BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FUCULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK
CHALLENGES FACED BY ORPHARNS AND OTHER VULNERABLE CHILDREN IN RURAL ZIMBABWE. CASE STUDY OF KWEKWE DISTRICT, ZHOMBE AREA
PREPARED BY: PATIENCE MUGOTA
REGISTRATION NUMBER: B1128204
RESEARCH SUPERVISOR: MR MASUKA
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) DEGREE IN SOCIAL WORK AT BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
NOVEMBER 2014
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NAME OF STUDENT: Patience Mugota
DISSERTATION TITLE: Challenges faced by orphans and other vulnerable children in rural Zimbabwe. Case study of Kwekwe district, Zhombe area
DEGREE TITLE: Bachelor of Science (Honours) Degree in Social Work
YEAR THIS DEGREE WAS GRANTED: 2014
Permission is hereby granted to the Bindura University Library to produce single copies of this dissertation and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purpose. Only the author reserves other publication rights and; neither the dissertation nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s written permission.
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DATE OCTOBER 2014
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The undersigned certify that they have supervised the student Patience Mugota, dissertation titled: an investigation into the challenges faced by orphans and other vulnerable children in rural Zimbabwe .case study of Kwekwe district, Zhombe area. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Bachelor of Science (Honours) Degree in Social Work.
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I...... declare that this project is an original copy of my own work and has not been published before or submitted to any other institution/university.
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to all orphans and other vulnerable children in Zimbabwe.
‘There can be no keener revelation of society’s soul than the way in which it treats its children’ (Mandela in NAP Child-Friendly version, 2006-2010:1)
ABSTRACT
This study was a situation analysis of the challenges faced by orphans and vulnerable children in
Zombie. Specifically, the study assessed the educational attainment, economic status, social isolation, adjustment, discrimination and psycho-social status of OVC, the characteristics of the care-givers of
OVC and the support systems for OVC. Therefore, 20 OVC, 5 caregivers and 5 OVCs service- providing organisations were selected as respondents. A survey research design was used. The study found that OVCs and their households faced problems such as school dropout, low educational performance; economic and food insecurity, lack of adequate clothing; social isolation and emotional hardships due to separation of siblings; discrimination, and neglect. Children’s housing conditions, toilet facilities, and access to clean water and health facilities were poor. The majority of guardians were unemployed and unable to fulfil the needs of the OVCs in their care. It is recommended that support systems for OVCs be strengthened.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The writing of this Dissertation is a product of shared experience and support of the following people mentioned in this section.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Supervisor, Mr Masuka for his commitment to the writing of this Dissertation. It would not have been possible to successfully put together this dissertation without his valuable guidance, support and, critic of my work.
I also acknowledge the spiritual support and encouragement that l was given by the members of ZAOGA FIF. I thank you and may the almighty bless you
Furthermore, I would like to thank my husband Austin Museredza, my mother Bertha Mugota and my brother Kwirirai Mugota for the financial and social support that they gave me during my studies .
I would also like to thank all the Zhombe respondents for their cooperation in the collection of data thus making this research successful.
Thank you.
Table of Contents RELEASE FORM ...... i APPROVAL FORM ...... ii DECLARATION FORM ...... iii DEDICATION ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi ACRONYMS ...... x
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.0 Introduction to the study ...... 1 1.1 Background to the study ...... 1 1.2 Conceptualisation of psychosocial challenges faced by OVC ...... 5 1.3 Statement of the problem ...... 6 1.4 Aims of the study ...... 7 1.5 Objectives ...... 7 1.6 Research questions ...... 7 1.7 Assumptions of the study ...... 7 1.8 Definition of key terms ...... 8 1.9 Significance of the study ...... 9 1.10 Chapter summary ...... 9
CHAPTER TWO ...... 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 10 2.0 Introduction ...... 10 2.1 Theoretical framework ...... 10 2.1.1The social capital argument ...... 10 2.1.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory ...... 12 2.2 Literature review ...... 13 2.2.1Living conditions of OVC ...... 13 2.2.1 Poor housing conditions ...... 13 2.2.2 Guardians are the elderly ...... 14 2.2.3 Poverty ...... 14 2.2.4 Lack of basic necessities...... 14
vii
2.2.5 Poor health care ...... 14 2.2.6 External Care and Support for OVC ...... 15 2.3 Psychosocial challenges being faced by orphans and vulnerable children ...... 15 2.3.1 Interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC Zimbabwe ...... 16 2.4 Case studies ...... 18 2.5 Government policies and programmes to enhance the psychosocial functioning of OVCs...... 19 2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY ...... 21
CHAPTER 3 ...... 23 RESERCH METHODOLOGY ...... 23 3.1 introduction ...... 23 3.2 research methodology ...... 23 3.3 the research design ...... 23 3.4 justification of the case study ...... 23 3.4 location of the study ...... 24 3.5 targert population ...... 25 3.6 sample and sampling procedures ...... 25 3.7data collection methods and techniques ...... 26 3.7.2observations ...... 27 3.8 feasibility of the study ...... 27 3.9 data presantation and analysis ...... 27 3.9 ethical considerations ...... 28 3.9.1 confidentiality ...... 28 3.9.2 informed consent ...... 28 3.9.3honesty and integrity ...... 28 3.10 limitations of the study...... 29 3.11 chapter summary ...... 29
CHAPTER 4 ...... 30 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS ...... 30 4.0 Introduction ...... 30 4.1. Research findings ...... 30 4.1.2 Response rate ...... 30 4.2. The magnitude of OVC ...... 31
4.3.0 Living situations and care of OVC ...... 32 4.3.1 Major needs, challenges and concerns of OVC ...... 33 4.3.2 Food challenges ...... 33 4.3.3 Poor housing conditions ...... 34 4.3.5 Lack of basic necessities...... 36 4.3.6 Health Care ...... 36 4.3.7 Dropping out of School ...... 38 4.3.8 Child headed households ...... 40 4.4 Psychosocial challenges being faced by orphans and other vulnerable children ...... 41 4.4.1 Stigmatization and marginalization ...... 41 4.4.2 Exploitation: Sexual abuse ...... 42 4.5 interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC ...... 44 4.5.1Intervention by the community...... 45 4.5.2Intervention by NGOs, CBOs and FBOs...... 45 4.5.3 Intervention by government...... 46 4.6 policy legislation for the protection of OVC ...... 47 4.6.0 Common issues that came out of the findings? ...... 48 4.7 Other issues that emerged from the findings? ...... 48 4.8 The least common issues that emerged from the findings? ...... 49 4.9 General issues emerging ...... 49 4.10 Chapter summary ...... 49
CHAPTER 5 ...... 50 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 50 5.0 Introduction ...... 50 5.1 Summary ...... 50 5.2 Conclusion ...... 51 5.3Recommendations ...... 51 Appendix A ...... 54 Appendix B ...... 57 Appendix C ...... 58
ACRONOYMS
AIDS aquared immune deficiency sydrome BEAM Basic Assistant Module
CBO Community Based Organisation
DACC District AIDS Action Committe FBOs Faith based Organisations FGD Focus Group Discussion HIV Human immunodeficiency Virus ILO International Labour Organization MDG Millennium Development Goals
NAP National Action Plan
NGOs Non Governmental Organizations OVC Orphans and Other Vulnerable Children PLWHA People Leaving With HIV and AIDS UNCRC United Nations Children‘s Rights Commission UNICEF United Nations International Children‘s Education Fund
WHO World Health Organisation
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction to the study This chapter introduces the study by discussing the background to the study. It also provides an outline of the statement of the problem, justification of the study aim and objectives of the study. The study is focusing all on challenges faced by orphans and other vulnerable children as they struggle to earn a living in rural areas
1.1 Background to the study HIV and AIDS is reversing many of the hard-won gains in many countries and leaving populations more vulnerable to poverty, malnutrition, ill health and mortality (UNICEF 2010). The adverse effects of the AIDS pandemic are felt most severely in some of the world’s poorest countries in sub-Saharan Africa where many of its consequences has been an upsurge in the number of orphaned children (USAID 2008).
More than four-fifths of all children orphaned by HIV and AIDS worldwide leave in sub- Saharan Africa, where every eighth child orphaned that is has lost one or both parents (UNICEF 2010). In Zimbabwe the orphan crisis is projected to worsen in the coming years, reflecting the AIDS crisis, if it were not for HIVand AIDS, the total number of orphans in sub-Saharan countries would be decreasing as in all other world regions. (USAID 2010)
According to UNAIDS 2005 ,an estimated 11,4 million people who are living with HIV in nine countries of Southern Africa including Zimbabwe .This is almost 30% of the global number of people leaving with HIV and AIDS in an area where 2% of the world ‘s population resides. As a consequence of HIV and AIDS Zimbabwe is facing one of the biggest challenges it has ever had to confront .The lives of millions of children, adolescents and young people have been redefined by HIV and AIDS (UNICEF, 2010)
It is estimated that13,2million people have died of HIV and AIDS in Africa .Zimbabwe ,along with Zambia, Malawi, Lesotho and Rwanda has the world ‘s proportion of orphaned children .December 2001 estimates by UNAIDS suggest that in these five countries ,17-18% of all children under the age of 15 have lost one or both parents .In Zimbabwe, this amounts to just over 1 million orphans ,out of a total population of around 5,8 million children and these
1 children are exposed to many maturities such as poverty ,stress, child abuse ,trafficking , child labour, prostitution lack of proper shelter , education and health care .
Most studies on orphan hood and education also found that the detrimental effects of parental loss on children’s education are significantly more important in the event of maternal death. In the study by Case and Ardington (2006), for example, the loss of a father had little effect on school attendance of children, and this effect was mediated by the loss of household economic status following paternal death. Only Timaeus and Boler (2007) and Parikh et al. (2007) found significant benefits for children’s school progress associated with living with their fathers
Nyamukapa and Gregson 2005 stipulates that double orphans, however appear significantly disadvantaged across all local contexts, except a study conducted in rural Zimbabwe. There is strong evidence that maternal HIV seropositive status is linked to an increased risk of infant and child mortality (Ryder et al. 1994; Nakiyingi et al. 2003; Crampin et al. 2003). A large study of the association between adult HIV prevalence and changes in the under-5 mortality rate in 25 countries was most noticeable in countries with high HIV prevalence (Adetunji 2000). Also, a recent study in by Mermin et al. (2008) has found that the mortality disadvantage of children of HIV-positive mothers has decreased after the introduction of antiretroviral (ART).evidence
A few recent studies have unequivocally documented the potential consequences of orphan hood on children’s psychological well-being and emotional health. Makame et al. (2002) found adverse psychological consequences of orphan hood, such as anxiety, sense of failure, pessimism, and suicidal tendency. In a study in rural Zimbabwe Nyamukapa 2007 found out those orphans had significantly higher psychosocial distress than non orphans .The authors suggested that these emotional problems might subsequently lead to earlier on set of sexual activity and elevated risk of HIV infection.
The global impact of HIV and AIDS led the United Nations member states to adopt a Declaration of Commitment during the United Nations General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on HIV and AIDS in 2001 .Goals 65,66,67 of the Declaration focus on orphans and other vulnerable children (OVC) and commits member states to develop and implement national policies and strategies to build and strengthen governmental, individual, and community capacities to provide a supportive environment for orphans and other vulnerable children .This includes appropriate counselling and psychosocial support, ensuring their enrolment in school ,access to shelter ,good nutrition, health, and social services and protection
of OVC from abuse, exploitation, discrimination, trafficking and loss of inheritance (chinake 1998 )
A number of recent studies have shown that orphans are more vulnerable than non-orphans with respect to schooling. Case et al. (2004),Southern Africa ,is the epicentre of the HIV and AIDS pandemic ,with countries in the region registering the highest HIV and AIDS prevalence rates in the world Studies using longitudinal data have also shown the detrimental effects of parental death on the education of their children. Case and Ardington (2006) found that, in a rural area of South Africa with high HIV prevalence, the mother’s death was causally related to her children’s educational outcomes. Orphans were less likely to be enrolled in school, and among those enrolled in school less money was spent on an orphan’s education relative to a non-orphan.
