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THE DOMINANT IDEOLOGY IN THE TRANSLATION OF JAVANESE CULTURAL CONCEPTS IN MANGUNWIJAYA’S DURGA/UMAYI

A THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M. Hum) Degree In English Language Studies

by Tri Septa Nurhantoro Student Number: 106332002

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2013 PLAGIATPLAGIAT MERUPAKAN MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TIDAK TERPUJI TERPUJI

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STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

This is to certify that all ideas, phrases, sentences, unless otherwise stated, are the ideas, phrases, and sentences of the thesis writer. The writer understands the full consequences including degree cancellation if he took somebody else’s ideas, phrases or sentences, without proper references.

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Tri Septa Nurhantoro Nomor Mahasiswa : 106332002 Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

THE DOMINANT IDEOLOGY IN THE TRANSLATION OF JAVANESE CULTURAL CONCEPTS IN MANGUNWIJAYA’S DURGA/UMAYI

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada) Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis. Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

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The story’s not over yet, the kayon signaling the end of the shadow play hasn’t gotten stuck in the middle of banana trunk yet, because the story continues

Y.B. Mangunwijaya (Durga/Umayi)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Life will be much easier without taking the graduate program, yet I would not have a chance to undergo my life changing process. Starting in 2010, English Language Study Program has provided me wide perspective of life and knowledge. I also became aware of the broadness of the linguistics’ study field, as it was not simply about the importance of language application for human communication but also the smallest aspects that could be explored in a very thorough analysis. Surely, I would show my deepest gratitude to God Almighty for all the blessings so that I could run my life finishing this thesis. It must become another giant step to face the real world; yet, I confessed that accomplishing the thesis this semester was a bit late from my previous plan. My study would not be complete without the patience and understanding of my advisor, Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A., I would not be able to finish my thesis without his continuous support. His guidance, correction, and suggestion were valuable in my thesis writing process. I was thankful to have class discussions with Prof. Dr. Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo. The interesting sharing of his great ideas and experience that deal with linguistics and all the issues in it has given me enlightenment. I would like to thank Dr. J. Bismoko, and Dr. Alb. Budi Susanto, S.J. and all the English Language Study Program lecturers for all their teachings that improved my English skills and knowledge during my study. In particular, I was grateful to have Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A., Dr. Novita Dewi, M.S., M.A. (Hons), and also Drs. F.X. Mukarto, M.S., Ph.D for their willingness in spending their time reading and giving inputs in the review section and the thesis defense. Their comments and suggestions were very beneficial for my thesis improvement. My gratitude was also given to Dewi Rochsantiningsih, M.Ed, Ph.D. for her willingness to share her time and knowledge on language in her busiest days. Spending the time with her and her family has improved my understanding about the use and translation of Javanese cultural concepts. I was also thankful to have

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Leo Budi Setiawan as a friend in sharing and discussing many things dealing with Javanese society and culture. My appreciation went to bu Lelly for her help in all administration stuffs, pak Mul, especially for his patience in waiting for me in the last minutes of the submission deadline, and all the staffs in graduate programs. I believed without them, my study would not run smoothly. I was also thankful to make friends with Arina, Siska, Nana, Lelly, bu Erni, mbak Umi, Mawar, Uci, mbak Atiek, mbak Dwi, Dede, mbak Lia, mas Rio, Pipin, mbak Wheni, mbak Arin, Basil, Musa, Peterson, pak Loy and other classmates in KBI 2010. Spending time for sharing and laughing about the ‘burden’ of studying in the graduate program with them was an unforgettable moment. Many thanks were given to my seniors: mbak Susan, mbak Deta, Sisy, and Vovo for being living reminders in completing my thesis. I would like to give million thanks to my very best friend, Mia, for her never-ending patience in heartening and encouraging me to do all my best. My life would not be meaningful without my family. I would not be able to achieve what I wanted without the continuous support of my parents: pak Dasuki and ibu Udjik Sardjilah. I also thanked my sister, mbak Ika, and her husband, mas Yudan, and also my brother mas Aan, his wife mbak Endah and the cute little Mahes. Their care during my alienation has helped me going through the thesis writing process.

Tri Septa Nurhantoro

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... iv LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ...... v MOTTO PAGE ...... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... ix LIST OF TABLES ...... xi ABSTRACT ...... xii ABSTRAK ...... xiv

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problems Formulation ...... 8 C. Research Objectives ...... 8 D. Research Benefits ...... 9 E. Limitation of the Research ...... 10 F. Research Assumption ...... 10

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ...... 11 A. Review of Related Theories ...... 11 1. Translation ...... 11 2. Translation Techniques ...... 14 3. Ideology of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation ...... 22 4. Literary Translation and Culture ...... 24 5. Translation and Componential Analysis ...... 27 6. Language and Culture ...... 29 7. Cultural-bound Concepts ...... 31 8. Indonesian, Javanese, and English Languages ...... 35 9. Review of Durga/Umayi and Its Translation ...... 37

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B. Review of Related Studies ...... 40 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 43

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 45 A. Type of Study ...... 45 B. Research Data...... 46 1. Data Source ...... 46 2. Data Collection ...... 48 C. Data Analysis...... 59

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 52 A. Translation Techniques used in Translating the Javanese Cultural Concepts in Durga/Umayi ...... 52 1. Adaptation...... 54 2. Description ...... 67 3. Amplification...... 78 4. Generalization...... 87 5. Borrowing ...... 95 6. Adaptation - Borrowing ...... 101 7. Literal Translation ...... 103 8. Particularization ...... 105 9. Reduction ...... 107 10. Adaptation - Amplification ...... 110 11. Calque ...... 111 12. Compensation ...... 113 13. Description - Amplification ...... 114 14. Established Equivalent ...... 115 B. Dominant Translation Ideology in Translating the Javanese Cultural Concepts in Durga/Umayi ...... 116

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 128

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 131 APPENDIX ...... 135

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of Translation Techniques (Molina and Albir, 2002) ...... 21 Table 2.2 Summary of Newmark’s Cultural Concept Categories (1988: 95) ... 34 Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Concept Categories in Durga/Umayi ...... 53 Table 4.2 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation ...... 54 Table 4.3 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Description ...... 68 Table 4.4 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Amplification ..... 78 Table 4.5 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Generalization .... 87 Table 4.6 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Borrowing ...... 96 Table 4.7 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation - Borrowing ...... 102 Table 4.8 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Literal Translation ...... 104 Table 4.9 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Particularization105 Table 4.10 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Reduction ...... 108 Table 4.11 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation - Amplification ...... 110 Table 4.12 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Calque ...... 111 Table 4.13 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Compensation ... 113 Table 4.14 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Description - Amplification ...... 114 Table 4.15 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Established Equivalent ...... 115 Table 4.16 Translation Technique Percentage ...... 116 Table 4.17 Newmark’s Methods (1988) and Molina & Albir Technique (2002) ...... 117 Table 4.18 Percentage of the Translation Technique Orientation ...... 121

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ABSTRACT

TRI SEPTA NURHANTORO. The Dominant Ideology in the Translation of Javanese Cultural Concepts in Mangunwijaya’s Durga/Umayi. Yogyakarta: English Language Study, Graduate Program, Sanata Dharma University, 2013.

Written in the authors’ national languages or even their local languages, literary works are rich in cultural aspects represented in those languages. However, the use of national or local languages may limit the number of readers. The works are only read by those who understand the languages used by the authors in writing their works. Translation is the way to overcome this problem. Having been translated into the world lingua franca, English, literary works are more likely read by wider society. The translation makes more people can understand the culture hold by the authors portrayed in their works, which may also represent where they (the authors) come from. However, the translators will meet problems in dealing with the cultural specific concepts in the works. The translators’ competence in optimizing the translation techniques and their translation ideology to overcome those problems is tested. Regarding to the complications that occur in literary translation blended with specific culture, the researcher is interested to reveal the dominant translation ideology in dealing with Javanese culture in literary translation. The data of the study were taken from a literary work written by Y.B. Mangunwijaya entitled Durga/Umayi (1994), while the translation is done by Ward Keeler (2004). The total number of data found was 220 Javanese cultural concepts. Then, the data were grouped into several culture categories and translation techniques before presented in the analysis. The study focuses on two problems. The first is What are the translation techniques applied in translating the Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi into English? The second is What is the dominant translation ideology as seen in the use of techniques in translating those Javanese cultural concepts? In the analysis of the translation techniques, it was revealed that the techniques applied in translating the Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi are adaptation (30.91 %), description (19.09 %), amplification (17.72 %), generalization (7.27 %), adaptation - borrowing (5.91 %), borrowing (5,45 %), literal translation (4.09 %), particularization (3.18 %), reduction (1.82 %), adaptation - amplification (1.82 %), calque (1.35 %), compensation (0.45 %), description - amplification (0.45 %), and established equivalent (0.45%). The most dominant translation ideology in dealing with Javanese cultural concepts is domestication or TL orientation, for about 63.18 %. The domestication is done to help the target readers easier to understand the story. The foreignization or SL orientated ideology is about 28.64 %. It is intended to introduce the SL culture to the target readers, so that they can gain experience of living in a very broad society. Meanwhile, the hybridized ideology, which is oriented toward both SL and TL, is 8.18 %. This may lead the target readers to understand the story and SL culture SL culture that has its foreignness lessened.

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Based on the analysis of Keeler’s translation of Durga/Umayi, there are three basic aspects that determine the translator in carrying the translation ideology to deal with the Javanese culture. Those aspects are cultural factor, linguistic factor and the translator’s preference. The aspects influencing the translation ideology the translator carries is connected to the main issues that become the translator’s concerns, they are wayang (Javanese shadow-play), language, and Indonesian modern history. In conclusion, the translation ideology that is carried by the translator is actually dynamic. It is because foreignization and domestication in translating the Javanese cultural concepts are alternated or even hybridized, depending upon the translator’s intention whether he wants to introduce the cultural concepts to the TL reader or not. However, apart from the limitation of Durga/Umayi translation, the English version is still important for foreigners to know more about Indonesian history, culture and society.

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ABSTRAK

TRI SEPTA NURHANTORO. The Dominant Ideology in the Translation of Javanese Cultural Concepts in Mangunwijaya’s Durga/Umayi. Yogyakarta: Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Program Pasca Sarjana, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2013.

Ditulis dalam bahasa nasional maupun bahasa daerah penulis, karya sastra menjadi kaya akan aspek budaya yang direpresentasikan dalam bahasa tersebut. Namun hal ini akan membatasi jumlah pembaca. Karya sastra tersebut hanya akan dibaca oleh mereka yang paham bahasa yang dipergunakan oleh penulis dalam menulis karya sastra mereka. Penerjemahan merupakan solusi untuk mengatasi permasalahan ini. Ketika sebuah karya sastra diterjemahkan ke lingua franca yang digunakan di seluruh dunia, yaitu bahasa Inggris, karya tersebut akan dibaca oleh masyarakat yang lebih luas. Penerjemahan membuat lebih banyak orang dapat memahami budaya penulis yang tergambarkan dalam karya sastra mereka, yang juga merepresentasikan di mana mereka berasal. Namun, penerjemah akan menemui banyak permasalahan ketika dihadapkan pada konsep-konsep budaya yang spesifik dalam karya sastra. Kemampuan penerjemah dalam memaksimalkan tehnik penerjemahan dan ideologi penerjemahan mereka untuk mengatasi permasalahan tersebut akan teruji. Berdasarkan pada kerumitan yang terjadi dalam penerjemahan karya sastra yang sarat akan budaya yang spesifik, peneliti tertarik untuk mengungkap dominasi ideologi penerjemahan ketika dihadapkan dengan budaya Jawa dalam penerjemahan karya sastra. Sumber data penelitian diambil dari sebuah karya sastra yang ditulis oleh Y.B. Mangunwijaya berjudul Durga/Umayi (1994), sedangkan karya terjemahannya dikerjakan oleh Ward Keeler (2004). Jumlah keseluruhan data yang didapatkan adalah 220 konsep budaya Jawa. Data tersebut kemudian dikelompokkan berdasarkan kategori budaya dan tehnik penerjemahannya sebelum dianalisa. Kajian ini berfokus pada dua permasalahan. Permasalahan pertama adalah mengungkap tehnik penerjemahan yang diterapkan dalam menerjemahkan konsep budaya Jawa di Durga/Umayi ke dalam bahasa Inggris. Yang kedua adalah mengungkap dominasi ideologi penerjemahan dilihat dari tehnik penerjemahan yang diterapkan dalam menerjemahan konsep budaya Jawa. Dalam analisa tehnik terjemahan terungkap bahwa tehnik yang diterapkan dalam menerjemahkan konsep budaya Jawa di Durga/Umayi adalah adaptasi (30.91 %), deskripsi (19.09 %), amplifikasi (17.72 %), generalisasi (7.27 %), adaptasi - peminjaman (5.91 %), peminjaman (5.45 %), terjemahan literal (4.09 %), pengkhususan (3.18 %), pengurangan (1.82 %), adaptasi - amplifikasi (1.82 %), calque (1.35 %), kompensasi (0.45 %), deskripsi - amplifikasi (0.45 %), dan padanan langsung (0.45 %). Ideologi penerjemahan yang paling dominan dalam menerjemahkan konsep budaya Jawa adalah domestication atau berorientasi pada TL, yaitu 63.18 %. Domestication dilakukan untuk mempermudah pembaca asing dalam memahami cerita. Foreignization atau ideologi yang berorientasi pada SL sebanyak 28.64 %. Hal ini bertujuan untuk memperkenalkan budaya SL ke pembaca asing sehingga mereka mendapatkan pengalaman hidup dalam

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masyarakat yang sangat luas. Sedangkan ideologi campuran yang berorientasi pada SL maupun TL adalah 8.18 %. Hal ini membantu pembaca asing dalam memahami cerita sekaligus budaya SL yang sudah dikurangi keasingannya. Berdasarkan analisa penerjemahan Durga/Umayi yang diterjemahkan oleh Keeler, terdapat tiga aspek mendasar yang menentukan penerjemah dalam menerapkan ideologi penerjemahan dalam menerjemahkan konsep budaya Jawa. Aspek-aspek tersebut adalah faktor budaya, faktor bahasa, dan pilihan penerjemah. Aspek-aspek yang mempengaruhi ideologi penerjemahan yang dipegang oleh penerjemah berhubungan dengan isu utama yang menjadi pusat perhatian penerjemah, yaitu wayang kulit Jawa, bahasa dan sejarah modern Indonesia. Kesimpulannya, ideologi terjemahan yang dipegang oleh penerjemah cenderung dinamis. Hal ini dikarenakan ideologi foreignization dan domestication dalam menerjemahkan konsep budaya Jawa, diterapkan secara bergantian ataupun bahkan tercampur, tergantung pada tujuan penerjemah, apakah dia mau memperkenalkan konsep budaya tersebut ke pembaca TL atau tidak. Namun, di luar keterbatasan penerjemahan Durga/Umayi, versi bahasa Inggris tersebut masih sangat berguna bagi masyarakat asing dalam memahami sejarah, budaya, dan masyarakat Indonesia.

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Language cannot be separated from human lives. In addition to its usage as an important tool in communication, language must have other major functions.

As mentioned by Kirkpatrick (2007), language is used as an identity in signaling to other people who they are and what group(s) they belong to, and also as an expression of their culture. Regarding to those major functions of language, it can be seen that language and culture are entities which have connection binding them. Sapir and Whorf as cited in Bassnett (2002) state that no language can exist unless it is stepped in the context of culture, and no culture can exist which does not have the structure of language at its center. Therefore, the existence of both language and culture cannot be separated from one another.

In addition to the function of a language, Sapir points out that „language is a guide to social reality‟ (Bassnett, 2002). Similar to Sapir, previously, Humboldt in

Snell-Hornby (1988) states that language is an expression of both culture and individuality of the speaker who perceives the world through language. In other words, human beings use a language as the medium of expression for their society

(and also their culture) and the culture they hold is manifested through the language they speak.

In the works of literature like poetry, drama, and prose, language is used by the authors not only to deliver messages, their thought, idea, and knowledge, but

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also to show their identities and cultures to the readers. As mentioned by Wellek and Warren (1990), the relation of language and literature is dialectical. It means that language and literature relate to one another, and, more than that, a work of literature can only be understood through the use of language. As a medium in literature, the role of language is prominent. Gillespie et al. (1994) state that every author writes his/her expressions to the readers and hopes that the readers recognize aspects of his/her insights, thoughts and experiences in the works.

Usually, literary works are written in the authors‟ national languages or even their local languages. In fact, written in particular languages spoken by the authors means that the works are rich in cultural aspects represented in those languages.

However, this may limit the readers that only understand the languages used by the authors (in writing their works). Translation is the way to overcome this problem. Having been translated into other languages, or particularly into the world lingua franca, English, literary works may more likely be read by wider society. Subsequently, more and more people can gain cultural knowledge like norms, traditions, and customs hold by the authors as portrayed in their works, which may also represent where they (the authors) come from. This will lead readers to the world beyond their own, and allow them to have better understanding about living in a diverse society.

