can be established. Since knowledge is divided into two types: basic and non-basic knowledge, Ozumba opines that 'the basic is different from the non-basic in being anchored on a justification that does not need further justification while the non-basic is anchored on justifications deriving their epistemic strength from other justifications culminating in a basic justification”.26 Because beliefs are well enshrined in a worldview, it can affect a people's outlook to life and determine their preferences in research and method of investigation. Worldviews then becomes like a map that shows a people the way to go and what to focus on. Clearly then, worldviews contain what has already been accepted to be worth pursing by a people; a kind of set of standards by which one evaluates human knowledge, the focus of that knowledge and judges it as having utility or not. Worldviews then contains aspects of reality worth focusing on whether material or non-material. Looking very closely from this understanding, it will be clear that every worldview whether the Western or African contains principles that can determine human behavior, preferences and the attendant outcome from it. For example, since the Western worldview of science holds the belief that man is just a composite of matter or a bundle of energy, that gives the impetus to researches leading to knowledge and understanding of the material universe since it is held as the only reality there is. This also accounts for why the Western worldview of science is investing heavily in researches in the material universe which the world at large is enjoying today but at a price that is plough back to the Westerners developmental advantage giving them the power, voice, comfort and wellbeing amongst the comity of nations. Archibong, Emmanuel Iniobong 13

Conclusion African has all it takes to be a continent and people of pride and envy going by the quantum of human and material resources she is blessed with. But it is a sad reality that that her belief system as contained in her worldview and the overwhelming emphasis of the non- material or supernatural aspect of reality over the material has adversely affected the prospect of engaging the material dimension of reality and getting the best out of it. This limitation has made the continent to be regarded as dark and impoverished because she does not have an indigenous science neither a technology hence without a voice in international circles. Clearly, the African economic and infrastructural problem cannot be devoid of stemming from its worldview. Despite this shocking reality, something can still be done to get Africa out of her current economic woes and it is simply in striking a balance between the non-material and material aspect of reality with the latter gaining more place of prominence. It is also for its leaders to emphasize, invest and encourage indigenous research on the material aspect of reality as a policy statement so that Africa can attain the same results as that of her Asian counterparts who have an almost similar worldview. As we draw the curtain of this discourse, it is important to reiterate the point that worldviews are very subtle and salient in determining a peoples belief as well as what they hold to be of utmost concern to their survival. African worldview with its hierarchy of force is rich and unique; but its emphasis on the non-material aspect as determining everything including the material has not seen to the development and investments in knowledge and exploration of the material universe. This lopsidedness or outright disregard for material knowledge must be addressed and very timely so that we can have a generation of Africans who would not suffer the deprivations their forebears suffered because of the lack or absence of African indigenous science and technology.

Endnotes and References 1 Placide Tempels, Bantu Philosophy, (Paris: Presence Africaine, 1959), p.22 2 Ibid; p. 22 3 Ibid; p. 28 4 C H. Kraft, “Culture, Worldview and Contextualization” Winter R D. and Hawthorne, S. C. (eds), Perspective on the World Christian Movement 3rd, (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1999), p.385 5 N. Geisler and P. Brocchino, Unshakable Foundations, (Minneapolis: Bethany House, 2001), pp: 43, 55 6 Placide Tempels, Bantu Philosophy, (Paris: Presence African, 1959), p. 22 7 E. I. Archibong, “African Metaphysics: An Overview” A. F. Uduigwomen and C. O. Akpan (eds), Metaphysics: A Book of Readings, (Calabar: Ultimate Index, 2012), p. 407. 14 A Crique of Force in African Worldview

8 J. S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, (London: Heinemann, 1969), p. 48. 9 M. N. Nkemnkia, African Vitalogy: A Step Forward in African Thinking, (Nairobi: Paulines Publications, 1999), p.110. 10 O. M. Ibeabuche, “The Theory of Forces as conceived by Igbo Africans” Filosophia Theoretica: Journal of African Philosophy, Culture and religious Vol.2 No.1, (2013), p: 289. 11 Francis Etim, “African Metaphysics” Journal of the Asian Scientific Research Vol. 3 No. 1, (2013), pp.11-17. 12 Lebisa. J. Teffo and A. P. J. Roux, “Metaphysical Thinking in Africa” The African Philosophy Reader P. H. Coetzel and A. P. J. Roux (eds), (London: Routledge, 1980), p. 196. 13 Cristina Puente Agueda, “ Casuality in Science” Revista. Vol. 1. (2011), pp. 1-10. 14 Chris O. Ijiomah, Harmonious Monism: A Philosophical Logic of Explanation for Ontological Issues in Supernaturalism in African Thought, (Calabar: Jochrisam Publishers, 2014), p. 118. 15 Ibid; p.18. 16 J. S. Mbiti Ibid; p. 197. 17 Ibid; pp. 197-198. 18 Placide Tempels, Ibid; pp.23-24. 19 Munyaradzi Mawere and Tapuwa R. Mubanya. African Philosophy and Thought Systems: A Search for a Culture and Philosophy of Belonging, (Mankon: Langaa Research Publishing, 2016), p.28. 20 Richard Rorty “Objectivity, Relativism and Truth” Philosophical Papers. Vol.1 (Cambridge: University Press, 1991), p. 144. 21 W. V. O. Quine. Quiddities: Intermittently Philosophical Dictionary, (Cambridge: The Belknap Press, 1989), p. 133. 22 Safro Kwame, “Quasi – Materialism: A Contemporary African Philosophy of Mind” A Companion to African Philosophy (ed) Kwasi Wiredu, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2004), pp. 345-346. 23 Ikechukwu Anthony Kanu, “The Dimensions of African Cosmology” Filosophia Theoritica: Journal of African Philosophy, Culture and Religion, Vol.2 No.2, (2013), pp. 550-551 24 Ibid; pp.186-186 25 Udo Etuk, The New Humanism, (Uyo: Jamae Press, 2012), p. 2 26 G. O. Ozumba, A Concise Introduction to Epistemology, (Calabar: Ebenezer Computer Service, 2011), p.101 IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

BIAFRA: BEYOND THE REALM, SABOTAGE AND DEARTH OF INTELLIGENCE IN THE BIAFRA/NIGERIA DEBACLE, 1967-1970

Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D., MHSN Department of History, International Studies & Diplomacy, Godfrey Okoye University, Enugu [email protected], +2348033096134 & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D., MHSN Department of History and Strategic Studies, Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract War, as the last stage of diplomacy and peace, requires a strategic sequence to be effected. The Biafran Republic once declared on May 30th, 1967, was welcomed, protected and propelled by natural pride of the groups that made up Eastern Nigeria as well as resourcefulness and jealousy-guarded patriotism, triggered by the preceding litany of organized pogrom meted against the Easterners. From start, many Eastern Nigerian soldiers and police personnel serving with the Nigerian armed forces, swiftly changed sides and fought on the Biafran side. With unequalled vigour, and common cause of able commanders stationed in different places were psyched up by the Biafran propaganda machinery to defend the newly taken freedom with iron and blood. At the initial stages of the war, Biafran successes were tremendous; however the headache on the Nigerian army over these successes was short-lived owing to sabotage, divisiveness and paucity of military tactical intelligence which when strategically synthesized could silence the impact of lethal weaponry; all these played discordant tunes on the Biafran high command. This work contends that the importance of signals, its interpretation and analysis necessary for the prosecution of modern warfare was highly undermined by the Biafran high command; it was complicated by viable selfish interests which paved way for the Biafran loss of the war. The need for historical objectivity and analysis in this study, has underscored the reliance on primary information and research, even into classified documents

Keywords: Military intelligence, Sabotage, Signals, Communication

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 25 26 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence

Introduction The noisy clatter of machine guns and the deafening noise of deadly explosives and projectiles undoubtedly help in packaging sceneries in stable modern war theatres. Designate troop movements, weapons' deployment and application in warfare is guided by definite objectives, momentarily supported by trusted information. Information drives strategy, and when deciphered and synthesized drives tactical missions and manoeuver, hence remains one of the primary propellers in warfare. From the earliest time, historical annals are inundated with the numerous roles played by spies, town criers and traditional whistle blowers and even broadcasting on the spot details emergent on the battlefield, to the consumption of engaged warriors in the field and even those afar off. Over the ages, selected high-rise trees, hills and man-made towers have provided viable platforms to ensure clarity of vision, objectivity and safe haven for such information providers. Herein lies the background from which the contemporary military intelligence and communications evolved, and has not only continued to prove its importance, but has remained an orthodox primary accomplice in not only military circles, but the countless relations existing between various individuals, and sovereignties on the global stage. Intelligence and communication aid countries to execute wars at least with limited costs, and equally help on the other hand in preventing over reaction and consequent collateral damage. Delving a little into the field military intelligence and communication, command and control may help throw more light and properly elucidate, the positional depth of this study vis a vis the challenges of sabotage and communication as witnessed in Biafra while the war lasted. Military intelligence and communications represent all activities, equipments, techniques and tactics used by the military during hostility and in hostile areas of the world to generate, collate, transmit and interpret information on land, in the sea, or on air. It should be noted that the attributes of classical subtleness, untrustworthiness and selfishness imbued in, and manifest in basic human nature, did drive even the earliest of human societies whether in Asia or traditional African communities to encrypt such information being transmitted, thereby secluding it from adversaries. This tactics came to be tagged- signal, hence signals and signalers became a highly distinct military occupation dealing rather with general communication methods, than with weapons. Intelligence, aids command and control through communication (military comms). Moreover, through the help of tactical signals, operations remain focused, packaged and proactive. After the successful invention of the first military-based equipment mounted inside an automotive vehicle in 1934 in the Soviet Union, the spy world went berserk with hi-tech communication satellites, air crafts, automated drones, sonic network attacks and Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 27 operations. This brings us into the purview of military command and control as a product of intelligence analysis and organization. Command and Control (C2) in a military organization can be understood as the exercise of authority and direction by a properly designated commanding officer over assigned and attached forces in the accomplishment of a mission 1. Command and control functions are performed through an arrangement of personnel, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures employed by a commander in planning, directing, coordinating and controlling forces and operations in the execution of a mission. (C2) consists of several aspects and sub-domains, which are represented by derivative terms hereunder explained. 1. C2I – Command, Control & Intelligence 2. C2I SR – C21 Plus Surveillance 3. C2I STAR – C2 plus 1STAR: Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance 4. C3 – Command, Control & Communication (human activity focus) 5. C3 – Command, Control & Communications (technology focus) 6. C3I – 4 possibilities; the most common is Command, Control, Communications & Intelligence 7. C31STAR – C3 plus 1STAR 8. C31SREW – C2SR plus Communication and Electronic Warfare 9. C5I – Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Combat systems and Intelligence, among others. In this context, command is the exercise of authority relative to certain knowledge and aimed at a definite objective, while control entails the verification and management of activity such that the objective or goal of command is accomplished. Communication is the ability to exercise the necessary liaison between tactical or strategic units, while intelligence includes collection as well as the analysis and distribution of information. Once intelligence is gathered through the interception of signals - SIGINT, it becomes communication intelligence – COMINT; when such signals involve an electronic gadget (Electronic Intelligence - ELINT) or the combination of the two. Intelligence cycle management involves the use of cryptanalyst to trace the origin, content and designation of such signals. All defensive signals intelligence demand appropriate encryption against content interception, most especially when the belligerent is a formidable opponent, who could detect the signal. The Biafra country, while it lasted, wholesomely embarked on defensive program, which had it completely exposed to the threat and capabilities of its enemy, who largely relied on highly variable transmission schedules with transmitting frequencies using a spectrum spread technique connecting overhead monitoring air crafts. (Russian MIGs.) 28 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence

It may be recalled that the January 15th, 1966 military putsch marked the first official meddling of the Nigerian army into civilian governance of the country. It was followed by some significant developments for instance, - the massive civil riots in May, 1966 which took the lives of over 3,000 Eastern Nigerians, quickly followed by a military counter- coup and pogroms, also directed against the same people at an estimated cost of over 50,000 lives,2 all weighted down and helped to finally cascade the country into a bloody three-years war. Even as the Eastern Nigeria government was engaged with the General Gowon led Federal Government at the center on the plight of Easterners in different parts of Northern Nigeria, there remained no viable information link sustaining and feeding aggrieved and agitated minds in Eastern Nigeria. This not only created room for a costly gap, but was mischievously exploited to promote confusion most especially against the Easterners. It must be said, that before now, General Ironsi's Decree 34 accompanied by numerous intended appeasement have helped in liquidating and decimating the biggest pro-active and dynamic Eastern ethnic organization, the Igbo Union, which cared for, duly informed and homogenized the Igbo people both within and outside Nigeria. With the ominous dark clouds speedily gathering on the national horizon, in the Eastern region, there persisted a dangerous atmosphere of eclipse of fraternal confidence between the military government, the surviving returnee senior military officers, the politicians, the civilian think -tank and some now released young officers who took power in the January Coup, who felt betrayed by these senior officers.4 This situation became so bad that even as the Nigerian military has been polarized between the East and the rest of Nigeria, added to the hot exchanges and verbal agreements between the authorities of both sections, the Aburi deliberations and altercations in the Eastern region, the remnants of these returnee army officers felt side tracked in that no singular attempt or opportunity was spent in either seeking for their suggestion or even detailing them with Eastern policy decisions as dictated by the Biafra Executive Council. By mid-April, 1967 this explosive development assumed a dramatic dimension with the impromptu cancellation of all military drills in the East by the Military Governor as a counter measure to avert an 'impending coup' to unseat Ojukwu5. This marked the beginning of a dangerous trend even before the declaration of the Biafran nation; reliable or not, but that which cumulatively and constructively contributed to the physical demise of a peoples spirited attempt to be free. Call it coup or sabotage, it simply remained a portent distraction, which brought with it disorder and lack of common action for common cause. Punitively, Major Nzeogwu and a host of other military officers were suspended from performing military duties6, at a time when the East should rather be putting it's house in order, fully aware of the progressive heightened crescendo of insecurity against it. Raw suspicion and accusation of disloyalty and Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 29 planning to over throw the Eastern Regional Government was even done with recklessness that Colonel Njoku, the Eastern Regional Army Commander's insistence to be allowed to sit at the Executive Council meetings was not only misconstrued as a threat to the Governor's office, but his personality came under assassination soon afterwards throughout the East, as one with vaulting ambition and doubtful loyalty7. One may not help observing with putation, the high level of acrimony and distrust subsisting in the Eastern Region even at a period when myriads of wounded Igbo pogrom survivors needed organized attention, more so when the declaration of the Republic of Biafra has not even taken place. On the other hand, apart from the crisis of confidence enveloping the Eastern Region's Government, the many accounts of returnee Igbo army officers and the civilian population, created strong base for multiple unfounded rumors which fanned curiosity, anxiety, fear and tension, hence un-conditioning the region for a meaningful resistance against any invading force. While the Eastern Regional police largely proved wanting in the provision of adequate and corporate information in tandem with the voracious demand of such in the period, recourse was rather taken to extant rumors and musings from border- inhabited communities. Such intelligence posed challenging synthesis and coordination.

Reflections Though mandated by, and acting in accordance with the dictates handed over by the Eastern Nigeria Consultative Assembly, Colonel Ojukwu, equally irked by the people's euphoric demands for freedom, and apparently threatened and taunted by variegated endogenous and exogenous challenges, finally declared the Republic of Biafra on 30th May, 1967. Mere declaration of an intention or a status is simply a far cry from achieving and sustaining it, more so where resources with regards to the enabling mission appear intractable. Agreed, secession on the part of Biafra, given the subsisting circumstances was made to appear inevitable, but on the other hand, the young republic has no right to underestimate the impending federal reaction and response, fully aware that the existing political and strategic nomenclature in Nigeria grandiosely tilted against it. Apart from the 'unreliable pathology' of the Yoruba culture group, one may not be reminded that British overbearing influence on Nigeria, even at this period, was unquestionable. Moreover, the British foreign policy on Eastern Nigeria, evolve from a hideous past, and a continued relationship, where it perceives the Eastern Nigerian Igbo as a portent exploitative competitor, and an inhibiting octopus to its continued selfish desires within its political contraption. That Britain, Russia, Egypt and a host of other groups militarily later aided the Nigerian forces against Biafra that was left with about 240 professional soldiers, technicians and tradesmen inclusive, after the exit of large numbers of Northern soldiers from Enugu in August, 1966 fully with their weapons8, may not be the thrust of this study. However, the conclusion one must draw is that, penultimate to the final declaration of the 30 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence

Biafran state, the Eastern region operated bereft of equitable intelligence and information. Where lies the reason and objective on the part of the Eastern Region's Governor to have acceded to having a separate agreement with General Gowon, whereby the Northern soldiers serving in the East were repatriated with all their assigned weapons and equipment, whereas the few surviving Easterners (soldiers) were not allowed to migrate back, in consonance with national directives.9 One may equally recall and question the reason for the self-imposed state of anomie, which the Eastern regional government assumed between January and May 1967, while intensive recruitment into the Army was ongoing throughout Nigeria except in the Eastern Region, where Gowon warned against such an exercise10. Fully aware of the continued estrangement of the Eastern Region under the emerging scenario, planning and acting in tandem with the demands and dictates of covert and overt information and actions would have occupied Colonel Ojukwu and his high command, rather than basking in heightened propaganda and unguided optimism, with little or no attention for pre-emptive military preparations, even when the information was made public in a national daily that Major O. Appolo had successfully paid for a large catchment of armory in Europe, meant for the Nigerian Army11. This study is of the view that Biafran authorities never took time to evaluate the weight of the gathering clouds, not until the actual inundation took off. This cumulatively led to the eventual massive drafting and exposure of the first greater number of the untrained Biafran recruits, ill-armed and anxious for vengeance (the 7th and 8th Biafran battalions) into putting up resistance at the hands of the Federal fighting patrol detachments, which attacked specific Eastern Regional outposts towards the ending days of May 1967. It is important to note that, on the part of the Biafran high command, faced with dire logistical challenges, even at the early stages of the conflict, coordinating both battalions from Enugu headquarters, and reaching out to Nsukka and Port Harcourt respectively along Biafra's contiguous borders, became a daunting task. How could one explain the incident which took place on 20th July, 1967 in Obollo Afor during the earliest phase of the war, where lack of intelligence communication even under some seasoned Biafran officers ( Colonels Madiebo and Eze) the 'A' and 'B' companies inflicted heavy causalities on Biafran 'D' Company12. This incident finally happened since no precaution was taken to ameliorate apparent warnings on the disconnect between the 51st and 53rd Biafran Brigades. The Obollo Afor incident was significant enough, for apart from its innumerable human loss through friendly fire, it played out that between 3rd and 6th August, when it became glaring to the Federal Forces that there was either a lacuna or nonexistent intelligent coordination of the Biafran resistance in this area, they simply utilized four days of intensive shelling without the application of any infantry to take the area13. One may have to contrast this with what happened on the 6th of July, 1967, when the Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 31 federal troops attacked Garkem (30 miles from Ogoja town). Here, the 7th Biafran battalion operating without any wireless communication confirmed the Nigerian/ Biafran war to have really started, only when it saw the first set of Biafran casualties being brought in. Soldiers of this battalion had comfortably assumed that what they had been hearing from 2am in the night was simply heavy thunder accompanying rainfall in the neighboring community14. Devoid of wireless communication in military operations and most especially on deep penetration, control of troops is absolutely impossible. Moreover, understanding the dramatic events that finally culminated in the Biafran loss of Ogoja Province would further expose both the dangerous depth of the sabotage challenges and the intelligence disconnect within the Biafran operational high command. This study in tandem with professional historical objectivity having relegated terms like luck, mistake, disaster and “miracle” to the background, remains entirely agreed that the entire Biafran military operations (MILOPS) in the Ogoja Province of the Biafran country wholesomely collapsed due to paucity of battle field military intelligence. Ogoja province hosting at the same time, the antagonistic forces of Nigeria's First Division and Third Marine Commando against Biafra's First Battalion, starved not only the clash of elitist military engagements from both sides, but the accomplishment of Nigeria's tactical offensive on a Biafran strategic hub at a timely period15. A field participants, Odonna, who fought on the Biafran side recounted how there was practically no effective intelligence feedback mechanism not up to 48hours into the Ogoja imbroglio. According to him, poor relations amongst other things between the subsisting Biafran troops with the indigenous inhabitants did not help matters. Just as the local coordination and purposeful MILOPS were absent on the battle field, so also the emergent dangerous disconnect which unfolded within the third day of the invasion of Gakem between Enugu and Ogoja.16 Apart from the paucity of wireless communication gadgets on the Biafran side, a proactive centrally-controlled intelligence unit able to send tactical signals in tandem with the changing contours and demands of the various war theatres was inexistent. This easily often busied the Biafran army in tactile and tangled mess, creating unhealthy dangerous openings for egocentric inordinate ambitions, which was the least expectation and engagement a people under siege needed. Within the first four months of 1967, when it became increasingly clear that the Biafran army could hardly holdback the Nigerian offensive inferno, the need arose to fall back and reorganize the militia under the command of Brigadier Effiong into an effective and disciplined force17. This move appear justified, since the militia provided ready source of manpower reinforcement to the regular army; assisted in military administration behind enemy lines and ran the propaganda engine which sustained the war. The Biafran militia (intellectuals, businessmen and professionals) largely in-coordinate as it were, quickly split into two powerful and 32 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence opposing factions (the Enugu and Port Harcourt groups). All attempts at reconciliation, even under Police Commissioner Chinwuba, proved abortive, and as clear as it ran its cause, the army always took time to steer clear of its affairs18. Howbeit that an ill-equipped army, with poor administrative support, surviving on a life line of always overstretching itself trying to actively defend the amorphous fragile Biafran boundaries would rather than unite and propel a common approach, prefer to engage in unnecessary dangerous divisiveness. In falling back and resorting to strategic defense, Biafran military leaders simply lost sight of the fact that by defending everywhere, Biafra could not possibly be strong anywhere; after all, one does not need to capture everywhere in order to win a war. Defensive battles alone cannot win wars. The vulnerability of the flanks always renders defensive positions unsafe and unprotected. Surprise still remains one of the most portent strategies which go a long way in deciding the eventual outcome of any conflict. However, in order to achieve surprise, intelligence must guide and guard flexibility, timing, strength, precision, conduct and force, or the formidability of designate operations. Efficiency suffers when experience is alienated; military orders are better discussed, debated and not simply issued. It could be nostalgic to reflect on Biafra's lightening break on the Midwestern parts of Nigeria on the night of August 8th, 1967, and the motive behind its wasteful three days delay and diversion into Sapele and Warri towns, rather than its designated 'liberating' push into Ibadan and Lagos. How could the Biafran high command toy with this operation, by having it commanded by Colonel Banjo, whose orientation; utterances and actions since the botched January 15th Nzeogwu Coup, have remained controversial. It may be recalled that Banjo for one, though a Yoruba, was not officially cleared from attempting a fatality on General Ironsi's life19. Regardless of the cumulative propelling details of such invasion on the Biafran side, considering its tactical advantages, it does equally appear that the intricate reprisal consequences of the failure of such a mission were not duly weighed. The Midwest invasion finally turned out to be a disastrous political miscalculation by Biafra which dissipated sympathy for it in the Western/Midwestern Regions. While it caught the Nigerian army off guard and shot it out of complacency, it also gave some non-Easterners the impression that Biafra's objectives were not limited to self-defense, but harbored territorial expansion as its cardinal ambition20. By the early months of 1968, just as purposeful objectives and intelligence streamlined Nigerian army's offensive on strategic Biafran towns and establishments, such was not the case in the East. In the course of most wars and conflicts, positions of negotiations and bargaining in proposed punctuating conferences or armistice meant for belligerents, are often better approached from battle field gains and advantages. Very much eager to adversely reduce Biafra's import capability and economic base towards sustaining the war, Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 33 and further weakening its bargaining positions at the proposed May 25th to 30th 1968, Nigeria/Biafra conference in Kampala, Uganda, the Nigerian army actually dug in and succeeded in capturing Bonny and Port Harcourt just some days before that conference actually held. Such amazing success couldn't have been gotten and sustained if not for the active use and deployment of local Niger Delta indigenes (civilians) as intelligence officers by the Nigerian army.21 Apart from the many fatalities and losses which the Biafran army entertained sequel to the lack of cumulative basic intelligence on the path of the Biafran high command, this study still finds it difficult to fully estimate the cumulative damage and the financial chasm which the January 1968 Nigerian Currency change created on Biafra. Disorganized in stable structural organization, and in dire need of all basic human needs, including the 'lack of weapons' challenge, Biafra was made to lose above fifty million pounds22 in the middle of an ongoing defensive war. Undoubtedly, adequate intelligence would have averred the Biafran authorities of this move on time, so as to have planned and braced up for it. A good financial base not only bequeaths confidence and focus on parties engaged in conflict or war, but enables needs accessibility. The enabling factor or 'steam' was removed from Biafra after Nigeria's currency change. Moreover, the gruesome and atrocious application of hunger as a strategic potent weapon of war as propounded by Obafemi Awolowo, (the Nigerian finance minister in the war period) and wholesomely executed by the Nigerian government against the Biafran enclave under siege conclusively drove the death nail which finally decimated whatever remained of the Biafran resistance. Amongst belligerents, most especially on the battle fields, planning predates execution, and proper planning elicits intelligent information as regards enemies' engagements, or else pre-emptive calculations and suggestions take the upper hand. Biafran women married or not, in order to beat hunger and support their families at this austere time, took up the option of cohabiting with the soldiers of the “victorious” Nigerian army as mistresses or wives. Espionage, whether involuntarily done as a strategic emergent trading initiative meant to support/sustain survival ( ahia attack), or voluntarily drawn into such venture as to “trade sex” with the occupying force, one issue is obviously certain, a process of give and take is not only trivially important but institutionalizes foundations of battle field trust and conviviality across enemy lines. Some of these “unholy relationships” were hurriedly contrived and concluded as the exigencies of the frontlines demanded, while others were sustained over prolonged period, so long as the “supplier” and the “consumer” still placed value on the “product” and services. The imbroglio started manifesting glaringly from the closing months 1968, and in the Biafran country it grossly disaffected,, disrupted, distorted and dismembered what was left of the Biafran compact resistance and wartime intelligence. Call them Yakambaya 34 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence or ora-okpu (prostitutes) in their nefarious strides, these women turned into potent spies, espionage handmaids, dangerous traders and controversial breadwinners depending on which angle one chooses to see them. A risky exercise indeed, conducted mostly at night under the atmosphere of dangerous hostilities, most of those women strove to gain maximally from both sides. Engaged and entangled in such risky conduct, they largely competed among themselves on each successive trip as regards food and financial gratification and strove to build and sustain relevance, admiration, value and credibility to the Nigerian troops by trading other products more than intangible beauty; logistics and prospects. The weighty implications of divulging such sensitive information at the primary source would always remain phantomable to the uninformed, and a gainful venture to the transacting medium, after all naturally, the women folk appear fashioned and formulated to bend either way as talebearers ever ready to feed the uninterested ears. Slightly related to this was the part played by the Biafran Food Directorate throughout the duration of the war. It simply operated on false strength returns, with meal periods ill- timed against that of military operations, just as cooking houses dispersed and took several days to reassemble and re-establish in another location, each time the army lost ground.23 As the war progressed, and Biafran territory shrank, food producing zones were lost in sequence, and faced with the unavailability of fiscal power; many soldiers became exposed to prolonged and intensive hunger. The army lost flexibility and surprise unless one was ready to forgo some meals. Severally, the Biafran army and the Food Directorate fell apart with counter accusations of malpractices, cheating and deceit, hence by the middle of 1969, the cumulative amount of food the army was collecting from the Directorate onwards to the soldiers operating actively on the frontlines, amounted to a meal in four days.24 While the war progressed, the siege on Biafra continued to develop into an economic squeeze hence hunger drove a good number of the Biafran soldiers into fraternizing with the Nigerian troops, in the hope of getting presents of tinned foods and cigarettes. This scenario was witnessed in many locations, and the cumulative damage on Biafran intelligence was calamitous.25 It may appear right to say, the Biafra Joint Planning Committee (JPC), which came into being by 1969, was rather too late since it was merely to satisfy the long outstanding demand of the people for an organized and collective planning of the war. The committee worked without necessary facts and achieved absolutely nothing. Emergent situation was that each time a major decision was taken in Biafra, the Army thought the civilians were responsible for it, while the civilians thought the reverse was true.26 When heightened propaganda remains extremely contradictory over a longtime from the realities on the ground, most especially where recalcitrant and inordinate objectives appear to polarize the realization of a definite cause, resistance become chequered, after all, 'the sound produced from the mouth as the bitter kola is being masticated is quite different from its real taste.' Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 35

From the beginning to the end of the war, Biafran army remained comparatively severely handicapped in weapons acquisition, and armed with such vital information, the Nigerian forces generally successfully resorted to bulldozing their way through Biafran resistance with heavy armor, artillery and Russian/Egyptian-backed airpower first, before sending in the infantry if need be. These Russian Migs could afford to fly even below tree tops, selecting their targets, since the Biafran army had no radars, and extremely few anti- aircraft guns27. Proper and effective espionage or spy network could have afforded the Biafran High Command with privileged intelligence that would equip it with the tactical weapon of surprise, since physical strength (weaponry) was a far cry. Surprise has an edge over strength, and pre-operation discussions and detailing if any, could have educated the disadvantaged but determined Biafran infantry to adopt more of a flanking move rather than a head-on collision against armor, which was a recurrent incident. The cumulative lack of basic intelligence, Battalion indiscipline and in-harmonization, the reliance and preference to spiritual and esoteric directives and solutions most especially from 1968, primarily contributed to the fall of Aba and Umuahia, and the destruction of the Biafran 12th Division and 'S' commando Division, thereby exposing the rear of the 15th Division operating in Okigwe sector. It was simply easier for the Nigerian 3rd Marine Commando under Brigadier Adekunle (Black Scorpion), operating from the South to join up with the First Division descending from the North (Enugu). Consider the scenario that emerged, when armed with detailed and accurate information, the 12th Division was exposed to sustained aerial and land bombardment; it took a runner 24 hours to inform the Biafran 12th Division headquarters at Mbawisi from Ebiri of an attack going on, and 48 hours for the Biafran Army headquarters (Enugu) to obtain such vital information28, in order to re-plan and take contingency steps, just because of the unavailability of vehicles and wireless link. Faced with such appalling challenges, hopelessness and failures on the battle field, the Biafran Army easily found itself villainised and vilified by no less than an angry civilian populace, who were traumatized by the unfolding negative realities. Perhaps, the greatest singular element that preyed on, and psychologically sowed viable discordant seeds, hence contributing to the eventual Biafra's loss at the war was the controversial problem of 'sabotage'. As the war began, just after the initial deadly clashes and setbacks on Biafra's northern sector, as unfolding development and outcome appeared to challenge proper reasoning, preparation, calculation and expectations, accusations went rife and realistic or not, the sagacious garb of sabotage provided a pragmatic escapade. The word sabotage, having been cast like an infested spell on the young Biafran nation, clung tenaciously and with rapacious momentum, permeated, disorganized, weakened the primary base and collective motivational Igbo spirit. In this subsisting scenario, rumor- peddling took a viral momentum, hoodwinking even those in the commanding heights of 36 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence the defence of the motherland. The depth of this problem could be evaluated only when one is apt to realize that this development even affected the few mercenaries that fought on Biafran side, to the extent that they easily resorted to dictating their terms (financial gratifications), whenever they were called upon to assist in any operation29. This blackmail dangerously sprouted and created negative hiccups here and there, like during the Aba and Owerri invasions of July, 196830. On the part of these mercenaries, the setting was right, since the whole lot of the Biafran Civil and Military population found it hard trusting one another's' suggestions, intentions and actions. This study is not apt to debunk all sabotage accusations and claims that pathologically cling to the historical annals of the Nigerian/Biafran war, but cannot either willfully overlook some libelously – obvious cases, which appear purposefully directed 'to give the dog a name, in other to hang it'. It may be recalled that under the atmosphere of crisis of confidence and personality clash, some days before the war actually started, the military Governor of the Eastern Region, Col. Ojukwu, had to suspend some Igbo army officers, including Major Nzeogwu from performing military duties, and continued to bar Colonel Njoku, the 1st Biafran Army Commander from participating in Executive Council meetings31. Furthermore, when it became obvious that Njoku's every move and suggestions continued to attract increasing anxiety, controversy and suspicion, Colonel Ojukwu, poised to safeguard his personality cult, had to place him and his battlefield experience under protective custody, till the end of the war32. Suffice it equally to say that Major Nzeogwu even died under implicating and controversial circumstances within Opi axis, having operated with his personal reconnaissance commando unit successfully for some time. He may have fallen through organized friendly fire. Factually, abundant supporting evidence show that almost all professional Eastern Army Officers that fought on the Biafran side had at one time or the other, during their various engagements, come under the 'sabotage tag'. While some were unlucky to have been surreptiously mobbed and killed, others were either saved by providence or finally executed through the firing squad, in accordance with the dictates of an official military tribunal. Once the word sabotage is mentioned, with due regards to the historical account of the Nigerian Biafran war, and so long as the details emanate from the Biafran angle, the names of Colonels Banjo and Ifeajuna would always continue to ring a bell. Colonel Banjo is of Yoruba ethnic stock, while Ifeajuna hails from Onitsha. Colonel Ifeajuna had to face the firing squad, having been found guilty of plotting to overthrow Ojukwu's government during the war. On the Biafran high command, one maybe bound to believe that what was intended to be an offensive surprise liberation operation, freeing the Midwest, Lagos and Ibadan, and totally changing the existing focal structure of the war got intentionally sabotaged even before the start of this operation on the 9th of August, 1967. In the words of Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 37