HIVandAIDS not only orphan children but also makes children more vulnerable in a number of ways. First and foremost, in Zimbabwe HIVandAIDS has reversed improvements in child morbidity and mortality rates achieved during the last several decades. The epidemic influences child survival both directly through mother to child transmission and indirectly through diverting resources and attention away from children to the care and treatment of a sick parent. In several sub-Saharan African countries, Infant and child mortality rates have already risen substantially and are expected to increase further in the coming years (Nicoll etal, 2012, Foster 2009, Newell etal 2004, UNICEF UNIAIDS and USAID 2010)
In addition HIV/AIDS importantly affects children’s caregivers. Children of HIV –positive parent suffer from the trauma of sickness and eventually death of a parent and associated hardships. The burden of caring for a sick parent often falls on children, and many are forced to drop out of school and take on adult roles as a result. Parental HIV related illness and death often substantially diminish household resources due to treatment costs and job loss, which often affects children’s health care and nutritional status. (UNICEF2010; Case etal 2006;UNICEF and UNIAIDS 2010)
Death of even one parent could force changes in living arrangements ,displacement and availability of resources for schooling ,health care and food for children .Care providers for orphans tend to be elderly ,often grandparents ,who are generally less likely to know about and to be capable of providing proper health care ,nutrition ,and schooling .Grandparents suffer emotionally from the illness and ultimately death of their children and suffer financially as well from the burden of supporting their ailing children and then their orphaned grandchildren .
For adolescents, parental sickness or loss may lead to risky behaviours, sexual exploitation or abuse, as well the burden of finding employment to support an ailing parent or younger siblings. Parental HIV sero positive status affects the psychosocial adjustment of children and makes them more prone to stigma and discrimination. Orphaned and fostered children are more likely to be discriminated against in schooling and health care, and they are more prone to neglect and abuse (UNICEF 2010; UNICEF and UNAIDS 2008).
Gregson etal (2005) found out that female OVC in Zimbabwe age 15-18 were significantly more likely than non OVC to be infected with HIV ,experience symptoms of STIs ,or have ever been pregnant ,although for males age 17-18 OVC status was not associated with HIV infection or other negative reproductive health outcomes. It is against this background that the Zimbabwean government have put in place mechanisms in fulfilling its global commitment to effectively address the orphan crisis. A broad based multispectral approach have been followed ,with key government ministries ,UN, and donor agencies, national ministries in the development of National Action Plan for OVC .
Despite the rapidly growing burden of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in sub-Saharan Africa due to the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, many countries in the region do not have effective programs to support OVC and their caregivers. This problem is mainly due to a lack of detailed information on the prevalence and spread of OVC in various population groups and regions in these countries. Moreover, our understanding of possible discrimination against OVC and their relative disadvantage in education, nutrition, health care, and other indicators of well-being remains limited.
The National Action Plan for Orphans and other vulnerable children in Zimbabwe (2004) revealed that Although Zimbabwe has a well-defined legislative and policy framework to support children, lack of resources has prevented full implementation of key national policies. There is an urgent need to mobilize and coordinate resources for full implementation of national policies benefiting children. The wide scale lack of birth certificates prevents children from accessing education, health services, their inheritance, and other basic benefits guaranteed in the Constitution. A survey conducted in Harare, Bulawayo, Mutare, and surrounding areas revealed over 200 organizations providing services to children, and suggests that many more efforts exist throughout the country. It is clear that communities have responded to the escalating numbers of orphans with local initiatives and resources, although their activities lack in coordination, resulting in fragmented impact
Poverty is also another cause of vulnerability in Zimbabwe since the country rely most on agriculture according to the ZIMVAC (2012) report that Assessment was conducted following three consecutive years of a relatively stable macro-economic environment in Zimbabwe. The economy grew by 9.3% in 2011 and is estimated to grow by 9.4% in 2012. However, the growth prospects for 2012 have been lowered by under-performance of major economic sectors in the first quarter of 2012 and the impact of the drought on the 2011/12 season’s agricultural production. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, production of the major crops in 2011/2012 decreased compared to their production in the 2010/2011 season mainly due to a poor rainfall season in most parts of the country. Thus many children are left with no option rather than resort their matrimonial homes in search of employment.
1.2 Conceptualisation of psychosocial challenges faced by OVC In Zimbabwe there are over 1,3 million orphans ,and even more vulnerable children living with a parent who cannot care for them .Over one million of those children have lost their parents to HIV/AIDS related complications .Many of these children are deprived of their basic needs due to high levels of poverty .Over 72% of the country is living at or below the poverty line ,with devastating consequences to children .Children are often neglected as their basic needs become overwhelmingly for parents struggling in poverty .( USAID 2010)
(UNICEF 2010) found out that, After their parents die or become disabled by illness Zimbabwean orphans and vulnerable children as young as five years old become both mother and father to their younger siblings. Those whose parents suffer from HIV/AIDS face an additional over time .Children are forced to drop out of school as they try and provide basic necessities for their siblings. Orphans and vulnerable children are forced to find work wherever they can due to their lack of education and resources .Some orphans in Zimbabwe have survived by cutting caring firewood, domestic housework, and tending cattle .When they find work, orphans are often paid unfair wages because they have no alternative but to accept whatever is given survival becomes a daily struggle.
Chinake, (2003) noted that Living in extreme poverty without the support of their parents, orphans are vulnerable to additional kinds of exploitations .Neighbours and occasionally relatives can take advantage of them because they know that there is no longer an adult to
enforce the children‘s property rights .Girls often turn to child marriages out of desperation, or through coercion by relatives. Most of the children have little or no access to adequate toilets, and cannot afford basic amenities such as soap and toothpaste to keep them clean and health .Many children suffer from malaria and other diseases because they lack the training and resources to prevent them.
Many of these children leave in communities where they are wide spread misconceptions about the causes of HIV/AIDS. After their parents die from HIV related complications, they are shunned by neighbours and community members for fear of catching the diseases .Orphans find themselves isolated within their communities, surrounded by those who are unwilling or are unable to reach out to them. (Musekiwa 2009)
1.3 Statement of the problem Most researches done have mainly focused on the challenges faced by children in the streets The study will fill in the gap that have been left by other researchers like(Nyamukapa and Gregson 2004)Rurevo and Bourdillon(2003) and Musekiwa (2009) who recommended that children should be protected from the economic activities that are hazardous .They did not emphasise on the perceptions and future aspirations of orphans mainly in rural areas children this study sought to provide information into the children’s rights actors on the plight of orphans and vulnerable children and their need for protection
The information would assist policy makers and other children stakeholders to take appropriate courses of action for the welfare of rural orphans and vulnerable children .It would also stimulate more research and debate on the issue of rural orphans .The study also sought to add into repository of knowledge on socio-economic challenges of orphans in Zimbabwe and into particular the right to protection.
Little have been empirically documented about the challenges faced by OVCs in the rural areas, it is against this background that l propose that my study is of paramount importance as it will bring an insight of what exactly is happening in rural areas .this would enhance the improvement of the support to Children Protection Committees, Policy evaluation, improved programming, monitoring and evaluation.
While numerous efforts have been made to implement community-based initiatives which support orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) the focus has been primarily on providing
material and psychosocial support. The approach has neglected to provide valuable life-skills information which orphans and children need in their special circumstances, to make informed, health decisions
1.4 Aims of the study The aims other study is to investigate into the challenges faced by OVCs in rural Zimbabwe focusing on the Kwekwe District Zhombe area.
1.5 Objectives The objectives of the study are; i) To explore the living conditions of OVC in rural areas. ii) To identify psychosocial challenges being faced by OVC in rural areas focusing on Zhombe area. iii) To evaluate interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC in Zhombe.
1.6 Research questions 1. What are the main challenges faced by orphans and other vulnerable children in rural areas.
● Are the basic material needs of OVC met?
● Are OVC less likely to attend school, more likely to be undernourished, and less likely to receive health care than non-OVC?
● In households with both orphans and non-orphans, are orphans more vulnerable or disadvantaged than non-orphans?
● Are adolescent OVC more likely to engage in risky sexual behaviour than non-OVC?
● Are female adolescent OVC more likely to be sexually exploited than non-OVC?
● Are OVC and their families receiving the necessary external care and support?
1.7 Assumptions of the study The researcher would be granted necessary authority to carry out the study.
All respondents would cooperate in supplying the required research data.
The respondents chosen are a true and reflective representation of the whole population understudy.
1.8 Definition of key terms Orphan- the official definition of an orphan is a child aged zero to 17 years whose mother, father, or both have died. (World Bank OVC Toolkit) .There is however other children who are referred to as social orphans even though one or both their parents may still be alive but who have been unable to perform parental duties because of illness or acute poverty among other reasons.
Child- defined by the UN Convention on the Rights of the child as every human being below the age of 18years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier.
Vulnerability- vulnerability is viewed as a high probability of a negative outcome (World Bank OVC Toolkit), or an expected welfare loss above a socially norm, which results from risky or uncertain events, and the lack of appropriate means to deal with them .Vulnerability leaves one at risk of exposure to stressful situations. The degree and type of vulnerability however varies in each context and overtime.
Vulnerable child – A vulnerable child is defined as being under the age of 18 years and currently at high risk of lacking adequate care and protection .Accordingly, all children are vulnerable by nature compared to adults, but some are more critically vulnerable than others. Child vulnerability is a downward spiral where each shock leads to a new level of vulnerability, and each new level of vulnerability, and each new level opens up for a host of new risks .In other words , the probability of a child experiencing a negative outcome rises with each shock .(Wold Bank OVC Toolkit)
Characteristics of children defined as vulnerable include those;
Orphaned by the death of one or both parents, abandoned by parents, living in extreme poverty, living with a disability, abused by parents or their careers, malnourished due to extreme poverty and those that are HIV positive.
All vulnerable children have one common denominator they have no reliable social safety networks on hand to depend upon in order to adequately manage the risk to which they daily exposed.
1.9 Significance of the study The researcher improved his skills and competence in research matters. The study introduced the researcher much into the understanding of children especially OVC, and the challenges they are facing. The study will necessitate the researcher to meet the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social Work. The study will be of great importance to the policy formulators of the government as it may enable them if they consider it necessary, to use the findings of this study as another way of looking on how to counter the impact of hardships faced by OVC in Zimbabwe. The study will also enable ways of improving the livelihoods of OVC in rural areas.
The study will enable the university’s reputation in training competent personnel to improve therefore its recognition and acceptance will gradually enhance. Other researchers will use the information in this study for their literature reviews if they get involved in similar studies especially in the understanding of OVC. They can also use this study as a guide line in terms of how a study is organised among some of the chief issues, even though the studies they wish to carry out differs from this study.
1.10 Chapter summary This Chapter focused mainly at the problem identification and provided a setting of the problem as shown by the background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, assumptions and ethical considerations. Chapter one is an introduction and orientation of the study as reflected by the background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions of the study, significance of the study, assumptions, definition of terms, delimitation of the study, limitations, ethical considerations and organisation of the study. Chapter two will look at literature review whereby existing literature will be analysed to come up with the theoretical and empirical frameworks and choice of a proper methodology for the study.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction This chapter discusses the notion of OVC and how their lives are affected in rural areas due to economic exploitation and the challenges that they face. This section commences with an outline of the theoretical framework, which is based on the social capital theory. Subsequently, the global overview of OVC, regional overview, national overview and Zhombe overview of economic exploitation will be presented. This chapter will also review studies carried out in other countries and in Zimbabwe on OVC. In this regard it will review literature relating to; the phenomenon of these children, child rights and legislative provision on the protection of children against economic exploitation.
2.1 Theoretical framework In an effort to understand the phenomenon of orphans and other vulnerable children and the subsequent challenges they are facing, the study employed the social capital theory and Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs theory achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be achieved. This theory draws a correlation between family structure and home leaving. For a child to have access to other resources in society, the family should posses some social capital, which should be accessible to the child in the present time and a promising future. The social capital of the family is the relationship between children and parents. Social capital of a child should include the combination of the family social capital and community social capital (Coleman, 1990).