The term „culture‟ has a broad definition. Newmark identifies culture as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” (1988: 94). Regarding to the key concepts of “way of life peculiar to community” and “particular language”, the

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culture of one community is different with the cultures of other communities and so is the language. Schwartz as cited by Spencer-Oathey (2009) states that culture includes all organized, learned or created experience of a society, including those encodements and their interpretations transmitted from past generations, from recent group, or formed by themselves. In relation to the encodenments and the interpretations of experience, culture is related to the language spoken by a society. Therefore, each society that holds a culture has its own language.

The culture of one community can be unfamiliar to those who live in different communities and have different cultures. Each nation, for example, has its own culture. Pope (2002) coins the notion of specific national culture, which refers to highly selective versions of cultural identity that underpin national heritage. He gives examples of cream teas, castles and Shakespeare as the sources of specific national culture of England. In a more systematic way, Newmark

(1988) proposes five categories of „culture-specific items‟, they are: 1) ecology or the natural world features including living things and their surroundings; 2) material culture that relates to the objects produced by people in a certain culture;

3) social culture that relates to the particular works and activities done by people;

4) social organizations that refers to political, administrative, religious, and artistic conceptions; and 5) gesture-habit, such as actions and body languages practiced in one community that may be understood differently in different areas.

It is not easy to deal with „culture-specific items‟ in translation. This happens as no two languages are ever sufficiently similar to others in representing social reality (Bassnett, 2002). The basic task of translating is to replace textual

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material in one language or the Source Language (henceforth SL) by equivalent textual in another language or the Target Language (henceforth TL). As proposed by Nida (1964), translation consists of reproducing the message of SL into the closest natural equivalence in TL, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. It can be understood that translating is defined as transforming the message from SL into TL, both in terms of meaning and style. The ideal translation, then, should make sense and be understood by the TL readers, as it is very important in conveying the information.

Dealing with language and culture, a translator encounters some obstacles due to the cultural differences as there are concepts relating to SL culture that cannot be found or understood differently in TL. Nida (1964) states that the differences between cultures are more complicated for the translator to solve than the differences in language structure. In addition to Nida, Larson mentions that:

When the cultures are similar, there is less difficulty in translating. This is because both languages will probably have terms that are more or less equivalent for the various aspects of the culture. When the cultures are very different, it is often difficult to find equivalent lexical items (1984: 95-96).

Consequently, the translator must be able to translate cultural concepts and find the appropriate techniques so that the messages can be well-transferred. Those techniques must be carefully selected to overcome the gap between SL and TL.

Along with the development of translation studies, searching for the equivalence of words in the TL to render the meaning of the SL is no longer taken as the main objective of translation. Dingwaney (1995) states that a translator must comprehend the contexts from which the words arise and what they actually

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evoke or express. It is because meanings are often understood only through the context. The comprehension would not be easy when the words from SL have no equivalence in the TL. That is why the choice of techniques plays important role.

There are scholars like Newmark (1988), Baker (1992), Vinay and Darbelnet

(Venuti, 2000), and Molina and Albir (2002) suggest the alternatives in translating the non-equivalence that can be applied in translating specific cultural concepts.

In selecting the appropriate techniques, a translator may consider the purpose of translation. Conducting a translation of a text in one genre would be different with that of other genres. The translator also must know why he/she tends to emphasize on either the SL or the TL. As introduced by Venuti (1995), there are two translation ideologies that may be employed by a translator namely foreignization and domestication. In foreignization, there is a deviation from the

TL norms to bring readers to an alien reading experience. The translator takes the

TL readers to the foreign culture and lets them feel the linguistics and cultural differences. The TL readers will recognize that they are not reading an original text but the translated one. In contrast, domestication contains reduction of the

„foreign‟ as much as possible so that the TL text sounds natural and much more familiar to the TL readers. It is done so that the TL readers feel as if they were reading an original text, not the translated one.

The examples that represent a certain culture are the Indonesian concepts of wayang kulit and arisan. Both concepts do not exist in English. In translating the initial concept, which relates to Javanese custom, the technique such as adaptation or substitution may be employed. This technique focuses on the naturalness by

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replacing the concept with another common concept existing in the TL, such as

“shadow puppet”. The intention of employing this technique is to gain the related meaning comparable to the original and to avoid the meaning distortion. However, to introduce the SL culture to the TL readers, the translator may also add the translations to become “Javanese shadow puppet”. Meanwhile, the latter concept, which deals with Indonesian society‟s socio-cultural life, can be translated by replacing with its superordinate, “a social gathering”. Sometimes generalization by replacing the cultural concepts with those cultural-free concepts is applicable.

This technique is used to preserve the readability of the TL. However, to maintain the essence for the readers‟ understanding on Indonesian culture, additional explanation or description might be necessary. Thus, arisan can be translated into

“a social gathering like savings” club to give a clear schema to the readers about the concept of arisan. Another alternative of English translation to render arisan is “rotary club”, though some of their features must be different.

Concerning to the complication in the translation of cultural concepts as described in the examples above, the researcher is interested in conducting a study to analyze the translation of the Javanese cultural concepts in an Indonesian novel

Mangunwijaya‟s Durga/Umayi into English. The translation techniques employed by the translator must have any significance in rendering the SL text to become

TL text. The translation ideology carried by the translator also becomes the concern of this research. However, dealing with literary translation, it needs consideration that the TL text must maintain the genre of the original as a literary work that is an expressive text. Benjamin (in McGlynn, 1998) suggests that the

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important aspect of a literary work is not the information it conveys but the sense, secrecy and phoetic.

Durga/Umayi is chosen since the novel contains many concepts that are related to Javanese culture, the culture where the author lives in. Consequently, it represents the author‟s cultural and historical backgrounds which become the reflection of his origin. The novel tells about the history of Indonesia through the lifestory of the main characters, who are Javanese and live in Javanese culture.

They witness and participate in much of Indonesian history. According to Keeler in Foulcher and Day (2002), Durga/Umayi affords both a concise overview of

Indonesian history since the nation‟s independence in 1945 up to New Order regime in 1970s or 1980s. Javanese culture is also shown in the way the author presents the story, that is by employing the style of dalang (a puppeteer), the

Javanese dictions, and the Javanese shadow-play elements.

Durga/Umayi becomes considerable attention to those who are interested in

Indonesian history and culture. Thus, many researches have been accomplished in relation with this novel discussing its post-colonialism, feminism, structuralism and other issues. The original version of the novel was firstly published in 1991.In the next 13 years, Durga/Umayi was translated into English by Ward Keeler, an associate professor of anthropology at University of Texas, Austin. The translator has given concern on Indonesia and focusing himself for years researching

Indonesian local cultures, especially Javanese and its shadow-play performance.

Meanwhile, the author, Y. B. Mangunwijaya, is a famous Indonesian figure, who is not only known as an author, but also as a social activist and an architect. In

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literary field, he receives The South East Asia Write Award in 1983 and The

Professor Teeuw Award in Leiden, Holland.

B. Problems Formulation

In order to limit the points of discussion and make the writing becoming more comprehensible, two questions related to the topic are formulated as follows.

1. What are the translation techniques applied in translating the Javanese cultural

concepts in Durga/Umayi into English?

2. What is the dominant translation ideology as seen in the use of techniques in

translating those Javanese cultural concepts?

C. Research Objectives

Based on the problems which are formulated above, there are two objectives that are going to acquired within the accomplishment of this research. The first objective is to identify the Javanese cultural concepts in Mangunwijaya‟s

Durga/Umayi and their English translation. The identification of Javanese cultural concepts and their translations later on are used to comprehend the techniques used in the translation which should be the answer of the first problem..

The second objective is to find out the most dominant ideology of translation in dealing with the translations of Javanese cultural concepts in the novel Durga/Umayi. The translation techniques in dealing with Javanese cultural concepts are used to analyze the dominant translator‟s ideology of either foreignization or domestication. The comprehension is based on the amount of

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translation techniques used by the translator that are divided into two groups, emphazising the SL and TL. When the number of translation techniques in the group that emphasizes the SL is higher, the dominant translator‟s ideology is foreignization. Meanwhile, if the contrary happens, the dominant ideology is domestication.

D. Research Benefits

The study has both theoretical and practical benefits. Theoretically, it may contribute to the improvement of the theories in translation studies related to language and culture. This is related to the way the analysis is done, that is by analyzing the translation of cultural concepts, the techniques, the translation ideology and its implication. It also provides the comprehension of the techniques in translating Javanese cultural concepts into English in a literary work.

Practically, as a translation research, this study can be used as a reference in studying and practicing translation, particularly literary translation. It may provide translators or people who are interested in translation the general and specific principles of translation and also some aspects required in the translation between cultures. The study is also beneficial for the students of translation class since it presents the analysis of the translation practice in more specific scope, which is a translation dealing with Javanese cultural concepts from Indonesian language into

English in a literary work.

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E. Limitation of the Research

This research is oriented to the product of the translated novel Durga/Umayi.

Since then, the techniques in translating the Javanese cultural concepts and also the dominant translation ideology were comprehended based on the analysis of translation product, without any direct correlation with the translator and also the translation process accomplished by the translator.

F. Research Assumption

The novel Durga/Umayi is translated by Ward Keeler and published by

Washington University Press in 2004. It also becomes one of primary reading books for students of Asian Studies and those who give concern on Indonesian history, society, and culture. As a matter of fact the translator does not focus himself on literary translation, so it is assumed that there may be some limitation in the translation of Javanese cultural concepts, which may create the translation becoming out from the context. However, it must also become a concern that the translator must have consideration in optimizing the translation techniques he applies and also the dominant translation ideology he carries in dealing with those

Javanese cultural concepts.

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW

This chapter discusses the theories and how they are used in answering the questions in the problem formulation. The chapter of theoretical review is divided into: 1) review of related theories and 2) review of related studies, and 3) theoretical framework. The review of related theories covers the relevant theories proposed by some experts regarding the topic of the study to support the analysis.

The review on related studies gives brief description on the previous studies that relate to the topic of this research. The theoretical framework gives explanation on how the reviewed theories are used in the analysis.

A. Review of Related Theories

Theis first section contains several theories, concepts and backgrounds which are useful in the analysis. It covers theories on translation; translation techniques; ideology of foreignization and domestication in translation; theories on literary translation and culture; theories on translation and componential analysis, concepts of language and culture; cultural-bound concepts; Indonesian, Javanese, and English languages background; and review of the novel Mangunwijaya‟s

Durga/Umayi.

1. Translation

Translation has been defined in many ways. According to Pope (2002), translation can be understood as both the process of translating and the product of

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the translation process. It means that translation encompasses very distinctive perspectives as it refers to not only the product but also the process. Relating to the process, Munday and Hatim (2004) and Larson (1998) states that translation focuses on the activity of a translator in taking the text of the original language or

SL and turning it into the text of another language or TL.

Considering to the type of translation, Larson (1998) basically classifies it into two types, namely: form-based translation, and meaning-based translation.

The form-based or literal translation is the form of translation that is mainly in accordance with the form of the SL. A literal translation sounds like nonsense and has little communication value. The literal translation can be understood if the general grammatical forms of the two languages are similar. Meanwhile meaning- based translation or idiomatic translation is a type of translation that attempts to make every effort to transform the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the TL. An idiomatic translation uses the natural form both in grammatical construction and in the choice of lexical items. She adds that an idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation, but it sounds like it is written originally in the TL.

The entire purpose of translation is precisely transforming the message in

SL to TL by achieving equivalence. Many works of translation are written, but rarely translators have good capabilities in translation and can apply well its theories and strategies. A result, translations are rarely equivalent to the original.

Bassnett (2002) argues that translated texts should be far removed from the original. Good translation products must be able to be taken as independent

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products of text, so that the readers would not recognize the text they read as the translated one.

In order to successfully achieve the purpose of translation, a translator must have both linguistics and non-linguistics knowledge in both SL and TL. This is in agreement with what Larson stated on translation:

Translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context (1998: 3).

Linguistics knowledge involves the study of lexicon and the grammatical structure, while non-linguistics knowlede is the ability to comprehend the communication situation and cultural context. Translation, then becomes the bridge to connect two different cultures and enables people to interact well with others coming from different linguistics and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, it is necessary for a translator to have both linguistics and cultural competence.

Nida coins that translation consists of reproducing the message of the SL in the TL; firstly in meaning and secondly in style (Bassnett, 2002). A good translator must be able to transfer the meaning intact without changing the style

(form). However, it would be difficult to be faithful in both meaning and style at same time, yet it is not impossible to do so. Hatim and Munday (2004) give an an example of the name Tom Marvolo Riddle in the novel Harry Potter that functions as anagram of I am Lord Voldemort is translated into French Tom Elvis

Jedusor. The French name refers to Je suis Voldemort. The term Jedusor comes from jeu du sort (game of fate), which thereabouts has the similar meaning with

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Riddle (a kind of problem/game/question that is difficult to solve). Here, the translator is successful in transferring the meaning as well as preserving the form.

In addition to Nida, a translator must be aware of the double linkage that characterizes translation. The double linkage is the link to the SL text and the link to the communicative conditions on the TL readers. According to Levy in Hatim and Munday (2004), communication has become the major aim of translation. It is used to impart the knowledge of the original to the foreign readers, thus the actual translation work should be pragmatic. In translating, the translator must make decision in choosing the alternatives (procedures/methods/strategies/techniques).

He coins minimax model which means that in translation process the translator chooses the solution that has the maximum effect with a minimum of effort.

2. Translation Techniques

There are many ways to perform translation. Those ways basically refer to what scholars call as procedures, methods, strategies or techniques of translation.

There are some scholars have formulated ways used in translation with different terms. However, according to Molina and Albir (2002), ways to translate are not good or bad as they are used functionally and dynamically considering to genre of text (letter of complaint, contract, or tourist brochure), translation types (technical or literary), modes of translation (written translation, sight translation, or consecutive interpreting), purposes of translation and characteristics of target reader, and methods chosen (interpretative or communicative).

Beekman and Callow in Larson (1984) propose three basic alternatives in translation, those are a generic word with a descriptive phrase, a loan word, and a

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cultural substitute. Newmark (1988) proposes four basic procedures namely recognized translation, functional equivalent, naturalization, and translation label.

Baker (1992) coins eight translation strategies in dealing with non-equivalence between SL and TL; they are generalization, neutralization, cultural substitution, loan word with explanation, paraphrasing, unrelated word, omission, and illustration. Vinay and Darbelnet in Venuti (2000) define seven basic procedures divided into direct translation (literal, calque and borrowing) and oblique or free translation (transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation). The recent theorists, Molina and Albir (2002) suggest the procedures refer to the final result of translation called translation techniques.

Molina and Albir (2002) formulate fourteen techniques used in written translation (adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, literal translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, and transposition) instead of the other four used in other types of translation (linguistics amplification, linguistics compression, substitution and variation).

Adaptation is changing a SL cultural element which is unknown with one that is known in TL culture. Here, the translator finds out the equivalence of cultural concept in the SL in the TL, for example replacing the cultural expression in Indonesia Alhamdulillah with a relatively similar expression from the target culture in English, such as “Praise the Lord”.

Amplification is introducing details that are not written in the SL text by adding information or using explicative paraphrasing in the TL text. It is done as

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the word does not exist in the TL culture, so that additional explanation is necessary. For instance, when translating Indonesian concept gudeg into English

“Jogja‟s famous gudeg, jackfruit stewed in coconut milk”. Footnote and endnote are also types of amplification. Footnote is done by giving explicative information of unrecognized word translated from the SL into TL in the same page in the bottom of the text, while endnote uses the detailed description at the end of the text. Although some stylists consider a translation sprinkled with footnotes and endnotes affect the appearance of the text, their use can assist the TL readers to gain more information of the unfamiliar SL contents. Nida (1964) states the use of footnote and endnote has two functions: to provide supplementary information and to call attention to the original's discrepancies.

Borrowing is adopting a word or expression straight from the SL since there is no equivalence or it does not exist in the TL before, such as a new technical process or an unknown concept. In other words, the certain foreign concepts of the SL are used in the TL without changing both the form and meaning. It is done by taking a word or expression straight from SL into TL. Borrowing can be pure

(without any change), e.g. the use of Indonesian concept Bendoro Raden Ayu in an English text, or it can be naturalized (to fit the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology or word-forms of the TL), e.g. the Indonesian concept kamboja (a kind of flower) translated into “camboja” in English. Borrowing is considered as the simplest of all translation methods and is mostly applied to introduce the flavor of the SL culture into a translation.

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Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which the expression from SL is borrowed and then translated literally into TL in terms of each of its element. It imitates the structure or manner of expression of the ST in the translation. The result of calque can be either a lexical calque, which is applying the syntactic structure of the TL while introducing a new mode of expression from SL, e.g.

Setragandamayit into ”Corpstenchfield” or a structural calque, which is introducing a new construction into the TL, e.g. Gusti Allah into “Lord God”.

Compensation is introducing a SL element of information or stylistic effect in another place in the TL text because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the SL text. The example of the application of this technique is the Indonesian concept tikar pandan translated into English “sleeping mat”.

Description is replacing a term or expression with a description of its form, function or other aspects that give explanation about the concept. Different with amplification, in applying description, the translator does not necessarily mentions the term from the SL which is unrecognized in the TL, for example in translating

Indonesian concept pesantren as “Moslem boarding school” and njeron Beteng into “the aristocratic compounds near the Sultan‟s palace”.