Egbuachor, Banjo's complexities and inexcusable actions lay in his unexplained delays, even by the 6th of August, when all allotted militia, soldiers and commando unit designated for this operation, were already concentrated in Onitsha33. According to him, we practically met no serious opposition up till Benin city, where we were regimentally kept without army details, until the fourth day, when serious commotion started and continuously came from our 'A' frontline invasion unit, who had earlier on permeated Ore axis, and were now beating back speedily. We lost all military composure and tactical retreat as a force, resorting to individual survival skills, since troop and regimental command and control simply and suddenly collapsed34. Researchers on the Biafran account of the war are still puzzled by the real reasons behind Colonel Banjo's three days delay in Benin, the strategic need of diverting at all into Sapele and Warri, whereas such veritable Biafran units detailed here, would have been drafted towards Ibadan. Some fellow officers dismissed his activities as clouded with unnecessary secrecy and mystery. A 'high sounding nothing' as it would first appear, even imbued with his talismanic trait, it often would hit the dust35. In any war situation spying and espionage activities remain and occupy a proactive tool which drives intelligence and course of action. Fore knowledge and even pre-empting enemy intentions is always a good advantage. However, it is rather critical when the sabotage scare not only suffices for long, and rather than diminishing by the day, grows in leaps and bounds. Perhaps the biggest collateral damage done to Biafran intelligence application over a detailed period was systematically orchestrated by lieutenant colonel Emmanuel Ieeajuina, who hails from Onitsha a science graduate of University of Ibadan who led many student Union protests there and along the line relate in closely with Chirstopher Okigbo, J.P Clark, Chike Obi and Emeka Anyaoku. In 1954, he won commonwealth gold medal in high jump. Primarily interested deeply in revolutionary Politics and with an undying penchant and passion of practicing it, he left his teaching job at Ebemeder Anglican Grammar School, Abeokuta and became one of the first graduates to enroll in the Nigeria Army in 1960. By 1966, he has not only reached the rank of major, but has met and developed an intimate relationship with Major Chukwuma Nzeogwu. Though both shared the same revolutionary solution to Nigeria's decadent political solution then, Ifeajuna appeared to be the greater driving factor covertly maintaining political linkages with some close aides to President Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana*. It is still believed that Ifeajuna killed the Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, Brigadier Zakariya Maimalari (his commanding officer), Lieutenant General A. Largema and the finance minister, Festns Okotie Eboh. With the failure of the coup through Ironsi and Ojukwu's intervention, Ifeajuna fled to Ghana and was hosted by Nkrumah, who was shortly over thrown through a military coup. After reassurances from Ojukwu about his safety, he returned to Biafra at the onset of the 38 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence

Nigerian-Biafra war and actively got involved with Victor Banjo, Philip Alale and Samuel Agban in a secrete negotiation with some Nigerian officials through certain British elements, hoping to bring about a cease fire to 'save civilian lives'. This involved a plan to eliminate both Ojukwu and Gowon, so as to enthrone Chief Obafemi Awolowo as President and secure prominent positions for themselves. Ojukwu uncovered this plot and got them eliminated after a court martial, through a firing squad on 25th Sept, 1967, having been convicted of treason. The Biafran Capital was captured by the Nigerian army two days later, courtesy of overwhelming destabilizing intelligence from Ifeajuna and his compatriots. Admitted, as the war progressed, many Biafran soldiers and militia members for one reason or the other, at one time or the other defected over the Nigerian side. As they moved, of course intelligent information moved. Some culture groups like the Ikwerre in Rivers State, among others, made the success of the Biafran course, at least in their area, an impossible mission. What of the divisiveness in the Biafran army in the face of such glaring sabotage? How could one possibly explain the fact that a Biafran Commando Unit was officially applied in the destruction of the robust Biafran 12 Division, at a time when all available hands and ideas were needed to resist the fall of Aba, Ikot Ekpene and Umuahia36. Moreover, it is still enigmatic to some military historians, the remarkable coincidence and the resulting confusion which was played out on the battle front, as the men of the 14th Brigade of the Nigerian army and the 14th Battalion of the Biafran army got mixed up for more than six hours during the battle over Port Harcourt. Just as both exhibited the number '14' on their arm tags simultaneously, as expected, before the Biafran army could buy time in order to sort out this confusion, the invading army has already inflicted irreparable damage on it37. How could such scenario have successfully happened, even within the Biafran territory, to the advantage of the invading army? If not sabotage, it is mere irresponsibility of the Biafran command structure that is imbued with lack of intelligence and signals management. In laying credence to the non-availability of well- established and functional intelligence-gathering unit system, and subsequently substantiating the prevalent sub-standard apparatus on the ground servicing the Biafran army, young hungry orphans were recruited into 'Boy's brigade; haphazardly instructed and used to infiltrate area under the effective control of the Nigerian army. When tactical reconnaissance took the form of 'rekking' and 'combing', as it was termed in the Biafran enclave in the period; when hunger, operational disconnect, unprofessionalism and vicissitudes of battle field operations challenge these intelligence recruits, ones guess may not be hard to make. Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 39

Conclusion That the Eastern Region opted for secession was circumstantially Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu's political decision, treacherously-driven by General Gowon's subtle selfish and oligarchic tantrums. Once the Nigeria Federal Government lost its candor, goaded by an odious British foreign policy on Eastern Nigeria evolving from a hideous past, secession resulted, and fighting became inevitable-an armed clash between sections of a broken army. Secession was for Ojukwu a hanging apple, just as for Majors Nzeogwu and Ifeajuna -their revolution still have a chance, and for Madiebo, Njoku, Kuruobo among others who survived the Northern pogrom-there was need to redeem their honor as professional soldiers. On the part of the Biafran civil population, propelled by a tacit belief in divine help and justification in defending their freedom right in their motherland, they practically threw everything in. The Biafran high command, the army and the civilian population appear to have approached and carried this struggle rather with inharmonious parallel objectives that were largely withdrawn from the common major danger that stared them on the face. The loss of one key town followed another in the Biafran country, and apart from its physical and psychological impact on the fighting force and the civilian population, it equally denigrated Biafra's status and position in the Kampala Peace Talks, among others. The nascent Biafra never realized that to simply defend, dissipates enormous energy, since coordination and sustenance must remain a continuum. Moreover, running a war simply with reliance on 'walkie talkies' and the remnants of what was left of the Nigeria Postal and Telecommunications equipments in the besieged Biafra, negates proper thought sequence. The need for informed and structured channels of signals and feedback in any human endeavor cannot be underrated. However, veritable information deliberately handed over to the enemy covertly, is classified under rational human thinking as a sabotage action. Copious information abound in the Biafran war archive which lay credence to the position of this study; that elements of secrecy, surprise, intelligence and coordination were scarcely employed by Biafra right from the beginning of the war, till its end. Military and operational intelligence and signals, lubricates, drives and sustains the vision and mission of a belligerent entity, though unfolding developments would always appear sour and unorthodox wherever vital information about an adversary is deliberately leaked to an opponent. Defection and sabotage as unethical conducts and behaviors would always suffice as potential human attributes. It is only when studies of this nature is painstakingly done succinctly, that facts and objectivity would reveal not only what led to the final outward result, but create a benchmark and salient indices for plausible historical lessons. Propaganda considerations took precedence over cold realities, while methodical calculations were persecuted on the altar of hopeful interpretation and wishes. 40 Biafra/Nigeria Debacle, 1967-1970: Beyond the realm, sabotage and dearth of intelligence

Endnotes 1. U.S Department of Defense, Joint Publication 1 – 02. Department of Defense D i c t i o n a r y o f M i l i t a r y a n d A s s o c i a t e d T e r m s . http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/new-pubs/jpl-02.pdf (Accessed 10/8/2017) 2. Francis Fredricks, “The Gathering Clouds”, West African, June 4, 1966, p.42 3. Arthur Nwankwo and Sam Ifejika, The Making of a Nation: Biafra (London: C. Hurst and Company 1969),p. 33 4. Colonel Aghanya, 5. Alexander Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and The Biafran War (Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers, 1980), p. 88. 6. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 97 7. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 98 8. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 100 9. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 101 10. Michael Stafford, Quick kill in slow motion: The Nigeria Civil war (Marine Corps and Staff College, 1984) 25 11. James Calaghan, “Prelude to war”, Daily Times, March 8th, 1967,p. 7 12. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 87 13. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 90 14. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 97 15. Alfred Egbuacho, c.76, Biafran war veteran who was later absorbed into the Nigerian Army. During the war initially operated first as one of the coordinators of the “Boys Brigade” guerilla group and afterwards admitted into the controversial Biafran commando unit that operated majorly around the riverine Anambra area. Also, he actively participated in the Midwest invasion. At the time of this writing, he is the traditional ruler of Amesi Kingdom of Anambra State, Nigeria 16. Paul Odonna, c.78, a native of Ogoja who operated at different periods both on the Biafran and Nigerian side during the war. 17. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 101 18. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War…p. 83 19. Max Siollun, Oil, Politics and Violence: Nigeria's Military Coup Culture (1966 – 1976) (New York: Algora Publishing, 2009) p. 162 20. Godwin Alabi – Isama, The Tragedy of Victory (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited , 2013),p. 97 21. Cervernka Zdnek, A History of the Nigerian War, (Ibadan: Onibonoje Press, 1972) p. 58 22. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, p. 48 Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D & Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D 41

23. Patrick Anwunah, The Nigeria – Biafra War 1967 – 1970: My Memoirs (Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 2007) p. 48 24. Cornelius Agbodike c.77, a Professor of History. He actively participated in the Nigerian /Biafra war as a soldier. He operated under the 13th Brigade that covered Ihiala/Uli axis 25. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, p.48 26. Colonel Aghanya interview cited 27. Cervernka Zdnek, A History of the Nigerian War, p. 8 28. Siyan Oyeweso, Perspectives on the Nigerian Civil War (Lagos: Campus Press Limited, 1992) 62 29. Siyan Oyeweso, Perspectives on the Nigerian Civil War, p. 70 30. Madiebo, The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, p. 110 31. Aghanya, interview cited 32. Alfred Egbuacho, interview cited. 33. Alfred Ebguacho interview cited 34. Alfred Egbuacho interview cited. 35. Emma Udeagbaja c.86. He operated during the war from the Biafra Army Headquaters, Enugu, and later as a militia coordinator after the fall of Port Harcourt. 36. Emma Udeagbaja interview cited IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

THE AFRICANITY OF AUGUSTINE'S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Prof. KANU Ikechukwu Anthony, O.S.A. Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract In this piece focussed on the contribution that Augustine's African background, that is, his Afro-cosmo-vision of reality, made to the development of his philosophy of education. This piece is very important, first, because we have found ourselves at a time when some scholars, against evident historical evidence, argue that Saint Augustine is not an African. Second, we have also found ourselves at a time when many scholars believe that nothing good can come from Africa. This piece would, therefore, serve as a pointer to the Africanity of Augustine and the Africanness of his philosophy and theology. The hermeneutic method of inquiry would be employed.

Keywords: Africanity, Augustine, Philosophy, Education.

Introduction In 2016, I published a paper titled “The Concept of 'Family' as the Contribution of Africa to the Consecrated Life”. The reason was to point out the contribution that Augustine's African background made to the evolution of the Consecrated Life. In the 4th century, when Constantine legalized Christianity in the Empire of Rome, Christianity became the popular religion in Rome, it gradually lost the self-sacrificing spirit which it possessed during the era of Roman persecution. In reaction, many holy men and women went into the desert, propagating a new kind of martyrdom for the kingdom of God. Those who lived this kind of life were referred to as hermits (200Ad-350AD). Because of the role which the desert played as the locus for the expression of this kind of life, this period is also referred to as the age of the desert. The pioneer of this kind of life who symbolized this new ideal in a way no one else had done was Saint Anthony of the Desert. In the desert they prayed and fasted, doing battle with the devil in the wilderness as Christ had done long ago. However, they did all these as individual hermits (Kanu 2016).

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 42 KANU Ikechukwu Anthony 43

With the passage of time, the eremitic life gave birth to the cenobitic style of life (350- 1200), that is, a communal asceticism. St Pachomius was the father of the cenobitic life. He adopted the idea of communal patterns and established a monastery where monks lived in common between 318 and 323. After Saint Basil visited the monks of Egypt, Palestine and Syria, he founded a monastic community in Asia Minor. In Palestine, Melania the Elder, a friend of Saint Jerome, promoted communal asceticism and founded a monasteries Jerusalem. Gradually, from the Eastern half of the Roman empire, Cada et al (1979) aver that this way of religious life spread to the Western half of the Roman empire, especially in Spain and Gaul. As these different persons moved beyond the shores of Africa, Egypt, they took with them the African value of community which was at the heart of monasteries of the time. In Algeria, Africa, an African, Saint Augustine began a community of monks also referred to as Canon Regulars in 397. They lived according to the rule of Saint Augustine in monasteries, sharing their goods in common. Their main purpose of coming together, according to the Rule and Constitution of the Order of Saint Augustine (2010), is to live harmoniously in one house intent upon God and in oneness of heart and mind. Thus, in 529 Saint Benedict founded a monastic community in Monte Cassino in 529 along the same spirit of community living. Gradually, the importance of the presence of community spirit spread across Europe. This Afrio-cosmo-vision soon spread from Africa to other parts of the world. It shaped not just the future of the consecrated life, but also the philosophies and theologies of these great men of African descent and in fact that of the world civilization. In this piece, I would focus on the contribution that Augustine's African background, that is, his Afro-cosmo- vision of reality, made to the development of his philosophy of education. This piece is very important, first, because we have found ourselves at a time when some scholars, against evident historical evidence, argue that Saint Augustine is not an African. Second, we have also found ourselves at a time when many scholars believe that nothing good can come from Africa (Hegel 1956, Kanu 2015a, Kanu 2015b). This piece would, therefore, serve as a pointer to the Africanity of Augustine and the Africanness of his philosophy and theology.

The Nature of African Traditional Education African traditional education generally means the type of education that was obtainable in Africa before the advent of the West as colonial masters and missionaries. Boateng (1983) avers that it prepared them for their responsibilities as adults in their communities. It was a method of education that was based on the African cultural heritage, and the family is the first school of every child and the mother the first teacher of the child, gradually into the 44 The Africanity of Augusne's Philosophy of Educaon hands of the uncles, father and community at large. Just as we have Greek education, Western education etc., Africans also had a method of education defined by the African worldview. It was a native, locally developed lifelong process of learning, with well defined goals, structures, content and methods, through which cultural values, skills, norms and heritage were transmitted by the older and more experienced members of society from one generation to another to help individuals be integrated into the society. At the end of such an education, it is true that graduants never wrote final year exams or were not awarded certificates; however, they graduated ceremoniously and were considered graduates by the society, not because they had papers to show, but because they are able to do what they have graduated in. African traditional education is heavily anthropocentric. That is, the human person is at the centre of education. Mbiti (1969), therefore, asserts that “Man is at the very centre of existence and African people see everything else in its relation to this central position of man… it is as if God exists for the sake of man” (p. 92). Corroborating with Mbiti, Metuh (1985), avers that “Everything else in African worldview seems to get its bearing and significance from the position, meaning and end of man” (p. 109). The idea of God, divinities, ancestors, rituals, sacrifices etc., are only useful to the extent that they serve the needs of the human person. It is in this regard that Udechukwu (2012) avers that man, in African cosmology, has been given a high and prestigious position.

The Objectives of African Traditional Education The aim of education in traditional African society is multilateral. These aims could be articulated as follows: 1. To prepare the young for life. Education in Africa is always for a particular purpose. There is nothing like a purposeless education. 2. To help people to realize themselves. Self-realization is at the heart of African indigenous education. The first thing a child is taught is who he or she is, where he or she has come from, the heroes that have come from his clan, etc. self-realization helps him or her to know how to comport the self. 3. To help people to relate with others in an atmosphere of mutual understanding. Life in African traditional society is relationship. To be is to relate, to cease to relate is to move towards annihilation. It is in this regard that individuals are taught to relate with one another. 4. To inculcate the spirit of self-reliance, industry, versatility and self-disciplined. In African traditional society, people are trained to be self-reliant. They do not wait for the government to give them employment. They rather work hard to contribute to the general society. KANU Ikechukwu Anthony 45

5. To make the educated aware of his or her responsibilities and privileges. These responsibilities and privileges go with status. There is no status in traditional African societies without responsibilities and privileges. Thus, before a person attains that status- married, etc, the person in question is taught the responsibilities and privileges that go with them. 6. To develop a person's latent physical skills. 7. To develop the character of a person. 8. To help a person to understand, appreciate and promote the cultural heritage of the community or society.

The Afro-Cosmo-Vision of Education in Augustine A cursory glance at Saint Augustine's philosophy reveals a thought system that, in all its multiplicity and varied projections, responds globally to an overall vision, which can be referred to as a cosmo-vision of reality. It is a vision that is all-embracing and confers connectiveness and consistency to the most variant manifestations of reality. His philosophy of education is not in variant with this overall vision. Augustine developed a philosophy of education in which the role of the teacher is to open the learner to question, arouse curiosity and create a moment for learning that is characterized by dialogue between the teacher and student (Morahan 2006). This philosophy of education is based on Augustine's concept of the human person, first, as a being that is essentially integrated in the cosmos and the human community. Thus, a person cannot save himself by himself or live in solitude to himself. If a person wishes to reach plentitude, then, he must be in communion with others. Second, he understands the human person as a being that is radically contingent and changeable. That is, a being that is in the act of being. It is this natural disposition of the human person that opens the door for learning and thus, growth and development. Table 1: Relationship between African traditional education and Augustine's philosophy of education SN African Traditional Augustine's Philosophy of Relationship Philosophy of Education Education 1 The concept of education in Africa Augustine's philosophy of education Anthropocentric is heavily anthropocentric. This is is based on his concept of the human based on the African cosmology that person, first, as a being that is is anthropocentric. essentially integrated in the cosmos and the human community(Bienzobas 2006) 2 To develop a person's talents and To achieve a certain balance among Skill development physical skills. these three things: talent, education and experience (De Civitate Dei, 11. 25) 46 The Africanity of Augusne's Philosophy of Educaon

SN African Traditional Augustine's Philosophy of Relationship Philosophy of Education Education 3 To help people to relate with others Make use of knowledge like Fosters in an atmosphere of mutual scaffolding that is used to help build Relationship understanding. Life in African the building of love; that building traditional society is relationship. To will last forever, even when be is to relate, to cease to relate is to knowledge has been dismantled move towards annihilation. It is in (Letter 55, 21, 39). Augustine sees this regard that individuals are love as the key of true humanity. taught to relate with one another. “Love and do what you will” (Letter VII. 8). 4 The Family is the first school and Augustine emphasized the Family the parents the first teachers importance of the education received from his home, with his mother as his first teacher.

5 To make the educated aware of his It is not so much to introduce Awareness and or her responsibilities and contents to the human soul, but to Self-discovery privileges. dynamize and help what is latent in the pupil to emerge.

6 African Traditional education is Education for Augustine is also Multilateral multilateral. It is religious, political, multilateral. It involves not just the social, economic, etc. acquisition of knowledge, but improving our relationship with God.

7 Education in Africa takes into They must always start from the Contextual consideration the needs of the perceived needs of the students. This students. They are taught skills is to avoid a situation where the necessary for their survival and teacher operates from an ivory tower, which reflects their environment far away from the students who are supposed to be his pupils. 8 To develop the character of a person Education serves for the nourishment Character of the soul, that the human person Development might be more human (Disc. Chr. XI. 12) 9 To help a person to understand, Education in Augustine is community Community appreciate and promote the cultural oriented. It understands education as oriented heritage of the community or society a community of inquiry.

10 Education in Africa is dialogical, Education for Augustine is also Dialogical and participatory and which promotes dialogical and participatory. participatory the humanness of the student KANU Ikechukwu Anthony 47

Conclusion There are basically five canons or foundations of African traditional philosophy of education. They include: preparationism, functionalism, communalism, perenialism and holisticism. A cursory glance at Augustine's philosophy of education reveals all these principles of African traditional philosophy of education have evident reflections in the philosophy of education of Augustine. Preparationism is a principle that asserts that people were trained for the purpose of equipping them with a particular skill for the fulfilment of their particular roles in the family or society. Knowledge conferred was always for a particular purpose- skill for an awaited responsibility. Functionalism sees education as practical and participatory in nature (Kanu 2018). Thus, the pupil learns through working with or observing the master. Communalism emphasizes that the responsibility of teaching was not solely the responsibility of the parents of the child. This is based on the fact that the child is not individually owned. There is an Igbo adage that says: “Nwa bu nwa oha” (A child is for everyone). The parents, family, the community and society are all involved in the training of a child. Perennialism Generally, perennialism as a principle believes that in our world of upheavals, and uncertainty, it is beneficial to stick to certain absolute principles (Kanu 2017). It, therefore, sees education as a way of preparing the child to become acquainted with the finest achievements of his cultural heritage, to become aware of the values of his heritage. Holisticism implies that, although people were trained to specialize in a thing, they also got other trainings alongside- people were productive in all areas. It was a multiple kind of education. A comparative study of Augustine's philosophy of education reveals his strong African background. It does not only provide a footing for the argument of his African origin but stands for the fact that his thoughts were well incensed by his African identity.

References Augustine, Saint, (2010). The rule and constitution of the Order of Saint Augustine. Augustinian Curia: Rome. Augustine, St. (1952). The First Catechetical Instruction (400), trans. Joseph P. Christopher. Westminster, MD: Newman Press. V. 9. Augustine, St. De Civitate Dei is translated in The City of God Against the Pagans, translated by R.W. Dyson, Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought, Cambridge University Press 1998. 11, 25 Augustine, St. Epistulae are translated by W. Parsons in the Fathers of the Church series: Letters, 55, 21, 39. Augustine, St. Epistulae are translated by W. Parsons in the Fathers of the Church series: Letters VII. 8. 48 The Africanity of Augusne's Philosophy of Educaon

Boateng, F. (1983). African traditional education: A method of disseminating cultural values. Journal of Black Studies. 13. 3. 321-336. Cada, L. et al (1979). The shaping of the coming age of the religious life. New York: Cross Road Book. Hegel, G. W. F. (1956). The philosophy of history. New York: Dover. Kanu I. A. (2016). The Concept of 'Family' as the Contribution of Africa to the Consecrated Life. Catholic Voyage. 12. 33-39 Kanu I. A. (2018). African traditional philosophy of education: Essays in Igwebuike philosophy. Germany: Lambert Publication. Kanu, A. I. (2015a). A hermeneutic approach to African Traditional Religion, theology and philosophy. Nigeria: Augustinian. Kanu, A. I. (2015b). African philosophy: An ontologico-Existential hermeneutic approach to classical and contemporary issues. Nigeria: Augustinian. Kanu, I. A. (2015). A History of the Consecrated Life. In I. A., Kanu (Ed.). Consecrated Life: The past, the present, the future and the constant demand for renewal (pp. 15- 26). St Paul's Publications: Ibadan. Kanu, I. A. (2017). The Philosophical Canons of Africa Indigenous Education. Hummingbird: Journal of African Sustainable Development. 9. 8. 78-90. Mbiti, J. (1969). African religions and philosophy. Nairobi: East African Educational. Metuh, E. I. (1985) African religions in Western conceptual schemes: The problem of interpretation. Jos: Imco. Morahan, M. (2006). Climate in the Augustinian school. In Eusebio B. Berdon (Ed.). Basic elements of Augustinian pedagogy (pp. 170-182). Augustinian publications, Rome. Udechukwu, G. (2012). Igbo traditional education and good governance. In A. B. C. Chiegboka et al (Eds.). The humanities and good government (pp. 812-819). Anambra: Rex Charles and Patrick. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

NIGERIAN YOUTHS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS ON THE SPEECH OF THE NIGERIAN PRESIDENT AT THE COMMONWEALTH FORUM IN LONDON

ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy Department of Philosophy Benue State University, Makurdi. [email protected]

Abstract The youths are an integral part of any society and they are the focus for any sustainable development. Sustainable development comes with continuous growth, progress and improvement in every facet of human existence and the self-acquired capability for sustenance. Political parties and their existing government get involved in the business of integral and sustainable development for the sake of the present and the future looking at the realities that affect the present conditions any society finds itself. As such, the youths becomes the most important beneficiaries of these developments and yet the victims of underdevelopment which hardly translates into self-actualization that pricks youth effectiveness in relation to polity and the dynamics of Nigerian identity. If the youths are the leaders of tomorrow as popularly said then the future begins from today. This is on the ground that for a development to be sustainable and to sustain the future of the youth, then there must be fair level playing ground. This in mind, this paper did a qualitative research in a laboratory of philosophical analysis in response to a question where the Nigerian President has cause to talk about Nigerian youths at the Commonwealth Business Forum in London. In so doing, this paper has critically x-rayed the role of Nigerian youths in sustainable development in a contextual philosophical analysis as it pertains to the comment made by the President of Nigeria so as to accommodate divergent views and creating a more robust engagement between the youths and government in Nigeria.

Keywords: Youths, sustainable development, society, Nigeria, speech and Business Forums.

Introduction It was on the 18th April, 2018 the Commonwealth Business Forum took place in London and President Muhammadu Buhari was at that Conference to deliver a key note address and responding to a question about Nigerian youths; in which the Nigerian President said:

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 49 50 Nigerian Youths and Sustainable Development

We have a very young population, our population is estimated conservatively to be 180 (one hundred and eighty) million. More than 60 percent of the population is below the age of 30 (thirty). A lot of them have not been to school and they are claiming that Nigeria has been an oil producing country, therefore they should sit and do nothing and get housing, healthcare and education free. No doubt, from the said quotation it will be difficult to make reference to the exact text of the speech itself but listening and watching video recording on the various media platform there is no doubt of the exact words used by the President of Nigeria concerning the Nigerian youth. From the above quotation extracted it will be very difficult to clearly understand the angle the President was speaking from; and yet these comments have brought uproar in the social media and in various medium of discussion including our offices and social atmosphere (Beer Parlor). Did the President of Nigeria actually state that the 'Nigerian Youths are lazy'? Is this statement an implied statement drawn from the response of the President? Are the Nigerian youths actually lazy? Is the President's response a determining factor to measure the lazy attitude of Nigerian youths if we go by his comment? At what point in history did the Nigerian youths develop this attitude such lazy attitude? When was oil discovered in Nigeria? Are these present generation of youths given birth to at the point oil was discovered in Nigeria? Oils was discovered in the year 1956 in Nigeria and between 1956 to 2018 is sixty-two (62) years and the midst of all these questions which this paper hope not to give adequate answers, it is appropriate to set the stage by making reference to a book written by Odumegwu Ojukwu Because I am Involved in relation to our country Nigeria. He said thus: The average Nigerian looks upon Nigeria as a theatre and the entire population representing and manifesting the full spectrum of acts and actors. In this revelry, life is the theatre; the nation is the stage upon which we perform. The politicians and, very often the military, are the actors – very often mediocre, from time to time ham. When stars appear, it is more often because a play must have a star rather than because the player is possessed of some dramatic genius. We falter and we muff our lines; sometimes, our performance takes on the aspect of the grotesque – nobody takes this seriously because it is perceived as being in the nature of the play. Our people become the audience – Politics for them remain a spectator spot. It is not for them to participate; theirs is to applaud (1989: 12). As of when this book was written, it can be interpreted to reflect the past and days of Odumegwu Ojukwu and projecting the future as it is today. The above quotation still stands the taste of time considering our socio-economic and political realities in which the ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy 51 President tries to blame the Nigerian youths of his time without recourse to his own past. Hence, the President's response might be partly correct but cannot be absolutely correct if from the moment the youths of the past and the present acted accordingly. In The Politics of Youth In Greek Tragedy Matthew Shipton argues that the prominence of young people in tragedy throughout the fifth century reflects the persistent uncertainty as to what their role in society should be. As the success of Athens rose and then fell, young characters were repeatedly used by tragic playwrights as a way to explore political tensions and social upheaval in the city. Thereby, presenting to his readers that the complex and often paradoxical views we hold about youth today can also be found in the ancient society of classical Athens (2018). In Civic and Political Engagement in Youths: Finding and Prospects Xenia Chryssochoou and Martyn Barrett disagrees with Matthew Shiphon and argues that rather than using conventional forms of political participation, youth today are often engaged through nonconventional and civic means instead (2017:291). These scholars can be reconciled with the fundamental Aristotelian phrase “Et Social is et Homo Politicus” so as to fill in the gap for the of lack of conventional political participation which is a pitfall in youth engagement for political participation. The response of the Nigerian President in playing politics of the youth as “blame game” is a challenge for the Nigeria youth to wake up to their responsibilities they have left in the hands of a selected few. It only means that the youth must work it out this time around. This paper will look beyond the response of the President of Nigeria; to also challenge the Nigerian youths in becoming more proactive in problem solving rather than “sitting down” to allow a particular elitist group to decide their destiny if we must sustainably develop as a nation and a people.

