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108 Final Draft Chapter 7 IPCC WG1 Fourth Assessment Report Final Draft Chapter 7 IPCC WG1 Fourth Assessment Report 1 Chapter 7: Couplings Between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry 2 3 Coordinating Lead Authors: Kenneth L. Denman (Canada), Guy Brasseur (USA, Germany) 4 5 Lead Authors: Amnat Chidthaisong (Thailand), Philippe Ciais (France), Peter Cox (UK), Robert E. 6 Dickinson (USA), Didier Hauglustaine (France), Christoph Heinze (Norway, Germany), Elisabeth Holland 7 (USA), Daniel Jacob (USA, France), Ulrike Lohmann (Switzerland), Srikanthan Ramachandran (India), 8 Pedro Leite da Silva Dias (Brasil), Steven C. Wofsy (USA), Xiaoye Zhang (China) 9 10 Contributing Authors: David Archer (USA), Vivek Arora (Canada), John Austin (USA), David Baker 11 (USA), Joe Berry (USA), Richard A. Betts (UK), Gordon Bonan (USA), Philippe Bousquet (France), Josep 12 Canadell (Australia), James Christian, Deborah A. Clark (USA), Martin Dameris (Germany), Franck 13 Dentener (EU), David Easterling (USA), Veronika Eyring (Germany), Johann Feichter (Germany), Pierre 14 Friedlingstein (France, Belgium), Inez Fung (USA), Sandro Fuzzi (Italy), Sunling Gong (Canada), Nicolas 15 Gruber (USA, Switzerland), Alex Guenther (USA), Kevin Gurney (USA), Ann Henderson-Sellers 16 (Australia), Joanna House (UK), Andy Jones (UK), Christopher Jones (UK), Bernd Kärcher (Germany), 17 Michio Kawamiya (Japan), Keith Lassey (New Zealand), Caroline Leck (Sweden), Julia Lee-Taylor (USA, 18 UK), Corinne Le Quéré (Germany, France, Canada), Gordon McFiggans (UK), Yadvinder Malhi (UK), 19 Kenneth Masarie (USA), Surabi Menon (USA), John B. Miller (USA), Philippe Peylin (France), Andrew 20 Pitman (Australia), Johannes Quaas (Germany), Michael Raupach (Australia), Peter Rayner (Australia), 21 Gregor Rehder (Germany), Ulf Riebesell (Germany), Christian Rödenbeck (Germany), Leon Rotstayn 22 (Australia), Nigel Roulet (Canada), Christopher Sabine (USA), Martin G. Schultz (Germany), Michael 23 Schulz (France, Germany), Stephen E. Schwartz (USA), Will Steffen (Australia), David Stevenson (UK), 24 Yuhong Tian (USA, China), Kevin E. Trenberth (USA), Twan Van Noije, Oliver Wild (Japan, UK), Tingjun 25 Zhang (USA, China), Liming Zhou (USA, China) 26 27 Review Editors: Kansri Boonpragob (Thailand), Martin Heimann (Germany, Switzerland), Mario Molina 28 (USA, Mexico) 29 30 Date of Draft: 27 October 2006 31 32 Do Not Cite or Quote 7-1 Total pages: 108 Final Draft Chapter 7 IPCC WG1 Fourth Assessment Report 1 Table of Contents 2 3 Executive Summary............................................................................................................................................................3 4 7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................................6 5 7.1.1 Terrestrial Ecosystems and Climate .............................................................................................................6 6 7.1.2 Ocean Ecosystems and Climate ...................................................................................................................6 7 7.1.3 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate............................................................................................................7 8 7.1.4 Aerosol Particles and Climate ......................................................................................................................7 9 7.1.5 Coupling the Biogeochemical Cycles with the Climate System ...................................................................8 10 7.2 The Changing Land Climate System .........................................................................................................................8 11 7.2.1 Introduction to Land Climate........................................................................................................................8 12 Box 7.1: Surface Energy and Water Balance ............................................................................................................8 13 Box 7.2: Urban Effects on Climate............................................................................................................................9 14 7.2.2 Dependences of Land Processes and Climate on Scale ................................................................................9 15 7.2.3 Observational Basis for the Effects of Land Surface on Climate................................................................11 16 7.2.4 Modelling the Coupling of Vegetation, Moisture Availability, Precipitation and Surface Temperature....13 17 7.2.5 Evaluation of Models Through Intercomparison ........................................................................................14 18 7.2.6 Linking Biophysical to Biogeochemical and Ecohydrological Components...............................................15 19 7.3 The Carbon Cycle and the Climate System .............................................................................................................16 20 7.3.1 Overview of the Global Carbon Cycle ........................................................................................................16 21 7.3.2 The Contemporary Carbon Budget.............................................................................................................18 22 7.3.3 Terrestrial Carbon Cycle Processes and Feedbacks to Climate.................................................................27 23 7.3.4 Ocean Carbon Cycle Processes and Feedbacks to Climate........................................................................30 24 Box 7.3: Marine Carbon Chemistry and Ocean Acidification.................................................................................31 25 7.3.5 Coupling Between the Carbon Cycle and Climate......................................................................................35 26 7.4 Reactive Gases and the Climate System ..................................................................................................................40 27 7.4.1 Methane (CH4) ............................................................................................................................................40 28 7.4.2 Nitrogen Compounds ..................................................................................................................................43 29 7.4.3. Molecular Hydrogen ...................................................................................................................................46 30 7.4.4 Global Tropospheric Ozone........................................................................................................................47 31 7.4.5. The Hydroxyl Radical (OH) ........................................................................................................................50 32 7.4.6 Stratospheric Ozone and Climate ...............................................................................................................53 33 7.5 Aerosol Particles and the Climate System ...............................................................................................................55 34 7.5.1 Aerosol Emissions and Burdens Affected by Climatic Factors ...................................................................55 35 7.5.2 Indirect Effects of Aerosols on Clouds and Precipitation...........................................................................58 36 7.5.3 Effects of Aerosols/Clouds on the Solar Radiation at the Earth's Surface..................................................63 37 7.5.4 Effects of Aerosols on Circulation Patterns................................................................................................64 38 7.6 Concluding Remarks................................................................................................................................................65 39 Box 7.4: Effects of Climate Change on Air Quality.................................................................................................65 40 References ........................................................................................................................................................................68 41 Frequently Asked Question 7.1: Are the Increases in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases During 42 the Industrial Era Caused by Human Activities? ...................................................................................................105 43 Tables .............................................................................................................................................................................107 44 Do Not Cite or Quote 7-2 Total pages: 108 Final Draft Chapter 7 IPCC WG1 Fourth Assessment Report 1 Executive Summary 2 3 Emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and of reactive gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen 4 oxides, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons, which lead to the formation of secondary pollutants including 5 aerosol particles and tropospheric ozone, have increased substantially in response to human activities. As a 6 result, biogeochemical cycles have been perturbed significantly. Nonlinear interactions between the climate 7 and biogeochemical systems could amplify (positive feedbacks) or attenuate (negative feedbacks) the 8 disturbances produced by human activities. 9 10 The Land Surface and Climate 11 • Changes in the land surface (vegetation, soils, water) resulting from human activities can affect regional 12 climate through shifts in radiation,
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