Discursive creation is establishing a temporary equivalence that may be totally unpredictable from the SL text, though it might not be entirely different from the overall context. The example of discursive creation is the translation of an Indonesian novel title Sukreni Gadis Bali into English “The Rape of Sukreni”.

Established equivalent is replacing the concept or expression from SL into the recognized one in TL which shares the same context of situation. In applying

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this method, the translator uses an entirely different expression which may have different meaning from the SL text but is considered appropriate in the communicative situation and equivalent to that of the TL context. The translation of proverbs and idioms are good examples of established equivalent, such as translating Javanese expression gebyah uyah into “lump it all together six of one a half dozen of the other”.

Generalization is using a more general or neutral concept that share the most general feature of word from the SL in the word from TL. The example of generalization is in translating the Indonesian concept bedug into “drum” in

English or lemper atau arem-arem becomes “snacks” in English.

Literal translation is done by transferring directly the SL text grammatically and idiomatically appropriate in the TL text. In the application, the translator translates each element from the SL into TL. This is known as word-for-word translation. By the application of this translation method, the essence of the SL language may not be successfully transferred into TL as the equivalence cannot be gained only by literally translating word per word. The examples of literal translation are the translation of the Indonesian expression anak-anak ingusan into

English “snot-nosed kids”, bocah kemarin sore into ”the kid born yesterday” and baju hijau dan loreng into “the green and striped shirt”.

Modulation is changing the point of view, focus or cognitive category of the

SL text into the TL text. This change can be justified when the close translation results in a grammatically correct utterance, but is considered unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in TL. There are two types of modulation, namely free or

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optional modulation and fixed or obligatory modulation. Free or optional modulation is generally adopted because of nonlinguistics reason in order to stress the meaning, to affect coherence or to find out the natural form in the TL, such as in translating “by the will of God” into di luar kemampuan manusia. Fixed or obligatory modulation occurs when a word, phrase or a structure cannot be found in the TL. An active sentence translated into a passive one is the instance, such as translating “I grew up in Jakarta” into Saya dibesarkan di Jakarta.

Particularization is in a opposition to generalization, which is done by using a more precise or concrete concept. In the application of this type of translation strategy, the translator tries to find out the most particular term in the TL which is considered appropriate to the overall context. The example of this particularization is in translating Indonesian yang which is a clipped of sayang into either “girlfriend” or “boyfriend” in English.

Reduction, the opposition to amplification, is done by suppressing the SL information item in the TL. The omission of the information in the SL can be accepted as long as the shorter term or expression in the TL is sufficient in expressing the original essence of the SL term or expression. The example of reduction is in omitting the Indonesian initial term of address pak in pak lurah to become “the headman” in English.

Transposition is the changing the parts of speech or grammatical categories in SL into TL that do not effect the meaning. Two types of transposition are obligatory and optional transposition. Obligatory transposition occurs as the TL has no other choices because of the language system, such as “a pair of glasses”

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into sebuah kacamata. Meanwhile, optional transposition is a transposition chosen by the translator to maintain the style to fit into the utterance, such as translating “after she comes to my house” into setelah kedatangannya ke rumahku.

Linguistics amplification is done by adding linguistics elements which do not exist in the SL. This is often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing.

The example of linguistics amplification is in translating the English expression such as “just kidding” into Indonesian cuma main-main saja or nggak beneran kok instead of using an expression with the literal translation, hanya bercanda.

Linguistics compression is applied by synthesizing linguistics elements in the TL. This is often used in simultaneous interpreting and in sub-titling. The example of this linguistics comprehension is in translating the English question

“Yes, then?” into Lalu? in Indonesian, instead of translating it literarily by using a phrase like Ya, kemudian?.

Substitution, which can be linguistics or paralinguistics,is the changing of linguistics elements for paralinguistics elements, such as intonation, gestures, etc. or vice versa. It is mostly used above all in interpreting. The example of substitution is in translating the Arab gesture of putting a hand on his/her heart into an expression of saying “Thank you”.

Variation is the changing of linguistics or paralinguistics elements like intonation, style, dialect, gestures, etc. that affect aspects of linguistics variation.

The example of variation is by introducing or changing dialectal indicators for

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characters when translating for the theatre, changes in tone when adapting novels for children, etc.

Table 2.1 Summary of Translation Techniques (Molina and Albir, 2002) Technique Examples Adaptation Alhamdulillah  “Praise the Lord” Gudeg  “Jogja‟s famous gudeg, jackfruit stewed Amplification in coconut milk” Pure: Bendoro Raden Ayu  Bendoro Raden Ayu Borrowing Naturalized: kamboja  camboja Expression: Setragandamayit  “Corpstenchfield” Calque Construction: Gusti Allah  “Lord God” Compensation tikar pandan  “sleeping mat” njeron Beteng  “the aristocratic compounds near Description the Sultan‟s palace” Discursive creation Sukreni Gadis Bali  “The Rape of Sukreni” gebyah uyah  “lump it all together six of one a Established equivalent half dozen of the other” Generalization lemper atau arem-arem  “snacks” Literal translation bocah kemarin sore  ”the kid born yesterday” Free/optional: “by the will of God”  di luar kemampuan manusia Modulation Fixed/obligatory: “I grew up in Jakarta”  Saya dibesarkan di Jakarta Particularization yang  “girlfriend” or “boyfriend” Reduction Pak Carik  “the secretary” Obligatory: “a pair of glasses”  sebuah kacamata Transposition Optional: “after she comes to my house”  setelah kedatangannya ke rumahku Linguistics amplification “just kidding”  nggak beneran kok Linguistics compression “Yes, then?”  Lalu? An Arab man putting a hand on his heart into an Substitution expression of saying “Thank you” Introducing or changing dialectal indicators for Variation characters when translating for the theatre, changes in tone when adapting novels for children, etc.

All the translation techniques mentioned above can be grouped into two groups. The first is those that are oriented toward the SL culture, such as borrowing, amplification, calque, and literal translation. The second is TL culture

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oriented techniques, such as adaptation, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, modulation, particularization, reduction, substitution, linguistics amplification, linguistics compression, transposition, and variation. The identificationt of the translation techniques is used to reveal the dominance of foreignization or domestication in the translation.

3. Ideology of Foreignization and Domestication in Translation

Translation ideology that is applied by a translator is an the important issue in translation studies dealing with culture. The following quotation is cited from

Bassnett and Lefevere‟s opinion about the importance of ideology in translation.

Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way (Venuti, 1995: vii)

From to the quotation above, Bassnett and Lefevere believe that translation is a rewriting of an original text and whatever the goal of the translation is, it must be a reflection of the ideology of the translator as a part of society. According to Ardi

(2009), the ideology hold by the translator will direct the translator in the process of translation. The translator‟s ideology may also be interfered by the values that exist in a society. In some cases, the translator chooses to follow the values so that his/her translation can be acknowledged by the society.

Domestication and foreignization are two basic ideologies of translation that deals with both linguistics and culture (Venutti, 1995). Foreignization in translation signifies the difference of the SL text and TL text. It is done by maintaining the culture of SL in the TL. By applying this method, the cultural codes of the TL should be sacrificed in order to make the reader of a translated

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text feel the taste of „foreignness‟. As an opposition to foreignization, domestication involves the ethnocentric reduction of the „foreignness‟ in the SL to match the TL. The application makes the translated product becomes very transparent and easy for the TL readers to read.

The translation ideology of foreignization and domestication is rooted from the orientation of the translator, whether he/she wants to emphasizes the SL or TL.

The emphases are coined by Newmark (1988) as he formulates the translation methods used in the translation. He differentiates the translation method groups into those emphasizing the SL and those emphasizing the TL. The detail of the methods and their emphases can be seen in the following figure.

SL emphasis TL emphasis Word-for-word translation Adaptation Literal translation Free translation Faithful translation Idiomatic translation Semantic translation Communicative translation

Figure. Newmark‟s Translation Methods (1988: 45)

Nababan (in Ardi, 2009) claims that research on translation ideology focuses on either translation product or translation process. In doing a research that focus on the translation product, the smallest unit of translation (the translation techniques) should be analysed to find out the translator‟s ideology. However, he asserts that this kind of research is limited only to comprehend the tendency of translation ideology that is dominantly carried by the translator.

The ideology of foreignization and domestication proposed by Venutti

(1995) is similar to other Newmark‟s translation methods: transference and componential analysis (1988). He suggests that transference gives local color by

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maintaining both cultural names and concepts in the translation. By applying this method, TL readers may limitation on their comprehension of the text as it gives emphases on the culture of the SL text. Different with transference, componential analysis will put aside the culture of the SL text and give more focus on the messages. As it is applied, the TL readers may hardly believe that the text they read is a product of translation.

4. Literary Translation and Culture

Translation is the bridge that connects one culture to another. Culture is a complex collection of experiences of life including history, social structure, religion, traditional customs and everyday usage. This is often difficult to comprehend completely. According to Bassnett (2002) and Newmark (1988), translation can be seen as vital to the interaction between different cultures as it can be an instrument in transmitting culture. In an attempt to mediate different languages in different cultures, translation nearly always attempts to naturalize the differences to make it conform so that the TL reader will not be confused.

Related to the significant role of a translator as a mediator of culture, thus, a translator needs to have knowledge on cultures of both SL and TL, and those should be studied before the translation can be proceeded (Dingwaney, 1995). In addition, Nida (1964) confers equal importance to both linguistics and cultural differences between the SL and the TL and has a conclusion that the differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure. In other words, cultural understanding for translation has more significant importance than lexical concerns.

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According to Nida and Taber (1982), cultural translation is a translation that involves the change of the contents of the SL culture to conform to the TL culture in some way but without wiping out the original meaning. In the context of Bible translation, a cultural translation is one in which changes, additions or reductions are made that cannot be directly derived from the original SL wording. Cultural translation is in line with the concept of closest natural equivalence rooted from

Nida's concept of dynamic equivalent (1964). He gives an example of the translation of “Lamb of God” into the Eskimo language. Here, lamb symbolizes innocence, especially in the context of sacrifice. As there is no lamb in Eskimo, the word has no sense to its people. Instead of “Lamb of God”, he prefers “Seal of

God” to transfer the message. In this decision, cultural aspects are emphasized as it is necessary for the Eskimo people to get the essence of innocence that can be represented in the animal seal in their culture. The importance of meaning becomes the basis in this translation.

Cultural translation closely relates to literary translation. A work of literature may represent various cultural terms and concepts the author believes.

Ivir, as cited from Bassnett and Trivedi (2002), claims that literary translation means translating cultures, not only languages. Thus, a literary translator must give concern on differences not just in language (transposing word for word), but the same range of cultural factors that a writer must address when writing to the readers from a different culture. According to Belloc as cited in Bassnett (2002) in translating a prose a translator should look at the text as one structural unit; thus a translator can add or decrease the words in the TL text so that the product will be

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suitable with idiomatic rules in the SL text. In other words, meaning becomes very crucial in translating a prose, not the form.

In doing this translation, then, it is necessary to understand the text including its type, genre or even its intertextuality. According to Hatim and

Munday (2004) the identification of text purpose and text function is important to specify the appropriate hierarchy of equivalence levels. If the purpose of the text is to give general information of culture, the TL text should not carry all the meaning in the SL text. The cultural concepts can be maintained and put in the brackets. In this case there are a lot of possibilities for the TL. However, if the purpose is to present the culture before the TL readership, the concept must be italicized and accompanied with a lot of explanation (Heriyanto, 1997). Therefore, knowing the detail about the text is important. It may lead the translator in finding the most appropriate techniques and the dominant tendency in transforming the message in the SL into the TL.

Translation of the “third world” text into Western language cannot be separated from post-colonial context (Niranjana in Douglas, 1997).

Rereading/rewriting that involves “citing” or “quoting” from the original done by a translator reframes the source culture in the interest of the colonial domination.

According to Venuti (1995), most of English translations of the “third world” text implement fluency strategies that evoke the illusion of authorial presence and maintain the cultural dominance of Anglo-American. This is done by domesticating the foreign cultures in the SL texts to meet the English language culture in the TL text.

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In contrary, a translator from the “third world” can also apply domestication in translating narrative literary texts written in Western languages. Jacquemond in

Aveling (2010) mentions that novels become the subjects to free translation. He gives example of a French novel that is completely transformed to meet the

Arabic readership in its style, form and content. The original author‟s name is sometimes absent due to the absolute prominence of the translator. This becomes a sign of cultural independence of the “third world” from Western domination.

Similarly, this method is applied in Indonesia in the application of “menyadur” as a translator is free to choose what he/she wants to translate and how to translate it.

Robinson (1997) claims that the two translation orientations, foreignization and domestication, are employed by the translator have different objectives regarding to the source culture. Foreignization will rouse TL readers to become more critical on the cultural difference and undermine colonial hegemony which shows that the source culture are is from colonial past; meanwhile domestication will enforce colonial hegemony in the TL readers‟ thinking without exposing the difference among the SL culture and TL culture. However, sometimes foreignization and domestication are alternated or even hybridized in the translation of a text, and this surely depends upon the translator‟s intention.

5. Translation and Componential Analysis

Linguistics is aimed explain how languages are used and structured, thus it is necessary to deal with the notion of meaning. Finegan (2006) proposes three basic concepts of meaning; they are linguistics meaning, social meaning and affective meaning. Linguistics meaning encompasses both referential meaning

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(the meaning a word or sentence makes reference) and sense (the meaning of word or sentence which has no actual referent in the real world). Social meaning deals with the meaning identified from the nature of the language that shows social characteristics of speakers and situations, e.g. word choice and pronunciation. Affective meaning is emotional connotation attached to the language that conveys the speaker‟s feelings, attitudes, and opinions about the ongoing context.

Therefore, semantic theory becomes significant in translation because it concerns on meaning analysis. Componential analysis is one of ways to analyze meaning. Newmark (1988) proposes that the basic process of componential analysis in translation is by comparing an SL lexical item with TL lexical item which share a similar meaning, then demonstrating their common and differing sense components. The analyzed components are known as the semantic properties. The essential assumption of componential analysis is the fact that the meaning of a lexical item is a combination of elements of meaning which are binary and marked as present (+) or absent (-). The use of + is to mark the lexeme by having relevant component, while - is to mark the lack of relevant component.

In analyzing the meaning of cultural concepts, the application of componential analysis can be used to compare the semantic features between the concepts in the SL and TL. The shared features are called central or generic components that unite any semantic set and are shared by all words. The nuanced features are called contrastive components which distinguish a word from all other words of the set.

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The following is the example of analysis of sampur that is translated into

English “scarf”. From the feature of being part of a uniform sampur and “scarf” may share similar function. However, it can be seen that their other features are different. Sampur is part of clothes that is worn by a dancer in her waist that functions as a dance property. Meanwhile, “scarf” is not a part of the dance properties, worn around one‟s neck, and its main function is for giving warmth

6. Language and Culture

It is true that the use of language is for communication. However, the use of language itself can be seen from the point of view of socio-cultural context, in which there are relationships between language and society. According to

Wardhaugh (2006) there are several claims that language and society are related.

The claims are either language determines society, society influences language, or both language and society influence each others. Based on the claims, it can be understood that though a society shape their own language, the language can also determine the way in which the society of that language in viewing the world. The languages, the particular ways of speaking and the choices of words are determined by social identities and conditions such as age, social class, ethnic, occupation, region, and sex. Thus, different languages reflect different cultures.

Whorf in Wardhaugh (2006) makes two claims about linguistics relativity.

If a speaker of one language have certain words to describe things and the speaker of another language lack similar words, then the first language will find it easier to talk about those things. Meanwhile, if one language makes distinctions that another does not make, then those who use the first language will more readily

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perceive the differences in their environment which such linguistics distinctions draw attention to. From Whorf‟s claims, it can be concluded that people‟s life has been tricked by the structure of language into a certain way of perceiving reality.

The diversity of cultures can be seen from the different languages used in one community to others as language is a representation of a culture. Sapir as cited from Bassnett (2002) states that there is no language that is completely similar to others in representing social reality, because the worlds in which different communities live are distinct worlds. Therefore, different cultures have different languages. Many factors like geographical conditions, ways of thought, manners, beliefs, etc. shape the culture of its inhabitants. Due to these factors, people live in different areas have different cultures. The differences between cultures cause a society in one area believes in things and has concepts, events, and habits which do not exist in other areas, or even are totally strange to them.

In relation to the previous discussion, culture is deviated into diversive matters. A community that holds different cultures has tendency to speak different languages. The concept of culture as defined by Newmark (1988) is the way of life and its manifestations that is peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression. Every community, then, has its own culture and also its own language. Katan (1999) believes that culture is perceived throughout as a system for orienting experience. It may not relate to reality, but rather a simplified model which varies from culture to culture.

Geertz as cited in Foley (2001) views culture as a system of public meanings encoded in symbols and articulated in behavior seen as symbolic

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actions. These symbols are public expressions of shared practices and understanding among those who can be described as having the same culture.

Cultural meanings are not only in individual minds, but are also shared by people of the given culture. Thus, culture is public meanings encoded and shared by symbols, not self-contained private understanding. Furthermore, Geertz states a very general conclusion that “they (culture) are things in this world” (2001: 16).