Sustainable Development The concept 'sustainable development' is susceptible to wide interpretations without any single definition but often used without recourse to know exactly what it means. This paper will not over heat or stress one's intellectual insight or intend to start quoting extracts from scholars on what they conceive 'sustainable development' to be. This paper will provide a working definition that suits the context and framework of this paper. It is impossible to define 'sustainable development' without putting the past in perspective. The definition ought to involve the past, present and the future; and this is because socio- economic and political progress should cut across every strata of human endeavor. According to Brundtland Report, in Our Common Future it defines sustainable development as a kind of development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (1987). The question now should be who should meet the needs of the present? The present will always 52 Nigerian Youths and Sustainable Development have recourse to the past; and the past ought to take full responsibilities of the present. What is the past? In an effort to understand our past and know what our past is, then it will be appropriate to evaluate the socio-economic realities of our past so as to understand how we got to where we are in the present. The satisfaction of human needs and aspirations is the major objective of sustainable development. Can human needs ever be satisfied? Philosophically, this probes into the concept of sustainable development itself; but nonetheless, sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to satisfy their aspirations for a better life. It means creating an enabling environment for growth, freedom and progress. Sustainable development calls for concerted efforts towards building an inclusive, sustainable and resilient future for people and planet. In other to achieve a genuine sustainable development, it involves three areas of interest; economic growth, social inclusion and environmental protection (Unachukwu & Ijeoma 2017). No doubt, they are all interconnected for the well-being of the integral development of society. For the purpose of this paper, sustainable development is defined as a process that is continuous in impacting positive improvement, growth and social change for the well- being of everyone today and creating a fair level playing ground by making life better for the future generation. In simple terms “as you eat today make sure you don't eat everything today but reserve for the future so that those yet unborn will have something to leverage on tomorrow”.

Nigeria Youths, The Problem of definition: Who is a Nigerian Youth? The concept 'Youth' varies from country to country and in most cases it ranges from age to age. Nevertheless, before we begin to interrogate this concept 'youth' it will be appropriate to give it a fundamental bedrock definition. According to the Webster Dictionary, a youth is defined as “the time of life when one is young” (1979:1092). According to Isawa Elaigwu in Nigeria Yesterday and Today For Tomorrow: Essay in Governance and Society, 'Youth' symbolizes a transitional stage in the growth path to maturity (2005:76). This definition from Isawa Elaigwu broadens ones definition of who a youth is. If a youth is defined by age, then it is very possible one can be of age and not a youth at heart. The definition of a youth from the perspective of maturity involves how the mind thinks. Thus, a child might not be of age but thinks critically and better than someone who has not attained youthful age. A person might be much older and has come off age but thinks better than someone who is younger and ought to be vibrant than the older person. Youthful age comes with vibrancy, vigor, sharp thinking and not from a biological or sociological categorization. Therefore, as long one have passed the stage of a child say from eighteen (18) years and above and in some countries seventeen (17) years and above then with the ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy 53 necessary characteristics as mention (good thinking, vibrancy, vigor, social and the ability to carry everyone along) then, such person is youth in mind at heart. For the purpose of this paper, a Nigerian Youth is one who has the maturity for good thinking, vibrancy and vigor and is very much able to display a good sense of wisdom in matters that concerns life; and this includes the less privilege and the physically challenged irrespective of the age, tribe, political party, religious affiliation, geographical provenance and social extraction. Therefore, been a youth is not limited by age but vibrancy and vigor; one can be physically challenged and still be vibrant. As a matter of fact, youthful stage of life has vital function for society and constitutes an important segment of our contemporary society.

The Speech of the Nigerian President: Setting the Stage The Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari on the 18th April, 2018 was in London to attend the Commonwealth Business Forum in London, United Kingdom. President Muhammadu Buhari was quoted to have said that “many Nigerian youths want everything free without doing anything”. The President was speaking on the topic: Making Business Easier Between Commonwealth Countries and these statements have since brought about all forms of interpretations and criticisms. President Muhammadu Buhari has only reiterated and reaffirmed the realities that exist and can exist anywhere in the world. Crime rate in the world are usually committed by youths who might me looking for an easy way out of poverty and sufferings. Was the President making a statement of generalization to mean all Nigerian Youths? No doubt, there are so many Nigerian youths out there looking for easy way life and this is what makes them go into all forms of crimes rather than contributing to national development. According to Chidozie Ekeji in Poverty and Crime among Nigerian Youths he asserts: There are so many ways youths can contribute to national development. They can do so by working hard in any field they are involved in, be it in education, farming, trading, in the civil service etc. However, there is still a public concern and sociological interest in the way that youth is changing. Matters of safety and security are topical issues in today's society. Lives have now become precarious in today's world. This is evident in media reports of happenings in the world today. From one part of the world to another or one part of the country to another; we hear of various criminal activities perpetrated day by day. These crimes range from kidnapping, armed robbery, vandalism, prostitution, cybercrime, car theft, terrorism and so on (2010:1). Did the President of Nigeria actually say anything new? It is fundamental to understand the dynamics of society and it operations to know that it is only vibrant and vigorous minds that commits crime and the youths are always involved. But, the socio-philosophic 54 Nigerian Youths and Sustainable Development question will be why are the youth potentials for crime in the world and in particular Nigeria where the crime rate is very high? What has been the policy framework for youths in Nigeria to be part of nation building and sustainable development? What did the past leadership in Nigeria impact on economic policies that can improve and create employment for the average Nigerian youth? Did we ever have Nigerian youths from independence or when oil was discovered in Nigeria till date? Who were those at the helm of affairs and what impact as youths did they make in stabilizing our country Nigeria to be a better place than they left it? Until these questions are answered what we have today goes beyond shifting blames but the real issues must be addressed.

Nigerian Political Class and the Failure of Leadership in Nigeria It was Chinua Achebe who has been popularly quoted to have said that the problem and trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure in leadership (1984). Matthew Hassan Kukah has argued not to justify bad leadership on the Nigeria youths but sees the Nigerian political elites who shifted their attention away from the ordinary people whose lives they had set out to improve, to themselves… Rather than dealing with the problems of the welfare of Nigerians, government resorted to endless and mindless expenditures (1999). Nigerian leaders have refused to act to deal with the problem that is anti-thetical to sustainable development in the past and the present. The reason for this according to J. Obi Oguejiofor is that public institutions have refused to be functional due to bad leadership. Hence according to him, such functionality is premised on the preparedness of sufficient number of key holders to do the right thing for the sake of doing it, not for money, and not on account of coercion (2009:21). This is why the average Nigerian youth have suffered endlessly to the point of no option but to result to crime. There is a significant relationship between bad leadership and crime rate and this is why many at times the Nigerian youths have been shortchanged in so many ways and have become victims of circumstances. Despite this abysmal failure in leadership, so many Nigerian youths have defied the odds of the society to become the best abroad and contributing enormously to the economy of other nation; and this has resulted to brain drain in which our best doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers, architectures, philosophers, theologians, entrepreneurs etc are abroad making waves for a viable society that is not theirs. Yet, they are a Nigerian youth who despite bad leadership always wants to make a difference to enhance their life for better living. It can also be very much obvious that those who have this opportunity to be abroad are beneficiaries of a corrupt system and bad leadership. They could also be the children of high profile public servants and business men and women who took advantage of a system that bad leadership allows for irregularities to thrive at the expense of morality and professionalism. ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy 55 There is a big gap between politics and morality in Nigeria and this has continuously affected the thinking of an average Nigeria youths who begin to see leadership as a means to gather wealth for themselves. It is very much unthinkable how majority of Nigerian youths applaud these politicians who come from their geographical jurisdiction and never see anything wrong with squandering public funds. Unfortunately, in Nigeria today wealth is the standard for measuring hard work irrespective of where the wealth is coming from and the only criterion valid for the measurement of success. According to Odumegwu Ojukwu, The Nigerian must wear the most expensive clothes, drive the most expensive cars, build the most expensive palaces, patronize the most expensive clubs, send his children to the most expensive schools, drink the most expensive beverages, throw the most lavish parties and mate the most mercenary mistresses(1989). This is the very reason an average Nigerian leader is not interrogated or question as to their means of funds when they are in office. A political leader in Nigeria is convicted of crime on so many count charges and serve jail term and yet such persons is still celebrated and even seek to be elected in political offices or even given appointment. Yet, such a leader is even applauded by Nigerian youths on the grounds of what Odumegwu Ojukwu calls 'addict of privileges'. More so and unfortunately is the fact that even the constitution has a very deep lacuna in addressing issues of morality in public office and political leadership. Nigerian lawyers seem more to defend corrupt officials than making sure we have a sanitized constitution in Nigeria with a great deal of moral ingredients. This is where we are as a nation and as a people looking for a development that ought to be sustainable so that our professionals, technocrat and expertise can translate into problem solving. Nonetheless, our leaders are pseudo leaders; our intellectuals, pseudo intellectuals; our professionals are pseudo professionals; whilst our occupations are pseudo occupations. Our middle class is pseudo-middle class; our elite are pseudo-elite, our socialist, Marxists, liberals and even our conservatives, are very often pseudo, no matter the appellation they sport (Ojukwu:1989).

Foundation Once Destroyed: What Can the Nigerian Youths Do? The Nigeria youths are almost helpless and hopeless in an atmosphere where the powerful elites strategically use policies and laws to deprive the ordinary Nigerian youths the privilege of unleashing his/her potentials for the sustainability of our development. This is because, according to C.C. Mbah: Those who possess enough capital are at advantage to hijack the major political parties (sic) operating in the political system and by logical 56 Nigerian Youths and Sustainable Development

extension, political decision making process which is usually in the interest of the ruling class, mainly the bourgeoisie and the comparadorial (sic) bourgeoisie. These capitalist (sic) when they are not in direct control of state affairs are operating as Godfathers with Godsons and daughters in representative positions (2006:142). The socio-economic and political environment in Nigeria poses a great challenge to the youth and this is partly because the country has not been able to create an environment for high value-added economic activities for youth. Hence, the problems and challenges of the Nigerian youths is traceable to a poor educational formation, unstable political environment, bad governance, a poor orientation of youths, insecurity, and other vices characterised with developmental retardation. If the youths must become viable and productive for economic growth and total excellence, then it is important they are prepared and empowered for their roles and responsibilities as full citizens (Elaigwu 2005:75). Until the very foundations of the economy is built on preparing the grounds for the future generation, then it will be most unfortunate for the Nigerian youth. Despite this anomaly as Nigerian youth we cannot continue to cry over spilled milk but we shall have to learn how to raise our own cows in the midst of these difficulties and hardship that has befallen this generation of Nigerian youths. The task becomes more enormous for the Nigerian youth to also run away from blame game and avoid continuously putting all the problems on the political elites; when as Nigerian youth it is possible to rise above the situation and most especially with the passing of the “Not too young to rule” bill passed by the National Assembly. This is where our hopes and aspiration lies as citizens of Nigeria to express ourselves and become recipient of a people oriented government that values the dignity of the human person irrespective of age and gender. According to B.A.C Obeifuna in Democracy In Contemporary Nigeria: Lessons From Igbo Culture-Area he admonishes thus: The primary characteristic of democracy is that it is people oriented. Every other thing that is essential for the establishment, growth and sustenance of democracy must be centered on the human person and the desire to bring out the best in him (her) and give him (her) the best; and to give him (her) the best in order to bring out the best in him (her). It aims at that which is the essence of the human person. It respects human life and human right (2009:228). The dignity of the Nigeria youths have to be respected and their rights preserved by the government of Nigeria. This will be the foundation to build a better Nigeria and to reciprocate the efforts made by the Nigerian youth. The involvement of the youth in political participation without any discrimination is the basic foundation of democracy in Nigeria and the reason why democracy has become very unsuccessful in Nigeria is ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy 57 basically because the Nigerian youths have always been alienated in the past (Obiefuna 2009: 228).

Nigerian Youths and Entrepreneurial Skills for Sustainable Development Entrepreneurial skills have a very close link with sustainable development for the Nigerian youth. So far in Nigeria there is a clarion call for skills acquisition so as to help drive sustainable development in Nigeria so that an average Nigerian youth can become self- employed and in turn employ others. This calls for serious attention as regards the kind of education been impacted on the Nigerian youth. Entrepreneurship education is commonly defined as the process of creating a new business or creating a new idea towards self- reliance. It is also a practical step which combines resources and opportunities in new ways. It involves the application of personal qualities, finance and other resources within the environment of business success (Wokeh & Basil 2011). The Nigerian youths ought to key into this venture of entrepreneurship education with its uniqueness and should be treated proactively to meet current challenges in problem solving. It is important to understand the fact that as Nigerian youth's entrepreneurial skills and education is a vital force for sustainable development in Nigeria. Education should go beyond the learning of facts and mastery of figures and ought to transcend into skills acquisition for repositioning into nation building. Therefore, entrepreneurship education and skills acquisition could be seen as those steps involved in teaching Nigerian youths the fundamentals, theories and process of entrepreneurial spirit, culture and methods. Unfortunately, many Nigerian youths graduate from the higher institution of learning and hopelessly carrying their curriculum vitae or resume from one company to another in search of jobs and this has frustrated so many Nigerian youths to the extent they result to so many vices. Nigeria youths cannot progress if her trained manpower does not participate in her planning and development. We have, as a nation, an unfortunate situation in which the quality of Nigerian life deteriorates every minute. It is sheer arrogance for a few to arrogate to themselves the sole right to opinion on matters affecting our entire nation. Thus, a competence-based system of education helps prepare Nigerian youths for the labour market and self-dependency and these will also make the Nigerian youth develop the ability for critical analysis of world events, matching theory with practice, development of vision for new and better society; ability to explore controversial issues and offer technical solutions. Entrepreneurship involves discipline and morals for sustainable development. Good moral behaviour and making youths in Nigeria obey laws can help bring about sustainable development. This I agree with Jean Jacque Rousseau when he said: If it is good to know how to deal with men as they are, it is much better to make 58 Nigerian Youths and Sustainable Development

them what there is need they should be…make men: therefore, if you would command men: if you would have them obedient to the laws make them love the laws, and they will need to know only what is their duty to do it (1998:263). From the above statement of Jean Jacque Rousseau, the Nigerian youths owe its country a duty and a moral obligation to make Nigeria a better country and more better than we met. It is this kind of duty Immanuel Kant describes as 'duty for the sake of duty' known as the “categorical imperative”. This will help making the Nigerian youths a tool for sustainable development in Nigeria.

Conclusion The economic business forum in London and the challenge before the Nigerian youths can be looked from two perspective. It is a call for the Nigerian youths to get actively involved in what concerns sustainable development and secondly for the political elites to take full responsibility of their failures in alienating the Nigerian youth from sustainable development. The Nigerian President has put before the youths the future in their hands by challenging them to put the polity into their own advantage and see education as the only viable ingredients that can foster a development that is sustainable for a better Nigeria were the youths will become stakeholders and partakers of their own future and destiny. Taking advantage of the 'not too young to rule' bill is timely and urgent for the Nigerian youths to get engage politically, economically, socially, morally and with a high sense of professionalism to create an enabling environment for sustainable development.

Work Cited 1. Achebe C (1984) The Trouble with Nigeria. Johannesburg: Heinemann Publications. 2. Chryssochoou X & Barrett M (2017) Civic and Political Engagement in Youth: Findings and Prospects. In a Journal Zeitschrift fur Psychologie Vol. 225: Issue 4 2017. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000315 Retrieved online 5th July, 2018 3. Ekeji C (2010) Poverty and Crime among Nigerian Youths. Online www.academia.edu retrieved online 11th July, 2018. 4. Elaigwu J (2005) Nigeria Yesterday and Today For Tomorrow: Essay in Governance and Society. Jos: Aha Publishing House. 5. Kukah H.M. Democracy and Civil Society in Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books, 1999. 6. Mbah C (2006) Political Theory and Methodology. Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick. 7. Obiefuna B (2009) Democracy In Contemporary Nigeria: Lessons From Igbo Culture-Area. In The Humanities and Nigeria's Democratic Experience (Eds) Chiegboka A. Nwadigwe C. & Umezinwa E. Awka: Rex Charles & Patrick Ltd. 8. Oguejiofor J (1999) Practicing Democracy In a Culture of Corruption: Reflections ADIDI, Dokpesi Timothy 59 on Ten Years of Democracy in Nigeria. In The Humanities and Nigeria's Democratic Experience (Eds) Chiegboka A. Nwadigwe C. & Umezinwa E. Awka: Rex Charles & Patrick Ltd. 9. Ojukwu O. E (1989) Because I am Involved. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. 10. Rousseau J (1998) The Social Contract or Principles of Political Right (ed) Charles Sherover, Cleveland: Meridian Books. 11. Shipton M. (2018) The Politics of Youth In Greek Tragedy. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 12. Unachukwu G & Ijeoma B (2017) Education and Sustainable Development. Proceedings of The Nigerian Academy of Education: Enugu. 13. Websters' Ninth Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam- Webster Incorp. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

PAN-AFRICANISM AND AFRICAN SOVEREIGNTY IN A WORLD OF CHANGE

Matthew Ikechukwu Obijekwu, PhD School of General Studies Anambra State Polytechnic, Mgbakwu, Anambra State [email protected]

Romanus Ikechukwu Muomah, PhD Department of Philosophy, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State & Charles K. Onebunne Department of Philosophy Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract Applying an analytic approach, this paper explores the problems that led to the emergence of Pan-Africanism so as to find out if those problems have been completely eradicated in Africa. Among the problems include: colonialism, slavery and bereft African sovereignty. African sovereignty essentially comprises political, economic and socio-cultural sovereignty; even science and technology where Africa is yet to establish its footnote, is also among the problems. If till date, Africa is still being socio-politically, economically and culturally dominated and controlled by the western world through their financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, it shows that Africa, as a continent, is still glorying on a bereft sovereignty. The paper argues that despite the efforts of the African nationalists to reposition African continent from the colonial domination, the contemporary Africa is more a sufferer than the old Africa that was physically violated, brutalized and dominated. The work advocates that contemporary African leaders should live by the liberation spirit of the African forefathers so as to set Africa free from the shackles of the developed nations, and at the same time, have a place in a world of change.

Keywords: Pan-Africanism, sovereignty, African sovereignty, world and change

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 60 Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 61 Introduction Heraclitus, an Ionian philosopher from the city of Ephesus, once said that “All things are in a state of flux…no one steps twice into the same river” (Nwanegbo-Ben, 2009: 25). A river, as we know, is not stagnant, rather it is always in motion. Regarding this, Heraclitus went further to portray his famous theory of conflict of opposites. This analogy, as well remain typical to the changes we observe everyday in the world. The fact remains that as the world changes so also is the change in relation to the modification of ideologies or beliefs held over the years by the individuals, or a group of people. In the past, even till date, different ideologies like socialism, capitalism, liberalism, republicanism, communalism, egalitarianism, communism, to mention a few, have been held. Oftentimes, one doubts whether some of these ideologies are still relevant in today's society, or whether they have outlived their contemporary usefulness or relevance. The theme of the conference, “African Ideologies in the World of Change” seems appropriate because of continuously “natural flow”(Obijekwu, 2017) of things in the world as well as God's command: “Increase and multiply, fill the earth and subdue it” (Gen.1: 28 KJV). This biblical injunction seems to have led different scientific and technological innovations and inventions, which gear towards making the world a better place. Other factors in realizing this mandate involves human creativity, technological skills, intelligence and knowledge. The phrase, “in the world of change” remains outstanding or peculiar as one, even nations, interprets their environments, and other circumstances around them. Coupled with the changes seen in areas like science and technology, politics, economic, social and cultural activities of some nations, some of the previous ideologies tenaciously held by some individual nations or continents like Africa, have been questioned, and their authenticity, or relevance have been doubted. Furtherance, some of these ideologies seem to have outlived their usefulness, even meaningfulness if we are to toe the position of logical positivist that considered the usefulness or meaningfulness of concept based on its concrete effect. For example, scientific and technological innovations, biological experiments, human experiments and other areas like medicine, communication, politics, economy, and socio-cultural dominations, have questioned the reality of some nation- states' sovereignty of which African is among them. Within the period of nineteenth century, cutting across, the period of twentieth century, in the mouth of African-Americans and Africans in Diaspora, was the rhythm of freedom for self-determination, independence and African unity as well as African sovereignty. This is also made explicit in Nkrumah's book entitled, “Africa Must Unite”. Here, Nkrumah calls for the promotion of African unity. He states: “…the aim of Pan-Africanism is to establish 62 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change fraternal relation with, and offer guidance and support to all nationalist democratic and socialist movement, in Africa and elsewhere, for national independence” (221). Looking at the transition from the Organization of African Union (O.A.U), which was considered as the Pan African “identity and destiny”(Sturman, 2007), then, to African Unity (AU), and the intended United State of Africa (USA), one may asks, has Pan-Africanism achieved its lofty dream? It is necessary to note that the unending desire from the Organization for African Unity (OAU) to African Union (AU), and now a new stage, the United States of Africa (USA) is a crisis of identity and substance. One may still ask, what is the usefulness of Pan-Africanism in this contemporary Africa and in the world of change? Has Africa, so to speak, outlived the factors that led to the emergence of Pan-Africanism? Differently put, how possible is the unity of Africa in the midst of conflict and bad leadership? There is no doubt that from the period of emergence of Pan-Africanism till date, that contemporary Africa is still a sufferer despite the lofty ambitions of the founding fathers, both within the African continent and in Diaspora. It is on this background that this paper tries to find out if the factors that led to the emergence of Pan-Africanism have been completely eradicated in Africa. To achieve this, this paper embarks on conceptual clarification. Some of the concepts used are explained for easy understanding. Furthermore, the historical trend of Pan-Africanism is traced as well as its objective. Again, th examines the impact of Pan-Africanism in the restoration of African sovereignty in the changing world of globalization and digitalization. This section tries to find out if Pan-Africanism has outlived its relevance in contemporary world in relation to African unity. Finally is the conclusion of the work. Now, let us turn to the historical trends of Pan-Africanism.

Historical Trends of Pan Africanism The most common principle among the individuals, city-states, or among the nations of the world, is the principle of self-preservation. With this principle, no individual, no city-states or nation, wishes to go into extinction. Everyone of them wishes to preserve itself or generations This is also made explicit in Huntington's work titled, “The Clashes of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order” (Huntington, 1996). According to him, most of the conflicts among cultures, city-states or nations were as a result of superiority and inferiority that have been existed among human beings. Each culture wants to exists, and by so doing, tries to outweigh others. Some claim superior over others, and at the same time, try to destroy the cultural heritage of those cultures, even to the extent of destroying the habitants of those cultures. This was exactly the condition Africa continent and its inhabitants found themselves after the partitioning of African continent in 1884/5 in Berlin Conference. Africa's coming in Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 63 contact with Europe and America led to serious cultural conflict, strangulation, and imposition, which was later extended to socio-economic exploitation and political domination. Slavery, colonization and racism were highly instrumental in the hands of the colonizers to perpetually subjugate and dominate African continent, and thereby leaving her with a bereft sovereignty. Therefore, the emergence of Pan Africanism is rooted on the above historical trends. Pan Africanism emerged as an ideology and later as a movement. As an ideology, it is conceived and propounded for a purpose, while as a movement; it began around the 19th Century in the United States of America. It was framed within the confines and/or aspirations of Africa and Africans in Diaspora. It was also formed towards redefining, reshaping and regaining of the African sovereignty, identity, personhood and integrity. The concept, ideology was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in his work, Science of Ideas in 1796 (Mannhein, 1929). The concept is considered as the most generic term due to the fact that science of ideas contains the study of their expression and deduction (Althusser, 1971). From this perspective, ideology is defined as a set of conscious and/or unconscious ideas that constitute one's goals, aspirations, actions, desires and expectations. In Steger's and James' view, as cited in Althusser (1971) ideologies are organized clusters of morally imbued ideas and concepts, which help people to navigate the complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth (127-188). The things associate with the concept of ideology is that, it has a content, which is often normative; it also has internal local structure, which has to do with the role the ideas play in human social life or interaction. This involves the area of socialization within the framework of the society. Fourth is the impact of ideas within the structure of an organization, and finally is the persuasive nature of the driving idea(s) within the locus of the social interaction. Pan-African, as an ideology, could be understood within the above structures. It has normative impact, applied within an internal local structure when its role is considered, as well, persuasive if one considers its purpose or intent. On the other hand, as a movement, it becomes a trend in human affairs and society at large; a movement towards freedom or total independence. Pan Africanism was championed by African descendants, or African- Americans, who had like minds towards liberation of Africa and securing freedom, justice and equality for themselves in their sojourn land. Its thrust was to fight against racism, colonialism, slavery, discrimination, segregation, social injustice, inequality, exploitation, dehumanization and all other sorts of social evils that came with the colonizers. The reason for the formation of Pan African movement in America seemed to be different from the one it served within the geographical constituents of Africa. In America, and other European nations, it was a movement to belong; that is, to 'fit-in' 64 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change among the nationals or citizens of that particular nation so as to embrace social justice, equality, and at the same time, be set free from segregation and discrimination. It was under this condition that Martin Luther King, Jr., and other African-Americans like, W.E.B. Du Bois, were noted today as freedom fighters, liberators or human rights activist. It was a call to revive the famous voices of the American forefathers; that is, to remind the then, and, even the present American society and the entire world, the foundation upon which the American society was laid. The former American President, Jefferson, in his proclamation in 1776, states that “all men are created equality…both in liberty and pursuit of happiness” (Dupre, 2010). With the spirit of survival, African descendants during period in America were able to persuade the racist Americans to bend the hand of unjust laws, which led to unjust society. On April 9, 1866, the Civil Rights Bill passed by the American Congress, gave hope to the African-Americans. The Bill, as it was, conferred citizenship on them, and at the same time, gave them right in every state and territory as enjoyed by other Americans (Odey, 2005: 39). Another remarkable amendment was the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution by the Congress on July 21, 1868, which states that: No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of laws (39). On March 30, 1870, the Fifteen Amendment of the Constitution geared towards recognizing the voting rights of the African descendants in America. It reads that the rights of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by States on account of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude”( 39). From the foregoing, one would understand the background and activities of Pan African movement. It was an offshoot of Pan-Negros movement in America. The point we are making here that what started as the desire for individual autonomy or freedom, which later extended to general or community freedom (community of African-Americans), later went beyond America to incorporate all other African nations. The argument was, if African-Americans could, with their ideology or aspirations, influenced American government to recognize and accept them, why would African continent not be liberated from the shackles of colonialism? This led to the utmost fight for African independence, or rather, the reposition of African sovereignty. So, within Africa, Pan Africanism was a movement for African liberation and independence. This desire led to the unification of all the African descendants towards repositioning of Africa. Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 65 Pan-Africanism towards Repositioning Africa The concept, reposition or repositioning, simply means “to change or to bring something back to its originality”. Pan African, as an ideology and a movement, was meant to achieve three things, namely; (a) to achieve African independence (b) to achieve African unity, and (c) to restore African sovereignty. We shall examine the three objectives of Pan- Africanism. But before that, it is proper to note that before the emergence of Pan African movement, the integrity of African as well as her contributions to the world's civilization, over the years, has been denied. Therefore, there is no doubt to say that Pan African movement was formed to reposition African continent. According to Sturman (2007), “Pan-Africanism is a philosophy in which Africa is regarded as the spiritual home of a united African people, with the emphasis on solidarity and brotherhood between all people of African origin.” Being aware of this fact, we shall turn to the three main objectives of Pan-Africanism as stated above. For some African scholars, it may be more than these three objectives. But, this paper concentrates on the above mentioned three as its main objectives.

…Towards African Independence Notably among Africans in Diaspora was the fact of developing geographical consciousness; that is, the sense of having a root. As a result, Du Bois and other historians went into research to discover Africa's contributions in the world civilization. For them, the quest for freedom must begin from home not in Diaspora. But, the general contention was that Africa must be freed from all sorts of dominations, be it internal and external dominations. The internal domination or enslavement has to do with colonialism, slavery and racialism within the African environment. So what started as an individual-national consciousness, seemed to have extended to community-national or continental consciousness. The fight for independence took different dimensions, namely; mental, political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions. This is clearly seen in the works and speeches of most African scholars and liberators like DuBois, an African-American, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria, Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Jomo Kenyatta, etc. The primary aim of these scholars was first meant to react to the denigratory or racist works of Hegel, who said that Africa should not be mentioned in the history of the world's civilization. For him, Africa has “…no history, no culture, and has never contributed to the world's civilization”. In line with this, Lucien Levy-Bruhl's Primitive mentalite (primitive mentality published in 1923) reduced the cognitive component of African to zero level. The position of David Hume, who denied ingenuity for an African 66 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change person, opened up the fight for the intellectual racism, “epistemic injustice” (Chimakonam, 2017) as well as mental freedom. Aime Cesaire's Return to Native My Land written in 1941 was a critique of French colonization, and later, the book became a liberatory tool in the hands of Negritude movement (Berger and Bostock, 2014). Blaydon's radical proposal for individually and collectively “defensive identity” was outstanding. Other related works on African civilization, identity and personhood, were meant to debunk some of the denigatory or misconceptions of Africa. In fact, these work fast-tracked, or better put, promoted the collective consciousness of Africans in Diaspora towards common independence. So, the foundation for African independence as observed in the spirit of Pan-Africanism was laid within the framework of individual consciousness, which later metamorphosed into collective consciousness. This was the reason the agenda of the First Congress of Pan-African movement organized by H. Sylvester Williams, a Trinidadian Negro in 1900 in London, was different from the Fifth Congress of the movement in 1958. The sole objective of the conference was to unite the Negroes of Africa and America and to articulate a common front for all African nations and Africans within and outside the four walls of Africa. Subsequent Pan African Movement Conferences were championed by Du Bois between 1919 and 1927 (and between 1919 and 1927 were four Pan-African Congresses). These congresses watered the ground for African independence. Although at this period, it was at infant stage, but with a persuasive zeal and desire for African independence cumulated into a nationalist spirit (anti-colonial and anti-imperialist). Furthermore, the Fifth Congress held in Manchester in 1945, which was super-headed by Du Bois, clearly spelt out the objective of Pan-African movement. For him, Pan-African movement is a conscientious and/or an obligatory call on all Africans to be committed towards African salvation. It was an awakening call of all the African intellectuals, farmers, workers, etc., to come together, with one mind, heart and spirit, to fight for abolition of colonialism and work for the attainment of political independence (Potekhin, 1964). Having made this call, therefore, the quest for African Unity began.