2.1.1The social capital argument According to Coleman (1988) social capital is defined as resources available within the structure of relations between children and adults within the family, making possible achievement of certain ends that in its absence would not be achieved. This theory draws a correlation between family structure and home leaving. For a child to have access to other resources in society, the family should posses some social capital, which should be accessible to the child in the present time and a promising future. The social capital of the family is the
relationship between children and parents. Social capital of a child should include the combination of the family social capital and community social capital (Coleman, 1990).
According to Coleman, (1990), in the absence of social capital in the family, provision of basic needs such a food, clothing and shelter becomes a problem, leading children to leave home to seek alternative jobs that may meet their basic needs. In this case children are likely to be involved in child labour and abuse. According to Wright et al (2001), children with little or no social capital are bound to leave their nesting home in search of better life and other avenues of comfort. In this case, children are likely to be involved in activities that are exploitative. Unlike other forms of capital, social capital is vested in the structure of relations between persons and among persons. Thus family structure becomes the important component in the transmission of the social benefits to its members (Coleman, 1990).
Socio-cultural factors as propounded by Rurevo and Bourdillon (2003:4) also supported the social capital theory by asserting that traditional perceptions of childhood and the roles of children by gender might also play a critical part in determining who amongst siblings should work to support the family. To fulfil traditional obligations in a crisis, children might work to settle family debts, pay medical fees, and contribute to their own.
Large inequalities, discrimination ,lack of participation and exclusion may hamper economic development and democratic stability ,providing yet another argument for public investments in disenfranchised and vulnerable groups (on trust, values, economic growth)OVC are arguably the most vulnerable members of the society. Children who grow up outside or in the outskirts of families and communities are less likely to fully integrate social constraints of their behaviour .Hence they maybe more likely to enhance in risky activities ,suffer accidents, become pregnant at an early age, contract sexually transmitted infections, and even to commit crime .
A large cohort of young adults who cannot find employment because they lack education and proper socialisation are less likely to see their interest in maintaining their economic and political system. Hence they may become a cohort for recruitment of militia members and groups of rural bandits .the cost of non-action or lack of adequate action, especially in Africa could result in large scale social capital erosion as uncared for OVC grow up to become dysfunctional adults.
2.1.2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory Figure 1
self actualisation
self esteem
love and belonging
security
basic needs
(Source; Maslow 1954)
Maslow‘s hierarchy of need theory explains the psychological theory of human motivation, which includes five sets of needs, that are (i) physiological needs, (ii) safety, (iii) love, (iv) self esteem and (v) self actualization (Maslow 1954). Maslow‘s theory can be used to explain the hardships faced by OVC leading to child labour. Human beings are motivated by having these needs fulfilled. According to Maslow all human beings require the first need in the hierarchy to be fulfilled, that is, physiological needs (basic needs), which include, food, shelter and clothing. Once these basic needs are met human beings seek to achieve the next set of needs on the hierarchy. In this case children may opt to go and work in farms and engage in other forms of employment in order to get the basic needs.
The life of children in the family setting will greatly depend on the fulfilment of these basic needs. In the absence of such (that is lack of food, shelter and clothing), it may lead children to the streets where they think these needs can be met. In other instances, where families have provided basic needs, but the other needs in the hierarchy are not met such as security may also cause children to leave their nesting home and become destitute. Lack of love and affection
may cause the child to move to the growth points nearby ending up in prostitution and child labour. When a child feel like no one cares about him or her may run away from home. These needs are commonly violated by domestic violence and sexual abuse.
2.2 Literature review The literature review will enable the researcher to link the study to existing knowledge and to establish theories it also allows the researcher to have an insight of what has been done in the field and minimizes duplication thereby increasing the probability that the new study will generate new body of knowledge. The researcher have noted that much have been documented about the OVC however little have been written about the challenges confronting them, however the researcher have largely utilised the reports of the implementing organisation that is MRDC – Save the Children.
According to the situation analysis of Mwenezi and Masvingo Districts study of 2010 by the Department of Social Service, the advance of the pandemic was quietly picking off a generation of adults ,individuals and family heads ,breadwinners, producers care givers and so creating a generation gap of an active economic group in the communities .Only aged grandparents and extended family members ,many of whom were destitute and themselves in need ,were left to care for the growing numbers of destitute dependent children who could not be catered for by the state using the scarce resource characteristic of a developing country like Zimbabwe.
2.2.1Living conditions of OVC Due to the socio-economic situation and the HIV and AIDS epidemic, all children in Zimbabwe are potentially vulnerable (Children on the Brink (UNICEF, UNAIDS, USAID: 2002). There are many ways of defining and evaluating vulnerability. However, this researcher acknowledges that communities themselves best define vulnerability. They know which children is vulnerable using their own indices of vulnerability and prioritize accordingly.
2.2.1 Poor housing conditions According to a study carried out by Case and Ardington (2006) in Chimanimani Housing conditions for OVCs were very poor, with the majority of the houses needing some refurbishment or upliftment. Some OVC were said to be homeless and some houses were reported to have collapsed during the rainy season .It was said that up to five grown up children were sleeping in the same room, even if they were of opposite sex. There was no one to assist with repair o houses for the child headed households and thus they would end up leaving in pole and dagha huts and were in a particularly poor state.
2.2.2 Guardians are the elderly A study carried out by Gregson and Nyamkapa (2008) in rural area of Mutare Zimbabwe revealed that Generally the OVC were leaving under difficult conditions, mostly being looked after by grandparents and widows, with no reliable source of income .some orphans were staying with cousins, aunts, uncles and other relatives while others were staying in orphanages. In some households with old grandparents, it was often the case that children would actually assume the role of head of household. There were also a number of child headed households in the district.
2.2.3 Poverty Case etal (2010) noted that Living in extreme poverty without the support of their parents, orphans are vulnerable to additional kinds of exploitations .Neighbours and occasionally relatives can take advantage of them because they know that there is no longer an adult to enforce the children‘s property rights .Girls often turn to child marriages out of desperation, or through coercion by relatives.
2.2.4 Lack of basic necessities According to the National Aids Council‘s recent 2013 findings reveals that the support for orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) in the Midlands province has declined with only 15% of the estimated 77 387 OVC school related assistance. This means the majority of the children end up dropping out from school and doing menial jobs, mostly as housemaids for the girl child
2.2.5 Poor health care Evidence on the health status of OVC is less clear, however. A cross-sectional study in urban Uganda Found no differences between orphans and non-orphans in reported treatment seeking behaviour and in anthropometric measures (Sarker et al. 2005). Comparing orphans and non- orphans living in the same households in a rural area of South Africa, Parikh et al. (2007) found no significant health disadvantage for orphans on a series of wellbeing indicators. A study in rural western Kenya similarly compared several health and nutritional indicators (including fever, malaria, history of illness, anaemia, and stunting) for orphaned and non-orphaned children under age 6 and concluded that orphaned children are at no greater risk of poor health than non-orphaned children (Lindblade et al. 2003), although orphans were somewhat more likely to be wasted than non-orphans.
2.2.6 External Care and Support for OVC
With the sharp increase in adult mortality following the spread of HIV, a large generation of children in sub-Saharan Africa has lost or will lose at least one parent at an early stage of their life. Historically, children in sub-Saharan Africa have often been cared for by extended family members including grandparents, uncles and other relatives. This tradition of child fostering has become an essential coping mechanism in the face of increased adult mortality due to AIDS. It is also a solution to the “orphan crisis” that is locally and culturally acceptable (Madhavan 2004; Deininger et al. 2003; Foster et al. 2000), whereas institutional arrangements such as fosterage in orphanages have been deemed adequate only in desperate situations (e.g., for street children). Households fostering orphans in sub-Saharan countries are also frequently supported (financially and otherwise) by other households in their communities (Madhavan 2004)
The outcome of a 1998 (UNICEF) and 2000 (USAID) situational analysis on OVC identified children orphaned and made vulnerable because of HIV and AIDS as the most vulnerable.population in Zimbabwe. These children are subjected to a wide range of social and economic difficulties: psycho-social distress, grief, stigma, discrimination, isolation, economic deprivation, loss of educational opportunity, burdensome domestic responsibilities, and fear for their own future themselves with basic necessities
2.3 Psychosocial challenges being faced by orphans and vulnerable children Difficulties experienced by OVCs in accessing education in Zimbabwe (Nyamukapa and Gregson 2006)
Educational needs of OVCs born with HIV and AIDS are being ignored.
OVCs miss out on lessons due to the perennial late disbursement of BEAM funds.
BEAM beneficiaries in one year are being dropped from the scheme in subsequent years.
Lack of easier access to civil registration affecting access to education for OVCs.
Politicisation of BEAM affecting access to the scheme across the political divide.
Subject selection for orphans limited as BEAM only paying for six subjects at O’ Level. OVCs are struggling to get early access to ECD.
Musekiwa (2009) also found the following in his research in rural Zimbabwe. Death of even one parent could force changes in living arrangements, displacement, and availability of resources for schooling, health care, and food for children. Care providers for orphans tend to be elderly, often grandparents, who are generally less likely to know about and to be capable of providing proper health care, nutrition, and schooling. Grandparents suffer emotionally from the illness and untimely death of their children and suffer financially as well from the burden of supporting their ailing children and then their orphaned grandchildren. In addition, HIV/AIDS importantly affects children’s life and the families of children’s caregivers.
Children of HIV-positive parents suffer from the trauma of sickness and eventual death of a parent and associated hardships. The burden of caring for a sick parent often falls on children, and many are forced to drop out of school and take on adult roles as a result (UNICEF 2010; Case et al. 2004; UNICEF and UNAIDS 2008). Parental HIV-related illness and death often substantially diminish household resources due to treatment costs and job loss, which often affect children’s health care and nutritional status.
Some children as young as 12 years old were heads of households. Some of the school going children were taking care of sick relative and were often expected to bring income by doing part time jobs in order to sustain their families .Community members had positive attitude towards OVC .this was echoed by OVC themselves who indicated that most of them were well looked after and the community accepted them.
2.3.1 Interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC Zimbabwe
Although intervention agencies have been doing sterling work in assisting OVC, they have been overwhelming by their increasing numbers. Among the organisations that work in District are Plan international, World food programme, the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) and a faith-based organisation under the United Congress church in Southern Africa (UCCSA) called Bongani Orphan Care .World food programme was implementing a supplementary feeding scheme for all children in Zhombe. They also had a separate feeding scheme for orphans they assisted with school fees. Apart from school and examination fees
assistance to deserving children, Bongani orphan care also offered life skills to the youth through income generating activities like gardening, soap-making and candle making.
Intervention by the community
At community level, OVC were assisted with various basic needs .They were also assisted with small projects such as vegetable gardens and selling to raise money for food and soap. It was reported that the community used to have chiefs’ granary Zunderamambo, but that it had disintegrated. However, there were plans to resuscitate the scheme. The district had one orphanage that provided a home to several OVC (Mary ward Children’s Home).
The NAP for OVC is a government social protection programme that seeks to reach out to all OVC in Zimbabwe with basic services and protecting them from abuse and exploitation. In addition, chief in this plan are Child Protection Committees and there are three main CPCs involved in the programme, which are the Provincial Child Protection Committee, District Child Protection Committee, and the most important being the Community Child Protection Committee (Save the Children Norway 2008). This Community Child Protection Committee in principle is the implementing arm of the entire policy framework alluded to above. The committee therefore is an arm of the ultimate duty bearer (Government). Children as claim holders look up to the committee for the fulfilment of their claims within the available resources and cultural context at a local level.
Operating at grassroots level the Community Child Protection Committees are the custodians of the children rights and basic services such as psychosocial support, food, birth registration, education, descent environment free form abuse, water and sanitation and food and income is raised through livelihoods /income generating projects. The activities of the Community Child Protection Committees are coordinated by the District Child Protection Coordinator who is a an officer from the Department Of Social Services and the activities of the CPCs are supported by Child Protection Officer who are from the NGO fraternity that is the implementers of the NAP. The child protection committee in Zhombe are very functional and effective towards helping orphans.
Intervention by NGOs, CBOs and FBOs
World food programme was also assisting OVC with food and clothing, though the support was said to be inadequate. One community leader mentioned that there was corruption in the distribution of food in the district. Catholic Development Commission (CADEC), Plan International and District AIDS Action Committee (DACC) were assisting with payment of levies, provision of school uniforms, fees and stationery. DACC was also assisting with sanitary wear to girl children; this was started after receiving reports that girls were missing school during their menstrual periods because they did not have sanitary wear.