Culture on one community, then, can be said unique and incomparable, especially as specific culture may not be found in other communities. The example of specific culture in one community is a cremation ceremony Ngaben in

Bali, Indonesia. This kind of ritual must only be found in Balinese culture, not in other cultures. Though in other communities may also have cremation ceremony, it cannot be compared straightforwardly to Ngaben as they share many differences in some aspects, such as processes, practices, aims, equipments and many more.

7. Cultural-bound Concepts

Since each community has different culture, the words related to culture must be different from one to others. The aspects of the source culture that are unfamiliar to other cultures are varying. According to Tymoczko in Bassnett and

Trivedi (2002) it ranges from the material culture (foods, tools, garments), social structures (customs and law), features of the natural world (weather conditions, plants, animals), and the like. The features of the source culture are encoded in specific lexical items for which there are no equivalents in the other cultures.

According to Newmark (1988) the cultural concepts are not difficult to detect as they are linked to a certain language and are hardly translated literally.

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The concepts related to culture are differentiated into five categories, namely: 1) ecology, 2) material culture (artifacts), 3) social culture (work and leisure), 4) organization, custom, activitie, procedure, social conception (political, administrative, religious, and artistic), and 4) gesture and habit.

Ecology covers to all geographical and ecological features of nature that can be normally distinguished from other cultural concepts as they are usually value- free, politically and commercially. The categorization of these features perceived as cultural terms depend on the importance of their country of origin as well as their degree of specificity. This includes the name of living things and their surroundings involving ecological features, such as flora, fauna, winds, plains, hills, forests, etc, for example: emprit, duku langsep, and gori.

Material culture relates to the exact objects or everyday supplies produced by people of a certain culture. It includes foods, clothes, houses, transportations, etc. Food is considered as important expressions of local culture. The examples of food which are only found in Indonesian-Javanese culture are: gudeg, gethuk cothot, lemper and arem-arem. Similar to food, most of communities have a typical house, clothes and means of transportation that have specific purposes, shapes, and origins. The typical house and building that represent certain culture found in Indonesian are: pendopo, gandok, and gubug. The clothes are surjan, blangkon, pici and sarung palekat, while means of transportation that are specific for Indonesian-Javanese are becak, andong, and dokar.

Social culture relates to all works, leisure activities practiced by people in a particular place in a particular culture. People in all types of societies organize

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themselves in relation to each other for work and other duties, and to structure their interactions. Social culture is sub-categorized into to workfield, term of address, and proper name. Workfield is considered a product of culture as it represents specific aspects of a culture which may not be found in others, such as

Indonesian-Javanese concepts like dukun, lurah, kebayan, carik, ulu-ulu and hulubalang. Social leisure activities also reflect one‟s culture. The examples of this social culture in Indonesian are main ceki, arisan, dan sabung ayam.

Organizations, customs, activities, procedures, and concepts (political, administrative, religious, and artistic) refer to a wide range of those built, practiced or believed in one community that may not occur in other communities.

This category includes all administrative, political, ritual, religious and artistic things and that are peculiar in one culture. The political and social life of a country is reflected in its institutional concepts, for example in Indonesia, there are kelurahan, kecamatan, and RT. The religious concepts are Ramadhan, salat magrib, and Gusti Allah. Meanwhile, the artistic concepts can be found in the following Javanese shadow-play related-characters and terminologies, such as

Arjuna, Ratu Banowati, ngarcapada, and kakayon.

Gestures and habits are symbolic actions done and body languages applied in a community which have different meanings and functions from one culture to others. It must be a distinction between description and function, which are made in ambiguous cases. People smile a little when someone dies, do a slow hand-clap to express warm appreciation, spit as a blessing, nod to dissent, or shake their head to assent, kiss their finger tips to greet or to praise, all of which occur in

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some cultures and not in others. Similarly, giving a thumb-up means “OK” or “I need a ride” in western culture, but in Javanese culture, it is used as giving direction or addressing to somebody who is talked to. The term headshake can be understood differently in different community, as it may symbolize agreement, but it may also refer to other meanings.

Table 2.2 Summary of Newmark‟s Cultural Concept Categories (1988: 95) Category Sub-Category Javanese Concept Samples animal emprit and kancil ecology fruit, plant, and tree duku langsep and gori food gudeg, gethuk cothot, and lemper house and building pendopo, gandok, and gubug material culture surjan, blangkon, topi kuluk, pici, clothes and sarung palekat transportation becak, andong, and dokar dukun, lurah, kebayan, carik, ulu-ulu workfield social culture and hulubalang leisure main ceki, arisan, dan sabung ayam. institution kelurahan, kecamatan, and RT organizations, Ramadhan, salat magrib, and Gusti customs, activities, religion Allah procedures, and Arjuna, Ratu Banowati, ngarcapada, social conceptions art and kakayon giving a thumb-up  giving gestures and habits gesture direction or addressing to somebody who is talked to (Javanese)

Having the similar concept to Newmark, Baker (1992) suggests culture- specific item as a source language word that expresses a concept that is totally unknown in the TL culture. She points out that her concept may be abstract or concrete as it may be related to a religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food. Therefore, cultural concepts are words, phrases, or expressions used by people of certain culture to express the concepts that closely related to their

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culture. As there are differences between cultures, some concepts are unknown or understood differently from one culture to other cultures.

8. Indonesian, Javanese and English Languages

Throughout the history, the need of national languages of South East Asian countries grew by the end of World War II (Alisjahbana, 2008). Many colonized countries gained their independences, and they needed a language that represented their national identity and could be accepted as national communication among citizens. Most of them employed their colonial masters‟ languages as their national languages, though they have their own local languages. The role of the colonial masters‟ languages could occupy the first national language, which were mostly used, or the second or even the third.

Unlike other colonized countries in Asia, such as Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines, Indonesian society had chosen the language for unity years before gaining its independence. Most of them did not use their colonial masters‟ languages. The Dutch as the colonizers did not let their languages to be taught and spoken as daily communication for the locals. Moreover, as Japanese came to

Indonesia, Dutch was forbidden to use. Japanese language was not very influential for Indonesia after independence regarded to the short period of occupation, though it was more obliged to use than Dutch (Alisjahbana, 2008). As the result, most of the people still used Indonesian and their regional languages.

Indonesian was admitted „unofficially‟ as as a language for unity on October

28th, 1928 when the Second Congress of Indonesian Youth was held in Jakarta. In the congress, the youth took an oath that consisted of several aspects: they

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belonged to one nation, Indonesian nation; they had one mother country,

Indonesia; and one language, Indonesian language (Alisjahbana, 2008).

Indonesian referred in the congress was actually Malay language which had been used as lingua franca among people in South-East Asian countries for centuries.

Indonesian and the native regional languages are used by a large portion of the population of Indonesia. When the same people used two languages in this way, the languages influence each other. Javanese is one of the most important regional languages. This is because its speakers comprise about 60 % of the entire population of Indonesia (Keeler in Mangunwijaya, 2004). It resulted with the enrichment of Indonesian vocabulary through many borrowings from Javanese, such as loan-words, loan-blends, loan-shifts, and loan-translations. For Javanese people, their local language is very in contact with national language, each has specific function within an integrated society. The first is Javanese as the language of the home and the language for expressing emotion. The second is Indonesian

(or Malay) as the language of learning and formality, the language used for expressing the intellect, as well as an instrument for communicating with outsiders (Poedjosoedarmo, 1982). Therefore, Indonesian becomes highly interfered by regional languages, such as Javanese, which is the dominant culture in Indonesia. This makes the language rich of regional languages vocabularies.

Different with Indonesian and Javanese languages, for decades English has become the dominant global language in establishing communication among people from different countries. Being used by almost nations all around the world, it is considered as the world lingua franca. As stated by Kachru (2005), the

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language which is widely taught, learnt, and spoken in the world is English, instead of Mandarin. There are about 300 million people use English as their first language in Australia, Canada, Britain and America, while by more than 700 million people as the second language in many countries all over the world.

Becoming the world lingua franca, people living in the countries that do not speak English as their national language may use English as a mean to mediate their experiences, intellectuals and culture to other people all around the world.

Here, English has an important role for people of wider society to know and learn about diversity and uniqueness of culture that they never recognize before.

The influence of English and the modernization brought by the cultures of its origins interfere the languages of local people. However, it is not only English which has great opportunities in influencing other languages. English becomes enriched with numerous vocabularies and range of expressions adapted/adopted from other languages. In fact, English has now acquired regional tastes but in some ways remains an international language, which becomes the central issue of

World Englishes, This is a proof that basically languages remind to develop through the intense interaction with other languages.

9. Review of the Novel Mangunwijaya’s Durga Umayi

Durga/Umayi was firstly published in 1991, when Indonesia was still ruled by the dictatorship of the New Order before it ended in 1997. In the New Order era the freedom of expression was very limited as the government over-controlled its people in doing their activities and expressing their opinion. This becomes one of the reasons why not many Indonesian readers read the novel, comparing to

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other Mangunwijaya‟s famous works like Burung-Burung Manyar (1981), the series Roro Mendut - Genduk Duku - Lusi Lindri (1983-1986), Balada Becak

(1985), and Burung-Burung Rantau (1992).

The less popularity of Durga/Umayi among Indonesian readers is deplorable. Bouwman (in Sindhunata, 1999) states that the novel is very compelling and quite different from other Indonesian novels. The satire employed in the novel is used to express Mangunwijaya‟s free interpretation of Indonesian history including the small details that may be ignored by most of historians. The novel becomes interesting as in the year of its publication the Indonesian government gave very limited space for its people in expressing their opinion.

Free interpretation of national history, even in literary works that is fictitious, was unacceptable, particularly when it insulted the government. This might result imprisonment of the authors. The most valid history of Indonesian that could be published must come from the government‟s version.

Another reason why Durga/Umayi is less popular is because of its style and diction. Indratno (2009) states that Mangunwijaya employs Javanese oral traditional structure in telling the story, It can be seen since the beginning of the novel, Prawayang (Foreshadow), the introductory chapter written in a form of poetry. The following chapters also use the same traditional structure as the sentences can be as long as one page with several transitions by employing many comas (Allen, 2004). This style is like the way a dalang (puppeteer) in delivering story in Javanese shadow-play performance. Anderson in Allen (2004) adds that

Durga/Umayi resembles Javanese shadow-play because it employs pasemon:

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delivering a story within another story. It can be seen as Mangunwijaya uses many mythologies like wayang (Javanese shadow-play) stories and arranges them to support the story. In addition to its unique style, the novel also contains unique dictions. McHale states that Durga/Umayi is rich with what he calls as lexical exhibitionism can be observed in the novel as the author employs many odd, scientific, technical, foreign and regional concepts and also uses many adjectives and verbs at once in a long sentence (Allen, 2004). Most of the unique dictions in the novel are explained with the descriptions in the footnote. Although lexical exhibitionism can make the novel humorous, many people may find it becomes the obstacles in reconstructing the story.

For many people, all the reasons make the novel not easy to be understood.

However, the free interpretation of Indonesian history, the unique style of story delivery, and the lexical exhibitionism in Durga/Umayi attract foreign scholars who give concern on Asian Studies and its post-colonialism, feminism, and socialism issues. By reading the novel they get another version Indonesian history from the point of view of literature and also the richness of Indonesian culture.

Becoming a source of studies for foreign readers makes Keeler interested in translating Durga/Umayi. He mentions in his preface that there are three main issues in the novel that become his concerns as the translator; they are Javanese shadow-play, language, and contemporary Indonesian history (2004). Although the intended readers of the original novel are Indonesian as most of the readers may be familiar with those issues, surely the aforementioned reasons still become the barriers for them in comprehending the novel.

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The barriers become more complicated when the novel is read by foreign readers that have more limited knowledge on Javanese shadow-play, language, and contemporary Indonesian history. Moreover, Keeler manages to maintain the style of the original novel in the translation. Lindsay (2004) states that Keeler, who is expert in Javanese and has spent years researching Javanese shadow-play, makes experiments of sound, alliteration and rhythm in English. He also coins his own compound words and phrases in Mangunwijaya style, but still keeps the nuance of the original Indonesian in his creative use of English.

To overcome these barriers, the translator adds extended additional explanation of most issues and concepts presented in all chapters in the endnote entitled Translator’s Note. He also includes Translator’s Introduction, a short biography of the author, review of Mangunwijaya‟s role(s) in the novel in

Afterword: Mangunwijaya as Novelist/Puppeteer, and also Further Readings.

Those additional parts can be sources for foreign readers to get more information related to the story presented in Durga/Umayi and its context. The translator may be too excessive in inserting additional parts in the translated version of the novel.

However, he must consider that they are essential for foreign readers in comprehending the story to learn more about Indonesia, not only reading the novel as a fictitious work for spending their leisure time.

B. Review of Related Studies

There are some researchers who have discussed the topic covering translation and culture. The significance of comprehending the researches that

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share the related topics is to find, compare, and learn from the errors made by others and avoid the possibility of duplication.

One of the researches related to translation and culture is conducted by Al-

Masri (2009) from Cornell University. His research, Translation and Cultural

Equivalence: A Study of Translation Losses in Arabic Literary Texts, focuses on the issue of cultural inequivalences or losses occurring in the translation of Arabic literary texts. He investigates the translation strategies that led to cultural losses and emphasizes the important role of the translator as a cultural insider. The cultural aspects analyzed are the figurative language (metaphors, idiomatic expressions, proverbs) in two texts: Arabic and English. His analysis shows that translation was communicatively successful, but failed to represent the culture- bound and emotionally charged words which represent the implicit level of the source text. The study concludes with the implication that a translator has to assume the role of a cultural insider for both texts in order to render a culturally more faithful translation.

The second research related to translation and culture is Nil Equivalent and

Zero Equivalent on the English Translation of Sundanse Folklores conducted by

Erlina and Hanafi (2007). They focus the study on one major way to comprehend the complexity and grab the point of these folktales and puts emphasis on effective linguistics distribution. According to them the linguistics distribution is significant to preserve cultural entity. However, the exclusiveness of Sundanese culture interferes the acknowledgement of the culture into broader scope and limits its accessibility. Furthermore, it is worsened by translation that only touches

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its superficial elements without paying a attention to the setting in which the texts were originally created.

The next research Strategi Penerjemahan untuk Konsep yang Tidak

Dikenal dalam Bahasa Indonesia (Sebuah Kajian tentang Strategi Penerjemahan

Konsep yang tidak dikenal dari Bahasa Indonesia ke Bahasa Inggris) written by

Said et al (2003) was aimed to find out the translation strategies employed by the professional translators in translating the words in the SL that have no direct equivalence in the TL. The texts used in this research are some Indonesian literary works and their translations. The research shows that the words in the SL that have no direct equivalence in the TL are those words closely related to Indonesian culture. They are classified as religious system and belief, social stratification system, organization system, workfield, custom, artifacts and social environment.

The research results that in dealing with Indonesian non-equivalence words the translator employs strategies, like generalization-particularization, form-shape modification, form-function modification, cultural equivalence, descriptive equivalence, borrowing, tranference, particularization-generalization, and literal translation. The most applied strategies are descriptive and cultural equivalences.

The last research An Evaluation of the English translation of An Indonesian

Novel: A Case Study on the Translation of Manguwijaya’s Burung-Burung

Manyar (Hariyanto, 1997) evaluates the appropriate procedures used to translate culturally-bound sentences, words, and expressions which are embedded in

Javanese culture into English using the same novel translation as a case. The result shows that to translate culturally-bound words or expressions, the translator

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used addition, componential analysis, cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, literal translation, modulation, recognized translation, reduction, synonymy, transference, deletion, and combination. However, some are typically appropriate for certain classification of cultural words. The research includes surveys of both groups of SL and TL readers and comes up with the result saying that the readers get the same impressions in terms of the meaning, message and style.

Those researches are relevant to this study since they focused on the translation and culture. All researchers analyzed the cultural concepts by using different methods and theories that give contribution to this study. However, this study focuses more on the translation of Javanese cultural concepts in a novel from Indonesia into English. The translation product Durga/Umayi and the original version to compare are the main sources of the research without involving the translator and any participant. Not only analyzing the methods or techniques of translation, this research goes further with the comprehension of the dominant translation ideology based on the translation techniques employed in dealing with the Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi.

C. Theoretical Framework

The concepts of language and culture along with cultural concepts formulated by some experts above are used in analyzing the cultural concepts found in the novel Y.B. Mangunwijaya‟s Durga/Umayi that is translated by Ward

Keeler under the same title. There are five categories of cultural-bound concepts proposed by Newmark (1988), they are: ecology; material culture; social culture;

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organization, custom, procedure, and social conception; and gesture and habit.

The analysis related to the cultural concepts is done descriptively. The descriptive analysis of each cultural concept uses explanation referring to Javanese culture along with the comprehension of the cultural features of each cultural concept.

The theories on translation and translation techniques are applied in analyzing the translation of the cultural concepts. In answering the first research question, the techniques implemented the translating process are comprehended based on the translation techniques proposed by Molina and Albir (2002). There are fiveteen techniques namely adaptation, amplification, borrowing, calque, compensation, description, discursive creation, established equivalent, generalization, literal translation, modulation, particularization, reduction, transposition, and variation. The theories help in comprehending the translation techniques implemented in translating each Javanese cultural concept. The analysis also uses componential analysis to comprehend the semantic features of some cultural concepts in the SL and the translation in the TL.