…Towards the African Unity In this section, we shall examine the in-road towards African unity. This is another move made by Pan-African movement towards repositioning Africa. The concept of reposition in relation to Africa, as we said earlier, simply means to change, to regain, sustain, or to consolidate the independence of African states. It is proper to know that despite the effort of Pan-African movement to eradicate racism completely; today racism is among the problems of contemporary society. The difference when compared to the conditions of nineteenth century African-Americans or Africans in Diaspora is not the same. So many Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 67 institutions such as legal institutions, or legislative institutions, and others like, non- governmental organizations, seem to have been working for unity and integration among people as well as nations. The question remains, how effective and efficient are some of these institutions? Organization of African Union remains one of these institutions. We do not need to ask, how effective O.A.U was in promoting African unity. The truth is that if O.A.U was effective in its unification of African nations, the emergence of the African Union might not have been possible. The fact is that the African unity is inevitable in all ramifications. In Nkrumah's view, which was expressed in his work, Africa Must Unite” (Nkrumah, 1963), stands as a point of reference. Even Murmmar Gaddafi once said that, “Africa must unite” or “die” (Gaddafi, 2009). Therefore, the quest for unity started as the Pan-Negro unity in America, later as Pan-Africanism, to the Organization for African Union (OAU); and currently to African Union. The current debate on the “United States of Africa” remains a paramount issue. Today, with the establishment of OAU, and later AU, the Pan-Africanism is institutionalized. Now, it looks as if it is no longer considered a reactionary movement. It is! Looking at the present condition of Africa, one would not doubt that Africa is still floating. The age-longed efforts to regain and to redefine Africa remain the underlying factors in most of these debates. Like the previous efforts, the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries' African scholars' efforts were to re-establish that Africa has its personality, its own history, its culture, and has contributed to the world civilization. But, the post-independence African scholars seemed not to have interest in this anymore. The age-longed discourse with regards to the history and African contribution to the world civilization seemed to have been shifted to other areas like issues of development, good governance as against bad leadership, etc. It is believed by some Africans that the issues of history, culture, and sovereignty of Africa have been established by the African intellectuals. But, this paper doubts the assumption that African personality, culture, history and Africa's contributions to the world civilization have been proved to its logical conclusion. The reason for doubting this assumption is not farfetched. It is based on the current acceptance of African cultures among Africans as well as her contributions to the modern world, especially in the areas of science and technology and communication. What is at stake now is the new Africa not the old Africa, Julius Nyerere as cited in Sturman (2007: 1), said: What we want is unity of action together with the greatest possible degree of local self-expression on things which affect only that locality. This will be in accordance with the oldest traditions of Africa; it will be a new growth on the deep roots of our life. In the above excerpt, Nyerere was projecting Africa that is to be rebuilt using the 68 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change traditional materials like common labour, equality, participation, sharing and caring. These, as well, provide a ground for African unity as conceptualized in Pan-Africanism. Further on African unity, we shall consider other aspects like, political and economic unity of African nations as championed by Pan-African movement. This political and economic unity remains the epicenter of O.A.U; and AU as its later development. With regards to economic unity, Pan African movement sought for economic unity by formulating common economic policies and to establish common economic links so as to bring African nations under one umbrella. Such links like, the formation of African Economic Community(AEC), Economic Community of West African States(ECOWAS), which was established in 1975, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa(COMESA) in 1990s, etc. In the spirit of Pan-Africanism, the African Economic Community (AEC) was meant to create a single common currency, free trade areas and a united market for the majority of African states (Pardos, 2016). Likewise ECOWAS, which aims at promoting cooperation and integration of the continent. To this end, ECOWAS has signed numerous treaties that promote the Pan-African economic patterns that seem to have unified African countries. To this end also, ECOWAS signed an agreement with the Economic and Money Union of West Africa, and this agreement geared towards creating trade liberation policies as well as macroeconomic policies, which was intended to unite African countries. The Tripartite Free Trade Areas (TFTA), a new form of economic policy, is also in line with the aspirations of Pan-Africanism. TFTA is formulated to link and to unify the operations of COMESA, SADC and AEC. It is also meant to ease movement of goods and services across different African countries, which are members and part of the agreement. It takes account of more than half of the continent's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and as maintain a common front for preferential tariffs among the member states (Pardos, 2016). In politics, series of efforts have been made, and still being making to reposition contemporary Africa. This paper is never in doubt of these efforts. Like we said earlier, we are no longer talking about OAU today, but rather, AU, and further debate on the “United African States”. The question remains; was OAU successful in its bid for African unity and development? To what extent did OAU actualize and realize the lofty dreams of Pan- Africanism? As we discuss the contemporary impact of AU, it is, as well necessary to pounder on the paradigm shift from the early Pan Africanism to African Union with regard to political structure of African nations. AU, as it stands now, is still reactionary movement just as the Pan Africanism. And as a reactionary movement, it indicates that Africa is still seeking for independence despite her claimed years of independence, which most African countries seemed to have been parading. The fact remains that the contemporary African Union, with its members of about fifty-four united countries, is still having a floating territorial integration. Though, Africa is geographically located, but whether it maintains Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 69 its sovereignty remains an issue. The map of Africa and most of its boundaries, after many years of independence, are still as they were given by the colonial masters (Europe and America). And this has led to tribal conflicts, genocide like Rwanda genocide in 1994; Nigerian-Biafran War from 1967-1970; and other places in Africa. This, as well, has created much hatred among African nations. With this, African sovereignty remains “a wishful thinking”. Shortly after the formation of AU in 2007, was the formation of Pan African Coalition (PAC) in 2008. The main reason for the PAC is to recognize the sovereignty for each country, to seek for non-aggression and at the same time, work towards peaceful practices; to promote mutual defense membership and equal representation in the union; others include setting up a democratic participation, which involves the election of the president of the coalition. Another effort made by AU towards African Unity is the formation of the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD). According to Pardos, NEPAD is directed towards “the achievement of self-rule and the decolonization of the continent” (Pardos, 2016). Commenting on the goals of NEPAD, Pardos asserts thus: Its political and economic perspectives add tremendous importance to the guarantee of peace, security and global integrity…the treaty fosters the commitment of African leaders to the African people and the world by positively impacting the living conditions and success of treaties. The trading question remains whether the NEPAD main accord has been achieved in Africa. It is obvious today in Africa that the issue of peace and security in relation to both internal and external (or global) integrity has eluded Africa. And this, as well has questioned the possibility of African Unity as being projected over the years both by the Pan Africanism and the Organization of African Unity (OAU). Another clause of PAC talks about the commitment or obligations of the African leaders towards the betterment of the living conditions of African people in areas of abject poverty, diseases and ignorance. At present, this seems to be a wishful thinking in most African countries, moving from Nigeria, Congo, Republic of Tanzania, even Ghana and others. The most pathetic of it all is that this is happening among the countries projecting African Unity. Having gone thus far, let us further reflect on the waves of African sovereignty.

…Towards the African Sovereignty In this section, we shall examine the implicit idea of African sovereignty as seen among Pan-African intellectuals during colonialism and slave trade, and after which we shall consider the post-independence “African sovereignty” explicitly sought by OAU, and late taken up by AU. The most pronounced effort of Pan African movement was to redefine African identity and personhood, not ultimately African sovereignty. This seemed to be 70 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change made manifest through African independence. The idea of African sovereignty was a later evolution. Sovereignty, as it were, is the resultant effect of independence. A country most first and foremost become independence before it begins to talk of sovereignty, without minding the fact that it could be projecting the two concepts at the same time. This is the reason why, after the years of so-called African independence, Africa is still battling for sovereignty; that is, to be emancipated from the shackles of political and economic control of Europe and America. Thus, we shall examine the concept, sovereignty to see if the concept, as it is used today, should be ascribed to contemporary Africa, or not. The BBC English Dictionary (1992: 1119) defines “sovereignty” as the power that a country has to govern itself or to govern other countries. McLean and McMillan (2003: 502) conceive “sovereignty” as: “…the claim to be the ultimate political authority, and be subject to no higher power outside oneself, or outside any nation with regards to making and enforcing decision. It is also the claim by the state to full self-government, and the mutual recognition of claims to sovereignty is the basis of international society. The concept could be also applied to individual when considering the individual autonomy as regards one's control of his property, without being influenced by any external force other than himself. In the international level, sovereignty is considered as the basis for mutual exchange or recognition, and as well remains the foundation of international law, and the basis for legal equality. From the above definition, African sovereignty is completely ruled out during colonialism, as Pan-African movement sought for emancipation. Though, it was proposed, but not in existence. This was also the case during and after the formation of OAU. We doubt if the concept sovereignty was used at all during anti-colonialist and anti-imperialist. We still doubt if Africa has actualized her sovereignty despite the claimed of independence. Even the reality of African independence is still doubted. As it stands now, African sovereignty is an issue, and it is an urgent issue indeed.

African Sovereignty in the World of Change At present, the world of change, so to speak, is more of the world of scientific and technological innovations, intercultural, political and economic exhibitions, which has led to the interdependence of nations. In this context, one wonders the place of African sovereignty. Little wonder the idea of globalization and digitalization have remain the central discourse in contemporary African society. So, as talk of African sovereignty, we also consider African position in the world of science and technology, or better still, in the areas of globalization and digitalization. Other changes in the world are circumventing on Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 71 the stated areas. Litter wonder Jake Bright, Akam and Kanza (2016), explored the seven trends that step up the continent's digital future. Bright asserts that, “as African continent transitions from the margins to the mainstream of the global economy, technology is playing an increasingly significant role”. Thus, the concept of change is all encompassing. The term denotes either the negative or positive change. As said earlier in the introduction, the universe is always in the state of flux. The events of nineteenth and twentieth century's, when Pan Africanism as an ideology flourished, is not the same today. The contemporary world has become a world of competition, and many nations seemed to have been left behind, and Africa continent is among them. The old concept of globalization has been followed up by a modern concept of digitalization. Globalization, though sounds as a new concept, is as old as its operations as observed in the activities of early political dictators or tyrants. So, the world of change, as it is sound today, is the world of globalization and digitalization, the world technological innovations and inventions, and the world of new ideologies. Even, it is the world of the survival of the fittest, which is championed by the waves of globalization and digitalization. Wang and Francisca, cited in Obijekwu (2017) assert that, though it is difficult to trace the origin of globalization, but as a political, cultural, economic, and social reality, could be traced to the month of May of the year 34 B.C.E, during the time of Alexander the Great (336-323). As a Macedonian War Lord, he used his array of soldiers to unify Macedonians and Persians into one kingdom with the aim of spreading Greek language and culture, which he believed was more superior to all others. So, this desire did not end there. It took another form around 1880s in the name of globalization. This desire to control the whole world cumulated to the partitioning of African countries by the Europe and America. This shows why the globalization of Africa took the form of colonialism with the intention of economic and political domination as well as the extermination of African personhood and identity. Regarding the current change in the world, it is preferable here to use the most current word like digitalization in relation to African dominance, rather than globalization as the case maybe. The fact remains that globalization is made applicable through digitalization. It is the digitalization of universe that makes the operations of globalization possible through the space satellites, etc. Information or rather, data digitalized in Africa, especially in Nigeria could be accessed in America or any part of Europe without the consent of owner of information. We shall come to this later. To avoid ambiguity and confusion in the use of the terms, let us define the concepts. As we try to define the term, it is proper to note that globalization has no general definition. It is a multifaceted concept as it has politics, social, economic, and cultural undertone or components; it also extends to communication, science and technology, etc. As a result, 72 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change globalization, till date, is still a confusing word, and could only be understood if one understands the operations of the world power as they make use of multinational institutions, to achieve their aims and objectives in the name of globalization. This is why till date Africa is still a sufferer. Fisher, cited in Wang and Francisca (2008: 49-61) conceive globalization as a process by which nationality become increasingly irrelevant in global production and consumption. From definition given by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), globalization involves: Increasing integration of economic around the world, particularly through trade and financial flows, movement of people in form of labour, and knowledge as regards technology across international boards, thereby turning the world into a global village (51).

The truth remains that beneficiaries of globalization are those nations that have something new to contribute to it, while those that have nothing to contribute to the flow of globalization will ever remain perpetually slaves and continued to be dominated politically, economically, socially, and culturally. If a nation is suffering this fate, then, where lies its sovereignty? Definitely, other powerful nations will be determining both her political, social, economic and cultural decisions. Despite the situation of African sovereignty within the framework of globalization, the idea of digitalization in Africa becomes another issue in the world of change. Digital is an opposite of analogue (manual), and digital operations has to do with the numbers 0 to 9, and in the usage of “1 and 0” or “ON and OFF” buttons for operation. These buttons are used to control the devices that make the activities of globalization possible and easy. It makes accessible all information, data, etc., stored into the system or devices used in making the world a global village. Digital systems record or transmit information in the form of thousands of very small signals (BBC Dictionary). And most of these devices are not manufactured in Africa and installed by Africans, especially the sophisticated ones. As a result, they are not under the control of Africa and Africans. Often, they are installed by the expatriates from Europe and America, who are meant to protect their individual interests, and that of their countries of origin. Through this means, they directly or indirectly manipulate their host countries, and secretly tap information from them. The argument is that when a nation loss its vital information, and has no political and economic power to control it due to over dependent, obviously there is clear indication that the country has lost her sovereignty. Currently, technological revolution (digitalization revolution) is the most recent invention in the scientific and technological world. Professor Klaus Schwab cited in Akam and Kanza (2016) once states that digitalization is “a transformation unlike anything Mahew I. Obijekwu, PhD, Romanus I. Muomah, PhD & Charles K. Onebunne 73 humankind has experienced before”. He states that, while the theme of technology dominates any discussion on the digital revolution and the way it could transform Africa, we must not lose sight of its cultural aspects. To this end, Iyanda, in Akam and Kanza (2016), express that “Africa doesn't just need a digital revolution – it needs a cultural one, too”. In is quite interesting to note that this same digital revolution could also resurrect cultural renaissance. The fact remain a pan-Africanism has existed even before the emergence of digital revolution, and its use in business transaction across the border, but this was seriously hampered “unimaginative and rigid archaic laws”. The question remains, how does it affect African sovereignty? With globalization and digitalization, enemies are made, and rivals or competitors are no longer distanced from each other. With this, enemies are brought together or very close. This strengthens domination of other nations. As a result, the weaker nations and the vulnerable countries are still under the shackles of colonial control. The question, “where is African sovereignty?” still remain unanswered. All these are what AU as well as the proposed United State of Africa (USA) should be looking at. They should to see that Africa fit-in in this world of change. Africa needs to reposition its sovereignty in all ramifications.

Conclusion In this paper, we made effort to examine some of the objectives of Pan Africanism, and at the same time to find out if these objectives (like achieving African independence, unity and sovereignty) have been actualized in Africa. To this end, this work began with conceptual clarification, by which some of the words like, Pan Africanism, sovereignty and change are examined. It also examines the impact of Pan-Africanism (or Pan-African movement) towards African independence, unity and sovereignty. The question of globalization and digitalization as they affect African sovereignty are also analyzed. It is clear from the foregoing that African continent is still a sufferer till date. This work argues that the objective(s) of the African intellectuals in the formation of Pan Africanism, which led to the formation of OAU, and later AU is yet to be achieved. It concludes by calling on all Africans and African leaders to revive and work for common good so as to realize the lofty dreams of African liberators for a better Africa, especially in the present scientific and technological advancement. Africa is our continent, and we must be proud to be Africans.

Reference Althusser, L. (1971). Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation). https://en.wikipedia.org/.../ideology_and_Ideological_ States_Apparatuses. Accessed 14/06/2018 74 Pan-africanism and African Sovereignty in a World of Change

Akam, S. and Kanza, E. S. (2016). “Africa's Digital Revolution: A Look at the Technologies, Trends and People Driving It Africa Is Undergoing a Digital Revolution”. REUTERS: https://www.weforu.org/agend/2016. Accessed 18/06/2016. BBC English Dictionary. (1992). London: Harper-Collins Publisher. Dupre, B. (2010). 50 Political Ideas You Really Need to Know. Oxford: Quercus. Gaddafi, M. “Africa Must Unite or Die”. www.jpanafrican.org./docs/ vol4no10/4.10Sovereignty.pdf. Accessed 14/06/2018 Huntington, P. S., (1996). The Clashes of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster. K w a m e , N . ( 1 9 6 3 ) . A f r i c a M u s t U n i t e . N e w W o r l d P a p e r b a c k . https://www.amazon.com/Africa-Must-Unitee-World.../0717802965. Accessed 14/06/2018 M a n n h e i n , K . I d e o l o g y a n d U t o p i a . L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Mannheim. Access 14/06/2018 McLean, I. and McMillan, A. (2003). Concise Dictionary of Politics. New York: Oxford University Press. Nwanegbo-Ben, J. (2009). The Mind of Philosophy. Owerri: Advanced Graphic. Obijekwu, M. I. (2017). The Natural Flow. Awka: Unpublished Article. Obijekwu, M. I., Onebune, C., and Muomah, R. I. (2017). The Struggle for Control of African: Challenges facing African Intellectuals in the Restoration of African Identity in the Globe. Awka: Unpublished Paper. Odey, J. (2005). Racial Oppression in America and the Nonviolent Revolution of Martin Luther King, Jr. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd. Pardos, A. (2016). Pan Africanism and the Road to an African Renaissance. Potekhin, I. (1964). Pan-Africanism and the Struggle of two Ideologies. South Africa: South African Communist Party. http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/pan- africanism-and-the struggle of two Ideologies. Accessed 14/06/2018 Wang, A. M. and Francisca, J. (2008). “Preserving African Identity in the Globalization Process”. Essence Interdisciplinary International Journal of Philosophy, Vol.5. Lagos: Essence library. pp.49-61. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

DEVELOPMENT OF APPROPRIATE CONTENTS FOR WIDENING OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES OF ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGY GRADUATES IN AFRICAN ENVIRONMENT TO COPE WITH WORLD OF CHANGE

Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D. Department of Industrial Technical Education Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education University of Nigeria, Nsukka [email protected]

Abstract The study developed appropriate competencies accompanied with instructional strategies and training facilities for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates of Nigerian universities to cope with a world of change. Three research questions guided the study while null hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study adopted descriptive research design and was carried out in Enugu State. The population for the study was 109 subjects comprising lecturers of electrical/electronic technology and supervisors in electrical/electronic related industries. There was no sampling because of manageable size of the subjects. A structured questionnaire titled “Appropriate contents for widening occupational opportunities questionnaire” was used as instrument for data collection. The instrument was validated by three experts and Cronbach alpha reliability method was used to determine the internal consistency of the questionnaire items while 0.84 was obtained. Out of 109 copies of questionnaire administered on respondents with the help of three research assistants, only 101 copies were duly retrieved which represented 92.66 percent return rate. The data collected were analyzed using factor analysis and mean while t-test was used to test the three null hypotheses formulated. The findings revealed that the 47 contents, 58 instructional strategies and 45 training facilities are acceptable and viable measures for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment. Recommendations include that the competencies developed with instructional strategies and training facilities identified should be integrated to electrical/electronic technology programmes of Nigerian universities.

Keywords: Local contents, occupation, change, opportunities, factor analysis, integration

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 75 76 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

Introduction There are various educational programmes in the curricula of Nigerian universities and one of such programmes is called industrial technical education. Industrial technical education (ITE) is a special type of education designed to equip individuals with knowledge, skills, attitudes (competence), techniques, and methods in various occupational areas. Some of the components of industrial technical education programmes in Nigerian universities as at today include: automobile, building, metalwork, woodwork, electrical and electronic technology. Electrical/electronic technology as an aspect of ITE is expected to equip students with knowledge, skills and attitudes for paid or self employment. It is the application of scientific knowledge in the design, selection of materials, construction, operation and maintenance of electronics. College Board (2018) also explained that in electronics technology, students learn the basic skills needed to operate, maintain, install and repair electrical and electronic equipment. In electrical/electronic technology according to Knight (1994), students may study the behaviour of electrons and the practical uses to which such study can be applied. The graduates of electrical/electronic technology are expected to acquire skills or knowledge to construct, maintain, repair and service all kinds of electrical and electronic equipment and machines (Bakare, 2009). They are also expected to take up business or occupations within electrical/electronic technology. But what is happening to graduates in Nigerian society today is quite different from the purpose or objective of electrical/electronic technology programme. The graduates of electrical/electronic technology based on the findings of previous studies are not well equipped with relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes for paid jobs or to set up their own businesses. It is observed that the present contents of electrical/electronic technology programme of Nigerian universities are narrowed and obsolete and the facilities meant for effective implementation of these contents are not available for use while the available ones are also obsolete. Teachers of electrical/electronic technology also hardly teach their courses using modern strategies that can encourage skills acquisition and effective learning. World is changing and people in it make use of emerging technologies in their homes and offices. All these technologies will require maintenance with time and there is need for people to take occupation in them. Occupation is an activity through which one earns a living. Dictionary of occupational titles (2017) defined occupation as any activity in which a person engaged. Ede (2011) maintained that an occupation requires special training. Therefore emerging technologies in occupations necessitate some training to make students and graduates beneficially competent in them. Widening the contents of electrical/electronic technology programme has become imperative for the training of students and for occupational opportunities of graduates. Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 77

Content of a training programme gives directions to the trainers and the trainees. Content as defined by Bakare (2014) is what the teacher and the students pay attention to when they are teaching and learning. Kapoma and Namusokwe (2011) described content as a list of subjects, topics, skills, themes, concepts or works to be covered by teacher and his students. Content of a training programme can be in form of competence, skills, techniques, concepts or attitudes. The contents in this study are the skills, knowledge and attitudes for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical /electronic technology graduates. Ogwo in Asogwa (2010) explained that competency is characterized by clearly stated, attainable and measurable objectives, followed by identified knowledge, and skills that learners have to master within a given time frame. These contents if articulated well could be used to teach students and can be also used build the capacities of electrical/electronic technology graduates for occupational quality assurance. Development of good contents for training makes the training easier and efficient. In the opinion of Quirk (1995), development is the act of making an idea clearer by studying it more, by speaking or writing about it in more detail. Asogwa (2010) viewed development as the act of making something more organized. In the context of this study, development of contents involves: (a) determination of local and modern competencies in electrical/electronic technology; (b) identification of training facilities and instructional strategies for teaching the contents; (c) organizing what has been identified sequentially and logically in a manner that will make teaching easy for the trainer and trainees and (d) packaging what has been determined and identified and organized into units or modules of instruction with required facilities. Facilities are physical objects that facilitate a given work or activity. Yavala (2011) explained that facilities are those goods and services that help to facilitate teaching and learning process in any performance. Adequate and relevant training facilities make the learning process more satisfying. Facilities may include relevant tools, devices and equipment for teaching and acquiring relevant skills for maintaining woodwork machines and equipment. Various facilities such as sets of screw drivers, infra red rework station, soldering irons, cutting pliers, vacuum cleaners, magnifying desk lamps, fluxes, multi- meters could be used for maintenance of broken down electronic equipment and implementation of training contents. Implementation strategies are means of teaching prepared lessons to students. Delivery systems to be selected depend on the contents of the lesson (Bakare, 2014). A good trainer matches the contents of a lesson to delivery systems in order to achieve the objectives of the lesson (Ogbuanya & Bakare, 2017). Application of appropriate implementation strategies or delivery systems improves students' understanding. It enables the students to acquire relevant skills and knowledge. Ezeilo (2001) suggested delivery systems such as 78 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates seminars, workshops and conferences. Implementation strategies or delivery systems are different teaching methods or techniques and related resources for facilitating the implementation of the contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic graduates. Both experienced lecturers and supervisors in electrical/electronic industries could help retrain the graduates for occupational quality assurance. The general purpose of the study was to develop appropriate contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. Specifically the study sought to determine the: 1. Competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. 2. Instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. 3. Training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. Research questions The following research questions were posed: 1. What are the competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change? 2. What are the instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change? 3. What are the training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change? Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance: 1. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of respondents on the competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. 2. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of respondents on the instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 79

occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. 3. There is no significant difference in the mean responses of respondents on the training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change.

Methods The study adopted a descriptive survey design. Descriptive survey design according to Osuala (2005) is a design that studies characteristics and focuses on people, the vital facts of people and their beliefs, opinions, attitude, motivation and behaviors. Descriptive research design according to Kothari and Garg (2014) is appropriate for those studies which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group. The descriptive survey design was therefore adopted for this study because it aimed at using questionnaire to elicit facts, beliefs and opinions of experts about the development of contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. The study was conducted in Enugu State of Nigeria. The population for the study was 109 which comprised lecturers of electrical/electronic technology and supervisors in electrical/electronic industries in Enugu State. There was no sampling because of the manageable size of the population. A structured questionnaire titled: Appropriate Contents for Widening Occupational Opportunities Questionnaire (ACWOOQ) was used for data collection and was on 5-point Likert scale. The structured questionnaire had 150 items developed for collecting data in accordance with the research questions. The instrument was organized in three sections A-C. A centered on competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change, B dealt with instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change while C centered on training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. Each item in the instrument was assigned a five response scale of Strongly Agree or Required (SA or SR)-5, Agree or Required (A or R)-4, Undecided (U)-3, Disagree or Not Required (D or NR)-2, and Strongly Disagree or Not Required (SD or SNR)-1point. According to Lozano et al (2008), an instrument can be considered good for validity and reliability if it has between four (4) and seven (7) alternative responses. However, fewer options are acceptable 80 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates depending on the purpose and scope of the study (Bendig 1954; Mattell and Jacoby 1971; Jones and Scott 2013). The respondents were therefore asked to rank the response options to an item based on the level at which each item was required. The instrument was face-validated by three experts. These were experts in Department of Industrial Technical Education, University of Nigeria Nsukka and Department of Art Education. The title of the study, specific purposes, research questions and null hypotheses formulated were attached to each copy of the questionnaire given to the experts. The experts were asked to read the items under each research question and make useful corrections in order to improve the standard of the questionnaire. The experts were also requested to add any relevant item to the questionnaire. After one week, one of the researchers went round to collect the copies of the questionnaire given to the experts and effected the corrections accordingly. One hundred and fifty (150)items were retained out of 167 items presented to experts in form of questionnaire. In other to establish the internal consistency of the questionnaire items, Cronbach Alpha test of internal consistency was conducted on each section in the part 2 of the questionnaire. The researchers administered 20 copies of the structured questionnaire on lecturers of Electrical/electronic technology and supervisors in institutions and industries in Anambra State. The reason for administering the copies of the questionnaire on other set of respondents outside the study area was to obtain real reliability coefficient values for each sections of the questionnaire (Roberts, 2012). Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) 22 versions was found useful for data analysis. The result of the Cronbach alpha revealed the following: competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change (& = 0.81, n=20), instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change (&= 0.81, n= 20), training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change (&= 0.78, n= 20) while the overall reliability index yielded &= 0.89, n= 20. According to guidelines by Sekaran (2003), a coefficient of .60 is considered to be poor, 0.70 is acceptable, while over 0.80 is good. Olelewe and Agomuo (2016) also stated that the closer the Cronbach's alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency. Out of one hundred and nine (109) copies of the questionnaire administered to the respondents, 101 copies were duly retrieved which represent 92.12 percent return rate. Data collected were analyzed using factor analysis and mean for answering the research questions. For selecting the appropriate competencies for widening occupational Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 81 opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change, 0.50 as factor loading was utilized. Any competency with factor loading of 0.50 or above was regarded as required and any competency with factor loading less than 0.50 was regarded as not required. Also, any item with mean of 3.50 was regarded as required or appropriate while any one with mean below 3.50 was regarded as not required or not appropriate. T-test was employed for testing all the null hypotheses at 0.05 and relevant degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis of no significant difference was accepted for any item whose P- value was greater than the 0.05, but it was rejected for any item whose P-value was less than 0.05.