Intervention by govnment
The ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare (MoPSLSW), in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (MoESC), runs the BEAM scheme, which assists children with school fees. Participants reported that the scheme was not regular with its assistance and did not pay for other levies. The ministry of home affairs Victim Friendly Unit (VFU) was in place in the district, but most people were not aware of its existence and how to make use of it. The VFU in collaboration with the following ministries organised campaigns on community awareness of VFU: Ministries of Justice and Legal Affairs, Health and Child Welfare, Social Service and Childline.
2.4 Case studies Just like in many other countries in the world, Zimbabwe‘s rural areas have children who live and earn a living on aints meat.
Studies about orphans and vulnerable children have been done in different countries in Africa like Kenya Mishra et al. (2007)South Africa, Parikh et al. (2007). Ghana (Hatloy and Huser, 2005, Beauchemin, 1999) and Zimbabwe (Nyamukapa 2007) to mention just few. They confirmed that The increase in number of infected people with HIV and AIDS is therefore increasing the affected people living children with no one to look after them ,these children become victims of prostitution ,crime ,and early marriages in order to fend for themselves , these children are also vulnerable to abuse, poverty and exploitation. Children who live in rural areas face several challenges mostly to meet basic needs for survival. Life as an orpharn mostly in child headed families risk children to various forms of economic exploitation and torture (UNICEF, 2001)
In Kenya Mishra et al. (2007) found that that fostered children were considerably less likely to be attending school than non-vulnerable children Evidence on the health status of OVC is less clear, however. A cross-sectional study in urban Uganda found no differences between orphans and non-orphans in reported treatment-seeking behavior and in 5anthropometric measures (Sarker et al. 2005). Comparing orphans and non-orphans living in the same households in a rural area of South Africa, Parikh et al. (2007) found no significant health disadvantage for orphans on a series of wellbeing indicators. A study in rural western Kenya similarly compared several health and nutritional indicators (including fever, malaria, history of illness, anemia, and stunting) for orphaned and non-orphaned children under age 6 and concluded that orphaned children are at no greater risk of poor health than non-orphaned children (Lindblade et al. 2003), although orphans were somewhat more likely to be wasted than non-orphans. In the context of Zimbabwe, most of working heard boys and housemaids are children below the statutory employment age as provided for by the Labour Act, Chapter 28:01. Therefore this study seeks to investigate into the challenges faced by orphans and other vulnerable children in Kwekwe district Zhombe area.
2.5 Government policies and programmes to enhance the psychosocial functioning of OVCs. To mitigate the pandemic’s impact on children, the 2001 United Nations General Assembly Special Session in its Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS called on countries to implement national strategies to support children orphaned and made vulnerable by AIDS, to ensure their equal accesses to education and other services, and to protect them from abuse and stigmatisation. Globally only half of the countries of the world have national policies to address the needs of children orphaned or made vulnerable by the epidemic (UNIAIDS 2010).In Sub- Saharan Africa ,25 of 29 countries reported that they have national policies in place to address the additional HIV-and AIDS-related needs orphan and other vulnerable children(UNIAIDS 2010).Zimbabwe, together with countries like Botswana ,Namibia, Malawi and Rwanda, is one of the few countries with an operating national plan to ensure that orphans and vulnerable children are able to access education, food, health services, birth registration, and protection from abuse and exploitation.
In 1999, the Zimbabwean government put in place the National Orphan Care Policy (1999), which provides basic care and protection guidelines for orphans and includes a commitment to
national and community support. The orphan care policy combines institutionalisation, fostering and community-based care. This policy has also incorporated the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM), which assist children from resource-poor households, mainly through supporting them with school fees.
The National Orphan Care Policy has led to the development of the National Action Plan for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (NAP), whose vision is to reach out to all OVC in the country with basic services .The NAP lays out strategies such as fully implementing existing legislation and policies, strengthening community based initiatives and safety nets, coordination with local and national authorities. The NAP for OVC also details a specific timeline for the completion of activities, indicators to measure the plan’s progress, and a clear monitoring and evaluation process for the continuous improvement for all activities.
Other government programmes targeting OVC include the Public Assistance to Vulnerable Families, which assists with basic living costs it is administered by the Department of Social Services; the Public Works Programme, which supports with regard to droughts and food shortages; and the AIDS Trust Fund(Mahati et al.2006).
Legislative Provisions on protection of children
Zimbabwe has a legislative and policy framework to support children, including those who are living under difficult conditions. These include the Children’s Protection and adoption Act, Guardianship of Minors Act, Maintenance Act, Education Act, Sexual Offences Act, Public Health Act and National Security Act. Each piece of these legislations has built in mechanisms to ensure that the rights of children in general, and OVC in particular are protected.
According to the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1999); Article 15 provides that, ―Every child shall be protected from all forms of economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development‖. The UNCRC (1990) provides that, State parties should recognize the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or that will interfere with the child‘s education. The Convention further provides that children should be protected from work that
is harmful to the child‘s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development and from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse [Ibid: Article 34].
The Zimbabwe Children‘s Act 2002, Chapter 5:06 prohibit child participation in economic activities. It defines hazardous work in relation to a child or young person as any work that is likely to interfere with their education, make them contact hazardous substances or working in underground mines, exposure to electronically powered hand tools or cutting tools, night shift jobs or exposed to extreme heat, cold or whole body vibration. Children living as heads of families are vulnerable to participate in such prohibited economic activities in order to survive. Since it is stated under Section 2 that, a child in need of care means a child or young person who is destitute or has been abandoned or both whose Parents are dead or cannot be traced and who has no legal guardian or whose legal guardian or parents do not exercise proper control and care over him. The same section also states that a child in need of care is who is habitual truant; or who frequents the company of any immoral or vicious person or is otherwise living in circumstances calculated to cause or conduce to his seduction, corruption or prostitution; or who begs, or being a child, engages in street trading contrary to this Act or any other enactment. Street children exhibit such characteristics and thus require to be protected as children in need of care under the Act.
Children living on the rural areas are likely to be bypassed by these legal instruments, as there is no one responsible for their situation. They are left to fend for themselves and hence vulnerable to be exploited by the adult population for economic gains doing jobs such as cattle herding and working in farms. Children‘s Act (2002) states that, any person who allows a child or young person to reside in or to frequent a brothel shall be guilty of an offence. Any person who causes or conduces to the seduction, abduction or prostitution of a child or young person shall be guilty of an offence. In urban areas this is one of the sources of income usually go unnoticed especially when adults take advantage on children living in difficult circumstances. Establishment of Juvenile courts in Zimbabwe is one of the children protection measures (Children‘s Act 2002, Chapter 5:06 Sect. 3) The National Action Plan (NAP) for orphans and Vulnerable Children (OVC) programme has been put in place by the Government of Zimbabwe to ensure the welfare of Zimbabwe‘s youth.
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter reviewed the notion of OVC, their living conditions, psychosocial challenges they are facing and interventions being made to reduce the problems. This chapter commenced with
an outline of the theoretical framework which is based on the social capital theory and Maslow hierarchy of needs theory. The theoretical framework presented in this chapter, has underscored the underlying causes of the phenomenon of which includes social and economic problems as well as HIV and AIDS. This chapter also reviewed studi es done in other countries and in Zimbabwe on OVC. It reviewed literature relating to; the phenomenon of street children, underlying causes of street children, types and sources of economic exploitation and legislative provision on the protection of children against economic exploitation. Chapter three will give the design of the study, subjects (population and sampling) data collection instruments and data collection procedures data collection procedures and employed in the study.
CHAPTER 3
RESERCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION Research methodology include the research design, population sampling, research instruments; data collection methods used how the data collected shall be analyzed and presented as part of the discussion. .It is also designed to provide background information for the generation of additional research in the communities. In each site, the reasecher was led by at least one member of the local liaison committee.
3.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research methodology is the system of collecting data for research project; the data may be collected either theoretical or practical. The research will use both the qualitative and quantitative methods.
3.3 THE RESEARCH DESIGN A research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. The study will use a case study approach. Robson (1993:40) defines a case study as ‘the development of a detailed, intensive knowledge of a single “case”, or a small number of related “cases”.
3.4 JUSTIFICATION OF THE CASE STUDY The investigator decided to use the case study design because Zhombe district is too large to investigate it all and it will take a lot of time. Hence this will make a case study design the most appropriate. The other reason is its capability to handle both quantitative and qualitative data makes it the most applicable research design for this study. The design also allows a researcher to gain a rich understanding of the context of the research and the process being enacted. A special way of collecting, organizing and analyzing data is provided to gather comprehensive, systematic and in depth information about each area of interest, is enabled by the case study method. It also allows a combination of data collection methods to be used such as interviews, questionnaire, observations and reports to be used in a single study. Triangulation, a technique
of combining different sources of evidence in a single study to address validity and reliability of data collected and generalizations thereof is a characteristic of a case study method, another strong reason why the researcher chose it for this study.
3.4 LOCATION OF THE STUDY Kwekwe is a district in Midlands province. The district covers an area of 498 030 square hectares. It has 33 administrative wards and a population of about 175 835 individuals and 38107 households Kwekwe rural comprises of Zhombe and Silobela,,this study is paying much attention on Zhombe district which comprises of fourteen wards.The number of OVC is now estimated to be around 200 and this is unprecedented rise as compared to 170 in 2007 (KRDC- SCN NAP Annual Report 2010).
Map showing location of Kwekwe Zhombe District
Figure 3.1
Kwekwe district Zhombe area
Agriculture is the most common source of livelihood in the area and this include forestry, orchard gardening and subsistence farming .Most the soils are sandy loam. The major crop maize grown is maize. The other crops grown are beans, tomatoes, groundnuts, cowpeas, round nuts and sunflower. Due to the rugged terrain, the majority of the people plough using hoes. Besides growing crops, they also owns some livestock which are cattle, goats, and sheep
3.5 TARGERT POPULATION The population is of prime importance as it is the subject of the research project . A study population is the entire group about which some specific information is required . The Target population for research study is the aggregate of individuals or objects sharing the same or single characteristics of interest to the researcher’s data to be used in the research study (Nicole etal 2004). In this study, the target population was the OVCs in the wards that makeup Zhombe rural. The target population will be derived from 5 wards of Zhombe district which has a total population of 6 321 ( UNICEF and UNAIDS. 2013) .There are a number of primary and secondary schools and the shopping centres.
3.6 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES Bryman and Bell (2011), defined a sample as the segment of the population that is selected for research The purpose of a sample is to appropriate the measurement of the whole population within acceptable limits.. It is a subset of the population. Zhombe district has fourteen wards and a number of shopping centres the research is paying much attention to five wards namely Mbembesani ward 2,Hunters road ward 3,Zhombe central ward 9,Gwesela west ward 10 and Chitepo ward 13. The researcher will select 30 OVC children boys and girls out of five wards through stratified random sampling. This constitutes 10.2% of the target population. The researcher will purposively sampled 10 child headed families, 20 double orphaned children, 5 disabled, 5 community members, 3 officials from NGOs and government departments will be identified and 5 child protection committee members. Age for OVC ranging from 9 – 18 who will be selected using purposive sampling .The child protection committee members will be selected using simple random technique.
Purposive non probability sampling was chosen as the most appropriate as the researcher will look for OVCs which are proximity to his residence due to limited finances for travel expenses. In selecting the respondents, the researcher will use the random probability sampling method to allow every individual in the target population the chances of being selected.
Punch (2005)states purposive sampling as a non probability sampling selection in a deliberative and non-random fashion a certain grip of people for their relevance to issues being studied on the basis of his/her knowledge of the population. Purposive sampling techniques allows full access to some who are orphaned and vulnerable in anyway who will act as key informants and can refer the researcher to the people with the same situation
3.7DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES In collecting data the researcher will use the narrative inquiry; this technique will allow the researcher to have many views from diverse people. Interviews will be the other technique utilised in the research to collect information. Face to face interviews where open and closed- ended questions will be asked. The inclusion of open-ended questions will enable the respondents to respond to the questions in an independent manner as well as affording the researcher the opportunity to probe further for more information where necessary. Interview guide will be used for key informants.