The applications of componential analysis and the translation techniques are helpful in indicating the translation ideology applied by the translator whether he tends to foreignize or domesticate the Javanese cultural concepts. The comprehension of translation ideology in the anaylsis is based on Venuti‟s fogeignization and domestication in transation (1995) and Newmark‟s emphases on SL/TL (1988). Finally, the review of novel Durga/Umayi is used in finding the implications of the dominant translation ideology carried by the translator in dealing with Javanese cultural concepts.

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter discusses the methodology used in conducting the research. It contains several sections, covering type of study, research data, data collection, and data analysis. The first section explains about the type of the conducted study including the approach used in doing the analysis. The second section discusses about the data used in the research. The third section shows how the data were collected and treated to ease the process of analysis. The last section of this chapter presents how the data are analyzed by implementing the theories and concepts presented in the previous chapter.

A. Type of Study

Since the research discusses a certain issue on translation, which is the translation of cultural concepts in a literary work, its is part of translation studies.

Holmes as cited in Bassnett (2002) claims that descriptive translation studies deals with comparative studies, focusing on textual phenomena and their translatability, linguistics, literature, or culture. The problems examined in this research are the production and description of literary translation, particularly in the translation of

Javanese cultural concepts. An Indonesian novel and its English translation are the sources the researcher observes.

This research was conducted by using qualitative approach. According to

Creswell (2007), qualitative research begins with assumptions, a world view, and

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the possible use of theoretical lens, and functions to follow up quantitative research and help explain mechanisms or linkages in causal theories or models.

The research is characterized by observation and description in form of words or sentences. The research was done by analyzing descriptively the Javanese cultural concepts and their translations based on the certain categories, while the statistics and tables were used to present the results of the analysis. The research was also done by quantifying the number of cultural concepts, the translation techniques implemented by the translator to comprehend the dominant translation ideology.

B. Research Data

1. Data Source

The data source refers to the subjects from which the data are obtained.

They are gained by observing the Javanese cultural concepts found in the written documents. The documents in this research are in the form of literary texts: novels. As the research is related to translation, there are two languages are involved; source language (SL) and target language (TL). The SL text is the

Indonesian novel entitled Durga/Umayi written by the Indonesian author Y. B.

Mangunwijaya, while the TL text is the English translation under the same title translated by Ward Keeler.

The SL text is firstly published in Jakarta by PT Pustaka Utama Grafiti in

1991 containing eight chapters plus an introduction in the form of verse entitled

Prawayang. Its English version that consists of eight chapters plus an introductory chapter Foreshadow-play and some additional sections: Translator’s Introduction,

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Acknowledgement, About the Author, Translator’s Note, Afterword:

Mangunwijaya as Novelist/Puppeteer and Further Reading is published in 2004 by University of Washington Press. Both SL and TL texts are the primary sources of this research, and the focus is on the Javanese cultural concepts in both texts.

Durga/Umayi was chosen since it provides many Indonesian cultural dynamics, particularly Javanese cultural concepts. It is because the story mostly takes places in Java during the Dutch colonialization to Indonesian New Order era, the main characters are depicted as Javanese, and the author himself holds

Javanese culture. The novel is translated by a native speaker of the TL, which is

English, an American archeologist who gives concern on Javanese culture and has done several researches related to it. It means that the translator is expected to be able to render the Javanese cultural concepts from the SL into TL text.

The novel is less popular for Indonesian readers compared to Burung-

Burung Manyar (1981), the series Roro Mendut - Genduk Duku - Lusi Lindri

(1983-1986), Balada Becak (1985), and Burung-Burung Rantau (1992), other novels by Mangunwijaya. Bowman (in Sindhunata, 1999) states that Indonesian literature does not give much its attention to Durga/Umayi. However, for foreigners the novel is regarded as a good reference of Indonesian literature. It satirically criticizes Indonesian political, historical and social condition in such ways as the author seems to deconstruct his nation through his own ideas, at the time when history is in the hand of government. Therefore, many researchers have studied the novel under different topics such as feminism, stylistic aspects, post- colonialism and so forth.

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2. Data Collection

The data were taken orderly and divided into two; the cultural concepts found in the SL text and their translations in the TL text. There are total 220 data taken from the novel. Before anything useful could be done with research data, it was necessary to compile them. Compiling data was done by putting all the data together in one place in such a way that they could be more easily analyzed and interpreted. In order to do so, there were several procedures need to be done. The first procedure in collecting the data was by carefully and thoroughly reading the

Indonesian version of the novel to observe and identify the Javanese cultural concepts found in it.

The second procedure was highlighting each culture concept in the novel along with the related context by note-taking. This process was followed by comprehending the English version and finding the English translation of those

Javanese cultural concepts. It is also done by highlighting the translation of each concept along with the related context by note-taking.

The next procedure was numbering each datum according to the certain order (the taken datum, the text, and page number), for example:

ST text: …Pak Kebon kemarin sudah mempersiapkan bambu tiang bendera yang biar lama tetapi dicat baru… (79/ST/36) TL text: …the gardener got a bamboo flagpole ready yesterday well it‟s been around for a while but he painted it like new… (79/TT/52)

From the data above, the numberings can be described as follow: 79 shows the number of the taken datum, SL stands for source language (text) and TL is target language (text), 36 means that the datum is found on page 36 in the Indonesian version, while 52 is on page 52 in the English one.

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The last procedure was inputting the whole data in the computer. The reason why the data were inputted in the computer was for practical matter. It was easier in sorting and organizing the data for the further analysis.

C. Data Analysis

There were several steps in conducting the data analysis. The first step was the data of Javanese cultural concepts found in both SL and TL text were analyzed descriptively and classified based on the cultural categories proposed by

Newmark (1988). The Javanese cultural concepts translations follow as they were analyzed to know the techniques applied in accomplishing the translation. The sample of the first step of analysis could be presented as follows.

ST text: … karena dalam diri bangsa banyaklah yang sudah mampu untuk bercita rasa sublim dan abstrak dan sudah sanggup terbang, kalaupun bukan seperti garuda ya seperti burung sriti atau empritlah gagak atau kakaktua… (177/ST/116) TL text: … because among the people there are some already capable of aspiring to sublime and abstract feelings and are ready to fly, even if not yet like a garuda well then like a little bird in the ricefieldor a crow or a cockatoo… (177/TT/116)

The phrase burung sriti atau emprit, refers to certain kinds of small birds that are easily found around ricefield areas; the place where they may look for food. The term burung sriti itself is defined as “swallow” in English (Steven and Tellings,

2010). It is a small bird with pointed wings and a tail with two points, which flies quickly and catches insects to eat as it flies. In the context, it is found that the author tries to draw the ability of Indonesian citizens who are now should be able to be free, to fly like birds. Burung sriti and emprit, altogether with other birds namely gagak (a crow) and kakaktua (a cockatoo) are compared to one type of

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bird, garuda. Garuda is a large mythical bird that can transport the god Vishnu through space and fight against Rahwana to safe Shinta in shadow-play story. The author describes that Indonesian citizens cannot be as powerful as garuda yet, but at least they should be free from being colonized.

The next step was the analysis of the techniques employed in translating the

SL cultural concepts into their translations in the TL text. The techniques implemented in translating those Javanese cultural concepts were based on the translation technique categories proposed by Molina and Albir (2002). The translation techniques employed by the translator became the answer of the first problem formulation.

ST text: …beres Bu, lantai ruangan dalam maupun pendapa muka sudah dipel hingga mengkilat… (78/ST/36) TL text: …everything‟s in order, Madam, the floors inside as well as in the reception hall in front have been mopped till they shine… (78/TT/53)

In the context above, the concept pendapa is told to be in the front part of a house.

As a place mainly to receive guests, the floor of pendapa was mopped until shining. It is done in order to make the guests felt comfortable as well as impressed. The translator translates pendapa into “reception hall” meaning a hall to receive guests. Here, he employs adaptation techniques, by replacing pendapa with the concept familiar to TL readers “reception hall”. Eventhough, pendapa and “reception hall” share some differences, the translator‟s intention is to focus on the function, that is as a place to accept guests or to hold special occasion.

However, in terms of specific function, location and shape, they may diverse.

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The analysis of their diversities can be seen in the following explanation.

Pendopo is a place where wayang (shadow puppets) or traditional dances are performed to entertain the guests in celebrating certain family events. It is owned by a rich or respected person and built at the front of his/her house. The shape of a pendopo is open-air pavilion-like veranda. Meanwhile, reception hall shares no specific area to build and has no particular shape, though it is usually close. Both concepts share some differences, but the translator aims to adapt the concept pendopo in the SL into reception hall that is known in the TL culture so that the target readers feel familiar to the concept and easier in comprehending the context. The translation techniques selected by the translator was later used in revealing the dominance of foreignizing and/or domesticating in translation.

After identifying the translation techniques, the next step was to comprehend the dominant translation ideology in dealing with the Javanese cultural concepts.

The comprehension of dominant translation ideology was done by quantifying the translation techniques, categorizing them in to groups, and putting the groups into percentage. The translation techniques were divided into two groups of those oriented to SL (carrying foreignization ideology) and TL (carrying domestication ideology). The highest percentage of the translation group would show the dominant translation ideology carried by the translator in dealing with the

Javanese cultural concepts in the analysis.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter concerns with the analysis of concepts in the form of the words and phrases which are closely related to local (Javanese) culture identified in

Mangunwijaya‟s Durga/Umayi and their English translations. The cultural concepts and their translations are classified into categories proposed by

Newmark (1988) and analyzed descriptively. The next analysis is to find out the techniques of translation applied in the translations of those concepts based on what are proposed by Molina and Albir (2002). After identifying and analyzing the techniques of translation, it can be comprehended the tendency of translation ideology of foreignization (source-oriented treatment) or domestication (target- oriented treatment) (Venuti, 1995) that the translator carries.

A. Translation Techniques used in Translating the Javanese Cultural

Concepts in Durga/Umayi

The analysis of Javanese cultural concepts translation in Durga/Umayi is done in two steps. The first is categorizing the cultural concepts found in SL text and TL text, then, followed by analyzing the techniques the translator employed in translating those cultural concepts. In the analysis of cultural concepts and their translations, each category is represented by describing some samples considered as representative data. Therefore, not all cultural concepts and their translations from SL into TL are presented descriptively in the analysis.

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The research begins with the focus on the use of Javanese cultural concepts in the novel. In the SL text, there are several similar cultural concepts exist and are translated similarly in the TL text, thus only the first that appear in the novels are taken as the data. From the novel there are 220 data which are closely related to Javanese culture. The detail of those Javanese cultural concepts grouped based on the culture categories is presented in the following table.

Table 4.1 Javanese Cultural Concept Categories in Durga/Umayi Cultural Category Cultural Sub-category Number of Data Ecology - 4 Dress and Clothing 8 Food and Consumption 25 Material Culture House, Household Good and 7 House Surrounding Weapon, Tool, and Toy 5 Job or Profession 6 Social Culture Term of Address 27 Proper Name 5 Political and Administrative 11 Conception Religious, Mystical, and Mythical 22 Organization, Custom, Conception Activity, Procedure, Artistic Conception 44 and Social Conception Social Conception 31 Day and Measurement 7 Place and Area 14 Gesture 1 Gesture and Habit Interjection 3

Based on the data collection on the Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi, the analysis of applied translation techniques can be carried on before identifying and analyzing the dominant translation ideology carried by the translator. The table consisting the complete Javanese cultural concepts (words and phrases) and their English translations along with their contexts can be found in the Appendix.

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1. Adaptation

Adaptation is changing a SL cultural element which is unknown with one that is known in TL culture. In applying adaptation technique in the translation of

Durga/Umayi, the translator replaces the Javanese cultural concepts with those concepts in TL that are familiar to the TL readers. There are 68 Javanese cultural concepts in the novel are translated by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table.

Table 4.2 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation Culture SL Text TL Text Category Ecology hama wereng (73) pest of locusts (82) Dress & sarung palekat (19) a checked sarong (39) Clothing selop (19) slippers (39) cabai sambel (53) hot pepper sauce (67) Food & susur-tembakau (109) a quid tobacco (111) Consumption teh nasgitel (134) sweetshot tea (130) House, pendapa (36) reception hall (53) Household gubug (122) a hut (121) Good & gardu ronda (134) guardhouse (129) Surrounding gubug (165) shacks (153) keris pusaka (3) potent dagger (26) Weapon, Tool kendi-kendi (59) jugs (71) & Toy otog-otog kodok (69) noisemaker froggies (79) sopir becak (5) pedicap driver 28) Job or petani gurem (6) a dim farmer (29) Profession Pak Kebon (36) the gardener (52) Mbah Dukun (160) the old curer (150) kakang kadang lanang (vii) my dear manly spouse (19) my preety wife preety one simbok ayu mbok ayu (vii) (19) mbakyu (vii) my dear (19) Term of Roro (2) Maiden (26) Address Mbak (2) Miss (26) Mas (8) Young Man (31) Mbok (19) Ma (39) simbok-simbok (152) mothers (144)

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Kang (160) Brother (151) Proper Name Sri Kendi (59) Miss Jugs (71) amtenar (47) officials (62) Workfield hulubalang (55) the commanders (69) (Bureaucracy) Panembahan (56) Lord (69) Kayangan (viii) Heaven (20) tumbal ruwatan (12) sacrificial victim (33) pamor (21) the fame (41) Religious, Rahmatullah (22) God‟s mercy (41) Mystical & alhamdulillah (33) Praise the Lord (50) Mythical diruwat (55) exorcised (68) Conception duh Gusti (111) dear God (112) mubazir (141) waste (135) Malaikat Jibril (163) the Angel Gabriel (152) Sakaguru Indraloka (viii) the Pillar of Heaven (20) pakem (20) stories (40) wayang golek (110) rod puppets (112) Art wayang kulit (110) shadow puppets (112)

kunyuk ogleng (153) performing monkey (144) lakon (164) stories (153) pakem (164) Plots (153) si yuyu kangkang (viii) softshell (20) ningrat (ix) illustrious (21) surrendered and submitted pasrah sumarah nglokro (4) out of exhaustion (27) gua garba (5) the womb (28) setiawan (15) good faith (36) samadya (20) a more moderate (39) abdi dalem (21) the courtiers (41) Social adiluhung (31) the noble (48) Conception kalem adem ayem (39) cool, calm and collected (55) priyayi (44) aristocrats (60) wis-gede-moh-dikerasi (52) don‟t-mess-with-me (66) cooking-cleaning-and- dapur-sumur-kasur (61) cuddling (73) alon-alon-waton-kelakon slowly-but-surely (110) (108) adem ayem ngglenggem calm cool accommodating (123) (122) insan kamil (135) perfect man (131) kantor kecamatan (18) the subdistrict office (38) alun-alun (18) the town square (39) Place & Area Kantor Kabupaten (25) Regency Office (44) Kantor Bupati (143) the Regent‟s Office (137) Gesture & O Allah (56) Oh God (69)

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Habit uoallah (155) good Lord (146)

The Javanese cultural concept that belongs to ecology category is hama wereng. According Stevens and Tellings (2010), refers to a group of particular black insects which attack rice and other plants. The existence of hama wereng is very common in Indonesia that is known as an agricultural country and has beras

(rice) as the main staple of the majority of its citizens.

SL text: …bahwa kaumnya pun sering terkena hama wereng dan tikus, dipreteli germo atau lady chaperone atau entah namanya atau kantor pajak gelap… (133/ST/73) TL text: …they often experience pest of locusts and rats, get ripped off by their pimps or lady chaperone or whatever they‟re called or by the shady tax office… (133/TT/82)

The terms hama wereng and tikus are used in referring those who always disturb and take benefit from the main character and those who have similar job as „call- girl‟. They are pimps, lady chaperone, or even governmental administration. In translating hama wereng into English, the translator renders it into “pest of locust” meaning a large insect with wings found in hot areas which flies in large groups and destroys all plants and crops (Cambridge Advanced Dictionary 3rd Edition).

The terms hama wereng and “pest of locust” share the same idea believed by both

TL and SL readers, in which both terms refer to a group of insects that destroy human concerns, such as plants and crops cultivated by farmers. In doing this, the translator employs adaptation technique. This technique is used as the SL cultural concept is not known in the TL culture but people in TL culture has their own concept that shares nearly similar features and is considered equivalent.

The next concept is categorized as material culture and sub-categorized as dress and clothing, sarung palekat. It refers to a sarong that has particular motif,

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which is stripped and checked. Pelékat or palekat comes from the name Pulicat, a town on the Coromandel Coast (in the east-coast of India), the origin of such kind of sarong (Steven and Tellings, 2010). The word sarung itself comes from Malay, which means “covering”.

SL text: …sarung palekat sampai betis yang diikat gaya Melayu dengan sabuk kulit lebar berdompet dan kaki dalam selop kulit yang diseret-seret berbunyi berirama… (53/ST/19) TL text: …a checked sarong reaching down to his calf and secured in the Malay style with a wide leather belt, a wallet, and his feet in leather slippers that dragged as he walked… (53/TT/39)

From the context above, sarung palekat is used to refer to a certain cloth to cover the lower part of the character from the waist to the calf tied in Malay style. The term “sarong” in “a checked sarong” in the TL text used to translate sarung palekat already exists in English. The term is borrowed from Malayan word sarung. In Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, “sarong” has a definition

“a long piece of thiny cloth which is worn wrapped around the waist”. In addition, to illustrate the motif of palekat sarong, the translator adapts an initial adjective

“checked”. The translation into “checked sarong” is based on consideration of the

TL readers‟ knowledge limitation on the term sarung palekat. By doing this, the translator employs adaptation technique. Another concept which is translated by using adaptation is selop (slippers).