Results The results for the study were obtained from the research questions answered and hypotheses tested through data collection and analysis. The data for answering research questions and testing hypotheses were presented in Tables 1-3

Table 1: Outcome of Factor Analysis for answering Reseach Question 1 and T-test for Hypothesis 1 S/N Contents Factor loading P-Values Remarks Ho at 0.05 A Local contents in form of Competencies 1 Construction of extension sockets 0.95 0.53 Required NS using local materials such as woods as casing. 2 Construction of alarms using local 0.60 0.34 Required NS materials. 3 Troubleshooting of faults in extension 0.85 0.56 Required NS sockets and alarms. 4 Construction and assemblage of solar 0.71 0.33 Required NS power panel locally. 5 Maintenance of locally made solar 0.78 0.24 Required NS power systems. 6 Installation of locally made solar 0.82 0.16 Required NS power system. 7 Construction of automatic voltage 0.58 0.53 Required NS regulators using some local materials. 8 Construction of non ozone layer 0.56 0.41 Required NS depletion refrigerator and air conditioners. 9 Installation of non ozone layer 0.63 0.56 Required NS depletion refrigerator and air conditioners. 10 Maintenance of non ozone layer 0.73 0.34 Required NS depletion refrigerator and air conditioners. 82 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

11 Construction of illuminated white 0.78 0.26 Required NS board for teaching in remote areas. 12 Wiring of houses and installation of 0.82 0.31 Required NS electrical equipment locally made. 13 Design and construction of fire 0.56 0.34 Required NS detector for homes and offices. 14 Designing standard termination boards 0.79 0.21 Required NS for houses and offices. NS 15 Design and construction of distribution 0.73 0.25 Required boards. 16 Design and Construction of electrical 0.67 0.12 Required NS panels for the machines and heavy equipment. 17 Making of safety devices locally to 0.61 0.32 Required NS protect electronics and machines. 18 Design and construction of amplifiers 0.59 0.11 Required NS and other sound systems. 19 Design and construction of frequency 0.63 0.33 Required NS filters. 20 Rewinding of electric motor and 0.62 0.23 Required NS speakers. 21 Rewinding of burn transformers 0.77 0.13 Required NS locally. 22 Servicing of all locally made electrical 0.60 0.21 Required NS equipment and devices. 23 Repairing of locally made electrical/ 0.62 0.41 Required NS electronic equipment when faulty. 24 Construction of locally made ovens 0.61 0.12 Required NS and radiation. 25 Design and construction of hot plates 0.55 0.23 Required NS and immersion heater for kitchen use. 26 Construction of rechargeable lantern 0.68 0.54 Required NS and torches. 27 Making of locally made electrical 0.61 0.50 Required NS switches. B Modern contents in form of competencies 28 Maintenance of microwave oven. 0.62 0.34 Required NS 29 Service and repair of plasma 0.59 0.43 Required NS televisions. 30 Maintenance of flat screen Tvs. 0.65 0.13 Required NS 31 Operation of robotics and automation. 0.78 0.34 Required NS 32 Servicing of recent cameras such as 0.59 0.23 Required NS autofocus cameras. 33 Maintenance of consumer electronics. 0.69 0.54 Required NS 34 Knowledge about industrial electronic 0.56 0.23 Required NS and applications. 35 Maintenance of all kinds of smart 0.66 0.11 Required NS phones. Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 83

36 Servicing and repairing of ipads and 0.78 0.21 other recent telecommunication technologies. 37 Servicing of e-teaching technologies. 0.66 0.21 38 Maintenance and use of interactive 0.68 0.17 white boards. 39 Servicing and repairing of 0.75 0.44 mechatronics. 40 Maintenance of automated teller 0.62 0.24 machines. 41 Fixing and maintenance of power 0.54 0.13 windows and doors. 42 Servicing and repair of modern air 0.65 0.41 conditioners. 43 Maintenance of recent refrigerators. 0.51 0.33 44 Maintenance of modern washing 0.52 0.28 machines. 45 Servicing of keyless entry. 0.55 0.42 46 Maintenance of compact disk and 0.59 0.30 video players. 47 Servicing of power transformers 0.65 0.42 Key: NS = Not Significant, Ho = Hypothesis Data in Table 1 reveal that factor loading of the competencies ranged from 0.50 to 0.95. This indicated that all the 47 competencies could be used as contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. The table also indicated that each item had its P-value greater than 0.05. This showed that there was no significant difference in the mean responses of respondents on the competencies (contents) for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with a world of change. Therefore, the hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for the 47 competencies for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in woodwork machine maintenance. 84 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

Table 2: Mean responses of Respondents on the Instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of Electrical/Electronics Technology Graduates S/N Instructional strategies Mean SD P-Values Remarks Ho 1 Adoption of e-teaching for 3.98 0.77 0.53 Required NS instructional delivery 2 Learning by doing 3.76 0.79 0.34 Required NS 3 Compact disc and cassettes in 3.85 0.81 0.56 Required NS presentation 4 Audio-visual materials/objects 3.80 0.89 0.33 Required NS 5 Films and videos in delivering 3.78 0.83 0.24 Required NS lectures 6 Workshops on modern 3.82 0.86 0.16 Required NS electrical/electronic maintenance 7 Group dynamic 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 8 Adoption of dualised training 3.50 0.89 0.41 Required NS 9 Using internet as a means of 3.63 0.82 0.56 Required NS instruction delivery 10 Questioning technologists about 3.80 0.80 0.34 Required NS what they know 11 Interactive lecture 3.78 0.71 0.26 Required NS 12 Use of practice teaching 3.82 0.93 0.31 Required NS 13 Prepare and deliver skills to be 3.56 0.81 0.34 Required NS taught to students in slides 14 Deliver lectures inform of film 3.79 0.84 0.21 Required NS show to technologists 15 Simulation as teaching strategy 3.73 0.88 0.25 Required NS 16 Tape recorders to instruct 3.67 0.72 0.12 Required NS technologists 17 Using flow charts when 3.61 0.80 0.32 Required NS instructing trainees 18 Using different types of film 3.55 0.70 0.11 Required NS shows for instruction delivery 19 Using circuit diagrams of 3.66 0.82 0.42 Required NS different types of electronics for training 20 Using scraps of different types of 3.95 0.73 0.53 Required NS electronics 21 Small hands-on group training 3.76 0.79 0.34 Required NS 22 Evidenced based learning 3.85 0.71 0.56 Required NS 23 Using large group training 3.80 0.90 0.33 Required NS 24 Conversation with questions 3.78 0.83 0.24 Required NS posed to elicit thoughtful responses from learners 25 Verbal instructions 3.82 0.86 0.16 Required NS 26 Using photo sequences 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 27 Using picture/images of different 3.50 0.89 0.41 Required NS types of electronic equipment for teaching Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 85

28 Film viewing 3.63 0.81 0.56 Required NS 29 Dual training 3.80 0.81 0.34 Required NS 30 Group dynamic 3.78 0.70 0.26 Required NS 31 Distance learning 3.82 0.93 0.31 Required NS 32 Self paced learning 3.56 0.81 0.34 Required NS 33 Simulation 3.79 0.84 0.21 Required NS 34 Action plan preparation and 3.73 0.88 0.25 Required NS presentations 35 Symposium 3.67 0.71 0.12 Required NS 36 Individual and small group work 3.61 0.80 0.32 Required NS and presentations 37 Experience sharing 3.55 0.70 0.11 Required NS 38 Story analysis 3.66 0.82 0.42 Required NS 39 Brainstorming 3.95 0.71 0.53 Required NS 40 Inquiry based learning 3.76 0.79 0.34 Required NS 41 Seminar 3.85 0.81 0.56 Required NS 42 Group Exercises 3.80 0.90 0.33 Required NS 43 Webinar 3.78 0.83 0.24 Required NS 44 Debate 3.82 0.86 0.16 Required NS 45 Cooperative learning 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 46 Project based learning 3.50 0.89 0.41 Required NS 47 Action based learning 3.63 0.81 0.56 Required NS 48 Challenge based learning 3.80 0.81 0.34 Required NS 49 Activity based learning 3.78 0.76 0.26 Required NS 50 Project method 3.82 0.93 0.31 Required NS 51 Cognitive apprenticeship 3.67 0.71 0.12 Required NS instructional method 52 Guided discovery method 3.64 0.80 0.32 Required NS 53 Panel discussion 3.55 0.70 0.11 Required NS 54 Learning mode 3.50 0.82 0.42 Required NS 55 Meta-learning 3.95 0.71 0.53 Required NS 56 Reciprocal peer tutoring 3.76 0.79 0.34 Required NS 57 Programmed instructional method 3.85 0.83 0.56 Required NS 58 Presenting lessons in power 3.67 0.79 0.21 Required NS points and slides Key: SD = Standard Deviation, NS = Not Significant, Ho = Hypothesis Data in Table 2 reveal that 58 items had their mean values ranged from 3.50 to 3.98 and this shows that the mean value of each item was above the cut-off point of 3.50, indicating that all the 58 instructional strategies were required for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change. The Table also shows that the standard deviations of the items were within the range of 0.70 to 0.93; this indicated that the respondents were not far from the mean and one another in their responses. The Table 2 also indicated that all the items had their P-values greater than 0.05 which means that there 86 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates was no significant difference in the mean responses of the respondents on the instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for all the 58 instructional strategies Table 3: Mean responses of Respondents on the training facilities that could be utilized for widening the occupational opportunities of Electrical/Electronics Technology Graduates S/N Training facilities Mean SD P-Values Remarks Ho 1 Smart and conducive workshop 3.73 0.70 0.53 Required NS for training 2 Constant electricity/power supply 3.60 0.72 0.34 Required NS 3 Internet facilities for downloading 3.81 0.84 0.56 Required NS relevant materials during training 4 Ultrasonic cleaner 3.80 0.85 0.33 Required NS 5 Interactive white board/magic 3.77 0.83 0.24 Required NS boards 6 Projector 3.80 0.86 0.16 Required NS 7 Computer systems 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 8 Power soldering iron 3.56 0.89 0.41 Required NS 9 Soldering lead 3.63 0.78 0.56 Required NS 10 Soldering paste 3.78 0.88 0.09 Required NS 11 Pickers for removing tiny and 3.86 0.80 0.34 Required NS hidden objects from the machines 12 Torque screw driver/precision 3.78 0.84 0.26 Required NS tools 13 Eyelets and eye letting tools 3.82 0.79 0.31 Required NS 14 Hot lead sucker/suction devices 3.56 0.82 0.34 Required NS for removing melted solder 15 Long nose pliers for holding tiny 3.77 0.84 0.21 Required NS object in hidden place 16 Cutting pliers for cutting flexible 3.75 0.87 0.25 Required NS objects 17 Digital multi-testers for testing 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS components and measuring electrical quantities 18 Fluxes (Non-corrosive liquid 3.55 0.89 0.41 Required NS flux) to prevent oxidation during soldering 19 Solder-resistant paint used in 3.63 0.78 0.56 Required NS soldering 20 Magnifying lens for enlarging 3.78 0.88 0.09 Required NS tiny objects 21 Magnifying desk lamp 3.86 0.80 0.34 Required NS 22 Smart phones 3.78 0.84 0.26 Required NS 23 Ipads 3.82 0.79 0.31 Required NS 24 Meterless meter 3.56 0.82 0.34 Required NS Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 87

25 User manuals 3.77 0.84 0.21 Required NS 26 Screw extractors 3.75 0.87 0.25 Required NS 27 Mechatronic products 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 28 Electronic medical equipment 3.59 0.89 0.41 Required NS 29 Digital oscilloscopes 3.63 0.78 0.56 Required NS 30 Special software for diagnosing 3.78 0.88 0.09 Required NS faults in electronic equipment 31 Modern air conditioners and 3.86 0.80 0.34 Required NS refrigerators 32 Power screw drivers 3.78 0.84 0.26 Required NS 33 Anti static wrist strap and mats 3.82 0.79 0.31 Required NS 34 PCB holders 3.52 0.82 0.34 Required NS 35 Spatula 3.77 0.84 0.21 Required NS 36 SIM card cutters 3.75 0.87 0.25 Required NS 37 Allen keys 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 38 Mobile openers 3.57 0.89 0.41 Required NS 39 Digital battery testers 3.63 0.78 0.56 Required NS 40 Volt stick 3.58 0.85 0.53 Required NS 41 DC power source 3.53 0.89 0.41 Required NS 42 Test light 3.63 0.78 0.56 Required NS 43 Modern socket outlets for 3.78 0.81 0.09 Required NS powering sensitive electrical/electronic equipment 44 Catalogues of various electronics 3.68 0.79 0.52 Required NS and electrical equipment 45 Conducive classrooms for 3.71 0.83 0.10 Required NS training Key: SD = Standard Deviation, NS = Not Significant, Ho = Hypothesis

Data in Table 3 revealed that 45 items had their mean values ranged from 3.52 to 3.86 and this shows that the mean value of each item was above the cut-off point of 3.50, indicating that all the 45 training facilities could be utilized for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. Similarly, the standard deviation of contents of the training programme ranged from 0.70 to 0.89 indicating that the respondents were close to one another in their opinion. The Table 3 also indicated that all the items had their P-values greater than 0.05. This indicated that there was no significant difference in the mean responses of the respondents on the training facilities that could be utilized by trainers for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference was upheld for all the 45 training facilities. 88 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

Discussion of Findings The findings of this study revealed 47 competencies (contents) for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change, 58 instructional strategies for implementing the contents for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates and 45 training facilities that could be utilized for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change. The contents of a training programme determine the quality of skills acquired by the trainees. The results of the study in Table 1 agreed with Giachino and Gallington (1977) that if content has no components of non – loading items, it is assumed that the factorial validity of the content is high. The finding also agreed with the opinion of Jain (2010) that the higher the absence of low loading items the more important and suitable the contents. The finding was in agreement with the opinion of Kapoma and Namusokwe (2011) that content is a list of subjects, skills, topics, themes, concepts or works to be covered in a programme. Equipping teachers of technology such as technologists and instructors with necessary contents during retraining promotes skills acquisition among students; because these teachers are charged with the responsibility of equipping students with relevant skills and attitudes in occupational areas of technical education in schools and colleges These findings agreed with the submission of Bakare (2010) who stated that innovations and 21st century technologies such as modern equipment, tools and machines should be integrated to the curriculum of electrical/electronic technology. These findings were in agreement with the findings of Ogbuanya and Bakare (2017) who that 22 competencies in e-teaching were appropriate for capacity building of technical education lecturers, 44 instructional strategies for implementing e-teaching contents for capacity building of technical education lecturers and 33 training facilities and procedures for building the capacity of technical education lecturers in e-teaching. The findings of this study agreed with the findings of Asogwa (2010) who conducted a study on development of entrepreneurial competency support programme in goat production for enhancing the income of teachers of agriculture in secondary in Enugu State and found that 11 competency items were required in planning for goat production, 17 in providing housing, 29 in breeding goat, 29 in rearing weaned goats, six in health management of goats, 10 in marketing of goats and 27 in packaging competency items in goat production enterprise into a competency based programme. This finding was also in agreement with the study of Akinduro (2006) who carried out a study on electrical installation and maintenance work skills needed by technical college's graduates to enhance their employability in Ondo State. The author found out that the graduates of technical colleges needed domestic Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 89 installation skills, industrial installation skills, cable jointing skills, battery charging skills and winding skills in electrical machine for employment in Ondo State. The findings of this study agreed with the findings of Ogbuanya, and Bakare (2014) who conducted a study on mechatronics skills required for integration into electrical/electronic engineering technology programme in polytechnics for sustainable employment of graduates in contemporary Nigeria. The findings revealed that 16 mechatronicc contents and 40 mechatronics skills were required for integration into electrical/electronic engineering technology programme in polytechnics for sustainable employment of graduates. This finding was in agreement with the findings of Nwachukwu, Bakare and Jika (2011) who carried out a study to identify effective laboratory safety practice skills required by electrical and electronics students for effective functioning in the laboratory of technical colleges in Ekiti State. The authors found that 10 safety practice skills were required to use electrical hand tools, 25 safety practice skills in operating electrical and electronic power tools and machines and 10 safety practice skills for working in electrical/electronic workshop. The results of the study in Table 2 show that all the instructional strategies could be used for implementing the contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. These findings agreed with the finding of Olelewe and Okwor (2017) that using ICT supported strategies for teaching improves learning outcome of students and make the teaching easier for teachers. The findings were in agreement with the finding of Onah (2013) who carried out a study on development of a digital empowerment programme for students on e-learning in the universities in southeast of Nigeria and found out that demonstration, cooperative learning, discussion and guided discovery are suitable as instructional strategies for teaching competence to students. Teaching strategies/ methods serve as medium in which teachers transfer their planned instruction to students. Also the finding were in consonance with the findings of Ogbuanya, Bakare and Igweh (2009) that teaching strategies such as reciprocal peer tutoring improve someone's competence in electrical/electronic and other related subjects when effectively applied during instruction The results of the study in Table 3 show that all the training facilities could be used for implementing the contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. These findings were are also in line with the finding of Adirika and Alike (2008) that technologies such as computer, relevant electronic equipment, internet facilities, email, cell phones, e-teaching facilities, Ipads among others are yet to be fully used for teaching of school subjects due to inadequate skill possessed by the lecturers. 90 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

Furthermore, the results of hypotheses one to three showed that there were no significant differences in the mean responses of lecturers and supervisors on the contents, instructional strategies and training facilities for implementing the contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates. This means that the lecturers and supervisors had similar perceptions on the contents, instructional facilities and training facilities for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates in African environment to cope with world of change. That is, they have the same opinions on most of the items presented tables 1-3.

Conclusion The essence of introducing electrical/electronic technology programme into the curriculum of Nigerian universities is to equip students with knowledge, skills, attitudes and techniques for paid or self employment. What we have in our society today is contrary to the objective or purpose of including electrical/electronic technology into the Nigerian university curriculum. The majority of graduates of electrical /electronic are jobless and observation reveals that most of these graduates lack competences or skills for paid employment or to take occupations within electrical/electronic technology. The researcher now carried out this study in order to widen the occupational opportunities for electrical/electronic technology graduates. Appropriate contents, instructional strategies and training facilities were therefore determined for widening the occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology graduates.

Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, the researchers presented the following recommendations for consideration: 1. The contents determined in this study should be integrated into the electrical/electronic technology programme of Nigerian universities for training of students. 2. Relevant facilities and materials should be supplied by government and enabling individuals for effective implementation of the developed contents in electrical/electronic technology. 3. Teachers should be encouraged to make use of the determined strategies for the implementation of the contents for widening occupational opportunities of electrical/electronic technology programme. Jimoh Bakare, Ph.D 91

References Adirika, B.N. & Alike, G.U. (2008). Utilization of ICT for teaching and learning in tertiary institution: A case study of Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. In B.G. Nworgu (ed), Education in the information age: Global challenges and enhancement strategies (pp. 172- 177). Nsukka: University Trust Publishers Akinduro, I. R. (2006) .Electrical Installation and Maintenance Work skills Needed by Technical College's Graduates to enhance their Employability in Ondo State. M. Ed Project Submitted to the Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Asogwa, V.C. (2010). Development of entrepreneurial competency support programme in goat production for enhancing the income of teachers of agriculture in secondary in Enugu State. M. Ed Project Submitted to the Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Bakare J.A. (2008). The 21st century technology to be integrated into electrical installation and maintenance practice trade curriculum . a paper presented for a course VTE 550, curriculum development in industrial technical education at department of vocational teacher education, university of Nigeria, Nsukka Bakare, J. (2014). Development and validation of cell phone maintenance training modules for national diploma students. An Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Baruch, Y. (1999). Response rate in academic studies- A comparative analysis, Human relations, 52, pp.421-438 Bendig, A. W. (1954). Reliability and the number of rating scale categories. Journal of Applied Psychology, 38, 38–40 College Board (2018). Electronics Technology. Retrieved August 7, 2008 from www.collegeboard.com Dictionary of Occupational Titles (2017). Electrical/electronics engineering occupations. Retrieved 12- 06- 2018 Ede, E.O. (2011). Occupational analysis and course construction in industrial technical education. Nsukka: Godjikson publishers Ezeilo, J. N. (2001). Women's socio economic and legal rights. Enugu: Women's aids collectives Giachino, J.W. & Gallington, R.C. (1977). Course construction in industrial arts, vocational and technical education. Chicago: America technical society Jones, W. P. & Scott, A. L. (2013). Optimal number of questionnaire response categories: More may not be better. SAGE Open 1–10 DOI: 10.1177/2158244013489691 Kapoma, G. C. & Namusokwe, C. (2011). “When is the Curriculum Content of Social 92 Widening Occupaonal Opportunies of Electrical/Electronic Technology Graduates

Relevance”. Zambia: Educational resource and informational site Knight, S. A. (1994). Electronics Two. London: Hartnolls Limited. Kothari, C.R. & Garg, G. (2014). Research methodology, methods and techniques. India: new age international publishers Lozano, L. M., Garcı´a-Cueto, E., & Mun˜iz, J. (2008). Effect of the number of response categories on the reliability and validity of rating scales. Methodology: European Journal of Research Methods for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, 4(2), 73–79. Mattell, M. S. & Jacoby, J. (1971). Is there an optimal number of alternatives for Likert scale items? study I: Reliability and validity. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 31, 657–674. Olelewe, C.J. & Agomuo, E.E. (2017). Effects of b-learning and 2f2 learning environments on students' achievement in QBASIC programming. Computer & Education, 103 (2016) 76- 86 Olelewe, C.J. & Okwor, A.N. (2017). Lecturers' perception of interactive whiteboard for instructional delivery in tertiary institutions in Enugu State, Nigeria. Journal of computers in Education. DOI 10.1007/s40692-017-0077-6. Accessed on March, 2017 Ogbuanya, T.C., Bakare, J.A. & Igweh, A. U. (2009). Reciprocal Peer Tutoring and Academic Achievement of Students in Electronic Technology in Technical Colleges in Southwestern, Nigeria. A Paper presented at annual conference of Nigerian Vocational Association held at University of Nigeria, Nsukka on 22nd – 25th, 2009. Ogbuanya, T. C. & Bakare, J. (2014). Mechatronics skills required for Integration into Electrical/Electronic Engineering Technology Programme in Polytechnics for Sustainable Employment of Graduates in Contemporary, Nigeria Vocational Association Journal, vol. 18 (3),197-222 Ogbuanya, T.C. & Bakare, J. (2017). Development of Appropriate E-teaching Contents for Capacity Building of Technical Education Lecturers of Colleges of Education in Lagos State. International Journal of u- and e- Service, Science and Technology, 10 (8), 13-24 OECD (2013). OECD Skills Outlook 2013: First Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264204256-en Quirk, L. (1995). Longman Dictionary of contemporary English. Spain: Longman Group Limited Sekaran, S. (2003). Measurement: Scaling, reliability, validity. In Research methods for business: A skill building approach. London: Wiley. Yavala, T.D. (2011). Strategies for bridging gender imbalance in technical and vocational education in Taraba State. An Unpublished M. Ed Thesis submitted to Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF CARE- GIVING TO THE AGED IN RURAL IGBOLAND OF EASTERN NIGERIA AND THE EFFECTS OF YOUTH MIGRATION: THE OLD TESTAMENT APPROACH

Echeta Uzonna Ph.D Department of Religion and Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D Department of Religion and Cultural Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka [email protected]

Abstract The study examined care-giving to the aged in Igboland with particular reference to rural aged dwellers and also considered Old Testament approach to elderly care giving. The plight of the aged and the challenges associated with providing care for them in contemporary times has become a phenomenon of concern. Migration of the youth to urban cites was identified as the major cause of the problem, while other factors include changes in care-giving strategies and philosophy of the young about old people. Two hundred and sixty (260) questionnaires were distributed to young people who are either care- givers, or have lived with and observed aged people closely. Secondary sources for the study were from text books, journal articles, eBooks and internet materials. The study adopted qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and used simple percentage, statistics and standard deviation for the quantitative; descriptive qualitative method for the qualitative data. Findings showed that migration of youths from rural to urban areas led to families' minimal involvement in elderly care –giving. Rural aged are therefore subjected to physical and psychological loneliness because of the absence of their children. The study finally recommended the Israeli approach to elderly care- giving as a model for Igbo people and appeals to the government to collaborate with families and also establish reasonable welfare policies for the aged.

Keywords: Elderly, Aged, Senior citizens, Gerontology, Migration and Diaspora

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 93 94 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon

Introduction Indications of aging challenges in most world societies are evidenced from the statistical records and projections of the World Health Organization and United Nations. The challenges of aging and how to cope with caring for the elderly are therefore not peculiar to Igbo society. Aging is a natural process that most humans experience as life progresses and it is usually associated with weakness of organs and depreciation of strength. Aging characteristics are picturesquely stated in Ecclessiastes 12. It is generally believed that aging begins to set in from the age of sixty – five but for majority of Igbo people, the real aged are those who have reached the age of seventy and beyond ( information gathered from oral source). The elderly are addressed as seniors or senior citizens in countries like Israel and America and the elderly class occupies a very important position in these societies. The study and the science of aging is known as gerontology. The United States government is committed to the welfare of its senior citizens. The level of its commitment is shown by the way demographic records of old people are taken in order to put necessary policies and strategies in place. Oritman, Velkoff and Hogan (2014) carried out a research on the aging population in the United States and their findings showed that the trend in growth rate will pose a big challenge to the united states in terms of policy making , social security programs and medicare. Interestingly, United Nations as part of their concern for the welfare of elderly persons has chosen June 15 of every year as the world elderly Abuse Awareness Day. Featuring on this day are- deliberations on the challenges facing elderly persons by governments, people and stakeholders; other people from all works of life will be permitted to make their input on how to tackle the problem of the aged. In the traditional Igbo setting, elderly people were cherished because they were believed to be invaluable to the society. People honoured and looked after their aged people collectively both at community and family levels. Given the fact that Igbo people were predominantly farmers, the young and middle aged were available then to render helping hands to their old ones. Another strategy which enhanced care-giving was the extended family pattern which implies that parents and children together with other paternal relations made up the family unit. The Igbo people lived in clusters in their small hamlets and this habitation style was a big advantage and aided communal sharing. Communal living meant that people shared what they had together with their neighbours and equally tackled their problems jointly. Part of child upbringing is educating children to honour and respect elderly people and to regard every elder the way they have regard for their own parents. It is the Igbo philosophy that a child is a child of all -nwa bu nwa ora and therefore children could freely attend to the needs of any elder as they would do to their very parents. Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 95

Children could be corrected and disciplined by any older person if they misbehaved (Okwueze 2004). Overtime, this philosophy and family structure began to fizzle out gradually especially with the dawn of modernization and technology. The urban cities presented more attractive job offers and prospects of better lifestyle with ease. In response to this, most of the young people migrated to urban cities in their enterprising and entrepreneurial zeal to get money in order to support their vulnerable aged at home. For them, it was more acceptable to endure harsh conditions of life in urban cities than struggling in the village (Dike 1982 ). This mass exodus of the youth has created a gap in care-giving to the aged. In fact, the effect of youth migration to urban areas has worsened the plight of the aged in some rural communities like Obollo Afo, Oba, Nru, Ntezi, Oho ozalla and Aku villages. Most rural elders feel lonely and abandoned. The condition of the aged is so crucial that Nigeria is described as the sixth worst place on earth for the old people (Maina 2013) and as having the highest rate of depression among the elderly people (Oguntola 2013). These papers identified various other challenges facing the aged as lack of proper health care, no social amenities, non- payment of pension, gross neglect or abuse of the elderly and lots more. Much emphases are placed on government minimal participation especially in not giving the aged desired assistance in health care and other social amenities, the worst is the delay/denial of pension. All these have aggravated the sufferings of elders in Nigeria. One other factor that compounds the problem of the aged in Igboland and Nigeria as a whole is the fact that the National Policy on the Care and welfare of older persons is still in draft form since March 2003 as voiced by Aboderin (Aboderin 2006). For Chukwu, the non implementation of the policy may This is probably be because old people constitute a relatively small portion of the entire population (Chukwu 2006). The dilemma of the aged in Igbo rural communities necessitated this study. However, the study is not an added voice to various appeals of writers concerning their plight but an examination of how youth migration to urban areas has affected care giving to senior citizens in rural Igboland. It would also identify other related factors that worsen the condition of the aged and finally make an attempt to proffer solutions by using the Old Testament approach to elderly issues as model.

Review of Literature The Igbo people are one of the largest three ethnic groups in Nigeria and their spoken language is generally Igbo language and a wide range of dialects. The Igbo culture area covers the settlements of Agbor, Kwalle (west Niger), Diobu, Umuabayi (Port Harcourt), Arochukwu, Afikpo, Isiagu (Abakaliki Area), Enugu Ezike, (Nsukka Area) and Ebu- West (Niger Igbo: Onwuejeogu (1981). 96 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon Onunwa (2005) adds that the Igbo people share a common boundary with Edo state in the West, Ijaw and Kalabari in the South, the Idoma and Igala in the Northwest, Tiv and Ogoja in the North. They are therefore found in Rivers, Delta and part of Akwa Ibom states. The people so discussed here are the occupants of South eastern Nigeria who have a total land area of about 15000sq miles about 41000kmls. Their spoken language is generally Igbo language and a wide range of dialects. History has it that the Igbo people are a group of people who are believed to originate from Nri, a cultural group that shares a strong religious and cultural ideology with the Igbo in general. In fact, it is impossible to isolate what derives from Nri culture from what derives from other Igbo cultures. Nri people are known as both the progenitors and the priests of the whole Igbo race and as such they are high priests and king makers. Duhaze acknowledges that they take precedence of the other fraternities, priestly and social activites (Onwuejeogwu1981).The Igbo live in patrilineages called Umunna. Patrilineages grow to form villages and groups of villages form towns known as Obodo.Even though Onwuejeogwu (2000) holds firmly to the fact that Igbo origin is traceable to Nri Kingdom and claims that this is the only argument that has oral tradition back up, the question of the origin of Igbo people still remains a topic of debate. The origin of Igbo people is a phenomenon that is surrounded with much argument that seems to be inconclusive. Nweke (2011) describes it as a mystery. In Onwu's assessment, Igbo origin appears to be a puzzle simply because people have not shown interest in such studies (Onwu 2000). However, many studies on Igbo origin have been embarked upon since this observation was made. Some of the contributions will be discussed here. Commenting on Igbo quest to establish their origin, Afigbo commends this zeal as a worthwhile venture ideally expected from every group of people not just the Igbo (Afigbo 1975). Iweadighi (2013) describes Igbo origin as one shrouded with uncertainty and highlights the various versions of their origin. These versions are- the Israeli Version, the Middle East Version, Igbo Centred Version, the Awka/ Orlu version, the Idah Version, the Benin and Nri version each making attempt to explain how the Igbo people emerged. He however concludes that they are irreconcilable versions. Iroegbu (2011) systematically dwells on the meaning of the name Igbo, their origin, and their lifestyle and delineated how this group of people has continuously impacted their environ. He states that why Igbo people cannot know whom they really are and where they come from is due largely to their high migration culture. Iroegbu's contribution came up as a reaction to Ozodi Osuji's question of what the word Igbo means. Acholonu (2009) in her speech during a book presentation They Lived before Adam-Prehistoric Origins of the Igbo: Never Been Ruled, glaringly and convincingly gave the historical origin of the Igbo people. Her report emerged from a research of over twenty years and scientific discoveries Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 97 in the area of archaeology. The historian gathered her data through paleontology (study of human fossils), genetic and DNA Engineering, Linguistics and also through esoteric records of lost scriptures. Catherine traces the origin of the Igbo as far back as the time of the early man/ homo erectus, who is the direct ancestor of the homo sapiens (modern man).From her investigation, She claims that the Igbo seeded other races of the world and gave them culture and civilization Their language also is traceable to the one world language/ mother tongue of humanity before God confused their tongue at Babel. Catherine's work reveals that the Igbo are the oldest single group of people on planet earth. To confirm her claims about Igbo people's early presence on earth, she states that the Yoruba god Obatanla has the inscription of the “Father of the Igbo nation” and this god is revered in Yorubaland. Acholonu's study being a later study than that of Onwuejeogwu with facts before us should be considered as authentic and should supersede the claims made earlier by Onwuejeogwu. In traditional Igbo set up, the family structure was that of extended family which went beyond the immediate members of the family consisting of father , mother and their children. Other relations from the father were regarded as members of same family and they shared many things in common. Uchendu (1995) a known scholar in Igbo affairs writes extensively on the extended family of the Igbo people and explains how it operates. He notes that Igbo people lived together in what he describes as clusters, though they had their individual hamlets. Ekeokpara regards the extended family as the social and ethical aspects of Igbo traditional society. He defines the composition of this family unit as father , mother, brother and sisters of their immediate families and those who can trace their origin by blood to a common ancestor or progenitor. Every Igbo community has its own type of extended family system. The family plays the role of educating the children on Igbo philosophy of being one's brother's keeper. Part of the education of children as they grew up was to accord respect to old persons who were not necessarily their biological parents. Giving voluntary assistance to them was equally encouraged. Interestingly, families were not run on the basis of the nuclear membership but extended family was more operative. There was a philosophical notion of communal existence where the spirit of brotherhood pervaded the atmosphere. In fact, there is the notion that a child is a child of all -nwa bu nwa ora and therefore children could freely attend to the needs of any elder as they would do to their very parents. Children on the other hand received correction and discipline from (Okwueze 2004). Communalism is one lifestyle of Igbo people that has remained overtime in spite of modernity and new developments They usually gather under the auspices of town unions which provides them a good interactive forum and enables them solve their immediate problems the best they can ,but that does not make them to throw away individualism. 98 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon People still stick to their person decisions on where to live or the best job to do (Oguejiofor 2010). Religiously too, the aged people who are believed to dwell in two worlds are revered even much more because of the advisory roles they play to individuals and the entire community. Spiritually, old people occupied a significant position in Igboland. They are believed to have the privilege of seeing spirits/ ha na- ahu muo. Only those that lived up to good old age and had good lifestyle were qualified to join the ancestral cult at death ( Ugwu and Ugwueye 2004 ) . A major trait of Igbo people which is widely acknowledged is their migration/diaspora (dispersion) tendency Chukwuezi (2011). The reason why they travel from the rural to the urban cities is because of their enterpreneurial business skill and this makes them to maintain dual locations. Igbo people are migrants to the core. Onunwa rates the Igbo as the most widely spread and travelled single ethnic group in Africa. He estimates that over ten million of their population live in other parts of the world ( Onunwa 2005).This same fact is echoed by many who have either studied the Igbo or interacted with them. In his own assessment, Ikpeanyibe (2000) writes this concerning Igbo diaspora nature, the Igbo people are extreme migrants. They are the most travelled peoples of the world. Explaining this further, he gives an instance given by one Urakpo who said that any place Igbo people are not found is unsafe for human habitation. In fact, for him, if he gets to any place and finds no Igbo there, he will make haste to leave. Igbo people travel out of their domain in order to find greener pastures and more favourable economic gain. Any place they notice glimpses of success attracts them and as soon as they settle, they discover untapped opportunities and bring them into use and before long they develop the place. Dike (1982) describes Igbo people as known migrants. He explains further that their purpose of migration is to develop their home land. Young people are prepared to endure rough and hard conditions in urban cites and from their struggles send help to their vulnerable aged in the village. Uwechie speaks from a socio- economic perspective and maintains that Igbo people are developers and are all over the place, with a huge presence in Lagos and Kano (Uwechie 2010). Nwoye (2011) reasons slightly differently by drawing attention to the fact that Igbo migration is not only prompted by economic pursuit. Sometimes other factors like colonisation and security can make them change their location. Issues of security have in recent times led to migrations of thousands of Igbo people both from outside and within. Significantly too it is to be noted that Igbo elders maintain that the Igbo people did not migrate from elsewhere to their present location in Nigeria. Commenting on the issue of care giving in Igbo experience, Dickson also highlighted the importance of elderly care to Igbo community. In fact, he describes elderly care as a Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 99

“key Phenomenon” in Igboland. It is the family that champions care giving and the government and other institutions are yet to standardize elderly care and welfare. Uwakwe and Modebe (2007) share the opinion of Dickson and note that the family is the bedrock and source of care for older persons in Nigeria. They conducted a research in some Igbo communities and came up with the impression that the extended family system should be strengthened otherwise older people will be totally abandoned. They make it clear that older people are prone to suffering disability and their situation gets worsened when their children dissert them and also due to harsh economy. The various contributions reviewed make it clear that Igbo people as a group are devoted to their aged and had the extended family and the spirit of brotherhood that enhanced this elderly care giving. Works reviewed clarify the uniqueness of Igbo people as natural migrants, a people with high initiatives, enterprising, having a liberal spirit by regarding everywhere as home. One essential outcome of their migration is the development they bring to their host community. Nonetheless, this practice of deserting home, brings significant effect back home. It is this effect of migration especially on how their aged folks are cared for which the reviewed works have not addressed that is the focus of this study. This study therefore intends to fill the gap of the nexus between the migration of youths and poor care giving to the aged in rural Igbo communities. Youth migration to urban cities create huge challenges to care giving. The aged are most times left with hired and alien people who may be unfriendly to them and even maltreat or abuse them. This study therefore attempts to establish the fact that rural aged are abandoned by their children and loved ones to a large extent; the rural aged are not effectively looked after in contemporary times ; the new strategies to care giving and the accompanying challenges; finally, attempt would be made to use the Old Testament approach to proffer solutions.