Researcher will train one research assistant and one interpreter who will help her in the interview processes. This is important, as interviews involving children require gaining the confidence of the child. The structured interview guide will be prepared in English and then in the actual interview session the research assistant translated it into Shona and Ndebele languages for the children to express their feelings easily. The interpreter will also use Ndebele language to interpret the questions and answers for children who could not speak fluent shona.
3.7.1In-depth Interviews
The researcher and her research assistant will conduct the in-depth interviews. Interviews will be conducted face to face and confidentially. Respondents who did not understand English and shona will be asked in Ndebele .The interviews will be conducted with immediate carers (caregivers), OVC, Child protection Committee members, and relevant government and NGOs.
One FGD Will be conducted in each ward of the total of five wards selected using stratified sampling. Group situations may encourage individuals to speak more freely and Groups will allow for a group generated perspective.
Community leaders and members of child Protection Committees will assist in mobilising OVCs community members to participate in the discussions. The respondents will be collected
according to age and gender .As in the norm with all focus group discussions, efforts will be made to ensure that each group was homogeneous in terms of sex and age.
The in depth interviews and focus group discussions guides will cover these thematic issues
The living situation of OVC, Care of OVC, Challenges, needs and concerns for OVC Challenges faced by the community in providing care and support to OVC and the Types of economic exploitations faced by OVC as they try to provide themselves with basic necessities.
3.7.2Observations Observations will be noted during the community visits in the communities, which include observations made during conversations with members of the community .To make this a success the researcher will carry a note book at all times during the visits.
3.8 FEASIBILITY OF THE STUDY The study is feasible in the sense that the reasecher managed to visit the place more often in 2013 and familiarized with the Child Protection Committees since the reasecher was part of the staff of the department of social services. Due to limitation of current statistical data the researcher‘s sample may not represent the whole number of OVC in Zhombe District but the information found may help to effect changes for the benefit of all orphans and other vulnerable children in Zimbabwe
3.9 DATA PRESANTATION AND ANALYSIS Data analysis is a practice in which raw data is ordered and organized so that useful information can be extracted from it. Thus, the process of organizing and thinking about data is the key to understanding what the data does and does not contain. Data it has been noted is easy to manipulate during analysis phase to push certain conclusions or agendas. Therefore, special attention should be paid when data analysis is presented and critical thinking is needed about the data and conclusions to be drawn from it.
McDaniel’s et al (1996) highlighted that raw data takes a variety of forms such as survey responses, measurements, and observations. In this case, study data will be analysed manually which is time-consuming. The available data from research will be validated to ascertain that interviews were actually conducted as specified. The interview schedules will be edited to ensure that they were filled out properly and completely (Bearden et al, 1998). The data will then be ordered in a way that is useful and tallied so that it would be clear as to how many people answered the survey, and how many people responded to specific questions.
Stanton et al, (1994) concluded that data should be presented in the form of write-ups, tables and graphs to illustrate the findings of the research, as will be the case with this case study. This form of presentation should enable people to view summarised data and conclusions critically without any confusions or asking questions
3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS In Social science, scientists face a number of ethical dilemmas when conducting research. According to (Creswel 2003), codes and policies for research ethics have been adopted by many different professionals associations, government agencies and universities. These are informed consent, confidentiality, integrity, honesty and issues of incentives.
3.9.1 Confidentiality - Since the research involves sensitive and confidential information, assurance will be given to the respondents that the individuals will not be identifiable in the resulting analysis, no names will be used in this study, and the researcher will insure that there is no information disclosed to the public or anyone.
3.9.2 Informed Consent -The researcher had to seek consent from the respondents in this project. She also made it clear that it was an academic research paper. The researcher was aware of the sensitive nature of the study and the implications of observing informed consent. Dooley (1995) noted that the matter of informed consent often plays a key role in deciding approval for research. The people in the concerned community have rights to know the purpose, duration and the benefits of the research to both the researcher and the community.
3.9.3Honesty and Integrity- The researcher had to act with sincerity and was honest to the respondents on the intention of the research without giving them false hopes or unpredictable results of the research findings.
3.10 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY Language problem may hinder my research since part of the area is of Ndebele speaking people. Some of the children may be afraid to disclose important information because of strong warnings from perpetrators.
3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter described methodology used in this study. It described various methods used in this study and these were interviews and observations. This chapter outlines the study location, study population, research design, sampling procedure and the data collection instruments that were used in this study. It also described how data was analysed. Issues of research ethics such as informed consent, confidentiality, and incentives were also discussed.
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction This chapter presents and discusses the study‘s findings. It does so in line with the aim and objectives of the study. The aim of the study was to investigate into the challenges faced by OVCs in rural Zimbabwe focusing on the Kwekwe District Zhombe area. The objectives were to explore the living conditions of OVC in rural areas, to identify psychosocial challenges being faced by OVC in rural areas and to evaluate interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC. These findings will be presented in different formats in the form of narrations and tables. This section explores the factors and challenges affecting orphans and vulnerable children .This was done through analyzing the primary data collected from the OVC and guardian respondents. Primary data was found in the community in the different forms of semi structured interviews and focus group discussion
4.1. Research findings This chapter will look at the primary data collected from respondents in relation to the questions for the research; this will be done according to the research questions with responses from the respondents.
4.1.2 Response rate The researcher had scheduled to interview 20 OVC from all five wards, 5 community members one from each ward 3 officials from NGOs and government department and 5 child protection committee members one from each ward From those interviewed all the management staff were present. The researcher also held focus group discussions and all of them were successful. Below is a presentation of the responses.
Table 1. Response rate for the study sample
Respondent Number of Number of Response rate people people (%) scheduled to be actually interviewed interviewed OVC 20 20 100% Care givers 5 5 100% officials from 3 3 100% NGOs and government departments
100%
Child 1 1 protection committee member
From the interviews that had been scheduled, the response rate was 100% since all of the OVC under study sample were interviewed and this means the results of this study are valid and fully representative of the entire population under study.
4.2. The magnitude of OVC Out of 20 targeted households 14 were leaving in extreme poverty which is about 75% of the study population. Participants including minors reported that the magnitude of OVC had reached alarming levels as evidenced by their increasing numbers in the community. The respondents were of the view that this problem was mainly a result of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which was killing mostly young people especially woman. A community member in Zhombe said ‘ngendlala engaka,umkhuhlane lo uzaqbubeka ubqeda abntu, utshiye abantwan abanengi bezintndane’
(With this hunger, the diseases (AIDS) will continue unabated leaving more children orphaned)
The community was worried that the number of OVC was escalating everyday ,although no exercise had been carried to count orphans; people estimated that there were hundreds of orphans in most wards. For example the records of an FBO called Light of hope showed that there about 600 OVC in zhombe district at the time the research was carried out. A key informant with the FBO said ‘the children are so many that we don’t know how many the ones in our records are only few. The many orphans in our neighbourhood are serious challenge to us.’
The study revealed that the HIV and AIDS epidemic had wreaked havoc on the lives of many people .In particular, OVC were the hardest hit group as they were young, inexperienced in developing sound livelihood strategies, and the problem was being exacerbated by the fact that socioeconomic support systems (both at family and community level) have been greatly weakened by the prevailing harsh economic environment in Zimbabwe and the change in social values. The other worrying thing, as mentioned by an adult FDG, was the fact that burden of OVC had shifted to grandmothers and uncles, who in some cases were old and frail. Fending for OVC was proving to be a difficult challenge.
Government officials, child protection committees and representatives of NGOs pointed out that a lot of developmental programmes were being sacrificed, as resources were being sacrificed, as resources were being channelled towards improving the welfare of OVC. A manager of an NGO explained that ‘other programmes are now being sacrificed as almost all resources are being channelled towards PLWHA as it is more urgent problem than, say building toilets and dams’.
4.3.0 Living situations and care of OVC Most of the OVC were leaving under difficult conditions as they looked malnourished and had torn clothes.’laphe’kyaya yiyi inziki yokuhlupheka’ (our household is the centre of suffering) remarked one boy from a child headed family. Most of the OVC reported that they were experiencing serious problems in getting basic things like food and clothing . A widow who was looking after her three children remarked that ‘tirikutorama neshanya dza Mwari’ (we are just leaving by the grace of God)
With regard to the housing situations, since most of the OVC were staying with relatives, their housing situations were fairly good and were not different from that of their children in the community .however, there were a few cases of child headed households who had houses that were extremely bad conditions. The houses for child headed households were generally dilapidated.
4.3.1 Major needs, challenges and concerns of OVC The needs and challenges of OVC were assessed as follows
Food
School fees and educational materials
Clothing including school uniforms
Special education for some children in difficulty circumstances
Poor sanitation and shelter,
Provision of free healthy service
Loss of personal possessions (inheritance)
Destitution
Overworking and fatigue
Challenges on care of sick and younger siblings
Stigmatization
Lack of adequate security
4.3.2 Food challenges A 15 year orphaned boy in Zhombe ward 3 said ‘zvese zvinongotinetsa kuwana kunze kwe mvura yekunwa (we struggle to get most of the things except drinking water). His situation was much similar to that of many of the parents or guardians who were caring for OVC. Many children reported that they were working under exploitative working conditions in their
neighbours fields (maricho) in order to supplement their parents or guardians meagre resources. ‘we are very cognisant of the fact that we are being exploited when we work in our neighbour’s fields but we have no option as not working means starvation …since sometimes we even go to bed on an empty stomach’ said a 16 year old boy from a vulnerable family. There are some shortages in some parts of Zhombe especially in the dry lands. In a few communities that had irrigation schemes, they were not viable s result of rainfall shortage
It was therefore apparent that the major challenge for the community, state departments, FBOs, caregivers and the OVC, was that resources to provide for the above mentioned needs of the OVC and their primary caregivers were limited .the problem of resources not being adequate was exacerbated by recurrent drought and the prevailing unfavourable economic situation in Zimbabwe.
4.3.3 Poor housing conditions In terms of shelter, majority of the orphans covered by the study were staying with their caretakers in their households. This guaranteed them reasonable security and protection. The families were able to provide love, sense of belonging and social connections which are key ingredients in orphan care. With regard to the housing situations, since most of the OVC were staying with relatives, their housing situations were fairly good and were not different from that of their children in the community .however, there were a few cases of child headed households who had houses that were extremely bad conditions. The houses for child headed households were generally dilapidated.
Most of the houses were semi-permanent, constructed with mud and poles. In some homes, houses were in a state of dilapidation, with leaking roofs and cracked walls. This heightened anxiety among the affected caretakers about their ability to sustain the care they were offering to the children. In all the households covered by the study, the average number of sleeping rooms was two, but a significant number of homes had one bedroom. In such homes, parents were sharing bedrooms with their children, which raised serious concerns on their privacy
Some caretakers reported that blankets or sheets were not enough to cover all the children and that it was common for fights to break out during the night as they struggled for the lone blanket or bed sheet. “When it comes to night time, they start fighting for the blanket. They start fighting each other that one has slept badly and taken the whole blanket”, Widow.
Further analysis of the accommodation challenges was done on the basis of the type of caretakers. Surviving mothers and grandparents also faced uphill challenges in regard to provision of bed sheets and blankets, although these were reported as challenges by only less than forty five percent of other care takers.
4.3.4 Poverty
The children living in child headed households, had no significant source of income, fed on a maximum of two meals per day (sometimes unbalanced), kept no livestock, had inadequate clothing, poor sanitation and generally lived under poverty. According to another key informant from the department of social service she highlighted that most of the orphans in Zhombe district were found on the wrong side of the law for example stealing food to sustain their meals.
In addition to the above, another female OVC, Tinah aged 13, remarked saying ‘ zvakaoma veduwe kuve nherera inorarama muhurombo hwakadai’ , meaning it is tough to be an orphan that survives in such deep poverty. Another older adolescent orphan, Caya ,aged 17 also remarked saying that ‘ vatinogara navo vanotipa mabasa akaomesesa sekuforoma zvitinha nekuti atisisina vabereki vanotimirira’, meaning ‘ they give us heavy work such as brick moulding because we no longer have parents here to stand in for us’.