The next cultural concept is sub-categorized in food and consumption, cabai sambal uleg. Stevens and Tellings (2010) define Javanese sambal as hot spicy sauce/paste made from ground red chili peppers, salt, etc. and served along with cooked rice. In the making process, the red/green chili peppers (cabai) along with other spices need to be grinded (diuleg) manually by using a slightly bent piece of

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wood or stone in a cobek or mortar. Therefore, that particular of sambal is called sambal uleg.

SL text: …mesiu adalah terasi dan cabai sambel ulek yang membuat setiap makanan apa pun enak tetapi celakanyanya membuat orang minta tambah nasi… (101/ST/53) TL text: …ammunition is shrimp paste and hot pepper sauce that makes any food at all taste good although the downside is that it makes people ask for more rice… (101/TT/67)

In the context, the author wants to tell that in public kitchens, the weapons were all foods and spices. The villagers must serve the meals for Indonesian freedom fighters. The foods and spices were called as weapons because they could defend them from being run amok by the starving fighters. The translator translates and replaces cabai sambal uleg with “hot pepper sauce”. This is done because the making of sambal that involves the process of grinding (with certain techniques and tools) does not exist in the TL culture. However, to have an equivalent concept in SL culture, the translator adapts something familiar to the TL readers,

“hot pepper sauce”. The adaptation can be applied, but the TL phrase is lack of several features in the SL phrase, such as the making process and the ingredients.

Other cultural concepts in this sub-category that are translated by adaptation are susur tembakau (quid tobacco) and teh nasgitel (sweetshot tea).

The next material cultursl concept sub-categorized as house, household and surrounding, pedopo or pendapa. According to Robson and Wibisono (2002), it refers to a large square pavilion or hall which forms part of the front of a traditional Javanese house of a person of rank (or of an institution), featuring a raised floor, open sides and an elaborate roof, and used for receptionist of performance. Meanwhile, Steven and Tellings (2010) define pendapa as a large

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open pavilion-like veranda at the front of a big house where guests are entertained and wayang performances to celebrate family events are held. Thus, it can be comprehended that pendopo is a part of a house to accept and entertain the guests that is built in a certain form and placed in a certain location.

SL text: …beres Bu, lantai ruangan dalam maupun pendapa muka sudah dipel hingga mengkilat… (78/ST/36) TL text: …everything‟s in order, Madam, the floors inside as well as in the reception hall in front have been mopped till they shine… (78/TT/53)

In the context above, pendapa is told to be in the front part of a house. As a place mainly to receive guests, it must remain clean: the floor of pendapa was mopped until shining. It was done in order to make the guests felt comfortable as well as impressed. The translator translates pendapa into “reception hall” meaning a hall to receive guests. Here, he employs adaptation by replacing Javanese pendapa with a phrase familiar to TL readers “reception hall”. Though, pendapa and

“reception hall” may share some differences, the translator‟s intention is to focus on its main function. Other cultural concept in this sub-category translated by adaptation are gubug (hut), gubug (shack), and gardu ronda (guard house).

The next material concept sub-categorized as weapon, tool, and toy is keris.

It refers to a wavy-bladed ceremonial dagger that is also known as kris or creese

(Steven and Tellings, 2010). Keris is a traditional weapon that also becomes part of Javanese traditional male costume, like beskap or surjan. For some people some keris are cult objects believed to have mystical and mythical powers.

SL text: …tidak kalah dari Ratu Ken Dedes yang tidak hanya mampu mempesona Ken Arok sayang namun malang, konsumen keris pusaka Empu Gandring… (25/ST/3)

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TL text: …the equal of Queen Ken Dedes not only had the means to enchant the handsome but hapless Ken Arok, consumer of Empu Gandring‟s potent dagger… (25/TT/26)

From the context, it is told that Ken Arok the owner of keris pusaka, which actually belonged to Empu Gandring, a famous master craftman in the ancient age. The term keris pusaka means a particular keris that handed down from one generation to the next, or inheritance in a form of keris that received from the saka of one‟s ancestors that has magic power (Steven and Tellings, 2010). The translator renders keris pusaka into “potent dagger”. A dagger is a short pointed knife which is sharp in both sides used especially in the past a weapon

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary). Therefore, “potent dagger” means a particular knife that is very powerful. In this case, the translator employs adaptation technique in replacing the Javanese cultural phrase keris pusaka with

“potent dagger” that is familiar to TL readers. Other cultural concepts in this sub- category translated by using adaptation are kendi-kendi (jugs) and otog-otog kodok (noisemaker froggies).

The next is social culture concept sub-categorized as job or profession, Pak

Kebon. This refers to someone who works in a house who is responsible in maintaining the outside area of the house, like the yard and garden. It is sometimes abbreviated as pakbon. In reality, the tasks of Pak Kebon are not only gardening, cultivating, watering the yard and garden, but also helping some domestic jobs of the servant inside the house if he is not in duty, and accomplishing other tasks the employer asks.

SL text: …Pak Kebon kemarin sudah mempersiapkan bambu tiang bendera yang biar lama tetapi dicat baru… (79/ST/36)

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TL text: …the gardener got a bamboo flagpole ready yesterday well it‟s been around for a while but he painted it like new… (79/TT/52)

In the context of the story, Pak Kebon was the one who prepared and placed the flagpole made of a long bamboo stick. The translator replaces Pak Kebon by adapting it with the “gardener”. Gardener refers to someone specializes working in the garden, like growing and taking care of plants (Cambridge Advance

Learner’s Dictionary). As a job that needs specializations, it requires special skills to learn. Whilst in SL Pak Kebon is considered as a job for low-level people, in

TL gardener may be not. The reason behind this adaptation technique is to let the

TT readers to be more familiar with a particular job or profession. Other cultural phrases in this sub-category translated by adaptation technique are supir becak

(pedicap driver), petani gurem (dim farmer), and Mbah dukun (old curer).

The next social culture is the term of address Mbak, a shorter form of embak. It is often followed by the term ayu and abbreviated as mbakyu. It has two meanings: elderly sister or an address for girl or lady older than the speaker

(Robson and Wibisono, 2012). Meanwhile, Steven and Tellings (2010) add other meanings to mbak, which are a term of address for young woman and (in some regions) middle-aged woman, such as mbakyu bakul jamu (a female seller of traditional Javanese medicinal herbs).

ST text: …para pejuang generasi muda yang tergabung dalam itu lho Gerakan Martabat Perempuan (…) tidak mau mengakui Mbak Iin atau Kak Linda atau Tante Wi atau Kamerad Tiwi atau Nusa atau Madame Nussy atau juga Cik Bi (…) sebagai perempuan… (21/ST/2) TL text: …the fighters of the younger generation who are joined together in the, you know, the Movement for Women‟s Right (…) don‟t choose to recognize Miss Iin or Sister Linda or Auntie Wie or

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Comrade Tiwi or Nus or Madame Nussy or Sis Bi (…) as a woman… (21/TT/26)

In the context of the story, Mbak, which is used in addressing Iin, the female main character, may show that she is considered as older than the narrator who tells the story, or obviously a young woman who comes from Javanese culture, or lives in the context of Javanese culture, or being addressed politely the narrator who holds

Javanese culture. The term o address Mbak is translated into “Miss” by employing adaptation technique. The translator may assume that the word “Miss” represents the features of Mbak, which is used to refer to a young or, usually, unmarried female (Merriam Webster’s 11th Collegiate Dictionary). Other cultural concepts in this sub-category translated by employing adaptation are kakamg kadang lanang

(my dear manly spouse), simbok ayu mbok ayu (my preety wife preety one), mbakyu (my dear), Roro (Maiden), Mbak (Miss), Mas (Young Man), Mbok (Ma), simbok-simbok (mothers), and Kang (Brother).

The next Javanese social culture concept is sub-categorized as personal name, Sri Kendi. The term sri is a common female personal name in Javanese culture. This also refers to a name of a Javanese Goddess of Rice Dewi Sri that becomes a symbol of prosperity (Steven and Tellings, 2010). Meanwhile, kendi is an earthenware water carafe with or without a nozzle (Steven and Tellings, 2010).

It is common traditional household equipment as a water carafe in the past.

ST text: …ya mereka menghargai menghormati anak Sersan Mayor Obrus yang Srikandi itu tetapi toh tidak dapat mengekang nafsu untuk memberi nama akrab baru kepadanya: Sri Kendi, menyindir dua payudaranya yang besar seperti kendi-kendi… (126/ST/59) TL text: …indeed they esteemed and respected Sergeant Major Obrus‟s daughter Srikandi but still they couldn‟t restrain the impulse to

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give her new nickname: Miss Jugs, alluding to her breasts that were big like jugs… (126/TT/71)

From the context, it is found that the name Sri Kendi is given to the main female character to tease her. The men try to allude her breasts which are big like kendi

(jugs). The name Sri Kendi becomes a pun of Srikandi, a female Javanese shadow-play character. Srikandi is known for her strong characteristic as a female.

She is talkative, strong-willed, warm-hearted woman who is fond of hunting and fighting. In translating Sri Kendi, the translator employs adaptation by renderring it into “Miss Jugs”. He replaces the name Sri with an address “Miss”. The use of

“Miss Jugs” in the TL still signifies the alluding of female character‟s breasts.

However, it wipes away the pun of Srikandi in the context of the story.

The next cultural concept is sub-categorized as bureaucracy, Panembahan.

It refers to either a man of high nobility, or the title given for a highly esteemed person that is usually a holy hermit (Steven and Tellings, 2010). While, the

English concept “Lord” as a title refers to a man with high rank of nobility or has a power of authority over an area.

ST text: …sedangkan tanpa bantuan para hulubalang Kedu kala itu Panembahan Senopati pun tidak mungkin mengalahkan Kerajan Demak… (118/ST/56) TL text: ...whereas without a help of the commanders from Kedu not even Lord Senopati in his time could possibly have defeated the Kingdom of Demak… (118/TT/69)

The translator decides to translate Panembahan into “Lord” based on their similar features of title for high nobility, power and authority. Other cultural terms in this sub-category that are translated using adaptation technique are amtenar (officials) and hulubalang (commanders).

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Javanese people are considered as religious people. They tend remember their Creator and call up Its name when they want to express things that are beyond human power The Javanese concept on God is represented by the name of

Gusti Allah. The term gusti has a meaning of „lord‟ or „master‟, and it is used to address Allah (God) to show that “It” is the master of all universe.

ST text: …dengan keyakinan bahwa bagaimanapun toh Gusti Allah itu Maha Rahim Maha Pengampun… (38/ST/11) TL text: …convinced as he was that in any case God was All Merciful and All Forgiving… (38/TT/33)

The translator translates the concept Gusti Allah into “God”. It is based on assumption that generally people must know that God rules everything in the universe without mentioning that It is a “master” or “lord”. By adapting the

Javanese concept with the concept that is more familiar for the TL readers, the translator employs adaptation technique. Other religious concepts that are translated by using adaptation technique are Kayangan (Heaven), tumbal ruwatan

(sacrificial victim), pamor (fame), Rahmatullah (God‟s mercy), alhamdulillah

(Praise the Lord), diruwat (exorcised), duh Gusti (dear God), mubazir (waste), and Malaikat Jibril (the Angel Gabriel).

The next cultural concept is sub-categorized as art, wayang kulit. This traditional Javanese performance is important for Javanese culture. Wayang kulit refers to shadowv play with leather puppets. According to Steven and Tellings

(2010), wayang kulit is divided ito two: wayang kulit madya that is based on 19th century stories about Jayabaya and wayang kulit purwa that is based on the

Ramayana and Mahabharata stories. In wayang kulit performance the leather puppets shadows are projected on canvas.

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ST text: …wajah perseginya seperti orang-orang Samosir, tidak begitu tinggi semampai proporsi sosoknyanya, tidak juga berhidung bangir seperti wayang golek atau wayang kulit… (163/ST/110) TL text: …hey‟re square-jawed like people from Samosir Island, they‟re not all that tall and their body type is slender, and they don‟t really have long straight nose like rod puppets or shadow puppets… (163/TT/112)

In order to translate wayang kulit, the translator employs adaptation technique. He adapts the features of the basic way it is performed by replacing the concept with

“shadow puppet”, a concept that is more familiar to the TL readers. The concept

“shadow puppet” refers to a drama performance exhibited by throwing the shadows of the puppets or actors on the screen. The other Javanese artistic concepts that are adapted are Saka guru Indraloka (the Pillar of Heaven), pakem wayang (shadow-play stories), wayang golek (rod puppets), kunyuk ogleng

(performing monkey), lakon (stories), and pakem (plots).

The next Javanese cultural phrase is dapur-sumur-dan-kasur. It comes from the Javanese conception on the responsibilities an „ideal‟ woman should holds within the patriarchal society. Those responsibilities are cooking (olah-olah in dapur), washing (umbah-umbah in sumur) and love-making (melumah on kasur).

ST text: …maka sejak itu Tiwi kadang-kadang diperbolehkan mengawal Panglima Divisi bila sedang berdinas dengan duduk di atas kap mesinnya untuk menunjukkan bahwa perempuan itu tidak cuma budak di dapur-sumur-dan-kasur… (128/ST/61) TL text: …thus after that time Tiwi was occasionally permitted to precede the Division Commander‟s car‟s gas cap to show that this woman wasn‟t just a cooking-cleaning-and cuddling slave… (128/TT/73)

In the context of story, the author wants to tell the breakthrough to the main character as a woman. She could proof that woman is not just a slave in dapur, sumur and kasur. She could do task that man could do in the old times, preceding

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the Division Commander of Indonesian army force. The translator renders dapur, sumur and kasur into “cooking”, “cleaning” and “cuddling”. He adapts the TL words that share similar ideas to the originals in the SL. More than that, he also tries to find words in rhyme, those begin with [k] and end with [ŋ], considering that the originals are also in rhyme, ending with -ur sound. Other adaptations that also maintain the rhyme are alon-alon-waton-kelakon (slowly-but-surely), kalem adem ayem (cool, calm, collected), adem ayem ngglenggem (cool calm accommodating), and pasrah sumarah nglokro (surrendered and submitted out of exhaustion). Meanwhile, the other Javanese conceptions translated by adaptation technique without focusing the rhyme are si yuyu kangkang (softshell), ningrat

(illustrious), gua garba (womb), setiawan (good faith), samadya (a more moderate), abdi dalem (courtiers), adiluhung (noble), priyayi (aristocrats), kaum ningrat (aristocrats), wis-gede-moh-dikerasi (don‟t mess with me), and insan kamil (perfect man).

The next cultural concept is sub-categorized as place and area, alun-alun. It refers to an extensive, square, and grassy area in front of the house of regents or district heads, and used for parades, sports, and other events (Steven and Tellings,

2010). Since then, almost every city in central Java has alun-alun in its center.

ST text: …sedangkan sang suami hanya model Petruk bentuk gethuk cothot seperti yang dulu dijual sambil berjongkok oleh ibunda almarhumah di sudut Kelenteng Cina dekat alun-alun… (50/ST/18) TL text: …whereas her honored husband had Petruk‟s look and a body shaped like the fried cassava snacks his dear departed mother used to sell as she squatted at the corner of the Chinese temple near the town square… (50/TT/39)

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The context above shows that alun-alun is the place where the mother usually sold fried cassava snacks. The translator replaces alun-alun with a concept “town square” that TL readers can easily comprehend. It is based on the consideration of their similar function of becoming a public place where public events are hold.

However, in the application of adaptation technique the features of alun-alun, which are extensive, square, and grassy, are not covered. Other concepts that are translated by using adaptation are kantor kecamatan (the subdistrict office), kantor kabupaten (regentcy office), and kantor bupati (the regent‟s office).

The last cultural concepts that are translated by using adaptation are the interjections o Allah (oh God) and uoallah (good Lord). Living in religious society Javenese people often use expression of surprise, anger, or sadness that connects to their religion, directly pray to God or cite the holy verses.

ST text: …karena sekarang desa kami sudah dikubur di bawah traktor dan truk-truk itu uoallah sudah morat-marit semua… (203/ST/155) TL text: …since now our village has gotten buried underneath those tracktors and trucks good Lord is the whole place ever a mess… (203/TT/146)

In the context above, the interjection uoallah is used to show the elements of surprise and anger when the narrator telling how the village has been destroyed, condemned for right of way or public use by the trucks and tractors.

2. Description

Description is done by replacing a term or expression with a description of its form, function or other aspects that give explanation about the concept. There are

42 data of Javanese cultural concepts that are translated into English by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table.