Hypotheses The literature review draws attention to the issue of loneliness, abandonment and hostility of care givers towards the aged. Based on the facts from the review the following hypotheses are given: Hypothesis 1: There is significant relationship between youth migration to urban cities and poor care giving to the rural aged. Hypothesis 2: The aged in the rural communities are exposed to more suffering than those in the urban cities. 100 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon Research Methodology The study combined qualitative and quantitative strategies. The data for the study were collected through questionnaires, interviews and existing literature. The questionnaires and interviews represent the primary source of information for the study. Some towns were randomly selected which include Obollo Afor, Oba, Nru, Aku ,Ntezi and Oha Ozalla, all in Northern Igboland . Two hundred and sixty questionnaires (260) were distributed and all recovered. Respondents were both male and female, young people who have either been care givers to old people or those who have lived with them and observed them. The non literate aged were interviewed with the questionnaires by the use of simple vernacular and answers translated. Responses were sifted based on the four point scale (Strongly Agreed (SA), Agreed (A), Disagreed ( D) and Strongly Disagreed ( SD) and Comment, that best describes the extent to which the respondents agree with each question. The study adopted simple percentage, descriptive statistics and standard deviation for the analysis of quantitative data, also descriptive qualitative method was adopted for the qualitative data.

Results Table 1: The family and care giving to the elderly Family and care giving Strongly Agreed Disagreed Strongly Total Agreed Disagreed The family is a sure security for the aged 108 117 27 8 260 (41.5%) (45.0%) (10.4%) (3.1%) (100%) Family members provide all necessary 70 116 51 23 260 care to their old people (26.9%) (44.6%) (19.6%) (8.8%) (100%) It is a difficult task to care for old people 61 120 49 30 260 in rural places (23.5%) (46.2%) (18.8%) (11.5%) (100%) Elders are difficult to please 61 120 49 30 260 (23.5%) (46.2%) (18.8%) (11.5%) (100%) Other distant relations can extend help to 70 156 25 9 260 old people in traditional rural community (26.9%) (60.0%) (9.6%) (3.5%) (100%) In contemporary times, families find it 91 116 42 11 260 difficult to care for their elders because (35.0 %) (44.6%) (16.2%) (4.2%) (100%) of job demands Rural elders lack money 104 79 52 25 260 (40.0 %) (30.4%) (20.0%) (9.6%) (100%) Rural elders lack necessary facilities and 96 108 40 16 260 human resources not just money (36.9 %) (41.5%) (15.4%) (6.2%) (100%) Source: Field work, 2014 Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 101

The table 1 above sampled the opinion of the respondents on the care giving to the elderly by the family. In order to fully capture this, the study explored 8 variables which addressed areas where the elderly needed help and sustainability. The first variable on the table is- “the family is a sure security for the aged”. 41.5% of the respondents strongly agreed that family is a sure security for the aged, also 45.0% of the studied population agreed that family is a sure security for the aged. On the contrary, 10.4% and 3.1% disagreed and strongly disagreed with the opinion that family is a sure security for the aged. The result however revealed that family is a sure security for the aged in Igbo land. Furthermore, the second variable on the table captured family as provider of all necessary care to the old people. The result shows that 26.9% strongly agreed, 44.6% agreed, -19.6% disagreed and 8.8% strongly disagreed; that family members provide all necessary care to their old people. The result implied that family members provide all necessary care to their old people. For the third variable –“It is a difficult task to care for old people in rural places” to this variable, 23.5% strongly agreed-46.2% agreed-18.8% disagreed and 11.5% strongly disagreed. From the reports gathered, it is a fact that taking care of the old people who live in rural places is a difficult task. The fourth variable in the table states that elders are difficult to please and the following answers were given: 23.5% strongly agreed, 36.2% agreed,28.5% and 11.5% strongly disagreed. The result showed that elders are difficult to please. On the fifth variable in the table- other distant relations can extend help to old people in traditional rural community, 26.9% strongly agreed, 60.0% agreed, 9.6% disagreed and 3.5 strongly disagreed. This proved the fact that distant relations can be helpful in providing care giving to the aged especially in traditional society. The sixth variable is that in contemporary times, family members find it difficult to take care of their elderly ones because of job demands. 35.0% strongly agreed to this assertion, 44.6% agreed, 16.2% disagreed and 4.2% strongly disagreed. Therefore, from the result it is clear that families find it difficult to take care of their elders in contemporary times due to job commitments. Variable 7 in the table states that “rural elders lack money” and the following responses were given- 40.0% strongly agreed, 30.4% agreed, 20.0% disagreed, 9.6% strongly disagreed. The result revealed that rural really lack money since a greater percentage strongly agreed to this. The eight variable states that “rural elders lack other necessary facilities and human resources, not just money”. Answers given are-36.9% strongly agreed, 41.5%, 15.4% disagreed and 6.2% strongly disagreed, proving that the rural aged also lack human resources, other basic facilities in addition to money. 102 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon

Table 2: Rural-Urban migration and the problem of care-giving Rural-Urban migration and the Strongly Agreed Disagreed Strongly Total problem of care-giving to aged Agreed Disagreed The youths migrate to the urban to find 161 59 24 16 260 jobs (61.9%) (22.7%) (9.2%) (6.2%) (100%) Young Igbo people like to stay in the 43 46 74 97 260 village to look after their old ones (16.5%) (17.7%) (28.5%) (37.3%) (100%) Elders in the rural communities are 91 93 43 33 260 physically lonely because of the absence (23.5%) (46.2%) (18.8%) (12.7%) (100%) of their loved ones Elders in the rural places suffer 59 125 59 17 260 psychological loneliness (22.7%) (48.1%) (22.7%) (6.5%) (100%) Rural elders have health problems 87 85 57 31 260 (33.5%) (32.7%) (21.9%) (11.9%) (100%) Family members of rural elders make 25 99 73 25 260 alternative arrangements for their aged (24.2 %) (38.1%) (28.1%) (9.6%) (100%)

Families find it difficult to provide care 60 97 71 32 260 for elders who live in the village (23.1 %) (37.3%) (27.3%) (12.3%) (100%) Source: Field work, 2014 Table 2 evaluated that effect of rural- urban migration on care- given to elderly in the rural area of Igbo land. In the bid to find greener pasture, majority of the Igbo youths migrate from their locality to a foreign land. The rationale behind the youths' migration to the urban is to find jobs. However, the opinion of the respondents were sampled on the reason for youths' migration to urban, the following were the outcomes of their responses: 61.9% strongly agreed, 22.7% agreed, 9.2% disagreed and 6.2% strongly disagreed. From the result, we extrapolated that majority of Igbo youth migrate to the urban to find jobs. The second item argued that Young Igbo people like to stay in the village to look after their old ones, the respondents portrayed the following shades of opinion: 16.5% of the total population strongly agreed and 17.7% agreed that young Igbo people like to stay in the village to look after their old ones while 28.5% disagreed and 37.3% strongly disagreed that young Igbo people like to stay in the village to look after their old ones. The result implied that young Igbo people do not like to stay in the village to look after their old ones. The old ones are weak and can hardly do much for themselves; the migration of the young Igbo people have an adverse effect on the old people. The third variable states that elders in the rural communities are physically lonely because of the absence of their loved ones and to this statement, 35.0% strongly agreed, 35.8% agreed, 16.5% disagreed and 12.7% strongly disagreed. The result simply shows that old people who live in remote places suffer physical loneliness. Item four also argues that “elders in the rural places suffer Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 103 psychological loneliness” and the responses are – 22.7% strongly agreed, 48.1% agreed, 22.7% disagreed and 6.5 strongly disagreed. We, therefore, conclude that rural aged experience psychological loneliness due to non availability of their dear ones. The next item poses the argument that rural elders have health problem. 33.5% of the population strongly agreed to this, 32.7% agreed, 21.9 disagreed and 11.9 strongly disagreed. From the responses given we can deduce that rural elders are really having health challenges. The next variable raises the argument that “family members of rural elders make alternative arrangements for them.” 24.2% strongly agreed to this view, 38.1% agreed, 28.1% disagreed and 9.6% strongly disagreed. The responses reveal that families make alternative arrangements for their aged since they are away from home. The last variable on the table states that “families find it difficult to provide for elders who live in the village”. Responding to this assertion, 23.1% strongly agreed, 37.3% agreed,27.3% disagreed and 12.3 strongly disagreed. We therefore conclude that families find it difficult to provide care their old ones in the village.

Table 3: Caring for the old people in the contemporary Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation Absence of close relations poses problem for care- 1 4 3.01 0.994 giving for the aged Elders without relatives should be left without 1 4 2.13 1.063 care Elderly men without relatives cannot be helped 1 4 1.92 0.960

Establishing Old Peoples’ Home (OPH) is a good 1 4 2.83 1.054 alternative

Old Peoples’ Home will help to solve the problem 1 4 3.04 0.917 of loneliness OPH will provide room for interaction among 1 4 3.12 0.807 elders OPH offers good solution for the aged men 1 4 2.80 0.925 Source: Field work, 2014 Table 3 sampled the opinion of the respondents on caring for the old people in the contemporary. The minimum entry is 1 which represented strongly disagree, and the maximum entry is 4 which represented strongly agree. The mean score for “absence of close relations poses problem for care- giving for the aged” as indicated on the table is 3.01. The result is above the criteria mean which was set at 2.5 mean score, the standard deviation from the average responses of the respondents shows 0.994. This shows that the 104 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon distribution of the opinion of the respondents, who selected strongly agree and agree are higher in number. The study accepts that absence of close relations poses problem for care- giving for the aged. The second sampled opinion is anchored on the argument that Elders without relatives should be left without care, the means score of 2.13 is below the criteria mean. The study therefore held that Elders without relatives should not be left without care. The standard deviation of the mean score is 1.063; the result implied that the distribution of the respondents' view is near equal, which means that their views are well represented. The above table equally shows that creating home for old people is a good alternative with a mean score of 2.83 and standard deviation of 1.054 that shows even distribution of the responses. The table also shows that old people's home will help to solve the problem of loneliness with a high mean score of 3.04 and standard deviation of 0.917 which implied that respondents who selected strongly agree and agree are higher in number. Responding to the view that Old peoples' Home will provide room for interaction among elders has a high mean score of 3.12 and standard deviation of 0.807.this revealed that most of the respondents agreed strongly and many agreed to this option. It therefore follows that an old people's home will surely provide an avenue for interaction for aged when they stay together. Also, Old people's home offers a good solution for the aged members cause the mean score of 2.80 is above the criteria mean, the standard deviation is 0.925 showing that the respondents who chose strongly agree and agreed are more in number than those who disagreed. We can therefore submit that establishing an old people's home will solve the peculiar problem of the elderly men.

250 212(81.5%) 200

150

100

50 48(18.5%)

Yes No Figure 1: I have once been a care giver to elderly person(s) The above figure 1 sampled the personal experience of people who have stayed with the elderly person(s). The figure indicated that 81.5% of the sampled population affirmed that they have once been care givers to elderly person(s) while 18.5% opined that they have not been care givers to elderly person(s). The implication is that 81.5% of the studied population are reporting from standpoint epistemology. Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 105

250

200 161(61.9%) 150

100 99(38.1%)

50

Yes No Figure 2: The experience was exciting to me The figure above that 61.9% of respondents found it exciting to look after old people and31.1% did not enjoy the experience. Therefore, a greater percentage of Igbo people still enjoy caring for their aged.

250

200 187(71.9%)

150

100 73(28.1%) 50

Yes No Figure 3: I lived with the old and have observed them closely From the figure above, 71.9% of the population actually lived and observed the old people, against 28.1% who did not answer from direct experience. The responses reveal that the information is derived from authenticated, reliable source.

Discussion/Evaluation Caring for the aged in rural Igbo communities has taken entirely new shape in contemporary times. The changes adopted in recent times are necessitated by the relocation of the younger generation from their homes in the rural places to the urban in order to find greener pastures with which to sustain their old people at home. New job offers are more available in urban areas and the enterprising Igbo people are adventurous and daring able to accommodate harsh conditions outside home to make wealth. Absence 106 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon of the youth and changes in the extended family system pose some problems in care- giving. Most families endeavour to put up new structures to replace the old. In some cases helpers are hired from elsewhere to assist their aged. Other family strategies include rotation of care giving by the children for their aged parents. This rotational method affords family members some relief so that one does not get burnt out. The traditional approach to the problem of old widowers and childless men is getting young wives for even though not all can afford it. In spite of all these efforts, field reports are glaring clear that rural elderly people are lonely both physically and psychologically. The reasons for this loneliness are also evidenced from findings from the field work. Old people are generally difficult to please because they cherish their style and approach to issues and would not give in to young people's approach. They are mostly lonely because of the absence of the biological children and not that they are left all alone. In traditional societies there were forums where they could gather and interact with their mates but such forums are not found in most societies in modern times. At official times and in times of festivities they may enjoy such gatherings but it is very rare. The plight of the rural aged in Igbo communities are worsened by government minimal assistance in putting up social structures, policies and welfare schemes that can complement the effort of families. In some rural locations, the aged hardly receive government attention because of the remote locations. Welfare gifts are diverted to other by their representatives (Josephine 2014). Churches provide occasional help during church special occasions for the less privileged, mothering Sundays or father's day celebrations and probably during Christmas.

The Old Testament Approach to Elderly Care Giving God placed a high premium on old people in the Old Testament and this explains why honouring of one's parents was included as one of the laws handed over to the Israelites by Moses (Exodus 20:12). The law instructs children to honour their fathers and mothers so that they may live long in the land that God gave them. Honouring parents must mean according them respect and giving them all the rights and privileges due to them. One of the ways to honour old people is spelt out in Leviticus 19:32, where young people are enjoined “to rise up in the presence of the aged and show respect to them”. The Old Testament makes it glaringly clear that God cherishes old age and considers the aged as vulnerable, invaluable and special people (Prov. 20:29) who need assistance from the younger ones. They are reservoirs of wisdom and their wisdom is based on life experiences. In them is entrenched records of the past (Josh 3). Israel's contemporary approach/recommendations: The Israelites still value their seniors and find them very relevant to the nation. They believe that the older citizens can Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 107 make significant contributions to the nation and so they have special programs for them in work places. Currently also, they designed a particular university program where they can utilize their expertise and experience to conduct research. This is a reasonable idea that Nigeria should implement because old age does not render the elderly mentally unimportant. In fact, such opportunities make them relevant in the society. Many other policies and programs are run by Israeli government because of the importance they attach to the seniors and just a few will be mentioned here. One significant strategy is that which the government does by providing visas to foreign care- givers to assist families in care giving. The visa is issued to last for four and a half years. This strategy offers huge relief to families who are of the working class and are not disposed to help the old parents. It also suits seniors who may not like to leave home for somewhere else. The government also provide benefits for them just to supplement family care and lessen burdens on families. They have many day care centres for seniors and the centers are established at lower costs than the United States. The care centres emphasize care by the community rather than institutions. There are programs designed in Israel that are used for monitoring nursing homes. The driving force behind Israel's commitment to its old persons is that the torah charges them to look after old people for them to receive God's blessings of longevity. Nigerian families and the nation at large should borrow some leaf from Israel and set up policies that would favour the elderly. They are as important in Nigeria as they are in Israel. The God of Israel is the God of all and his strategy of using Israel as a model to the world still stands. His laws are timeless as well as the blessings derived from keeping them. The younger generation of Igbo people need to re- address.

References Acholonu, C., (2009). Catherine Acholonu's Articles carcafriculture.blogspot.com Adebowale, S.A., Atte, O., Ayeni, O. Elderly Well Being in a Rural Community in North Central Nigeria, Sub-Saharan Africa, Public Health Research, 2012 2(4):92-101, Posted Feb 4, 2012, Accessed March1 2015. Adedokun, M. O.,(2010). Caring for The Elderly: Towards a Better Community sozelacademy.com/EJES: Accessed 17/05/2015 Afigbo A.E.,(1975). Prolegomena to the Study of the Cultural History of the Igbo Speaking People of Nigeria, Igbo Language and Culture: Oxford University Press Aging-Health-NBC News.com www.nbcnews.com/health/topic/aging Ajomale, O., Country Report: Ageing in Nigeria- Research,www.rc11-sociology of ageing.org/system/files Akeredolu, B.A. and Aribia J. (2003). Care and Support for the Elderly in the Journal of Gerontology Akukwe, F.N.,(1992) Senior Citizens: A Policy Dilemma Caring for the Aged, Onitsha Veritals Printing and publ. Co. Ltd. 108 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon Barken, J. F., In Israel, Seniors and foreign Caretakers develop Symbiotic relationships- www.jns.org/…/in –Israel-seniors-and foreign caretakers Care for The Elderly: Christian Research Institute (2009) www.equip.org/../care-for-the - elderlyVol. 12/No4//Issue of Christian Research Journal Chukwuezi, B., (2001) Through Thick and Thin : The Igbo Rural-Urban Circularity, Identity and Investment- Journal of Contemporary African Studies 19: Accessed 15/05/2015 Collins, G.R.,( 1981). A Psychologist's Guide to Overcoming Tensions and Struggles of Everyday Living Calm Down Ventura Caritonia Vision House. Dayle, F., Growing Older: Spiritual resources on Aging For Individuals, Professionals Dike, A.A. (1982) Urban Migrants and Rural Development, African Studies, Review Cambridge University Press: Accessed 15/05/2015. Douglas, A., ( 2002 ) Aging in Brand Chad (2004) Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Tennessee, Holman Publihers. Ekeokpara, C., (2012) The Impact of the Extended Family System on Socio-Ethical Order in Igboland http//www.ajsil.org: : Accessed 29/05/2015 E s e o b u , C . , ( 2 0 1 3 ) , T h e A g e d i n N i g e r i a ( A g e d w i d o w s ) - leadership.ng/news/220813/oritsjefor Growing Old – The Jewish View on Ageing and Retirement Lifestyle- www.chabad.ng>jewish Practice Hebrew Senior Life- Elder Care, Boston, Senior Housing for All www.hebrew senior life.org. Arima publishing House Hebrew Senior-Life-Elder Care: Boston, Senior Housing for All www.hebrew senior- life.org Ikeanyibe, U.P, ( 2000), Why I Believe The Igbos are not Nigerians: Benin City: Seed Sowers Publication. K a b i r u , I . , ( 2 0 1 3 ) . W h o T a k e s C a r e o f T h e A g e d i n N i g e r i a - sundaytrust.com.ng/index.php/ Kazeem, U., (2013). Don't Incite Igbos against Lagos, Fashola Warns Obi- pmnewsnigeria.com>PM News-Accessed 22 January 2014. Lang, J.S., The Bible and Treating Elderly People with Respect Iroegbu, P., (2011). The Origin and Meaning of the word “Igbo” : A Response to Ozodi Osuji's Dilemma, posted Dec. 29/12/2011,www.igbomedicine.webs.com: Accessed 15/05/2015 Iweadighi, S., (2013). Origin or Geneology of Igbo People, resourcedata.com/wp- content/uploads/2013/05 origin_of_the _igbo_people_ of Nigeria Mudiare, P.E.U.,(2013). Abuse of the Aged: Elders also Cry, American International J o u r n a l o f C o n t e m p o r a r y R e s e a r c h , V o l . 3 N o . 9 : www.aijcrnet.com/journals/Vd_3_ No_9_Sept 2013 Nwoye C. M. A.,(2011). Igbo Cultural and Religious Worldview: An Insider's Echeta Uzonna Ph.D & Ibenwa Christopher, N. Ph.D 109 perspective, accepted 18th July 2011:Accessed 28/05/2015 Oguntola, S., Nigeria Elderly People Ranked High in Depression- www.tribune.com.ng/news2013-accessed 25 November 2013 Okoye, U., (2003). Attitude of Youths Towards Institutionalized and Care of the Elderly. A study of youths in Anambra State in Nigeria Journal of Social Sciences Vol.2 no2. Okwueze, M.I.,Religion and Decaying Moral values in contemporary Nigerian Society in Okwueze M. I.(ed,2004) Religion and Societal Development: Contemporary Nigerian Perspectives: Lagos: Merit International Publishers. Onunwa, U.R., (2005). African Spirituality An Anthology of Igbo Religious Myths, United Kingdom Onwu, N., (2002). Uzo Ndu Na Eziokwu- Towards an Understanding of Igbo Traditional Religious Life and Philosophy,ahiajioku.igbonet.com: Accessed 15/06/2015. Onwuejeogwu, M.A., (1981). An Igbo Civilization Nri Kingdom & Hegemony: Great Britain: Ethiope Publishing Corporation Oriakhi Emman LUF Foundation Calls For National Policy on the Elderly- www.vanguard.com/2013/05/luf-f-accessed November 27 2013 Osaghae, E. E.,Trends of Migrant Political Organization in Nigeria:books opencitation.org/ifra 895:Accessed 8/06/2015 Uchendu, V. C.,( 1995). Ezi Na Ulo:Extended Family in Igbo Civilization ahiajioku.igbonet.com/1995 : Accessed27/05/2015 U j u m a d u , V . , W h e r e D i d I g b o O r i g i n a t e F r o m www.vanguardngr.com/2014/08/igbooriginate/posted August 10 2014 Palmore, E.B.,(1999).Ageism, Negative and Positive: New York : Springer. Paul , J., (1988). The Individual and the Community in Rogerson John (ed.), Beginning Old Testament Study, Great Britain, Latimer Trend & Company Ltd. Pfeiffer, C.F., et al (2003). Wycliffe Bible Dictionary, U.S.A, Hendrickson Publishers. Riley M. Biblical Perspective of Growing Old Foundation Silverstone Barbara (1976). You And Your Aging Parent Modern Family Guide To Emotional, Physical and Financial problems, New York, Pantheon Books. Terry, M. C.,(ed. Et al)1967). Family in Bible Dictionary, Grand Rapids Zondervan Publ. Co. The Bakers Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology, Age, Old ( The Aged) Ugwu, C.O.T.and Ugwueye, L.E.(2004). African Traditional Religion, A Prolegomenon, Lagos, Merit International Publications. Umukoro, A., (2013). Old Peoples homes: Mixed Fortunes of Nigeria's Senior Citizens : accessed 27 November 2013 Uwakwe, R. Modebe I., (2007). Disability and Care-Giving in Old Age in A Nigerian Community,www.ajol.info/index.php/ngcp/article/newfile/11309/23098(2007) : Accessed 11/06/2015 110 Care- Giving to the Aged in Rural Igboland of Eastern Nigeria and Youth Migraon

Oral Interview Name Age Status Town Date of Interview The Interviewer

Jemima Umobi 86 Retired Ezinifite 20/08/2014 Uzoma Echeta teacher Joy Okpala 67 Retired Nkpologwu 08/08/2014 The researcher civil servant & Red Cross Officer Rev. Bennett 53 Priest Ihiala 13/06/2014 The researcher Onwuchekwa

Josephine Okpala 54 Care-giver to Nkpologwu 13/06/2014 The researcher an elderly woman Rev. John Nwoke 50 Priest Nkporo 12/07/2014 The researcher IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

THE SOURCES OF AUGUSTINE'S EDUCATIONAL INSIGHT

Prof. KANU Ikechukwu Anthony, O.S.A. Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies Tansian University, Umunya Anambra State [email protected]

Abstract Augustine wrote many articles and books, and from these works, insights could be gotten as it concerns education. However, there are three books that Augustine wrote on education. The works include: The Teacher (De Magistro), Christian Teaching (De Doctrina Christiana) and The Catechesis of Beginners (De Catechizandis Rudibus). These three major works of his on education would be the focus of this piece. This study reveals that Augustine had a profound influence on the subsequent development of Western thought and culture and, more than any other thinker, shaped the themes and defined the problems that have characterized Western traditions. The hermeneutic method of inquiry would be employed.

Keywords: Augustine, Educational, Insight, Sources, De Magistro, Doctrina Christiana, Catechizandis Rudibus

Introduction The major sources of Augustine's insight on education include: The Teacher (De Magistro), Christian Teaching (De Doctrina Christiana) and The Catechesis of Beginners (De Catechizandis Rudibus). These works were not written during the time of his career as a teacher. He wrote them after his baptism in 387 which marked the end of his teaching career. He returned to Africa to fulfill his dream of organizing a common philosophical life with his friends in his home town Thagaste. From Thagaste, providence brought him to Hippo where he was ordained a priest and later a bishop. It was during these periods that he wrote these works. Although Augustine had written so many works, and his educational ideas are scattered from his books to his letters, there were only three works that Augustine dedicated to discourses on education. These three major works of his on education would be the focus of this piece.

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 111 112 The Sources of Augusne's Educaonal Insight 1. The Teacher (De Magistro) This was one of the early works of Saint Augustine. He wrote it at the age of 35 after his conversion, one year after he returned to Thagaste with his son Adeodatus. The work is a dialogue between a father (Augustine) and his son (Adeodatus), a son who is talented, beloved, and around eighteen years old at the time and who died shortly before the work was completed. While other works better introduce Augustine's theological thoughts or his public life as priest and bishop or his personal life, the Teacher reveals Augustine the philosopher. The major theme in the work is communication: between the student, the Interior Teacher and the External Teacher. In this piece, Augustine Christianizes Greek pedagogy, and employed the method of questions and answers which was used in schools at the time. In fact, this piece shows Augustine doing what Christian philosophers typically do. They attempt to integrate their Christian beliefs and philosophical reflections1. According to Augustine, the external teacher, i.e., the parent or the professional teacher, is not really a teacher at all but one who serves. This role of the external teacher is to facilitate the dialogue between the student and Truth. The true teacher is the Interior Teacher, the God who is within. Augustine writes that: We have Jesus our teacher inside each one of us. If you can't understand what I am saying, listen to the Christ who is in your hearts. It is this Christ who gives me the words to say and it is this Christ who will reveal deep inside your own self the message he wants you to get through hearing my words2. The external teacher's basic function is to facilitate and remove obstacles to the encounter between the student and Truth. This perspective is based on Augustine's method which proceeds from the outside to the inside and from the inside upwards. For Augustine, education requires two dimensions to be realized: a. to open up the Truth to the student - this demands competence and professionalism – and; b. to open up the student to the Truth - this demands witness and the infectiousness of enthusiasm and love for the Truth on the part of the teacher. This also implies: a. that the teacher also encounters the Truth - this makes the teacher a fellow student with his or her student. He wrote: “My friends, all of us stand before the same divine teacher as fellow pupils. The fact that we bishops speak to you from this high podium does not make us your teachers. The divine one who lives in each of us is the teacher for us all3.

1Anderson, R. D. (2015). Teaching Augustine's On the Teacher. Religions. 6. 404-408 2Augustine, St., Commentary on the Gospel of John, 20.3 3Augustine, St., Sermon 134, 1 KANU Ikechukwu Anthony 113

b. that the teacher needs to have a personal relationship with the student to whom he or she is committed to helping, rather than merely to instruct or train.

Therefore, the success of education is not to be measured by the degree to which students become a copier or recorder in attitude and beliefs of the external teacher. Augustine writes: Teachers do not claim, do they, that their own thought are preserved and grasped by the pupils, but rather the branches of learning that they teach, they transmit by teaching? For who would be so absurdly curious as to send his child to school to learn what the teachers think? But when they have explained, by means of words, all those subjects, which they profess to teach and even the science of virtue and of wisdom, then those who are called pupils consider within themselves whether what has been said is truth4. The goal is clearly an unfinished project, since each one is on a journey of ongoing discovery and on a path to maturity which involves the uniqueness of each individual and their ongoing dialogue with the Interior Teacher5. It is in this regard that we can say that education never finishes, thus making the world a great classroom.

2. The Catechesis of Beginners (De Catechizandis Rudibus) Augustine's second work on education emerged between 400 and 405, when Augustine was between 46 and 51. It was written as a result of a request from Deogracias, a deacon at Carthage who was asking for practical rules from Augustine on how to carry out his responsibility of Catechesis. Augustine, therefore, responded to him with this work which has become a unique model of educational pedagogy. It is made up of two parts. The first borders on how to deal with the various problems that a Catechist could encounter while teaching. It touches on the relationship between the teacher and the student which Augustine considers fundamental in the learning process. He outlined these points for Deogracias: 1. the importance and the limitations of language used by the teacher, 2. the long term preparation of the teacher, as well as the teacher's immediate preparation for classes, 3. balance in the developing topics, 4. the pressing need to adapt one's teaching to the individual realities of particular students, 5. the trilogy of hear-listen-understand as the backbone of learning, 6. the need for love in the encounter with students and their particular needs. 4 Augustine, St., The Teacher 14, 45 5 Morahan M. (2001). Education: An Augustine Approach. Villanova College: Australia. 114 The Sources of Augusne's Educaonal Insight In relation to the need for love, Augustine writes: And if we pass through streets that are most familiar to us with all the cheerfulness that springs from well doing, when we happen to be pointing out the way to one who had been in trouble through losing his way, with how much more alacrity and with how much greater joy, in the matter of salutary doctrine, ought we to go over those things which, as far as we are concerned, need not be repeated, when we are escorting through the paths of peace a soul to be pitied, and one wearied with the wanderings of this world, at the bidding of Him who has given that peace to us6. He teaches further: Again, if it be distasteful to us to be repeating over and over things that are familiar and suitable for little children, let us suit ourselves to them with a brother's, a father's, and a mother's love, and when once we are linked to them thus in heart these things will seem new even to us. For so great is the power of sympathy, that when people are affected by us as we speak and we by them as they learn, we dwell each in the other and thus both they, as it were, speak in us what they hear, while we, after a fashion, learn in them what we teach. Is it not a common occurrence, that when we are showing to those who have never seen them before certain lovely expanses, whether of town or countryside, which we through often seeing already have been in the habit of passing by without any pleasure, our own delight is renewed by their delight at the novelty of the scene? And the more so, the closer the friendship between them and us; for in proportion as we dwell in them through the bond of love, so do things which were old become new to us also7. The second concerns Christian doctrines for the specialized world of beginners. It, therefore, concerns both the teacher and the student. The context within which these techniques are dealt with is the sacred stories of Christianity and the history of salvation. However, its insight into the nature of teaching and learning and techniques transcend the subject matter and can be applied to other contexts, especially where beginners are involved.