A more interesting but disturbing finding was where an older OVC, pseudo-named Peace aged 16, expressed dismay over unmarried younger female OVC who are beginning to bear their own children due to poverty, what he called ‘ zvana zvevana’ or ‘Children of children’. He said this practice seems to be bringing in over-population into the entire country that is relying on a very strict and limited budget. A much younger OVC, named, Beauty, aged 10, expressed desperation for food was concerned. She replied that ‘ tinoenda kuchikoro tisina zvatadya, mukoma vanozobika manheru vabva kubasa’ meaning ‘we go to school on empty stomachs and brother will only cook in the evening after work’
However, interviews with local leaders and informal discussions with residents in the study area revealed that food and nutrition was a general problem in homes due to the economic crisis Zimbabwe is currently facing.. They asserted that provision of the required three meals in a day was not a mundane practice in many households and hence the failure could not be wholly attributable to the orphan problem. However, in a situation where food and nutrition indicators
are generally bad, orphan caretaker households, particularly those headed by the elderly can rationally be expected to be worse off.
4.3.5 Lack of basic necessities OVC find it to difficult to meet their physical and material needs. The informants mentioned the struggle to make ends meet due to a shortage of income. The lack of a steady income makes it difficult for them to meet their physical needs. Likewise, Smart (2004) states that the problems experienced by OVC revealed that households encountered a wide range of physical problems. The most common problem is the shortage of income which leads to the non fulfilment of their basic needs, including food, clothing and access to basic necessities. The concept of fulfilment of basic needs is derived from the BNA which was later extended by Maslow‘s theory of human needs. The theories are based on the premise that any fundamental human need that is not adequately satisfied leads to human poverty.
Although caretakers were finding difficulties in meeting the feeding and dietary needs of their children including orphans, this challenge could not be mainly attributable to caring for orphans. Caretakers, especially widows who were looking after their own children said they were facing problems as a result of the death of their husbands who used to provide the food required by the children. Caretakers caring for orphans that are not their biological children similarly attributed lack of food in sufficient quantities and varieties to inadequate income. The implication is that even without orphans families were already too overstretched to adequately meet their own food requirements.
“I use my grandmother’s sheet as a blanket because I have no alternative. Sometimes I wash my clothes without soap. For cleaning my teeth, I use sticks. When I am in my periods, I use clothes. It is all suffering. I have no money of my own. What can I do?” Adolescent Orphan
4.3.6 Health Care Most of the caretakers reported good health for orphans under their care. Caregivers also sought medical care for their children from government hospitals using AMTO when they fell sick.To many caretakers, health was perceived exclusively in the context of absence of disease. Therefore as long as orphans under their care were not sick, they were regarded to be in good health.
Even when providers were there, caretakers and orphans reported that they were handed prescriptions and told that drugs were not available and had to be purchased from the private pharmacies. With no disposable income, caretakers have to raise money to pay for health care from selling crops, working for others, borrowing or even liquidating assets. The study revealed that quite a time, orphans and their caretakers were reluctant to seek medical care from these facilities in the knowledge that they would not find the required treatment at the health units.
Sometimes when I fall sick, I remain here because of lack of money. When I go to Zhombe hospital , there are no drugs”, Orphan.
Poor services in the public health facilities implied that caretakers had to seek health care from private providers at a cost. Private clinics were found to be the major source of health care for many households with forty one percent mothers, fifty five percent grandparents and seventy percent other caretakers seeking care from these sources. In extreme cases where caretakers were unable to foot the bill for health care, they would resign and just look on. In such circumstances, it was only willing volunteers from the community or immediate neighbours that could intervene to save the orphan. This was often the case where the children were reported to be falling sick on and off.
“I don’t sleep. The girl cries the whole night. I think she has AIDS which killed her parents and I am so worried. Nothing can help me”, Grandfather.
In general, the study findings show that healthcare for orphans remains a big challenge, mainly because of poor health services in public health centres in rural aresas will be realized if quality issues in service delivery are fixed. Fortunately, and perhaps due to the age of orphans covered by the study, not many of them fall ill frequently, which is a relief to caretakers.
However, interviews with orphans revealed that there were other essential elements of health care that caretakers do not provide. For instance essential commodities required to meet basic hygiene such as clothing, soap, vaseline and sanitary pads for girls were repeatedly reported as main constraints to preservation of a minimum standard of health. Although most of the orphans reported that they had learned to live comfortably with what their caretakers can afford, failure to provide essential commodities, especially for girls put them in a situation of potential vulnerability.
Other studies by (Kalibala and Elson, 2009; Mangoma, Chimbari and Dhlombo, 2008) similarly found out that basic sanitation was seriously in lacking and was an often ignored
component of healthcare within orphan caretaker households. Girls, in particular could succumb to scrupulous men who could promise to address their immediate needs. Alternatively, children stood a risk of being forced into child labour to be able to raise money to meet these needs.
4.3.7 Dropping out of School With regard to education for the orphans, the main challenge was how to raise money to pay school fees and other scholastic materials required by the schools. The 20 children that we interviewed mentioned the fact that the first and foremost psychological problem faced by the OVC was continued absenteeism that eventually resulted in dropping out of school. They narrated their ordeal but were even much more concerned about those OVC that had already dropped out of school and were engaged in very hard physical work as farm labourers, housemaids and options that are even more difficult. All public primary schools were receiving government support through BEAM., parents purchase uniform, scholastic materials and provide lunch to pupils.
In addition, schools also required parents to contribute towards things like teachers’ incentives, internal examinations and school maintenance. All these translated into a substantial hindrance to accessing education. School fees and scholastic materials were reported to constitute the most uphill challenges for the caretakers. Of the twenty OVC in the study, 16 could be out of school by year-end if no immediate intervention was found. Asked about BEAM funding, the OVC involved in the focus group discussion concurred that sometimes the funds were not available for all. One could have fees paid over one term while the rest of the terms were not funded. The finding was in agreement with research findings in which an NAC officer hinted that the BEAM funding was overwhelmed (NAC, 2011) because the number of OVC needing aid was very high.
“Quite often she doesn’t attend school. Paying school fees is a big problem. Even on her report, they write that she is always absent”, Grandmother.
Some OVC were being sidelined by their relatives who were looking after them, for example regarding access to education. school fees were not paid for them and yet the guardians ‘s children were going to school Six OVC and 3 guardians were interviewed in talking about issues/ factors that make the OVC drop out from school; the respondents were coming from the same community but from different households. Some of the children and the guardians
where coming from the same household. Different issues emerged from interviews and discussion.
No stable income in household: this was expressed by the guardians keeping OVC as well as the OVC. The common trend of OVC being involved in supplementing of income in the household by doing small jobs of selling or cleaning in town. This is one of the major reasons that guardians/ parents opt to provide food and shelter rather than support OVC to go to school. The small income that they raise goes in buying basic meals for families. One OVC respondent stated that “my mother is a house help, who goes to look for small jobs in the village, when she is lucky she gets some money, this is the same money she uses to buy food for us, so I ended up dropping out of school “.
Emotional and verbal abuse was identified, some of the OVC respondents narrated how they are abused by their guardians and hence this in a way affected their performance and concentration at school. This situation leads to them dropping out of school, as one OVC respondents narrated “I stay with my step brother and his wife. Both of my parents died and he took responsibility of taking care of me; life is unbearable as every day I am subjected to verbal insults and therefore when going to school. I am absent minded and not concentrating in class”.
During the focus group discussion, issues that emerged was that of lack of food in households which was causing most children to drop out of school, and OVC helping the family look for food instead of being in class. One guardian narrated that life in the community was hard as most people were failing to even have one meal a day and thatjobs were hard to find which leads to people doing different odd jobs to earn some income “here in zhombe I would say…. Survival of the fittest. Life is hard. I can’t even afford to provide 3 meals a day, sometimes even just a meal to feed my family. I depend on extended family, friends and well wishers to give me some food for me and the children to survive”.
Child labour was identified as another key factor in the community; Some OVC revealed that forced labour among guardians was another contributing. One OVC respondent narrated that
“one of the reasons I dropped out of school is because of my uncle. He runs a small shop in Zhombe Jowero shopping centre. He usually opens the shop at05:00hrs and expects me to be awake at that time, and be in class at 12:00 hrs. Sometimes he would show up at 12hrs and this meant I would be late at school or be absent. This continued until in certain instances he would
even expect me to close the shop around 21pm. I love school but my uncle insisted that I attend to the shop that was giving us an income than attend school which I would fail after all”.(OVC)
Peer pressure was also another issue which came out, being a poor community, most OVC are forced to drop out and join gangs and involve in alcohol and drug abuse as one caregiver stated “ our children stop school because of the friends they hang around with who don’t go to school, but instead steal and just drink and smoke dagga”.
Early pregnancies were identified by most guardians, especially of girls who are OVC as one participant explained “most of the girls drop out of school due to pregnancies”. Gender issues in relation to female OVC dropping out of school.
4.3.8 Child headed households Out of twenty households visited five were child headed households. All the children faced responsibilities where they indicated that many thoughts led to distress. The thoughts of responsibilities tended to overpower learning thoughts. A 15-year-old OVC narrated such issues as:
Kufunga kuti nhasi ndodyei (The thought that I need to look for food), is a problem on its own. It becomes worse when I also need to look for not only my food but that of my little brothers and sisters. I spend time worrying about how to make them happy. When they fall sick, I fail to attend school because if I do, I find it difficult to concentrate. Our aunts do not feel comfortable to leave their homes in order to come and take care of the sick. There is just too much work at home and I have no reading time.
Also a child protection committee member mentioned that ‘we have the case of a child headed household which is having serious food shortage. Of great concern to us as a community is the fact that the 17 year old boy is sorely responsible for looking after his ailing grandmother’.
Having too many household chores interfered with the learners’ cognition activities so much that many of the OVC concurred that leaving school was a better option. If, on the other hand, the proper strategies to assist the real needy cases could be established, the community could liberate the suffering child. In some countries, societies have opted for institutionalization and foster homes with adult caregivers (HIV/AIDS Alliance, 2006), while others such as the Islamic minor child only become orphaned upon the death of the father, not the mother. These literature clues can help in charting the way forward for the local OVC.
4.4 Psychosocial challenges being faced by orphans and other vulnerable children Emotional care of children, especially in the era of rising orphan hood due to increased adult mortality has increasingly been acknowledged as an important, but often ignored component in the orphan care landscape. Any child’s social and emotional development is compromised if parents or caretakers fail to identify stress and social dysfunction, and give adequate guidance, care and love. However, emotional distress is less tangible than the material needs and hence difficult to identify especially in situations of many pressing and competing needs.
4.4.1 Stigmatization and marginalization The majority of the children interviewed were not treated so badly and stigma had decreased due to awareness campaigns especially from the various government ministries and NGOs within the district. Many people now knew and understood the fact that the rising number of OVC was due to lack of cure for the commonest cause of parental death, namely HIV/AIDS. However, the children complained of loneliness. Below is a list of statements from the focus group discussions as the OVC interacted on the issue of learning and loneliness?
‘My father was more of a friend to me since my mother was long gone.’
‘Isolation at family gathering affects me so much.’
‘No one is really prepared to listen to me when I call.’
‘I feel inferior sometimes when I fail to match the status of my peers at home and at school.’
‘I miss my parents and concentration sometimes becomes a problem.’
‘I find it hard to cope with inner loneliness.’
‘My siblings are sometimes a problem, especially if they decide not to co-operate.’
It was however pleasing to note that the children appreciated the fact that some of their peers empathized with them and was always ready to assist with books and any necessary scaffolding in the learning process.