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Table 4.3 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Description Culture SL Text TL Text Category a little bird in the ricefield Ecology burung sriti atau emprit (116) (116) Dress & pici (27) black velvet cap (45) Clothing gethuk cothot (18) the fried cassava snacks (39) gula-jawa (45) coconut sugar (61) tempe tahu (50) the soybean cakes (65) rokok kretek (51) clove-scented cigarette (65) terasi (53) shrimp paste (67) serundeng (54) spicy fried coconut (68) teri (54) dried anchovies (68) buntil (54) fried peanut dregs (68) Food & kethak (54) roasted taro leaves (68) Consumption bongko (54) peanut dregs (68) pelas (54) steamed bean and coconut packets (68) saren (54) dried blood (68) gelali (69) coconut sugar candies (79) sticky sweet coconut sugar geplak (108) (10) jenang grendul gula jawa melted coconut sugar and (147) sticky rice (140) Job or dukun (2) local magic specialists (26) Profession empu (3) font of wisdom (26) Term of den ajeng (113) young lady (114) Address den roro (113) young (114) genduk (113) darling daughter (114) kebayan (51) village officials (65) Workfield carik (51) the village secretary (65) (Bureaucracy) lurah (107) village headmen (109) Ketua RT (132) the Neighborhood Head (128) Religious, tumbal (11) a means to assure (32) Mystical & the venerable founding kiai pembaurekso (21) Mythical fathers (41) Conception kualat terkutuk (165) cursed with misfortune (154) Art batara dan betari (vii) divine lords and ladies (19) longgor bagur (7) big for her age (29) Social priyayi (47) members of the elite (62) Conception hadiningrat (112) noble atmosphere (113)

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neighborhood lending arisan (129) societies (126) kas RT (133) neighborhood treasury (129) pesantren atau sekolah pastor Muslim boarding school or (58) Sunday school (71) people sitting cassually on lesehan kaki lima (89) mats along the sidewalk (95) Place & Area Dalem Beteng (109) the palace‟s outer walls (111) the aristocratic compounds Dalem Beteng (131) near the Sultan‟s palace (128) Kauman (143) the Muslim quarter (137) Pon-Wage-Kliwon-Legi- market-day (99) Measurement Pahing (94) sepincuk (143) a banana leaf packet (137)

The first cultural concept is related to ecology, burung sriti atau emprit, refers to certain kinds of small birds that are easily found around rice-field areas; the place where they usually live and look for food. The term burung sriti itself is defined as “swallow” in English (Steven and Tellings, 2010). It is a small bird with pointed wings and a tail with two points, which flies quickly and catches insects to eat as it flies.

SL text: … karena dalam diri bangsa banyaklah yang sudah mampu untuk bercita rasa sublim dan abstrak dan sudah sanggup terbang, kalaupun bukan seperti garuda ya seperti burung sriti atau empritlah gagak atau kakaktua… (177/ST/116) TL text: … because among the people there are some already capable of aspiring to sublime and abstract feelings and are ready to fly, even if not yet like a garuda well then like a little bird in the ricefield or a crow or a cockatoo… (177/TT/116)

In the context, it is found that the author tries to draw the ability of Indonesian citizens who are now should be able to be free, figuratively, to fly like birds. The terms burung sriti and emprit, altogether with other birds namely gagak (a crow) and kakaktua (a cockatoo) are compared to one type of bird, garuda. Garuda is believes as a large mystical & mythical bird that can transport the god Vishnu

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through space. The author describes that Indonesian citizens could not be as powerful as garuda yet, but at least they could be free from being colonized.

Being compared to garuda, burung sriti and emprit are considered smaller, and this becomes the rationale the translator employs description technique in the translation. The translator describes the features of the birds in the terms of their size (small/little) and habitat (rice field).

The next is cultural material concept related to dress and clothing, pici.

Steven and Tellings (2010) define pici as fez-shaped cap that is usually made of

(black) velvet. Pici or peci is a particular cap worn by male Muslims when doing their daily activities, particularly, in praying. However, in Indonesia people who wear pici are not limited to those who are Muslims. It becomes an identity as well as symbol of pride and being educated. As a symbol of pride, almost all male elite bureaucrats in governmental institution wear pici in most of formal occasions.

SL text: …Bung Karno waktu masih muda, berpici tinggi agak oleng, berjas rapi berdasi hitam bintik-bintik putih atau biru tua atau merah tua … (70/ST/27) TL text: …a young Bung Karno, in a high, somewhat an unsteady black velvet cap, a neat jacket and a black tie with white polka dots or dark blue or dark red… (70/TT/45)

Contextually, the author wants to tell the pici worn by the character Bung Karno when he was young. The term pici is translated into “black velvet cap” by description technique. In employing this technique the translator omits the SL term that is not recognized in the TL culture and replaces it with its description. In above translation, the translator mentions the material, color, and shape of the pici. It is usually made from velvet and commonly having black color. More than that, it is matched up to a “cap” on the feature of its function as a part of uniform.

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Thus, pici can be understood as a cap that has black color and is made from velvet. In short, pici is a “black velvet cap”.

The next material culture is the food and consumption concept, tempe and tahu. It refers to certain side dishes that are made from soybean. The making process involves fermentation. Tempe becomes popular healthy food not only in

Indonesia, but also in other countries, which is commonly known as “tempeh”. It is made by fermenting soybeans with a rhizopus. Meanwhile, tahu is widely known as Japanese “tofu”, which refers to a certain food product prepared by treating soybean milk with coagulants, such as magnesium chloride or dilute acids

(Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate 11th Dictionary). They are ussualy made in big size and then sliced into smaller size like cakes before distributed to the market.

That is why Steven and Tellings (2010) refer them as “soybean cakes”.

SL text: …mereka mudah mengomel kalau nasinya kurang putih, kurang pulen terlalu keras atau terlalu lembek atau agak tengik dan tempe tahunya terlalu kecil atau sayurnya sudah agak kecut… (95/ST/50) TL text: …they were quick to complain of the rice wasn‟t white enough not sticky enough too hard too soft or going off and the soybean cakes were too small or the vegetables had gotten pretty sour… (95/TT/65)

In Javanese culture, tempe and tahu are very common as the side dishes for the rice. It is because they are cheap but having high nutrients. In translating them, the translator employs the phrase “the soybean cakes”. It shows the information on their main ingredient (soybean) and shape (like slices of cake). Thus, description technique is employed. Other cultural words and phrases in this sub-category translated by employing description technique are gethuk cothot (the fried cassava snacks), gula jawa (coconut sugar), rokok kretek (clove-scented cigarette), terasi

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(shrimp paste), serundeng (spicy fried coconut), teri (dried anchovies), buntil

(fried peanut dregs), kethak (roasted taro leaves), bongko (peanut dregs), pelas

(steamed bean and coconut packets), saren (dried blood), gelali (coconut sugar candies), geplak (sticky sweet coconut sugar), and jenang grendul gula jawa

(melted coconut sugar and sticky rice).

The next is Javanese social cultural concepts sub-categorized as job or

profession, dukun. It is defined as a traditional healer, a medicine man, as well as

a spiritual counselor (Steven and Tellings, 2010). In Javanese culture, the word

dukun is usually followed by the specialization that he/she concerns, such as

dukun bayi or beranak (a midwife), dukun jampi (one who uses traditional or

herbal medicine to cure sickness), dukun pengantén (a specialist in wedding

decorations and make-up), dukun pijet/pijit (masseur), dukun rias (someone who

applies makeup to a dancer), dukun santét or tenung (a sorcerer, user of black

magic), dukun siwér (a specialist in preventing natural disasters such as keeping

away the rain when one is holding a feast), dukun susuk (a specialist in putting

metals or other materials into the body for strength or beauty), and many more.

Thus, traditionally, dukun does not merely refer to someone who holds mystical

& mythical power or practices black magic to treat illness or even to cause

someone to suffer then die by sorcery. It is more on someone who specializes is a

certain field; though spiritual power should be one of the essential skills that a

dukun holds.

SL text: …cukuplah sudah hanya sebagai wanita: jelas datang dari suatu gejala yang normal namun menjengkelkan tetapi belum pernah dapat diterangkan tuntas oleh Charles Darwin atau Sigmund Freud maupun para dukun dan suhu paranormal…(22/ST/2)

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TL text: …but just a female; but that of course comes from a normal if irritating trait, though one never yet susceptible of complete analysis by Charles Darwin or Sigmund Freud or any local magic specialists or paranormals… (22/TT/26)

The use of dukun in the context of the story is to refer to someone who must have a lot of knowledge on many things in this world in comparison with a scientist like Darwin, a philosopher like Freud and paranormals. However, they (according to the narrator) are not able to explain why the main character must not be considered as perempuan (woman), but wanita (female). In translating the term dukun into ”local magic specialist”, the translator employs description technique.

The word in the TL text gives clear description of dukun, which is someone in a particular local area or culture specializing in magic.

The next concept is the addressing term den ajeng, a clipped form of raden ajeng. It is used to refer to a title for title for an aristocratic girl (Steven and

Tellings, 2012). Similar to Bendoro Raden Ayu, according to them it is also used to address a rat in imploring it not to damage things in the house or farming field.

Raden ajeng can be compared to diajeng, which is formerly used to refer to a young female palace relative that has high social stratification.

ST text: …sangat baru bagi Tiwi tetapi sudah berabad-abad dijalankan oleh setiap den ajeng den roro atau genduk dari kota Andong dengan kuda-kuda kurus-kerutak tak ketolongan itu… (170/ST/113) TL text: …new for Tiwi eventhough every young lady, young maiden or darling daughter from Horse Cart Town of Yogya with its hopelessly scrawny horses had experienced them for centuries…(170/TT/114)

In the data above, the author wants to reveal the habitual activities practiced by young female in Yogyakarta. Those young female are den ajeng, den roro and

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gendhuk. The difference of those terms referring young female is on the social stratification in the context of Javanese culture, particularly Yogyakarta. In translating den ajeng the translator employ describing technique by revealing its use in referring a “young lady”. Other cultural concepts in this sub-category translated by employing description are empu (font of wisdom), den roro (young maiden), and genduk (darling daughter).

The concept in relation to social and administrative (bureaucracy) is lurah.

It is a certain possition of becoming the head or leader of a society area of kelurahan (a sub-district administrative unit) that may be a large as a village.

Steven and Tellings (2010) define lurah as the head of a village.

ST text: …setan-setan desa seperti lurah, tuan tanah, ulama dan priyayi- priyayi dan tentu saja tengkulak-tengkulak yang menguasai alat- alat produksi dan distribusi di pelosok masih meraja lela menghisap kaum tani dan buruh kecil... (149/ST/107) TL text: …evil spirits like village headmen, landlords, religious officials, and aristocrats and of course the brokers who control the means of production and distribution in hinterland still swarmed about sucking the blood of the farmers and pretty laborers… (149/TT/109)

The translator replaces lurah into “village headmen” in the TL text. The replacement involves the detail information of the authority of a lurah. The TL readers get more understanding on what lurah is, that is the head of a village. In short, the translation technique chosen by the translator is description. Other cultural concepts in this sub-category translated by using description are kebayan

(village officials), carik (village secretary), and Ketua RT (Neighborhood Head).

The Javanese cultural concept that is related to religion, myth and mysticism is kiai pembaureska. According to Stephen and Telling (2010), the term kiai is not

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only used to refer to a Muslim scholar or a teacher of myth. It can also be used to refer to a sacred object or animal that is the venerated one. Meanwile, the term pembaureksa means a guardian spirit/ghost. Thus, the concept kiai pembaurekso may reflect the meaning of a sacred object or animal that becomes the quardian spitrit in a certain area.

ST text: …jelas-jelaslah bukti betapa merdeka daerah-daerah perdikan Kedu itu di zaman dulu, bahkan sampai sekarang pun masih, berkat kemurahan hati kiai pembaureksa Merapi… (62/ST/21) TL text: …it was a clear proof of just how free the tax-exempt areas of Kedu were in old days, and indeed still are down to the present day, due to the generosity of the venerable founding fathers of Merapi… (62/TT/41)

The concept kiai pembaureksa is used in the context to discuss about the venerable object that guards the mount Merapi. Meanwhile, the translation “the venerable founding fathers” gives impression that the venerable ones in Merapi are the founding fathers, or those the leading figures in founding or establishing the mount Merapi. This description of kiai pembaurekso may lack of some features of myth, but at least the TL readers get the idea that there are venerated founding fathers of mount Merapi. The other concepts in relation with Javanese religion, myth, and mysticism that are tranlsated by using description technique are tumbal (means to assure) and kualat terkutuk (cursed with misfortune).

The next concept related to Javanese shadow-play (art) is batara dan betari.

It contains of two concepts of batara and betari. Batara is male god, while betari is the female one, or goddess.

ST text: para dewa dan dewi, batara dan betari (9/ST/vii) TL text: of many gods and goddesses, divine lords and ladies (9/TT/19)

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In translating batara and betari, the translator utilizes descriptive technique. He translates them into “divine lord (and) ladies”. The translation techique is done by describing the basic characteristics owned by batara and betari, those are their divinity and authority as rulers.

The cultural concept in social conception sub-category is longgor bagur.

The term longgor, according to Robson and Wibisono (2009) means a child who grows up fast, while, bagur refers to a person who is overgrown, or grows beyond normal size. It also refers to someone who is too big for his/her age (Steven and

Tellings, 2012). Thus, longgor and bagur moreless share similar meaning.

ST text: …Linda yang longgor bagur terpilih oleh pak guru wali kelasnya (…) untuk memerankan tokoh simbolis Ibu Pertiwi, walaupun hanya peran bisu… (33/ST/7) TL text: …Linda, big for her age, was chosen by her teacher (…) to play the role of the symbolic figure Mother Pertiwi, although it was just a nonspeaking part.… (33/TT/29)

Contextually, longgor bagur is intended to describe the posture of the main character when she was still in the elementary school. She was big and tall. Thus, in a play performance, she was chosen to play a symbolic role as Ibu Pertiwi (the nation of Indonesia). Mentioning the explanation of longgor bagur “big for her age”, the translator employs description technique. Other cultural terms in this sub-category that are translated by using description are priyayi (members of the elite), hadiningrat (Yogya‟s formal noble atmosphere), arisan (neighborhood lending society), and kas RT (neighborhood treasury).

The next concept is related to place and area, lesehan kaki lima. It contains the concepts of lesehan and kaki lima. Lesehan means to sit, usually cross-legged, on the floor or ground. While, kaki lima refers to the width of a sidewalk, which is

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about 5 feet. As they are combined, lesehan kaki lima refers to a roadside eating stall that has the customers sitting on mats along the sidewalk.

ST text: Lain, Nussy Cik Bi, lainlah dari sayur gudeg yang patutnya hanya dihidangkan di lesehan kaki lima… (142/ST/89) TL text: Different, Miss Bi was quite different with gudeg which should really only be served to people sitting cassually on mats along the sidewalk… (142/TT/95)

The concept of lesehan kaki lima is translated based on its description “people sitting cassully on mats along the sidewalk”, thus description technique is employed. Other concepts that are translated by using descriptive technique are pesantren atau sekolah pastur (Muslim boarding house or Sunday school), dalem beteng (palace‟s ouer wall), Dalem Beteng (the aristocratic compounds near the

Sultan‟s palace), and Kauman (the Muslim quarter).

The last is Javanese cultural concept on days and measurement sub- category, which is related to Javanese Market day calendar system. Javanese people reckon days based international seven day calendar (Senen to Ahad) and five day market calendar (Pon-Wage-Kliwon-Legi-Pahing), and each day combination happens once every 35 days.

ST text: …ya dulu memang si gadis masih belum berarti tetapi sekarang sudah menjadi wanita matang berumur 27 tahun kira-kira, yang penuh pesona bagaikan bulan purnama pada tanggal 13 kalender Pon-Wage-Kliwon-Legi-Pahing… (145/ST/94) TL text: …well sure in those days she was a girl of no importance but now she had become a ripe woman about twenty-seven years, who was like a full moon on the thirteenth day of the market-day calendar… (145/TT/99)

The use of “market-day” seems to give description to the TL readers on what kind of day Pon-Wage-Kliwon-Legi-Pahing is. In this case, the translation technique

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employed is description. Another concept related to day and measurement that is translated by using description technique is sepincuk (a banana leaf packet).

3. Amplification

Amplification is introducing details that are not written in the SL text by adding information or using explicative paraphrasing in the TL text. It is done as the word does not exist in the TL culture, so that additional explanation is necessary. There are 39 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table.