3. Christian Teaching (De Doctrina Christiana) This work was written by Augustine after 395, that is, after he was made a bishop. He was about 43 years old then, however, the work was not completed immediately; it was finished about thirty years later, around 440. As bishop, Augustine had a clerical community that he had formed, and this work was most probably meant for the formation

6 Augustine, St., On Catechizing the Uninstructed, 12, 17 7 Augustine, St., On Catechizing the Uninstructed, 12, 17 KANU Ikechukwu Anthony 115 of priests at Hippo. De Doctrina Christiana makes an explanation of the Christian doctrine, using the Scripture as a basis. However, interesting is the method of communicating knowledge that he proposes. He posits that educators need to offer an academic curriculum that responds to our diverse needs as human beings. These needs are revealed in our underlying restlessness and range from knowledge about our external world to the more deeply spiritual and religious knowledge. He reflected on the relationship of the student to Truth. This relationship has three foundations: 1. faith in the human thirst for knowledge as the starting point, 2. hope creating desire to achieve objectives - as motivation for effort, and 3. a passionate love of Truth - like the force of gravity that attracts and energizes. True educators, be they class teachers or the father or mother of a family, should keep in the forefront of their minds the students' internal dynamism and focus entirely upon it: stimulating the students in their capacity for wonder in front of mystery, promoting and encouraging their enthusiasm and accompanying them closely on the challenging path of discovering knowledge and wisdom while nurturing in this search a great love of Truth. According to Augustine, good example rather than great speeches, authenticity of life rather than formal commands, are decisive in this context8.

Conclusion The foregoing has studied three works of Saint Augustine of Hippo, who remains one of the foremost philosophers and theologians of early Christianity. He had a profound influence on the subsequent development of Western thought and culture and, more than any other thinker, shaped the themes and defined the problems that have characterized Western traditions of Christian theology and philosophy9. Augustine received a classical education that both schooled him in Latin literature and enabled him to escape from his provincial upbringing, creating a confident background for the importance of his works on education. His contribution to western civilization is evident in his philosophy of education which holds that: The teacher should help the student experience God; The teacher should take into account the unique characteristics of each student and relate to the students as unique individuals; Christian education should include the study of Plato, for most Christian doctrines were contained in his writings; Teachers must recognize the image of God in persons as their rational nature, thus it is to be used as a tool to relate them to God; Teachers should distrust the senses as a means to knowledge and use reason

8 Mendelson, M. (2010). Saint Augustine. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine 9 Israel Galindo, Sex educational principles from Augustine of Hippo. Retrieved 29/6/18 from http://www.ctsnet.edu/six-educational-principles-from-augustine-of-hippo/2014. 116 The Sources of Augusne's Educaonal Insight instead; In the tension between faith and reason, faith must predominate. The sources of his educational insights have been the concern of this piece, and it has studied three major works of Augustine, not disregarding the possibility of obtaining educational ideas from other works of Saint Augustine.

Bibliography Anderson, R. D., Teaching Augustine's On the Teacher. Religions. 6. 404-408, 2015. Augustine, St. On Christian Teaching (426), trans. R. P. H. Green. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Augustine, St. Epistulae are translated by W. Parsons in the Fathers of the Church series: Letters 1–82, vol 12; Letters 83–130, vol. 18; Letters 131–64, vol. 20; Letters 165–203, vol. 30; Letters 204–70, vol. 32; recently discovered Letters *1–*29 are translated by R. Eno in vol. 81. Augustine, St. Sermons, Sermons, Volume 1 (1–80) (The Fathers of the Church, Volume 31). Translated by SISTER MARY MAGDELEINE MUELLER. Catholic University of America Press. 1956. Augustine, St., Against Lying, translated by H. Browne. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1887. Augustine, St., Commentary on the Gospel of John, 20.3. New York: Oxford University Press. Augustine, St., Commentary on the Psalms, Translated by J.E. Tweed. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 8. Edited by Philip Schaff. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888.) Augustine, St., Order, South Bend, Ind.: St. Augustine's Press 2007. Augustine. “De musica.” In The Fathers of the Church. Translated by Robert Taliaferro. Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1947, vol. 4. Augustine. Aurelius Augustinus: De musica Liber VI. Translated by Martin Jacobsson. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 2002. Israel Galindo, Sex education principles from Augustine of Hippo. Retrieved 29/6/18 from http://www.ctnet.edu/six-educational-principles-from-augustine-of-hippo, 2014. Leonard, T., St. Augustine (354-430) - Augustine and teaching influence - teacher, God and students. Retrieved 12th June, 2018 from http://www.education. stateuniversity.com/pages/1778/Augustine-St-340-430, 2006. Mendelson, M., Saint Augustine. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine, 2010 Morahan M., Education: An Augustine Approach. Villanova College: Australia, 2001. IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

THE PRESENCE AND IMPACT OF CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY IN NGWO CLAN, ENUGU IN EASTERN NIGERIA 1917-1930

Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D., MHSN Department of History and Strategic Studies, Federal University, Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, Nigeria [email protected] & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D., MHSN Department of History, International Studies & Diplomacy, Godfrey Okoye University, Enugu, Nigeria [email protected], +2348033096134

Abstract The penetration of Christian Missionary activities into the hinterland Igbo societies where Ngwo belong started after the colonial conquest of the societies and full establishment of colonial administration. In Ngwo for instance, missionary activities was triggered by economic and political activities that followed the discovery and exploitation of coal in their farmlands. Their mission was not only to preach the message of Jesus Christ and enforce repentance and conversion of the people from African Traditional Religion to Christianity; but also to transmit the white mans' knowledge of reading, writing and numeracy to the people. It is the opinion of this paper that the people that masterminded the establishment of Church Missionary Society (CMS) in Ngwo Clan are not in themselves Christians; and they did not covert to Christianity when it has taken root in the clan. That the interest of majority of the people was not in the acceptance of the message of Jesus Christ and repentance from traditional practices but in learning the white man's knowledge through the schools which will give them and their children opportunity in taking advantage of economic and political realities of colonial activities in Enugu Township. In the period under review, most adherents to Christianity had the liberty to indulge in a syncretic mix of Christianity and traditional customs of the land, this invariably strengthened African Traditional Religion in Ngwo Clan. This work drew heavily from primary sources which are comprised of oral tradition collated through random sampling mode, granted by reliable informants, intelligence report and other materials collated from National Archives, Enugu. Secondary sources include books, Journal articles and other materials which provided useful information on the subject

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 117 118 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 matter. Available facts were analysed historically using qualitative research methodology.

Keywords: Missionary Activities, Traditional Religion, Syncretism, Colonialism

Introduction The church missionary society was introduced in Ngwo clan on the 17th January, 1917 by Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu; a missionary priest born in 1882 to the families of Mr. and Mrs. Aje Ejindu of Ugamuma in Obosi in present Anambra State.1 His arrival in Ngwo marked therefore, the first contact Ngwo people had with Christianity.2 In the period, Colonial activities were strongly taking shape in Abgaja Area of Old Udi Division where Ngwo belong. The relevance of Udi Division had become very high owing to the discovery and eventual exploitation of coal in Enugu-Ngwo.3 The massive exploitation of Coal in Enugu-Ngwo was occasioned by the First World War which distorted not only mining but other economic activities in Europe. As Enugu Ngwo coal was certified suitable enough to sustain the energy purposes of Nigeria and other British West African colonies, aggressive mining strategy was put in place by the colonialists which involved bringing in labourers from western Igboland, western Nigeria and other African groups,4 who had earlier come in contact with Euro- Christianity and westerns education. The influx of these diverse groups into Enugu- Ngwo gradually shifted Ngwo society, which over the years had adhered to Africa Traditional Religion from homogeneity to heterogeneity. There was need therefore, for the establishment of Euro- Christianity which had become the religion of, not only the colonial officers in Enugu- Ngwo but also of the African groups who had come in contact with colonial activities, earlier than the hinterland Igbo where Ngwo society belong. The Church Missionary Society was the first to be established in Ngwo clan and the impact was felt in the society in diverse ways. This paper will first of all draw our attention to the origin of Ngwo and the religions and cultural practices prevalent in the society before the advent of Christianity. It will be followed by the establishment and spread of CMS in Ngwo clan; a survey of the impact will be made, then comes the conclusion. 1917, the year CMS outpost was planted in Ngwo was chosen as the commencement point of this paper, it will be terminated in 1930 the year the pioneer missionaries were posted out of Ngwo in continuation of their missionary work.

Traditions of Origin It is difficult to reconstruct the early history of a pre-literate people, especially the Igbo of South Eastern Nigeria. This is because the Igbo did not evolve large empires and Kingdoms to the magnitude of Kanem-Borno, Oyo, Benin etc. They remained Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 119 decentralised, therefore making the documentation of its history difficult. Lack of conventional records of early Igbo history has raised scepticism about the possibility of the study of Igbo history.5 Some writers have written of the Igbo as if they did not exist before the 16th century, at which time, it would appear they suddenly came into existence.6 Some scholars of Igbo history too have also lumped the history of Igbo societies together; the assumption was that what happens at a particular area should be happening at some other areas. This was what informed Anyanwu's idea of studying the Igbo history at the level of micro-societies.7 This study on Ngwo, a micro-society in the Old Udi Division of present Enugu State follows this perception. Agbodike noted that in pre-literate African societies, the making and transmission of tradition was not the work of the historian as in the modern times.8 In the largely structured states especially those with centralised monarchical administration such as Dahoemy, Kanem–Borno, Oyo empires, etc, where political and legal implications of tradition were of everyday importance; the transmission of oral tradition was easier as it was controlled and as well regulated by chroniclers, selected priests and elders.9 But in highly segmented societies like the Igbo generally and Ngwo in particular, where roles were not sharply differentiated and where activities varied from one town to the other, oral tradition especially as regards the origin is difficult to reconstruct. Foreigners have made incursions into the origin of Ngwo, when Mr. O'Conor, the then resident of the Old Onitsha Province of which Ngwo was part of, described Ngwo as decentralised villages scattered on the hill without a definite common ancestor.10 But as Afigbo had put it, no matter what contributions outsiders might make, recent events teach that Igbo history has to be written by the Igbo themselves.11 That is to say that nobody knows a people better than they know themselves. No legend can therefore explain better the origin of Ngwo people except an indigenous legend. A certain Ngwo legend has attributed the origin of Ngwo to the Ehum.12 The Ehum were said to be people that came from a distant area as far as Uburu and Igalaland. The protagonists of this legend believed that the ten towns of Ngwo did not originally come from one man; that the people who formed Ngwo society were numerous in number when they came.13 It is also stated that the people were also of equal status without a definite leader. This explains why Ngwo did not have a central administrative structure up to the early 1980s.14 The legend also explains why the uniqueness of Ngwo is very clear among her neighbours. Due to the fact that they, (the Ehum), came from as far as Igala and Uburu which did not have any cultural resemblance with other towns or clans that border it on all sides, they (Ngwo) could not identify with any of her neighbors, therefore, they stood alone. The exponents, of this legend also believed that the Ehum were not culture conscious, 15 that was why they embraced almost all aspects of culture they encountered in the area. Ngwo therefore adheres both to odo and maa cults unlike her neighbours. The 120 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 legend of origin that is widely accepted by Ngwo people is the Ngwo-ako legend. This legend explains that Ngwo originated from a farmer and hunter known as Ngwo-ako, 16 who came from an unknown place to settle at Ishi-Okpoto. The legend has it that Ngwo- ako married two wives, the first from his northern neighbour Ojebogene out of whom he had three sons: Ameke, Amankwo and Uboji; while he married his second wife from his eastern neighbour Nkanu out of whom he had seven sons: Enugu, Etiti, Amachalla, Amebo, Ukaka, Okwojo and Umase. It is the ten sons of Ngwo-ako that fathered the ten towns of Ngwo. 17 But tracing the origin of different communities and kindreds that made up Ngwo contradicts the Ngwo-ako legend to a large extent. For instance the Ngwo-ako legend traces Enugu-Ngwo to be the first son of the second wife of Ngwo-ako and Umuode as the eldest son (village) of Enugu. But that same Umuode is said to have migrated from Ojebogene, hence the popular saying. Umuode Ojebogene, ndi o ji ji egbuogene, kaobu n'osisi adighin'ofia. When rendered in English it is: Umuode Ojedogene the people that beat the gungs with yam tubers as if there were no sticks in the bush. Thus alluded to their dexterity in yam cultivation. The argument is that, if Umuode, the first son of Enugu migrated from Obebogene, it means that the other kindreds and hamlets that made up the town might have migrated from different places. 18 In Ameke too, the three hamlets that made up the town are said to have migrated from different places, for instance Umuezeani migrated from Ukana, Ifueke migrated from Egede and Ibute migrated from Ebe. 19 But in the opinion of many elders in Ngwo, the legend of Ngwo-ako should be adhered to because that is the only legend that relatively weilds the people together. Further inquiries were made as to when Ngwo-ako came to limelight in the history of Ngwo. It was traced to the colonial period, at the time when Chief Onyeama of Eke was the most influential warrant chief in the whole of Agbaja, Ngwo, Nkanu and part of Nsukka areas. At the period the native court that administered the affairs of Agbaja and Ngwo was situated at Eke; Ngwo people in protest on Chief Onyeama's overriding influence at the court, argued that Ngwo people would no longer sit in the court at Eke and that the jurisdiction of the court would no longer cover Ngwo that Ngwo was not Agbaja, but Ngwo-ako, and should therefore have its own separate native court. 20 They buttressed their argument by emphasizing that Ngwo adheres to the Odo and Maa cult unlike the Agbaja people. This prompted Mr. Peking the then resident officer of Udi Division to intensify the study of all the clans in Agbaja area which at the period was already in progress. In the end, it was understood that Ngwo was entirely different from the other clans almost in all areas of life. A native court was therefore approved for Ngwo people which was opened at Isi Okpoto. 21 If Ngwo-ako out of which the legend of Ngwo-ako was formed, came into limelight of Ngwo history during the colonial period, one can safely say that it is not strong enough to Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 121 sustain the history of the origin of Ngwo. To Ikenga John Agu Agbo and many other elders of Ngwo, the legend is as old as Ngwo but not to the knowledge of many especially non Ngwo indigenes until the colonial period when events as noted earlier brought it to limelight. But just like the Bayajida legend in Hausaland, which, saddled with many shortcomings, scaled through as the generally accepted legend of the origin of Hausa people, the Ngwo-ako legend should, inspite of its shortcomings be accepted as it serves as the only unifying factor for all the towns in Ngwo.22

Religious and Cultural Practices in Ngwo before the advent of Christianity Prior to the coming of Christianity, Ngwo people were adherents of African Traditional Religion; this includes veneration of the land deity.23 Afigbo noted that with the coming of agriculture, the Igbo became dependent on the land out of which food is produced for sustainability, they had to evolve a whole new system of rules, laws and rituals to control land use.24 Because the land feeds her children, it came to be conceived as a woman, a mother. And because of the way it transformed crops when sown, god-like powers were attributed to it leading to its deification.25 In Ngwo the land goddesses reside in the village squares of all the ten towns that make up Ngwo clan. Their shrines are characterized by very tall trees and an altar of worship concealed in a small shelter with red and white cloth. That is where the priest of the land performs ritual consecrations and sacrifices.26 Afigbo also noted that the deification of Ala in turn required working out a system of relationship between it, the ancestors and other gods recognized by the community.27 This condition is synonymous with Ngwo of the period. Everybody is connected to the land goddess of their individual villages in several ways. For instance, the umbilical cord of every child as soon as it is detached from the navel is deposited at the shrine of the land goddess of their particular village.28 This practice signifies a strong bonding between the people and the land goddess of their respective villages. Also during the feasts of the Aju festival, series of consecration and sacrifices which requires the sprinkling of the blood of animals are performed yearly to strengthen the bonding among the people and as well, their accountability to the land goddess.29 For instance during Igo-Okpa (leg consecration by men who participates in farming for the season) all the men assemble at the shrine of the land goddess at the village square with each extended family, according to their capacity, presents an offering of either goat, ram, or cow to the goddess. The priest of the land performs the ordinances which include slaughtering of the animals to the shrine, with the people seated on the ground; the blood of the animals is smeared on their legs one after the other with chants and incantations by the priest. The people will also be dedicated afresh to the goddess for protection and guidance.30 Ancestor worship had also permeated the fabrics of Ngwo society in the period under review. As P.A. Tablot posited, 122 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 Perhaps nowhere in the world is the influence of the dead stronger than in West Africa, nowhere is the dividing life between the dead and the living less definite. No one can hope to appreciate the feelings and thought of the black man who does not realise that to him, the dead are not dead but living.31 To Ngwo people, their ancestors are ever alive influencing the society as their guardians of morality. The ancestor is the rallying point for the family, extended family, kindred and even the community. The basis of the Chi (personal family god) in Ngwo cosmology is purely to worship and venerate the ancestor. They believe that the ancestors were the ones mediating and interceding for them before the Chiukwu (supreme god). In other words, their dead do not actually die; rather they depart to live again.32 Every morning prayers are offered through the ancestors to the supreme god, Chiukwu for blessings and protection of every member of the family. But once in every year during the first Aju period, Igo-Nna the feast of commemoration of the ancestors is performed.33 It is a feast of reunion where every member of individual families returns to their root, even the ones married outside the town return with their children. Sacrifices and prayers are offered through the family shrine on behalf of every member of the family. Vengeance is also requested for any offence against the family members.34 C.A Obi posited that the Igbo of Onitsha at the period of the early missionaries believe that every material thing has a spirit that animates it. For the men, it is Mkpulu-Obi (seed of the essence or of the principle of man) which gives him life and which lives on after death.35 The spirit of the grandfather could be transmitted to a child in the process of Ino-uwa the belief in re- incarnation or Igba-nje-uwa, commuting between the material world and the world of the spirits.36 In Ngwo of the period, there is prevalence of male to male, female to female and male to female re-incarnations. Re-incarnations are always traced when a child is affected with strange ailment or condition that defies several attempts on medication. A dibia (diviner) is consulted to search the spirit of the gods and trace the incarnator.37 The gods will in turn make their demands known through the diviner to the family. Sacrifices (Igba-aja) are made by the family in accordance to the demands of the spirit and offered at required location where it will be accessible by the spirit of the incarnator. When that is done, the person gains total freedom.38 The dead in Ngwo especially the aged are not buried outside the family compound. This is because the spirit of the dead lives among the people and intercedes for them in the presence of the chiukwu.39 After the burial of such people, a cockerel is strangled at the head position of their coffin, the head of the fowl and its feathers will be buried alongside the dead. That will enable the spirit of the dead to return and dwell among his people for good.40 Other aspects of the peoples culture include veneration of other gods which had relationship with the ancestors of the people for instance Ugwuenechi, Ikpa, Amuma, Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 123 Nome, Ezata, Ekwulu, Ugwuakulu etc.41All these deities are venerated alongside the land goddess resident at the village squares of all the villages that make up Ngwo clan. These deities also took vengeance against individuals and families in the event of commission of abomination.42 At death, such people (who committed abomination) are not buried but deposited in the evil forest such as Be Okwobun'agu and Be enyaka nti.43 Their will be multiple calamities and deaths in such families which only stops when a dibia is consulted to search the mind of the spirits concerning the requirements necessary for the performance of ritual cleansing of the abomination. As noted by Nwaezeigwe, the sacrifice of abrogation of any law or cleansing of abomination has to be performed by the priest of the ground who offers sacrifice when any of such laws are violated.44 In Ngwo, the priest of those deities offer sacrifice of appeasement at the shrine of the particular deity offended before the final ordinance is performed to the land goddess at the village square. The cleansing takes the blood of animals and sometimes humans, depending on the enormity of the abomination.45 Other traditional practices include Odo and Maa traditional institutions. Though they were borrowed from other clans in the environs and even far away from Ngwo, it became part and parcel of Ngwo traditional practice. It is used as an agent of social control, implementation of policies and avenue of measuring social standing. For instance before an adult male becomes a bonafide member of the extended family, he must be an initiate of both the Odo and Maa traditional institutions; therefore, abiding by the tenets of the institutions fosters social control.46 Most parents took it as their statutory obligation to initiate their children early, in most cases when they are still teenagers .Therefore, before the coming of the CMS missionaries, almost all the men in Ngwo are initiates of the Odo and Maa traditional institutions.

The Coming of CMS in Ngwo Clan The initial attempt at the establishment of Christianity in the Agbaja area of Old Udi Division was in 1913 when Chief Onyeama (the paramount ruler of Eke and the speaker/head of all the warrant chiefs in Agbaja area where Ngwo belong requested Mr. N.C Duncan, the British colonial officer at Udi to help him transmit the white man's knowledge and wisdom to his people by way of establishing a church and a school at Eke where the indigenous people would be instructed in English Language.47 Chief Onyeama had travelled with Mr. Duncan to London for the Empire Day celebration on the 24th of May 1912. He was fascinated at the level of development he saw and decided to replicate same in his home town.36 In that regard, Mr. Duncan, (himself an adherent of CMS) invited Rev. G.T Basden who was in the period, the education secretary of the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in Onitsha Province,49 for inspection and establishment of a school. Rev. Basden posted Rev. Daws after the inspection to open a CMS church and school at Eke. 124 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 After the establishment of the school, Rev. Daws decided to instruct the natives in the Igbo language instead of the English language and every effort made to change the did not work.50 Owing to this, Chief Onyeama did not only stop Rev. Daws and the operations of CMS but proscribed its establishment in the whole of Agbaja Area. That same year, (1913), he (Chief Onyeama) invited Rev. Father Joseph Shanahan of the Roman Catholic Mission (RCM) who established RCM church and that is, St. Paul's Catholic Church and School at Eke. That was why the CMS did not have a strong presence, especially in the Northern Agbaja area up to Affa and Akpakwume/Nze. In 1917 conscious effort was made both by Mr. Duncan and Rev. G.T Basden to see if CMS can be re-established in Agbaja Area, this time at Enugu-Ngwo. As ealier noted, coal mining operations which started in 1914 and the activities of the Eastern Railway and even the influx of other European firms had transformed Enugu-Ngwo. The influx of people from all parts of the country and even beyond had transformed the town into a plural society. The Warrant Chiefs of Ngwo, under the leadership of Chief Onyeama still oversaw the affairs of Enugu-Ngwo Township.51In 1915 Rev Basden met with Mr Duncan requesting him to use his position as the District Officer to help establish CMS in Enugu- Ngwo. Duncan fearing that Chief Onyeama who equally doubled as the colonial government's land agent in Enugu-Ngwo might detect the presence of CMS if opened in Enugu-Ngwo township preferred establishing it in Enugu-Ngwo village where their activities can be concealed.52The chiefs were divided in accepting the proposal for the establishment of a C.M.S outpost especially, those loyal to Chief Onyeama. Ozo Chime Ukwuani, the Warrant Chief, representing Ekagbani which was comprised of Enugu, Etiti, and Amachalla bowed to the pressure of the protagonists and quickly contacted Ozo Nnadi Nwagu who promptly released his compound for its establishment. Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu who had taken over from Rev. Daws was invited to start a CMS church in Enugu- Ngwo on the 17th of January, 1917.53

Impacts of CMS Missionary Activities in Ngwo Clan Education and Medical Impact: Ngwo is a society that accommodates people of diverse groups. Since 1909 when coal was discovered in their land to 1914 when exploitation commenced in full commercial capacity to 1915 when the Northern and western rail lines were extended to Enugu Ngwo to 1917 when a trunk “A” road was constructed across their land with a major cross road linking the Northern and Western Nigeria at the centre of their locality; Ngwo people has been accommodating people of diverse groups. Their liberal mindedness afforded then the opportunity to learn and as well benefit from the people they come in contact with the situation was not different from their experience with the CMS missionaries led by Rev. Isaac. Ejindu. Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 125 The missionaries arrived Ngwo, passing through Awlaw, and Ozalla on evangelical mission.54 Ngwo, being a highly religious people, Rev. Ejindu devised a plan for penetrative evangelism. He came with a monkey which many people went to watch, he also came with a guitar and a flute with which he played music to the delight of the people that gathered to watch his monkey. His activities gradually changed the major pastime of the people, especially in the evenings when most people must have been through with the day's activities. People who could have relaxed in their neighbourhoods after farm work to enjoy evening palm wine and play local games trooped to the village square to watch his performance. He toured the whole of Ngwo clan with his monkey and music, his presence always attracted a large number of spectators who, after being entertained with music, had the gospel preached to them. As the number of his spectators kept increasing by the day, he devised a programme for formal education and bible lessons for them. Onwubiko noted that the most spectacular achievement of the missionaries in West Africa is in the field of education, 55 the Christian missionaries, regarded education as the indispensable hand maid of evangelization and also promoted it from the onset of their activities. 56 On arrival at Ngwo clan Rev. Ejindu the lead missionary came with Mr. John Eze Nwoye, a seasoned school teacher to pioneer the establishment of schools in Ngwo clan.57 They first established St. Mary's Primary school in Enugu Ngwo. 58 pupils were instructed in English Language which of course is very new in Ngwo clan. Pupils were thought how to both read and write in English Language. Parent too did not hesitate in releasing their children to the established schools. As the church and school expanded rapidly in the compound of Ozo Nnadi Nwagu, the missionaries demanded for a land to permanently site the church and school. An abominable piece of land known and referred to as Be enya ka nti which means a place where one seas for himself rather than hearing. It was a land where numerous atrocious, things were deposited including dead bodies.59 At the completion of the permanent site of the church and school in September, 1917, enrolment of pupils into the school especially from a Akagbani section of Ngwo Clan increased drastically. Pupils from Amankwo were trekking very long distance to attend classes and other church activities connected to the school. Their devotion and dedication to the activities of the missionaries reflected in their knowledge of writing, reading and communication in English language. The pupils were clearly distinguished from their mates who were not making such sacrifice, trekking that long distance to gain western education. It was in this regard that community leaders in Amankwo, Ameke and Uborji under the leadership of Chief Ozofor Nwaozalor of Okwe, Amankwo applied for the establishment of a church and school for Ngwo Uno section of Ngwo Clan in November, 1917, St. Paul's church and school was planted at Amankwo. 60 In 1919 people from Ime-Ama section of Ngwo which is comprised of Okwojo, 126 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 Ukaka, Amebo and Umuase through their leader Chief Ugwu Ozonyia requested for the establishment of their own Church and school. They provided the land and erected the building by themselves as St. Peter's church, Okwojo.61 the schools established in all the sections of the clan were all junior primary schools, the standard were not high because they lacked qualifies teachers. It was low grade teachers that pass instruction to the pupils.62 But with the proliferation of pupils in the schools the extent that facilities and teachers could no longer contain, the missionaries applied to Ngwo clan for land for the establishment of a standard primary school in Ngwo. In 1922, a parcel of land at 7 miles (Seven miles) that stretched from Ukaka to Okwojo was released both to the CMS and RCM (Roman Catholic Mission) which, in the period was rapidly spreading at Ngwo Uno section of Ngwo.63 On that land the CMS established the Central School in Ngwo. The school in the period was the best primary school in the whole of Agbaja Area of old Udi Division, High profile teachers were posted from Onitsha to run the school. The standard of the school was very high to the extent that when primary school leavers in the whole of Onitsha Province competed for a very competitive entrance into the prestigious Denis Memorial Grammar School (DMGS) Onitsha; a son of Ngwo clan and a graduate of the central school Ngwo, Mr. Isaac Nwangwu scaled through as a pioneer student. 64 The missionaries also opened a vocation training centre for men located at Be Okwobu N'agu- a land deserted by its owners because of the presence of an evil spirit called Nomeh the spirit not only tormented people, it as well mysteriously killed children.65 a flourishing industrial training centre was established in it, where converts were trained either as carpenters or masons. The lead instructor was Mr. Arinze from Obosi.66 The vacation centre for women was located at the site of St. Mary's church. It doubled both as a vocation centre and a maternity home. Mrs. Celina Nwosu was in charge of taking care of orphans, twins and pregnant women, the missionaries worked hard to stop the killing of twins and female genital mutilation. Mrs. Mercy Nwere was in charge of the centre for skill acquisition and home making.67 Some wives of the new converts to Christianity were sent to St. Monica's Vocation Training School at Ogbunike in present Anambra State to train in catering, seamstresing, Home keeping as management. The participants include Mr. Bernice Eze, Mrs. Agnes Aneke and Mrs. Onoh. On their return, they became instructors in the vocation school established at St. Mary's Church where they train young Christians and even non-Christian girls on different areas of home making. Graduates from the centre were resourceful. It therefore became a breeding ground for young men in choosing their wives.68 Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 127 Religious and Cultural Impact The primary objective of missionaries' activities in Africa generally was to evangelize the people and convert them from their traditional forms of worship to Christian way of life as belief. As noted earlier the missionaries came with a monkey, guitar and flute, they are attractive to the people and will always pull ground to the places they go to evangelize. Their teachings were in total variance to the pre-existing traditional beliefs and practices. For instance, ancestor veneration, usage of Ogwu charms to ward off death, sickness and misfortune. The economics of the new teaching was also, to an extent, a point of attraction to some converts. The goats, yam and other articles that exchange hands in supplicating to the deities serve other vital economic purpose since the Christian God does not require any of such, except prayers and faith. Dedication of people and their resources to the land deity as the basis of success started losing edge while worshiping the invisible God gained momentum. 69 The new converters owing to the persecution they faced in the period because to their preference to Christianity relocated from their homes to the deserted land of industrial mission where an industrial training center had already been established. The early setters include Mr. Nathanael Aneke, Mr. Paul Ugwu, Mr. Simeon Nwani, Mr.Hezekiah Onoh, Mr. Philip Onoh, Mr. Amos Aneke, Mr. Appolos Aneke, Mr. John Nnadi, Mr. Timothy Ugorji. Their descendants still reside in Industrial Mission as at the time of this writing.70 Industrial Mission became a melting point where Christian culture diffused into other parts of Ngwo Clan. It is pertinent to say here that through the adherents to Christianity were many, passive adherents who combined traditional practices with Christianity were more in number. The Warrant Chiefs who influenced the establishment of churches and schools in different parts of Ngwo Clan were not themselves Christians; rather they strongly engage in traditional practices. Apart from few devoted elderly people, the bulk of the truly devoted people were more among children and teenagers who were not up to the age of initiation into the traditional institutions of Ngwo Clan.