OVC sometimes have to grapple with the stigma and discrimination often associated with orphan hood and vulnerability. The findings emerging from this study suggest that OVC in Zhombe were however to a least extent isolated and marginalized, therefore unable to play a part in society. One participant acknowledged that, because of HIV/AIDS, OVC were not able
to change their situations and were powerless to change their fate. Whiteside (2012) is of the viewpoint that any contribution of OVC who are either infected or affected by HIV/AIDS will be ignored as their status in society does not allow them the privilege of participation. In many cases, they continue to live on the fringes of their societies. Most OVC are considered unseen by some of the communities in which they exist (Whiteside,2012). An interview with a 17 year old HIV infected boy Munashe narrated a very sad story
‘ mai na baba vangu vakafa kare kare handivazivi .upenyu hwandinoziva ndehwekugara nehama dzakasiyanasiyana ndikangorwara andanga ndichigara naye avekutoti mumwe ngaambotorawo. Izvi zvakaita kuti ndisiye chikoro ndave grade five nekuti ndaingokwira nekudzika muhama. Sisi vandiri kugara navo vakandipa kapu yangu ne ndiro yangu vanotyira vana vavo kuti vangatapukirwe neutachiona izvi zvinondirwadza misi yose ndaidawo kurarama sevamwe vana.’
However, despite the prevalence of discrimination, both at home and school, it was interesting to note that it was the least commonly felt psychosocial problem, reported to occur only sometimes and rarely .Being poor children, faced with so many psychological challenges, OVC remain ill – prepared to cope with the stresses they face. They then become more inclined to use ineffective coping mechanisms and are apt to lack the support and encouragement from members of their extended families for they may be regarded as family misfits because they decided to reside on their own as children. Most African families believe that children, alone, cannot cope and so most caregivers would prefer situations where they find these children failing to cope so that they lure them back into abusive situations within the extended families. Fear of abusive life situations can lead OVC to destitution, thus confirming Abebe`s (2009) idea that endemic poverty leads to destitution.
4.4.2 Exploitation: Sexual abuse Additional problems identified by the researcher relate to the children’s vulnerability to physical and sexual abuse. Two respondents revealed that:
“Some of the OVC would actually be taken to brothels especially girls, we have Totororo shopping centre which has taken rural girls into strippers, they will be taken there and given to men in exchange for money because they are a lot of gold dealers (makorokoza)”. (In-depth interview from a child protection committee member)
Empirical evidence suggests that the need to generate income is one of the most urgent requirements for OVC and that income generation is a major cause of the commercial sex (Foster, 2008). Prostitution exacerbates health risks and increases the risk of contracting HIV/AIDS in the sex trade. Girls feel that they have to use sex as a survival mechanism since they do not have anyone to both fend and defend them in any case of abuse. Instead, complaining would result in further ostracism in the community. These OVC are forced into commercial sex to source food. Foster (2008) argues that girls are vulnerable to abuse and sexual assault by members of the community and feel powerless to act against it. UNICEF (2010) estimates that nearly one million children are vulnerable to sexual exploitation and among these there are about 2 100 children who are sexually exploited in Zimbabwe. Such sexual exploitation becomes a major problem in the survival of these OVC. Furthermore, some churches force these children into early marriages thereby increasing their chances of them being infected with HIV/AIDS.
Predictors of psychosocial distress among orphans were cross-tabulated with the category of caretakers with whom orphans lived. Stress and uncertainty about the future were the most common psychosocial problems faced by orphans under the care of all caregivers except aunts. Feelings of uncertainty and pessimism about the future were more prominent among orphans under the care of mothers and grandparents, particularly grandmothers. It was surprising to find that orphans under the care of their surviving mothers were prone to psychosocial problems when in fact they are supposed to be living in an environment of optimum care and love. These psychosocial problems mainly stem from the failure of the mothers to provide the basic physical needs, hence implying that in order to provide effective care for orphans, basic, physical and psychological needs must be in balance. This finding is consistent with that of Oleke et al (2007) where in a study on orphan care in Northern Uganda they found in the context of severe impoverishment, it was not possible to find a consistent and predictable profile of orphan vulnerability
From the Children’s’ voices, we encountered confirmations of our observation of psychological challenges as the OVC narrated their ordeal in the manner of which they are struggling to survive in their poverty stricken homes. It is unfortunate that some of the younger children, as was expressed by Peace, aged 16 years, are beginning to find solace in sexual activities, situations that are bringing in even more OVC of other under –age OVC. It becomes
even worse when these early sex–players indulge in sexual activities with people who are already infected by HIV and AIDS. This observation is in line with Nyamukapa and Gregson (2005) contention that our OVC face a high risk of contracting HIV and AIDS, which can easily perpetuate poor lifestyles . Presently, AIDS remains with no cure. Such stressful events can easily lead to psychological disorders.
4.4.3Caregivers ‘response to psychosocial needs of orphans
Asked as to what they do to address the psychosocial needs of orphans, the caretakers reported that they offer counselling and support to encourage the children cope with their problems. However, further analysis of the individual responses revealed that caretakers respond in a variety of ways, ranging from providing one-one psychological support, soothing and sometimes giving false promises, to outright rebuking. In other instances, caretakers reported that they pray, or sometimes slip into denial and imagine that no such things are happening with their children.
“I persuade them and promise to buy them nice things such as shoes and new clothes. Then you see them resuming their normal life”, Grandmother.
“I sympathize with them and also often cry with them. Sometimes I bark at them to stop worrying and nagging. When you bark at a kid, he/she stops and forgets everything”, Grandfather.
Orphans too, were not doing anything to address the psychosocial problems that they confront. Asked as to what they do when they feel stressed, uncertain or discriminated both at home and school, majority reported that they just keep quiet. This is by no means a solution to their problems. It is a clear indication that orphans have no viable support system through which they can address their emotional needs.
4.5 interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC Although intervention agencies have been doing sterling work in assisting OVC, they have been overwhelming by their increasing numbers. Among the organisations that work in District are Plan international, World food programme, the Catholic Development Commission (CADEC) and a faith-based organisation under the United Congress church in Southern Africa (UCCSA) called Bongani Orphan Care .World food programme was implementing a supplementary feeding scheme for all children in Zhombe. They also had a separate feeding scheme for orphans they assisted with school fees. Apart from school and examination fees
assistance to deserving children, Bongani orphan care also offered life skills to the youth through income generating activities like gardening, soap-making and candle making.
4.5.1Intervention by the community At community level, OVC were assisted with various basic needs .They were also assisted with small projects such as vegetable gardens and selling to raise money for food and soap. It was reported that the community used to have chiefs’ granary Zunderamambo, but that it had disintegrated. However, there were plans to resuscitate the scheme. The district had one orphanage that provided a home to several OVC (Mary ward Children’s Home). . Access to basic services has generally been described as difficult and, against the evidence gathered in this study, OVC do have problems in accessing basic services due to the prevailing socio- economic crisis. One of the participants had this to say:
“With the current situation everyone is working towards getting towards their next meal the community won’t be able to give you material assistance they only refer you to some people who can assist you but you can say as a community we assist each other.”
Operating at grassroots level the Community Child Protection Committees are the custodians of the children rights and basic services such as psychosocial support, food, birth registration, education, descent environment free form abuse, water and sanitation and food and income is raised through livelihoods /income generating projects. The activities of the Community Child Protection Committees are coordinated by the District Child Protection Coordinator who is a an officer from the Department Of Social Services and the activities of the CPCs are supported by Child Protection Officer who are from the NGO fraternity that is the implementers of the NAP. The child protection committee in Zhombe are very functional and effective towards helping orphans.
4.5.2Intervention by NGOs, CBOs and FBOs World food programme was also assisting OVC with food and clothing, though the support was said to be inadequate. One community leader mentioned that there was corruption in the distribution of food in the district. Catholic Development Commission (CADEC), Plan International and District AIDS Action Committee (DACC) were assisting with payment of levies, provision of school uniforms, fees and stationery. DACC was also assisting with sanitary wear to girl children; this was started after receiving reports that girls were missing school during their menstrual periods because they did not have sanitary wear. Under its
HIV/AIDS programs, Africare provides nutritional support to OVC who are under the Anti Retroviral Treatment program (ART). The social worker said that:
“Yes their lives have changed like one can cite an example of Blessing from Peter House. He is on HIV Anti- Retroviral Treatment (ART) and as such he needs more food as compared to other children in the household, so the uncle could not understand his plight as a result he was having problems with him but with the intervention of Africare, they offered nutritional support and also paid school fees for Blessing which saw the tension easing between him and his uncle”.
4.5.3 Intervention by government The ministry of Public Service, Labour and Social Welfare (MoPSLSW), in collaboration with the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture (MoESC), runs the BEAM scheme, which assists children with school fees. Participants reported that the scheme was not regular with its assistance and did not pay for other levies.
It is surmised that the state and public sector have not been able to deliver development to the presumed beneficiaries and NGOs, as development agencies, have closed this vacuum. The performance failure theory explains the justification of the surge of NGOs in development with regard to state retreat. Weisbrod (2010) argues that NGOs emerge when the government or market fails to provide public goods for everybody or serve the general interests of everybody. An OVC interviewed in Zhombe district asserted that:
“In the Zimbabwean context right now whether you are an orphan or not, you are still a vulnerable child because some of the basic needs are not being met especially during the current prevailing situations where the government is not doing enough to protect the interest of the general population”
Tendler (2010: 1) notes that a weak public institution leads to inefficient operations which are incapable of combating poverty. The state becomes increasingly unable to perform its basic function of providing social services. NGOs step into this gap as alternatives to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of public service provision. Despite the state’s best efforts of contributing to sustainable development at a systematic level; it has contributed to sustaining poverty. This is true for the Zimbabwean context which is characterised by a hyperinflationary rate and socio-economic crisis that has rendered many children vulnerable. Zimbabwe’s inability to provide social services has increased (Foster, 2007).
Many factors have contributed to this socio-economic crisis, to different degrees, including the cumulative effects of the government’s failure to tackle the budget since the beginning of 129 ESAP (Gibbon, 2013). Other factors contributing to the socio-economic crisis include further deterioration of the economy
“They are not enough and there will be never enough we have always talked about child friendly budgets and so forth and I still feel like we still have a long way to go until that is really achieved.”
The ministry of home affairs Victim Friendly Unit (VFU) was in place in the district, but most people were not aware of its existence and how to make use of it. The VFU in collaboration with the following ministries organised campaigns on community awareness of VFU: Ministries of Justice and Legal Affairs, Health and Child Welfare, Social Service and Childline.
4.6 policy legislation for the protection of OVC Whilst most adults were aware of the existence of laws which protect children, they were, however, not in a position to specifically identify them. They called for the relevant organisations to educate them about these laws and how they could enforce them. ‘Our children especially the girl child ,are being subjected to a lot of illegalities in the communities and we have tended to normalise these abnormalities because we are not educated to identify these illegalities and in any case we have no money to seek the enforcement of these laws.’ Said one grandmother at a focus group discussion. She added saying that ‘nekushaya kudzidza kwedu uku kana hofisi yekupinda kuti tibatsirwe hatiizive’ (because we are not educated, we really do not know the office we can go to and get assistance)
Quite a number of children were aware of their rights to protection against abuse and their rights to education. Most children in Zhombe district said they got awareness of laws against child abuse though participating in health clubs and through dramas at school. However children expressed ignorance as to how these laws could effectively be enforced and what strategies could be employed to prosecute the perpetrators of abuse who are often their close relatives.
Child sexual abuse was not a major problem as reported by OVC and caregivers .however, the police explained that the low numbers of reported cases of child abuse must be treated with caution as most of these cases goes unreported since they happen within the confines of the home. A grandmother echoed this view when she reported this shona idiom ’chakafukidza
dzimba matenga’ ( what happens within the confines of the home is not known by the public as the roof covers everything).
During a focus group discussion a caregiver said the police were not decisive in dealing with cases of adults who abused young girls .she cited a case where a 13 year old girl was impregnated and the case was reported to the policy but it was just shelved with no action being taken .during a discussion with children, it came out clearly that the sexual behaviours of teachers especially young ones towards children was deplorable. Teachers including those who teach about HIV prevention where roundly accused by pupils of using all sorts of tactics to lure their pupils into sexual relationships. A 14 year old girl her teacher proposed love to her saying
‘Just forget what l was saying in class about sex before marriage l was only doing my work let’s get real and talk about our love.’
4.6.0 Common issues that came out of the findings? After interpretation of data, most common issues that emerged from all respondents were those of school fees, school requirements (shoes and uniforms), poverty and insufficient family income in households. Out of six OVC participants, five had problems in terms of money to either pay for exam fees or school fees. This was one which came out as a majority problem amongst the OVC. Being abused emotionally, physically and sexually by close relatives was another issue which was commonly discussed and having not enough food to eat at home is also affecting attendance at school and general socialisation.
4.7 Other issues that emerged from the findings? Child labour, emotional and verbal abuse on OVC by guardians emerged as some of newest issues. This is being experienced by the OVC and therefore affecting their attendance at school and this is eventually leading to dropping out of school. Harvesting time period and the time for paying of school fees differs; therefore, one may fail to raise the required money, and therefore influences the dropping out of schools. The issue is not only about completing form 4, but about opportunity and access for OVC not only at high school, but for tertiary education as well; as most OVC need to be given opportunity and access to positively contribute to society as one guardian stated “we want our children from Zhombe to be given opportunities and be treated like any other child, so that even here we can produce doctors, nurses and engineers”.
4.8 The least common issues that emerged from the findings? It emerged that some guardians were not leaving food for the OVC if they go to school; Therefore OVC opted to stay at home to be able to eat. Some children complained of relatives grabbing way their parents‘s assets after death, one orphan named Tendai 15 years explained ‘my uncle walked away with two beast that belonged to my father insisting tha my father had not finished paying lobola to my mother.Now we cant plough to sustain a living because we have no cattle to do the ploughing we now use hoes to dig on dry land hence poverty after poverty’
4.9 General issues emerging The environment of Zhombe is mostly flooded with illegal gold panning and drinking places, hence leads to influence of most OVC indulging in alcohol abuse and leading to juvenile delinquency. As one guardian stated “our children are being influenced to be indulging in drug and alcohol abuse due to a small figure they find in illegal gold panning, they spend it in many bars around”.
The community is not knowledgeable of existing NGOs that offer education support, therefore this also leads to most people just staying home and doing nothing about the situation.· The concept of OVC was discussed; most that came out were that an OVC is an orphan or vulnerable child. Vulnerability of the child is where a child has chronically ill parents/ guardian and or parents/ guardians living with HIV and AIDS. Another definition which came out was a child who lacks basic needs such as shelter; health and education (just to mention a few). As one guardian narrated “an orphan is one who has lost one or both parents to HIV and AIDS”
4.10 Chapter summary The chapter has presented and discussed the study‘s findings. It did so in line with the aim and four objectives of the study these were to identify, to explore the living conditions of OVC in rural areas, to identify psychosocial challenges being faced by OVC in rural areas focusing on Zhombe area and to evaluate interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC in Zhombe
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction This chapter draws conclusions from the findings and discussion presented in Chapter 4 and then presents the recommendations. The summary, conclusions and recommendations are presented per the four objectives of the study which are to explore the living conditions of OVC in rural areas, to identify psychosocial challenges being faced by OVC in rural areas focusing on Zhombe area and to evaluate interventions addressing challenges being faced by OVC in Zhombe.
5.1 Summary This study aimed to review factors affecting OVC in rural areas, with particular emphasis on Zhombe district in Kwekwe. This was done by capturing informed perspectives from OVC , guardians keeping OVC, the department of social services, NGOs and child protection committee members.OVC is one of the major issues being faced in Zimbabwe. There is an estimated 750,000 to a million children who are orphans because of AIDS (NAC, 2004). This is also related to most of them dropping out of school and not accessing education (UNICEF, 2007). Most of the respondents acknowledged that it’s increasingly becoming harder for OVC to access education especially basic and high school, as fees attached to it are out of reach for most families.
The literature that I have reviewed acknowledges that OVC still find it difficult to earn a living and this is due to many factors and challenges. Findings from data of this study correspond with the findings of the literature review. In the analysis chapter I have identified and discussed the main themes that emerged from the data collected. The main themes highlighted are poverty, stigma and discrimination and unclear policies on ‘free’ education in order to plan for more OVC to access education. For the future more research is needed on OVC who have dropped out and work on the factors and challenges. This would help to come up with best practices that would help reduce delinquency on school droppies.
During primary data encoding, most of the guardians had a different definition and understanding of what OVC is, Plan Netherlands (2006) states that the idiom of OVC is very diverse and has different meaning in different countries. One guardian stated that “OVC is a term that refers to children coming from poverty stricken homes and failing to meet basic
needs”. When asked how the guardians and community describe an OVC they stated that mostly they will look and compare the standards of living at the household, as many may be poor in Zhombe but there are the poorest of the poor
5.2 Conclusion Overly the qualitative assessment of the situation of the OVC in Zhombe has been able to generate information that could be useful in further understanding the situation of OVC and the conditions and problems that they might face in the community. This information could be useful in designing or improving on programmes that are supporting OVC, their households and their community. The information generated could also be complementary to the other phase of the OVC project, where quantitative methods will be used to further study OVC and their conditions.
Due to poverty, some children living under difficult circumstances do not want to interact with other children and this negatively affects their self esteem. For some, the deterrent was fear of stigma and the scorn they might encounter during interactions with other children and at community gatherings .for others the deterrent was that they were orphans .in a positive development, efforts by some community members to obliterate any perceived differences in lifestyles between OVC and non-OVC through donating clothes to less privileged .Some children in Zhombe either vowed not to stigmatize and discriminate against OVC.
The findings also make it clear that there is a need for all teachers in the school to work together to address the care and support of OVC; there is a need for leadership to take the initiative to strategically and democratically plan how to approach the problems holistically and systematically; and there is a need for cooperation with outside agencies and other sources of support, including parents and the general community. These findings are supported by other studies that call for a comprehensive, holistic and coordinated approach to HIV and AIDS in education (Anderson, 2004; Clarke, 2008; UNESCO, 2008).
5.3Recommendations Hunter and Wilson (2000) strategies can be utilized to assist OVC in poverty so as to reduce psychological stresses strengthen support capacity of heads of child headed households to protect and care for their siblings mobilize and strengthen community based responses strengthen capacity of children and young people to meet their own needs
Ensure that the government, through the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, protects the most vulnerable children and provide essential services. Implement possible orphan care approaches namely familial care, community based care, institutionalization and the rights based approach Self help skills training and parenting skills training for older OVC It is crucial that such children interact with each other so that they share experiences and can become sources of emotional support and empathy for each other. Networking amongst OVC can be a means through which children in difficult circumstances voice their concerns regarding the way society or the state treats them. Providing an enabling living environment within local farming communities Stakeholders should find best ways of providing substitutive parenting for affected children. The children should receive the necessary support in order to stay in school. Educators should be empathetic enough to give the OVC free academic assistance even during the vacations and weekends. Maintaining all children in school is an important intervention in several ways. It retains children’s connectedness to peers, familiar adults and to an institutional identity. Schooling provides children and society with future knowledge and skills. Keeping children in school could also help to prevent vulnerability to HIV infection, by protecting children and reducing the child’s need to seek shelter, food and clothing through risky encounters with unscrupulous adults. In fact, schools should become sustainable learning environments for all minors including the OVC (Mahlomaholo, 2011). All stakeholders such as heads, teachers, DEOs and SWO should mobilize NGOs working with OVC to give academic aid in the form of stationery, fees and uniforms in addition to the food rations that they normally give to the marginalized. It is vital that investigations be carried out with children in order to find the best alternatives to the biological family. Perhaps cooperative research could be conducted on existing children’s homes countrywide where foster parents substitute the biological parent and the life. There could be a monitoring mechanism for events so that the real needy areas could be addressed before well-wishers flood with goods that may not be needed at a particular time.
Very often, university academics, researchers, governments, civil societies and other well-wishers recommend intervention programmes for marginalised groups yet implementation may not take off or remain at pilot level, resulting in the intended beneficiaries continuing to suffer within their micro to macro system interactions. More of action research projects are encouraged to help the child in need. It may be necessary to place the OVC issue on a high research agenda as was initiated in Rwanda and Kenya. The government could try to empower the OVC through free education from AIDS levies, especially for double orphans, so that the children may realize their life goals. Learning should be freely available to the double OVC up to university level. Teach the OVC skills for survival for purposes of sustainability. Rationing could be phased out by ‘teaching the children how to fish instead of giving them fish every day’, as the saying goes. Viable life skills programs should be initiated and implemented in order to capacitate the OVC Awareness programs to community onlookers on psychological challenges that OVC may face and best assistive devices to use in order to reduce harm. Further research could be carried out in other districts and provinces countrywide in order to establish best ways of assisting OVC. More effective psychosocial counselling activities should be carried out into communities where OVC are scattered or residing together. Community based rehabilitation activities should be initiated and implemented by advocacy groups countrywide. In all our Millennium Goal number 1 efforts to eradicate poverty in Zimbabwe by year 2015, research should continue to help us find best ways of helping every citizen including OVC to escape the bondage of acute poverty.
Appendix A Interview Questions for orphans and other vulnerable Children
My name is Patience Mugota I am a Bindura University of Science Education student pursuing Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social Work. I am doing a research on the challenges which are being faced by orphans and other vulnerable children and I have chosen Zhombe area as my case study. I hereby kindly ask you to participate in the interviews and I assure you that your responses shall be kept confidential. You should note that there are no wrong or correct answers. You are required to respond to your answer verbally. I hope you will cooperate with me. Thank you.
This case study guide aims at getting an in-depth understanding of the lives of orphans in Zhombe district in Zimbabwe, including coping strategies they employ for survival.
Ward…………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………..
Date…………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………..
Profile of the child
1.age…………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………….
2.sex…………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………….
3.
TYPE OF CHILD TICK DURATION APPLICABLE
i. Maternal orphan
ii. paternal orphan
iii. double orphan
iv. Malnourished due to extreme poverty.
v. those that are HIV positive
vi. disabled
vii. Other(specify)
4. Do you go to school? Yes [ ] No [ ]
5. Relationship to caregiver………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Background history……………………
7. Copying mechanisms……………………………………………
8. Challenges in life……………………………
9. In the event that you face a challenge whom do you tell
Friend
Teacher
Mother
Other (specify)......
10. Is it good/beneficial to report to someone when you are facing a challenge
YES
NO
11. Do you get any assistance from any other organisations?
YES
NO
12. If yes, which type of assistance do you get?
Monetary form
Clothing
FOOD
Other (specify)......
13. Do you think that the government should help you in a certain way
YES
NO
14. If yes, HOW......
Appendix B Focus group discussion guide for adults and children
My name is Patience Mugota I am a Bindura University of Science Education student pursuing Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social Work. I am doing a research on the challenges which are being faced by orphans and other vulnerable children and I have chosen Zhombe area as my case study. I hereby kindly ask you to participate in the interviews and I assure you that your responses shall be kept confidential. You should note that there are no wrong or correct answers. You are required to respond to your answer verbally. I hope you will cooperate with me. Thank you.
Ward name …………………………………………
Date and place…………………………………………..
Facilitators……………………………………………………
1. What are the living conditions for OVC in your area?
2. What are the needs for OVC and caregivers?
3. Caregivers copying mechanism
4. Attitudes for communities towards OVC, especially incidents of stigma
5. Care and support structures for OVC
6. OVC‘s behaviour in relation to HIV and AIDS
7. Policy, legislation and practices for the protection of OVC
Appendix C INTERVIEW GUIDE QUESTIONS FOR KEY INFORMANTS
My name is Patience Mugota I am a Bindura University of Science Education student pursuing Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Social Work. I am doing a research on the challenges which are being faced by orphans and other vulnerable children and I have chosen Zhombe area as my case study. I hereby kindly ask you to participate in the interviews and I assure you that your responses shall be kept confidential. You should note that there are no wrong or correct answers. You are required to respond to your answer verbally. I hope you will cooperate with me. Thank you.
District………………………………..
Ward…………………………………………
Position of chief responded………………………….
Date of interview……………………………………
Name of organisation or department……………………………………
1. What kind of assistance do you offer to orphans and vulnerable child
2. Do you think OVC are economically exploited?
3. What kind of economic exploitation OVC are involved?
4. Who do you think exploit OVC economically?
5. Is your organization doing anything to protect the OVC against challenges they are facing?
6. What are the needs of OVC in your community?
7. What are the challenges do your organisation face while assisting OVC?
8. What are your comments about working conditions of the OVC?
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