Conclusion The CMS Missionaries made giant strides in Ngwo Clan in the period under review. The people both converters and non-converts to Christianity embraced Christianity in one way or the other. There was a general belief that the missionaries came with mere civilized knowledge and the people did not hesitate to embrace it in one way or the other. Parents gave their children free hand to attend both school and church activities. The school did not only confer greater wisdom in the pupils, it placed the Clan on a better position to benefit from the greater possibilities that accompanied colonialism. Lots of them eventually secured placement in government departments, parastatals and corporation in Enugu. 128 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 Graduates of the Vocation Canter and Industrial Training Institute became resourceful and self- sufficient. They as well trained younger people who contributed meaningfully to the development of the Clan. Some ancient traditional practices like killing of twins and human sacrifice reduced drastically. The tenants of Christianity was advanced by the missionaries in Ngwo Clan to a large extent freely and unmolested. But unfortunately, Christianity remained poorly internalised and superficial. Most adherents were passive in their belief. They combined Christian tenets and traditional practices. Most of their interest revolved around intellectual development which will offer their children the opportunity of taking advantages of the economic and political realities of the colonial activities in Enugu Ngwo township and not in the advancement of Christian teachings and ethics. Be that as it may, the legacies left behind by the CMS Missionaries in their 13 year apostolate laid a firm foundation that sustained the advancement of Ngwo Clan.

End Notes 1. Brochure of the Foundation Stone Laying Ceremony of Ejindu Memorial Church Center, Enugu: Edilo Press 2009, p,22 2. J.O Ahazaem, “The Nigerian Coal Industry and the problem of failing Coal Consumption in Nigeria” Nsukka Journal of History Vol 1, No 1, Nsukka: Meks Unique Publishers 1989,p.337. see also A. Akpala “The Background to Enugu Colliery Shooting Incident in 1949” in K.O Dike (etal), Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria, Vol 3, No2, Ibadan: University Press, 1965, p.337. 3. Sydney Aneke, c.77 retired civil servant and church teacher, Diocesan Historian, church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion, Missionary Diocese of Enugu North, interviewed 28/07/11. U. Ani, “Social and Political Change in Ngwo, 1909-1983”, M.A Thesis, Department of History and International Studies , University of Nigeria Nsukka, 2008 pp. 44-45 4. N.A.E/ P.E.H Hair, The Story of Enugu, 5. A.E. Afigbo, “Igboland before 1800” in O.Ikime (Ed) Groundwork of Nigerian History, (Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books, 1980) p.74. 6. A.E Afigbo, “Igboland before 1800”… 7. U. Anyanwu, Igbo Society in Transition: The Ezza Example, (Nsukka: Great A. P. Express Publishers Ltd, 2005) p.5. 8. C.C. Agbodike, Sources and Traditions of African Historiography, (Awka: Nuel Publishers Ltd, 2004) p.12. 9. C.C. Agbodike, Sources and Traditions… 10. J.O. Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture ... p.4. 11. A.E. Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, (Ibadan: University Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 129 Press, 1981) p.4 12. J. O. Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture … p.4. 13. J.O Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture… pp.4&5. Also, aspects of these forms the opinion of the present writer, this arose from his in-depth inquiry into the Ngwo origin. He arrived at this point when he ventured into the studies of different towns, villages, kindreds and families that makeup Ngwo. He came to a conclusion that the people that make up Ngwo Clan were to a large extent not only the descendants of Ngwo-Ako. 14. J.O Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture… 15. J.O Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture… 16 S.N Agu, c.71 Retired Civil Servant\Politician\Community Leader, interviewed at Ameke, 26th December, 2007; also, Pa Joseph Nwangwu, Elder Sydney Aneke and many other Ngwo elders believed in the legend of Ngwo-Ako, not because it is strong enough to sustain the tradition of Origin of Ngwo people, but because it is an instrument of unity that bound Ngwo into one entity. 17 S.N Agu, Pa Joseph Nwangwu,etc, interviews cited 18 Ikenga John Agu Agbo, interview cited. 19 Nze S.N Agu, interview cited 20 Ikenga John Agu, interview cited. 21 NAE, ONDIST 20/1/269, Intelligence Report on Ngwo Clan in Agbaja Area, Udi Division of Onitsha Province. With Correspondence, Registered, 30th August, 1933. See also, interview with Ikenga. John Agu Agbo. 22 Nze Stephen Agu, Pa Joseph Eneje Nwangwu and Ikenga John Agu Agbo among other Ngwo elders were of the opinion that inspite of the short comings of the Ngwo- ako legend; it still sustains the history of origin of Ngwo people. 23 A.E Afigbo, Ropes of Sand: Studies in Igbo History and Culture, Ibadan; University Press 1981, p.45 24 A. E Afigbo, Ropes of Sand… 25 Pa Ude Nweze, c.88, trader, traditionalist, culturist, community leader, interviewed, 17/07/2009 26 Pa Ude Nweze, interview cited. 27 Ichie Sam Chime c.63, civil servant, businessman/community leader, interview, 28 19/12/2007. See also Ikenga John Agu-Agbo , c.81, businessman/community leader interviewed on 17/12/2007. 29 Ichie Sam Chime and Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, interview cited. 30 Pa Ude Nweze, see also Pa Joseph Eneje Nwangwu c.86 retired colliery staff, craftsman, community leader/traditionalist, interviewed on 01/01/2008 31 P.A Talbot, Peoples of Southern Nigeria, Vol 2, Ethnology, London; Oxford 130 Church Missionary Society in Ngwo Clan, Enugu 1917-1930 University press, 1926, p.438. 32 Pa Ude Nweze, interview cited, see also Nze Christopher Ogbodo, c.77 retired civil servant, culture expert and community leader, interviewed 29/7/2004. 33 Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, Nze Christopher Ogbodo interview cited. 34 C.A Obi, “Conflict and Continuity between Igbo Religious Practices and the Holy Ghost Fathers of Onitsha 1885-1930”, Seminar Paper Presented to the School of African Studies, University of London, 1980, p.1. 35 C.A Obi, Conflict and Continuity… 36 Part of the materials used for sacrifice sometimes include, pot shield, egg, day old chick, local chalk etc. Udeani Nko-Agu was one of the notable diviners in Ngwo of the period. He was consulted both within and outside Ngwo clan. He performed ordinances and sacrifices required in tracing incarnators, he also destroys the “Ogba- nje spirit in people's lineage. See also Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, Nze Christopher Ogbodo and Pa Joseph Eneje Nwangwu interviews cited. 37 Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, Nze Christopher Ogbodo and Pa Joseph Eneje Nwangwu interviews cited. 38 Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, Nze Christopher Ogbodo and Pa Joseph Eneje Nwangwu interviews cited. 39 Pa Ude Nweze interview cited. 40 Ikenga John Agu-Agbo and Nze Christopher Ogbodo interviews cited 41 Ikenga John Agu-Agboand Nze Christopher Ogbodo interviews cited 42 Sydney Aneke interviewed cited. 43 N.T Nwaezeigwe, The Igbo and Their Nri Neighbours: A Study in the Politics of Igbo Culture and Origins, Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd, 2007, p.125 44 Ikenga John Agu-Agbo, Nze Christopher Ogbodo interviews cited 45 J.O Agu, Ngwo: Its people and culture… p.27 46 D. Onyeama, Chief Onyeama: The Story of an African God, Enugu: Delta Publications, 1982. 47 Sydney Aneke, interview cited. 48 The Church Missionary Society (CMS) came into Ngwo on the 7th day of January, 1917. The advent of which came out of a failed attempt by Rev. Daws in 1912 to establish the CMS at Eke. This was as a result of the misunderstanding that ensued between him (Rev. Daws) and Chief Onyeama, the paramount ruler of Eke, who was also the Okwuloha, that is, the speaker of all the warrant chiefs in the Agbaja Area of the Old Udi Division. CMS had to wait for another five years before it was established in Enugu-Ngwo by a missionary priest from Obosi, Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu. From that period, CMS spread like wild fire from Ngwo to its environs even as far as Awgu. See N.A.E/ONPROF 7/4/ 8, Application for Mission Site in Udi Division Ani, Uchenna S. Ph.D & Ezeonwuka Innocent-Franklyn O. Ph.D 131 1917-1925. See also Sydney Aneke, c.77 retired civil servant and church teacher; Diocesan Historian, Church of Nigeria, Anglican Communion, Missionary Diocese of Enugu-North, interviewed, 28/07/11. 49 NAE, ONPROF 7/4/8, Application for Mission Site in Udi Division, 1918-1921. 50 Brochure for the inauguration of the Missionary Dioceses of Enugu-North, Published by Cheston Agency Ltd. Enugu, March 2007 p.30 51 NAE,CSE 1/85/6114, Intelligence Report on Ngwo Clan, in the Agbaja Area of Udi Division, Onitsha Province, Compiled by I.J Clerk, 1933. 52 Sydney Aneke, inteview cited, see also Brochure for the Inauguration of the Missionary Dioceses of Enugu North etc. p.30. 53 “History of St. Mary's Parish Ngwo”, Published on the Occasion of year 2003 SYNOD, 15th to 18th June 2003. 55 K.B.C Onwubiko, History of West Africa, 1800- Present Day, Zaria: Africana FEP Publishers Ltd, 1973, p.211 56 K.B.C Onwubiko, History of West Africa… 57 Brochure of the foundation stone laying ceremony…. 58 J.O Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture… p.39 59 U. Ani, “Missionary Activities of Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu in Ngwo Clan Abgaja Area of Old Udi Division, 1917-1930” in D.I. Ajaegbo Etal, Perspectives on Igbo History and Culture: Festschrift in Honour of Mazi Prof Okoro Ijoma, Enugu: Snaap Press Nig Ltd 2015 60 Brochure of the foundation stone laying ceremony…p.39 61 U. Ani, Missionary Activities of Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu… 62 J.O. Agu, Ngwo: Its People and Culture…p.39 63 NAE ONPROF 7/4/8 Application for mission site in Udi Division, 1918-1922 64 J.O Agu Ngwo: Its People and Culture… 65 Sydney Aneke, Interview Cited 66 U. Ani, Missionary Activities of Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu… p.7 67 Brochure of foundation stone laying ceremony… 68 U. Ani Missionary Activities of Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu… p.8 69 Sydney Aneke, Interview cited 70 U. Ani, Missionary Activities of Rev. Isaac Uzowulu Ejindu... IGWEBUIKE: An African Journal of Arts and Humanies Vol.4 No.4, October, 2018 www.igwebuikejournals.com

APPRAISING THE PROBLEM OF FOUNDATIONALISM IN CARTESIAN EPISTEMOLOGY

Linus Clifford Chinda Department of Educational Foundation, Adamawa State College of Education Hong- Adamawa State [email protected]

Abstract A critical look at the history of philosophy reveals that philosophers are not in agreement regarding the criterion and method of acquiring knowledge. While the rationalists elevates and argues for the primacy of reason in that regard, the empiricists on the other divide argues for the infallibility of sense experience. As opposed to the rationalist and the empiricist is the position of the skeptics who questioned and doubted the possibility of knowledge. This position stands at the background of the thoughts of Rene Descartes and agitated his philosophising about knowledge. In his attempt to purge philosophy of all uncertainties, Descartes sought to ground philosophy on a foundation that is indubitable as that of mathematics. This led to his postulation of epistemological foundationalism. This paper seeks to appraise Rene Descartes' foundationalism and brings to the fore, its implications for knowledge acquisition. The work employed the qualitative research design where data were sourced from books, journals and periodicals. In line with the above, the expository method was employed to establish Descartes' thoughts on foundationalism, while the evaluative method was adopted to ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of Descartes' thoughts before bringing to the fore, its implications for knowledge acquisition. The paper found out that as plausible as Descartes' foundationalism may seem, it is not without flaws. The study therefore concludes that any attempt to purge philosophy of its uncertainties as attempted by Descartes is tantamount to the reduction of philosophy to some other science. This is because; the uncertainties inherent in philosophy are what make for the beauty, substance as well as the continuity of the enterprise of philosophy.

Keywords: Cogito Ergo Sum, Epistemology, Cartesian, Foundationalism.

A Publicaon of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies, Tansian University, Umunya 132 Linus Clifford Chinda 133 Introduction The problem of certainty of knowledge is a major concern in the philosophical enquiry. The very act of wonder, which is believed, stimulated the lonian philosophers, led philosophy through many ages to its present position. However, as a result of the fact that many philosophers in the ancient times found it hard to reconcile this major problem of knowledge between the knowing subject (man) and the objects, they turned sceptics. Scepticism, which questioned the very possibility of true knowledge, no doubt agitated many philosophers. This agitation pushed philosophers into the desire to acquire certain knowledge. This search led to the development of some traditional theories of knowledge, which equally aimed at resolving the problem of certainty and thus give the knowing subject a place in the universe. One of such theories is the Cartesian foundationalism. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) wrote his meditation with the aim of finding out what he knew for sure; this certain truth would be the foundation of knowledge. Rene Descartes believes that the senses are deceptive and therefore accept reason as the very source of certainty. Descartes fields a rationalist foundation for truth which builds on the cogito ergo sum and being faced with the same problem of certain only of that, which can never be false or doubtful, he set out to achieve this certainty by postulating his famous method and guidelines, the methodic doubt and the clear and distinct perception of ideas in the light of reason. These helped him attain his foundation, the cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am). It is also on this frame work that Descartes was later to build and put forward his arguments for the existence of God. This paper seeks to appraise the problem of foundationalism in Cartesian epistemology. Hence, in what follows, the concepts of epistemology and foundationalism will be briefly clarified, the place of the cogito in Cartesian epistemology will also be accounted for as part of the build-up to the major crux of the paper which is an appraisal of Descartes' foundationalism before the conclusion which will be a summation of all that might have been articulated in the paper.

Making sense of Epistemology and Foundationalism Epistemology According to Scientific Revolution Encyclopaedia, the word Epistemology is derived from the ancient Greek words, “episteme” meaning “knowledge” and the suffix, “logos” meaning “discourse”. J. G Fernier coined the word on the model of “ontology” to designate that branch of philosophy which aims to discover the meaning of knowledge. Epistemology studies the nature of knowledge justification and rationality of belief. According to Jurgen Habermas in his book “Knowledge and Human Interest” was coined only in the nineteenth century, but the subject that it retrospectively denotes, is the subject of modern philosophy in general (3). According to David Truncellito, epistemology 134 Appraising the Problem of Foundaonalism in Cartesian Epistemology concern themselves with a number of tasks, which we might sort into two categories, first, we must determine the nature of knowledge, that is, what does it mean to say that someone knows, or fails to know something? This is a matter of understanding what knowledge is and how to distinguish between cases in which someone does not know something. Secondly, we must determine the extent of human knowledge that is , how much do we or can we know, how can we use our reason, our senses, is it possible that we do not know nearly as much as we think we do? (1). Providing answer to these questions has become the work of epistemology.

Foundationalism According to the Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopaedia, Foundationalism concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon justified belief, or some secure foundation of certainty such as a conclusion inferred from a basis of sound premises (139). Foundationalism therefore is an aspect of epistemology, the philosophy concerning how we think, patterns of thoughts and how we arrive at knowledge. Foundationalism is an answer to “regress” when trying to justify an argument. All arguments are based on other arguments and are justified by those arguments. Then, those arguments have to be justified and so on. Foundationalism says that there is a basis set of beliefs that do not need to be justified, because they are obviously true. They are axiomatic, like the “self evident” truths. In foundationalism, then, knowledge is split into basic and non-basic beliefs. The basic beliefs are the building blocks upon which non-basic reliefs are structured. Lemos in his book An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge noted that classical foundationalism asserts that basic beliefs must be infallible in order to be truly foundational, modes foundationalism says that a perception can be a justified basic belief unless proven otherwise by obvious contrary evidence (55). One of the best examples of foundationalism is in the work of French thinker Rene Descartes, who was the first to explore it. He proposed the question in his work the “meditation” that “if I were being deceived by an evil demon, and all my perceptions of the world around me were false, how will I know?”. He concord that for him to be deceived he has to exist, therefore he concludes with his famous cogito ergo sum (I think therefore I am) (61). In saying this, Descartes was making a rationalism statement and asserting foundationalism in the same vein too. Africa he its beliefs system headed down by his ancestors as the foundation of his knowledge and moral principles which he holds as truth.

Cogito Ergo Sum in the Cartesian Epistemology Descartes' cogito ergo sum was a direct response to the sceptics; having become a sceptic to prove the sceptics wrong that in fact, there was something that could be known for Linus Clifford Chinda 135 certain undoubtedly. As a foundation to his argument, Descartes observed in his meditation that; it is now some years since I detected how many were the false belief that I had from my earliest youth admitted as true, and how doubtful was everything I had since constructed on this basis; and from that time I was convinced that I must once for all seriously, undertake to rid myself of all the opinions which I had formerly accepted, and commence to build a new from the foundation, if I wanted to establish any firm and permanent structure in the science (66). As a result, he set out to put everything to test using the instrument called the methodic doubt. To which in his discourse on method, he summarized his argument thus: I had long before remarked that, in relation to practices, it is sometimes necessary to adopt, as if above doubt, opinions which we discern to be highly uncertain, as has been already said; but as I then desired to give my attention solely to the search after truth, I thought that a procedure exactly the opposite was called for, and that I ought to reject as absolutely false all opinions in regard to which I could suppose the least found doubt, in order to ascertain whether after that there remained ought in my belief that was wholly indubitable. Accordingly, seeing that our senses that they deceives us, I was willing to suppose that there existed nothing really such as they presented to us; and because some men err in reasoning, and fall into paralogisms, even on the simplest matters of geometry, I, convinced that I was as open to error as any other, rejected as false all the reasoning I had hitherto taken for demonstrations; and finally, when I considered that the very same thoughts which we experience when awake may also be experienced when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of them true, I supposed that all the objects that had ever entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more truth than the illusions of my dreams (62). He further stated that: But immediately upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think that all false, this was absolutely necessary that I, who thus thought, should be somewhat; and as I observed that this truth. I think, hence I am, was so certain and of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however extravagant, could be alleged by the skeptics capable of shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple, accept it as the first principle of philosophy of which I was in search (62-63) In summary, he began his methodic doubt; doubting every principle or opinion as well as everything upon which he had built his life on. But in his doubt, he discovered that he is “a thinking (conscious) thing, that is a being who doubts, affirms, denies, knows a few 136 Appraising the Problem of Foundaonalism in Cartesian Epistemology objects, and ignorant of many” which in Latin goes as, Ergo sum res cogitants, multa igoraus, volens, nolens, imaginans etiam et sentiens (Veitch 115) and because he is a res cogitan, he must certainly exists; a truth which could not be doubted without self- contradiction. Although the idea expressed in cogito ergo sum is widely attributed to Descartes, he was not the first to mention it. Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethic, pointed out that in human activities, there is a faculty that is conscious of their exercise; so that whenever we perceive, we are conscious of their exercise; and whenever we think, we are conscious that we think; and to be conscious that we perceive or think is to be conscious that we exist. Augustine of Hippo in his book De civitate Dei writes “si ... fallor, sum” (I am mistaken I am) (Book X-1, 26) in the Enchiridion, Augustine attempt to refute scepticism by stating that “...one cannot err who is not alive. That we live is therefore, not only true but it is altogether certain as well” (Chapter 7, section 20). As many more others who are consistent with Descartes argument, and could be regarded as support for this.

Appraising the Cartesian Foundationalism There is “no philosophy that is so watertight as not to leave some loopholes” (Okoro 51), and this returns true for the Cartesian foundationalism. The aim of foundationalism is unrealistic, and in fact, impossible. As long as man remains man, he can never have any guarantee of absolute certainty in knowledge. For as the popular saying goes “to err is human”. Man can never have any guarantee against error, in his acquisition of knowledge nor can there be any system of knowledge that that would be immune to error, criticism or scepticism (Omoregbe 55). Hamlyn seems to be thinking in the above line when he opined that: Not only is it impossible to have such a system, what cannot be achieved is the discovery of the principle that will put scepticism out of question for all times. Sceptical criticism is always possible and indeed desirable. But the search for foundations of knowledge has as its aim the provisions of immunity from such criticism. The attempt to find such foundations is thus not only hopeless, it is also undesirable (quoted in Omoregbe 55). In the same vein, Omoregbe, after a careful evaluation of Descartes' foundationalism, intimated that “Descartes' foundationalism lays emphasis on intuition (intuitive perception) as the foundation of knowledge and the guarantee for certainty (55) and posed the following questions and summation in reaction to same: How can objective certainty in knowledge be founded on subjective intuition? What is the guarantee that whatever is subjectively perceived clearly and distinctly must be true? What makes “clear and distinct perception” immune from error as Descartes seems to imply…thus foundationalism, as an attempt to discover principles or systems of knowledge that would guarantee certainty and Linus Clifford Chinda 137 immunity from error or criticisms, is a futile endeavour, because neither criticism nor error can be eliminated from human knowledge, so long as man remains human, for to err is human” (55-56). Bonjour arguably presents one of the most concise forms of an anti-foundationalist argument. Bonjour's comments neatly draw together some of the issues: (1) There are basic, empirical beliefs which are justified and their justification does not depend on any further empirical beliefs. (2) For a belief to be justified there needs to be a reason why it is likely to be true. (3) For a belief to be justified for a particular person, requires that this person be in cognitive possession o f such a reason. (4) The only way to be in cognitive possession o f such a reason is to believe with justification the premises from which it follows that the belief is likely to be true. (5) The premises o f such a justifying argument for an empirical belief cannot be entirely a priori; at least one o f the premises must be empirical. Therefore the justification of a supposed empirical belief must depend on the justification o f at least one other empirical belief, contradicting (1); it follows therefore that that there can be no basic empirical beliefs.'(32). Bonjour's position is that justification ultimately depends on additional empirical beliefs which need to be justified themselves. If Bonjour's assessment of Descartes' foundationalism is correct and returns true, then foundationalism generally and that of Descartes specifically, does not successfully deal with the infinite regress problem, as basic beliefs turn out not to be self-justified after all. Again, Descartes' argument according to Hatfield is not unproblematic. If the external world is known to exist due to a stimuli-response mechanism of the body, then how is this account any different from the common empiricist views that Descartes claims to oppose? Is it not precisely distrust in sense-perception that is supposed to function as the motivation for doubt? Descartes does not seem to be able to answer this question without relying on God. He claims that God guarantees the reliability of clear and distinct perception, as well as the validity of knowledge received through sense-perception, even though the latter is weaker and sometimes confused (49). However, despite God's justification of the reliability of knowledge received through the senses, Descartes does not relinquish his thesis that knowledge of the external world is always secondary to knowledge concerning the mind. Due to his standpoint of Platonic realism regarding the ontology of mathematics, the world in itself is regarded simply as an extensional and divisible substance whose real properties can be understood only through the pure intellect. However, Descartes never quite manages to explain neither the epistemological, nor the ontological interconnectedness of the two substances, the res cogitans and the res extensa. This is because Descartes is blind to the problem of the complex relationship between language and the world. Using mathematics as the 138 Appraising the Problem of Foundaonalism in Cartesian Epistemology paradigm for a perfect conceptual language, Descartes holds that linguistic concepts (idea) are “innate”, that is, the possibility for a correct understanding of the world by means of language is God-given, in a similar way as the valid understanding of mathematical concepts is given by God (212-213). It is significant to notice that although Descartes attempts to accomplish the construction of an all-encompassing system of philosophy, he carefully advises his audience that his method is not suitable for practical means. Contributing to discourse on the critique of Descartes' foundational philosophy, A. J. Ayer in his novel work Language, Logic and Truth intimated of the barrenness of Descartes' procedure. According to Ayer: It is commonly said that Descartes attempted to derive all human knowledge from premises whose truth was intuitively certain: but this interpretation puts an undue stress on the element of psychology in his system. I think he realized well enough that a mere appeal to intuition was insufficient for his purpose, since men are not all equally credulous, and that what he was really trying to do was base all our knowledge on propositions which it would be self contradictory to deny. He thought he has found such a proposition in “cogito” which must not here be understood in its ordinary sense of “I think”, but rather as meaning “there is nothing thought” (46). Ayer was not to agree with Descartes on this point and in reference to the above, Ayer intimated that: He (Descartes) was wrong because “non cogito” would be self contradictory only if it negated itself: and this no significant proposition can do. But even if it were true that such a proposition as “there is a thought now” was logically certain, it still would not serve Descartes purpose. For if “cogito” is taken in this sense, his initial principle, “cogito ergo sum”, is false. “I exist” does not follow from “there is a thought now” (47). Rene Descartes sought to establish philosophy on the foundation that will transcend the skeptic and criticism. If that were to be possible or put differently, if Descartes has succeeded and have place philosophy on the same footing with mathematics, the implication would have been that philosophy would have ceased to be philosophy and will attain the status of something else. Bertrand Russell seems to be thinking in this line when he intimated that: If you ask a mathematician, a mineralogist, a historian, or any other man of learning, what definite body of truths has been ascertained by his science, his answer will last as long as you are willing to listen. But if you put the same question to a philosopher, he will, if he is candid, have to confess that his study has not achieved positive results such as have been achieved by other Linus Clifford Chinda 139 sciences. It is true that this is partly accounted for by the fact that, as soon as definite knowledge concerning any subject becomes possible, this subject ceases to be called philosophy, and becomes a separate science (68). Deducible from the above is that what Descartes tried to achieve with his foundational thinking will provide definite answers to issues in philosophical reflections and reasoned in the line of the thought of Russell, those issues or subject ceases to be philosophy. Russell further asserted that: The whole study of the heavens, which now belongs to astronomy, was once included in philosophy; Newton's great work was called 'the mathematical principles of natural philosophy'. Similarly, the study of the human mind, which was a part of philosophy, has now been separated from philosophy and has become the science of psychology. Thus, to a great extent, the uncertainty of philosophy is more apparent than real: those questions which are already capable of definite answers are placed in the sciences, while those only to which, at present, no definite answer can be given, remain to form the residue which is called philosophy” (69). Philosophy, no matter how uncertain and susceptible to the criticism of the skeptics, “it is part of the business of philosophy to continue the consideration of such (epistemological) questions, to make us aware of their importance, to examine all the approaches to them, and to keep alive that speculative interest in the universe which is apt to be killed by confining ourselves to definitely ascertainable knowledge” (69). The value of philosophy according to Russell is, in fact, to be sought largely in its very uncertainty and hence “the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the co- operation or consent of his deliberate reason. To such a man the world tends to become definite, finite, obvious; common objects rouse no questions, and unfamiliar possibilities are contemptuously rejected” (69). Philosophy, though unable to tell us with certainty what is the true answer to the doubts which it raises, is able to suggest many possibilities which enlarge our thoughts and free them from the tyranny of custom. Thus, while diminishing our feeling of certainty as to what things are, it greatly increases our knowledge as to what they may be; it removes the somewhat arrogant dogmatism of those who have never travelled into the region of liberating doubt, and it keeps alive our sense of wonder by showing familiar things in an unfamiliar aspect (70). Deducible from the above is the fact that the uncertainties of philosophy and the openness of then discipline to the critiques and criticisms of the skeptics is consistent with the nature of philosophy and can be said to be what makes for the beauty of the enterprise of philosophy. 140 Appraising the Problem of Foundaonalism in Cartesian Epistemology In his book the “Gray Science” Friedrich Nietzsche addresses Descartes epistemological assertion of the cogito. He criticized the phrase in that it presupposes that there is an “I”, that does such activity as “thinking” and that the “I” knows what “thinking” is. He suggested a more appropriate phrase would be “it thinks”. In other words, the “I” in “I think” could be similar to the “it” in “it is raining”. (61) While it remains true that Descartes epistemological position and the Cartesian foundationalism is consistent with the maxim of philosophy which is taking nothing for granted and that the philosophic temper with which he put forward his thought are commendable, it remains more true to purge philosophy of all uncertainty and elevate the discipline from the realm of criticism and skepticism will do philosophy no good and hence stripe it of its very nature as Bertrand Russell will argue for. It is on the above basis that it is here argued that, in view of the fact of the impossibility of purging human knowledge of either criticism nor error that this study makes bold to state that the aim of the foundationalists and foundationalism as an epistemic doctrine is both an exercise in futility as well as an activity that is at par with the very nature of philosophical reflections.

Conclusion In the preceding discourse, this paper has attempted an appraisal of the Cartesian foundationalism. What is crystal clear is that, the vehemence and forthrightness with which Descartes sought to erect philosophy on a firm foundation notwithstanding, the theory is not as much as water tight to withstand the sledge hammer of critics. While the theory, through Descartes refusal to accept the status quo is merited for being in consonance with the maxim of philosophy which is taking nothing for granted, the theory is flawed on the basis of the fact that the uncertainties and doubts as found in the enterprise of philosophy are what constitute the beauty of philosophy. In fact, had Descartes succeeded through his foundationalism to erect a new foundation that is indubitable like mathematic for philosophy, the enterprise of philosophy, properly construed would have ceased to be what it is. It is in that line that this study make bold to conclude that such scholars as Descartes and his disciples as well as other foundational thinkers should allow the enterprise of philosophy to exit in its pure state with its doubts. This is because, any attempt to provide direct real time and indubitable solutions to philosophical problems and issues is tantamount to removing those issues from the realm of philosophy.

Works Cited Aja E. Elements of Theory of Knowledge (Revised ed.). Enugu: Magnet Business Enterprise. 2004. Print Ayer. A.J. Language. Truth and Logic. London: Gollanceth 2nd ed 1946. Print Linus Clifford Chinda 141 Bonjour, Laurence, The Structure of Empirical Knowledge, Harvard University P ress, 1985. Print. Borns W.E. The Scientific Revolution: An Encyclopedia. Carlifornia: ABC-CLIO. 2001. Print Copleston, F. A History of Western Philosophy: Descartes to Leibniz. London: Continuum International Publishing group. 1958. Print David Truncellito “Epistemology” in James Fierser (edited) Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Web. Retrieved from https://www.iep.utm.edu/epistemo.. 23/02/2018. Descartes R. Mediation on First Philosophy. Trans. John Veitch New York: Dorble Day. 1960. Print Jurgen, H. Knowledge and Human Interest. Boston: Beacon Press. 1968. Print Lemos, Noah Mercelino. An Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge. Cambridge University Press, Sk. 2013. Print Nietzsche. F. The Gray Science. Trans ad Comment Walter Karfmann. New York: Vitaye. 1989. Print Okoro, Chiedozie “Rationalism and Empiricism as Theories of Cognition” in Okoro, Chiedozie (Ed.) Essays in Epistemology and Philosophy of History: A Exercise on the Critique of Cognition. Nigeria: Soladem Printers Limited, 2008. Print. Omoregbe, J. Epistemology A Theory of Knowledge: A Systematic and Historical Study. Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers, 1999. Print. Russell, B. The Problem of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967. Print. Veitch J. The Method, Mediations and Selections from the Principles of Rene Descartes (7th ed) Edinburgh William. Blackwood ed sons. 1780. Print