Table 4.4 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Amplification Culture SL Text TL Text Category batik (108) batik (110) surjan (108) surjan shirts (110) Dress & blangkon (108) blangkon headgear (110) Clothing pacul gowang (chipped hoe) pacul gowang (109) (110) Jogja‟s famous gudeg, Food & gudeg (89) jackfruid stewed in coconut Consumption milk (94) emping (108) emping crakers, (110) House, Household the storage room for rice, kamar Dewi Sri (159) Good & Goddess Sri‟s chamber (149) Surrounding Bendoro Raden Ayu (24) Bendoro Raden Ayu (43) Term of strange old-fashioned words Address inyong - rika (56) (69) Proper Name Legimah (10) Legimah (32) Religious, aurat (78) the aurat (86) Mystical & Rahmatullah (God‟s mercy) Mythical Rahmatullah (97) (102) Conceptions Uma atau Umayi (vii) Uma or Umayi (19) Art ngarcapada (viii) Ngarcapada (20) Gatotkaca (16) Gatotkaca (37)

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Petruk (18) Petruk (39) Garuda Jetayu (20) Garuda Jetayu (40)

Gareng atau Petruk atau Gareng or Petruk or Bagong Bagong (37) (54) Srikandi (57) Srikandi (70) Arjuna (57) Arjuna (70) Werkudara (58) Wrekudara (70) Arimbi (58) Arimbi (70) Baratayuda (81) Baratayuda (88) Sarpekenaka (83) Sarpakenaka (90) Sinta (83) Sinta (90) Yudhistira (84) Yudhistira (90) serimpi (115) serimpi (115) ngarcapada jagad gede jagad ngarcapada jagad gede jagad cilik (119) cilik (118) Pandawa Kurawa (172) Pandawa Kurawa (159) the kayon signalling the end kakayon wayang (178) of the shadow-play (164) bokong Togog (x) Togog‟s fat buttocks (22) Social kembar dampit (6) kembar dampit (29) Conception the pale yellow of young kulit langsep (155) langsat fruit (146) Jemuah Legi (10) Friday Legi (32) Pon (51) Pon (65) Measurement Pahing (51) Pahing (65) Kliwon (51) Kliwon (65) Yogyakarta Hadiningrat Yogyakarta Hadiningrat (112) (113) Place & Area Horse Cart Town of Yogya kota Andong (113) (114)

The first material cultural concept is related to dress and clothing, surjan. It refers to a Javanese man‟s jacket that is double-breasted, wih high collar (Robson and Wibisono, 2002). Meanwhile, Steven and Tellings (2010) define surjan as a

Javanese man‟s coat with a high collar and wide flaps in front. Javanese men wear this dress especially in attending traditional events. This surjan also becomes compulsory dress-code that must be worn every Friday by all male employees and employers in several institutions in certain districts in Java.

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SL text: …juga jangan lupa kain batik dengan surjan feminin warna- warni banci yang dikenakan kaum pria yang sama sekali tidak menggambarkan kepahlawanan dan kejantanan revolusioner… (155/ST/108) TL text: …don‟t forget batik cloth those womanish surjan shirts in drag queen colors men wear that do not in any way exhibit heroism and revolutionary virility… (155/TT/110)

In the context, the author mentions that surjan is worn along with batik. The technique the translator applies translation surjan is amplification. It is done by introducing details that are not written in the SL text or using explicative paraphrasing in the TL text. The term surjan is translated into ”surjan shirt” to inform the readers that surjan is a kind of shirt. A “shirt” is garment for the upper part of the body that usually has a collar, sleeves, a front opening and a long enough tail (Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate 11th Dictionary). The translator also includes more details about surjan, together with batik (batik) and blangkon

(blangkon headgear) in the endnote. He states that batik cloth and surjan shirts are traditional clothes worn by members of the royal courts in Yogyakarta.

Meanwhile, blangkon headgear is a long piece of batik cloth that is folded and sewn into a hat to replace manually folded headcloth worn by traditional Javanese men (Keeler in Mangunwijaya, 2004). Another cultural concept in this sub- category that is amplified is pacul gowang (pacul gowang (chipped hole)).

The next material cultural concept is related to food and consumption, gudeg. It is originally from Yogyakarta district, Indonesia. Robson and Wibisono

(2002) define it as a dish consisting of young jackfruit cooked in coconut milk with spices. The dish is still edible for days but needs to be warmed daily. It is

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going to be more delicious as already warmed for several times, but the nutrients and vitamins of the ingredients get lessen along with warming process.

SL text: …antithesis Kartini atau Arjuna yang feodal seperti sayur gudeg yang biar lezat sekalipun, tetapi sudah habis vitamin- vitaminnya… (141/ST/89) TL text: …the antithesis of Kartini or Arjuna who was feudalistic like Jogja’s famous gudeg, jackfruid stewed in coconut milk which may well be luscious, but all the vitamins are cooked out of it… (141/TT/94)

Contextually, the author compares the main character of the story that is considered as a modern woman and has full spirit like Kartini or Arjuna, who is, according to him, feudalistic. He assumes feudalism is like sayur gudeg, which may be appetizing but has no nutrients and vitamins. The translator renders the term sayur gudeg into “Jogja‟s famous gudeg, jackfruit stewed in coconut milk” by employing amplification technique. He maintains gudeg, but adds information about the place of its origin (Jogja) and the ingredients (jackfruit stewed in coconut milk), thus TL readers can get clear description of sayur gudeg. Another cultural word in this sub-category that is amplified is emping (emping crackers), which also being given more detailed information in the endnote: a delicious but relatively expensive Javanese snack (Keeler in Mangunwijaya, 2004).

The next material concept is related to house, household, and surrounding, kamar Dewi Sri. For Javanese people Dewi Sri is known as the Goddes of Rice as well as Goddess who brings wealth and prosperity. She is believed to live on earth helping human and giving them prosperity (Sudjarwo, 2010). The concept kamar

Dewi Sri, refers to a certain room (kamar) in a house that functions a place to

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store hulled rice. It has the similar function to a “barn”. The newlyweds sleep in the room next to it to be assured for both privacy and fertility.

SL text: …maka tamu agung itu dibawa oleh para ibu masuk ke dalam kamar pengantin di samping kamar Dewi Sri, walaupun yah darurat semua masih serba gubug, untuk sedikit beristirahat dan sembuh dari sengat matahari tadi… (205/ST/159) TL text: …thus the local woman took the important guest into the room for newlyweds next to the storage room for rice, Goddess Sri’s chamber, although of course given the circumstances everything was modest in extreme; so she could rest a bit and recover from the heat of he sun… (205/TT/149)

The context above, it is described that kamar Dewi Sri is a part of a Javanese house, even though the house is said to be like a shack, which is extremely modest. Thus, it can be said that kamar Dewi Sri is also an important part in

Javanese house. The technique the translator carries is amplification, as he gives the information about the function of the room that is for “the storage room for rice”, before he puts the translation “Goddess Sri‟s chamber”. The translators seems to aware that kamar Dewi Sri cannot be replaced with a “barn”, though they share similar function to store certain farming products.

The next is social culture that relates to Javanese term of address, Bendara

Raden Ayu. According to Steven and Tellings (2010), Bendara Raden Ayu or shortened as BRA refers to a title for a married princess. The term bendara means noble mistress or master, while raden ayu is a title for married female aristocrats.

In Javanese culture, Bendoro Raden Ayu is also used as a form of address to a rat.

It is done in imploring it not to damage things in the house or the farming field.

ST text: …tetapi menurut buku Who’s Who, terbitan majalah berwibawa ibu kota yang disponsori beberapa bank bonafide yang sudah go public, adalah putri Professor Gilbert Washington Bsc. MBA.

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PhD. ThD dan Bendoro Raden Ayu Theresia Ursula Nurhayati Tejakusumaningrum… (68/ST/24) TL text: …but who according to Who’s Who, the capital„s influential publication, which is underwritten by several bona fide banks that have gone public, is the daughter of Professor Gilbert Washington Bsc. MBA. PhD. ThD and Bendoro Raden Ayu Theresia Ursula Nurhayati Tejakusumaningrum… (68/TT/43)

In the context, Bendoro Raden Ayu is used along with a name Theresia Ursula

Nurhayati Tejakusumaningrum. This female noble that married with a professor is reported as the mother of the main character, though her actual mother is only a common citizen who works selling gethuk cothot. There is no change in translating Bendoro Raden Ayu from ST into TT, however, he give its detailed information in the endnote, which is a Javanese aristrocratic title (Keller, 2004).

Therefore, the translation technique that is applied here is amplification. Another term of address that is given detailed explanation in the endnote is inyong-rika

(strange old-fashioned words).

Javanese names given to the children usually have good meanings and reasons. Many Javanese give their children the names that reflect the days when they were born. The first name Legimah according to the context is given because she was born on a certain day called Jemuah Legi. Therefore, the name Legimah is a combination of the day name Legi + Jemuah.

ST text: …Legimah namanya karena lahir di suatu hari Jemuah Legi… (35/ST/10) TL text: …whose name was Legimah because she was born on a Friday Legi… (35/TT/32)

The translator does not make any change in translating this name. He borrows the name Legimah as it is. However, he mentions some information in relation to the name in the endnote. He states Javanese people reckon days according to two

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different calendar systems. They are the international seven day calendar (Senen to Ahad) and five-day market calendar (e.g. Legi). The day with a combination of two systems, for example Jemuah Legi, happens once every 35 days (Keeler in

Mangunwijaya, 2004). By giving this information, the translator applies amplification technique in translating Legimah.

The next concept is related to religious, mystical, and mythical conception aurat. It refers to the parts of the body which should not be exposed according to

Islamic religious law. Male and female have different aurat that must be covered from others‟ sight. The concept aurat is always associated with human sexual organs, thus exposing aurat can be said showing nakedness.

ST text: Nah juga mengenai pasal yang gawat yang disebut oleh para ahli agama dengan kata aurat… (134/ST/78) TL text: Now as for that very sensitive section of the body that the religious scholars dub the aurat… (134/TT/86)

From the context above, it is found that the translator directly bring the SL concept aurat in to the TL text. However, he puts some detailed information about aurat in the endnote. He states that aurat is derived from Arabic referring to the portion of the body that according to Islam must always be hidden (Keeler in

Mangunwijaya, 2004). By maintaining the original concept and giving the details in the endnote, the translator employs amplification. Another concept which is amplified is Rahmatullah (Rahmatullah (God‟s mercy)).

The cultural concept related to art (Javanese shadow-play) is Gatotkaca.

According to Sudjarwo (2010), Gatotkaca represents bravery, responsibility, and powerfulness. He is described of having the ability to fly across the sky without being detected and defeated by any black magic.

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ST text: Zus Tiwi sedang menolak pendekatan-pendekatan mesum dari perwira yang menjadi kunci dalam soal kenaikan pangkat; bukan karena perwira itu buruk rupa atau sadis dan sebagainya, o kalau itu dia Gatotkaca… (45/ST/16) TL text: Sis Tiwi was fending of indecent approaches of the officer who was in charge of the whole matter of the whole matter if matter of promotions; it wasn‟t because the officer was ugly or sadistic or anything, oh as for that he was a regular Gatotkaca… (45/TT/37)

From the context above, Gatotkaca is used to represent to the good characteristics of a male. In the translation, the concept is brought directly to the TL text, but the translator put the information about Gatotkaca in the endnote so that the TL readers can comprehend its characters. The other conceptions that are amplified are Uma atau Umayi (Uma or Umayi), ngarcapada (ngarcapada), Petruk (Petruk),

Garuda Jetayu (Garuda Jetayu), Gareng atau Petruk atau Bagong (Gareng or

Petruk or Bagong), Srikandi (Srikandi), Arjuna (Arjuna), Werkudara

(Werkudara), Arimbi (Arimbi), Baratayuda (Baratayuda), Sarpekenaka

(Sarpekenaka), Sinta (Sinta), Yudhistira (Yudhistira), Ngarcapada jagad gede jagad cilik (Ngarcapada jagad gede jagad cilik), Pandawa Kurawa (Pandawa

Kurawa), serimpi (classical serimpi), and kakayon wayang (kayon signalling the end of the shadow-play).

The next Javanese social culture is the concept kulit langsep. It has relation to the fruit duku langsep (a sweet and tasty yellow-white fruit). The langsep color is always associated to beautiful skin color in Javanese culture. Thus, those who have a beautiful Indonesian-original skin color (yellow-white), are called of having yellow langsep skin.

ST text: …jelas dia bukan adik kembar yang dampit itu, karena kulit Nyonya ini kulit langsep sedangkan Kang Brojol punya hitam galih kayu waru… (204/ST/155)

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TL text: …she‟s clearly wasn‟t that twin sister of his, since Madam‟s complexion is the pale yellow of young langsat fruit whereas Pa Brojol‟s is as dark as the heart of a hardwood tree… (204/TT/146)

In translating the concept of kulit langsep, the translator seeks for the explanation behind it and includes the explanation in the translation. Knowing that kulit langsep refers to skin color, he employs the information on what sort of skin color it is, which is yellow-white. Thus, kulit langsep is translated into “the pale yellow of young langsat fruit”. Including the additional information in the translation, the translator uses amplification technique. Other social cultural concepts that are amplified are bokong Togog (Togog‟s fat buttocks) and kembar dampit (kembar dampit).

The next Javanese cultural concept is related to Javanese Market day calendar system. As it has been mentioned previously, Javanese people reckon days based international seven day calendar (Senen to Ahad) and five day market calendar (Pon-Wage-Kliwon-Legi-Pahing), and each day combination happens once every 35 days.

ST text: …Legimah namanya karena lahir di suatu hari Jemuah Legi… (36/ST/10) TL text: …whose name was Legimah because she was born on a Friday Legi… (36/TT/32)

The market days used in the novel are not translated. They are borrowed from the

SL text directly to the TL text, however, the translator put some information for each market day concept and relate it to Javanese market day calendar system in the endnote. Those market days are Legi (Legi), Pon (Pon), Pahing (Pahing), and

Kliwon (Kliwon). Therefore, the technique the translator carries is amplification, which is by maintaining the original while giving some additional information.

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In translating the next cultural concept related to place and area, kota

Andong, the translator employs amplification by adding additional information to the original. The concept kota Andong refers to Yogyakarta that is also famous for its horse carts. According to Steven and Tellings (2010), the concept andong refers to four-wheeld horse-drawn carriage. In Yogyakarta, the horse carts are still used as means of traditional transportation for public to reach short direction.

ST text: …sangat baru bagi Tiwi tetapi sudah berbad-abad dijalankan oleh setiap den ajeng den roro atau genduk dari kota Andong dengan kuda-kuda kurus-kerutak tak ketolongan itu… (173/ST/113) TL text: … new for Tiwi eventhough every young lady, young maiden or darling daughter from Horse Cart Town of Yogya with its hopelessly scrawny horses had experienced them for centuries… (173/TT/114)

In order to translate the concept kota Andong the translator employs amplification technique. He introduces the additional information stating that kota Andong

(Horse Cart Town) is in Yogyakarta, not in other cities.

4. Generalization

Generalization is using a more general or neutral concept that share the most general feature of word from the SL in the word from TL. There are 16 data of

Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique.

Those data are presented in the following table.

Table 4.5 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Generalization Culture SL TL Category Dress & topi kuluk (19) cap (39) Clothing Food & lemper atau arem-arem (52) snacks (66) Consumption sapi empal (54) beef (68) House, amben (165) the sleeping platform (153)

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Household Good & Surrounding bedug (31) drum (49) Weapon, Tool bola bekel mainan anak-anak & Toy children‟s toy ball (62) (46) Job or ulama (107) religious officials (109) Profession Term of Kang (18) him (38) Address Workfield lurah (48) the headman (63) (Bureaucracy) ulu-ulu (51) leaders (65) Religious, Gusti Allah (11) God (33) Mystical & halal (97) religiously sanctioned (101) Mythical salat magrib (162) evening prayers (152) Conception Art pakem dan lakon (178) the story (164) Social hijau sirih (30) green (48) Conception Measurement lima bahu (93) extensive (98)

The first sample of Javanese material culture concept is related to dress and clothing,topi kuluk. According to Horn (1974), topi kuluk is a crown or fez-like head-dress worn by palace retainers on formal occasions. Robson and Wibisono

(2002) give an explanation in defining topi kuluk as fez-like head-dress in various colors worn by officials at court. In addition, Steven and Tellings (2010) mention that kuluk is a Javanese term referring to court headdress, a stiff white, green, or black fez without a tassel.

SL text: …ya sosok-sosok Arab yang di zaman tempo dulu masih sering kelihatan di jalan Pecinan Magelang, tinggi mencolok dengan tutup kepala yang disebut fez atau topi kuluk seperti tumenggung dan pangeran keraton tetapi polos… (52/ST/19) TL text: …Arab features that you still often saw in those days in Magelang‟s Chinatown, amazingly tall with a head covering called a fez or a cap like a court official‟s or a prince‟s in the palace, only plain… (52/TT/39)

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In the context, topi kuluk is used to compare to another head covering, namely fez, a high and cone-shaped hat with a flat top worn by men in some Muslim countries. They share some common features, such as the shape, but topi kuluk has more color options and been worn only by the elite, like court officials and princes. The term topi kuluk is translated as “a cap”. According to Cambridge

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, cap refers to a soft hat which has a curved part sticking out at the front, often worn as a part of uniform. By considering only the features of a hat worn by officials and a part of uniform, and omitting the specific features of the shape and the one who wears, topi kuluk is translated as “a cap” by employing generalization technique.

Another Javanese material culture is related to food and consumption, lemper atau arem-arem. It contains two different kinds of snack: lemper and arem-arem. According to Steven and Tellings (2010), lemper refers to a croquette consisting of glutinous rice with meat wrapped in a banana leaf. Meanwhile, arem-arem is rice prepared with coconut cream and minced meat and wrapped in a banana leaf. Thus, the basic difference between lemper and arem-arem is the variants of rice used as their main ingredients.

SL text: …pasukan-pasukan NICA bisa menuju Ambarawa lagi lalu melompati pegunungan Jambu anjlog di Magelang, kota strategis sejak KNIL punya tangsi di sana tempi dulu, sehingga tinggal menggelinding ke Jogja, maka Pulau Jawa akan terpotong menjadi dua belahan seperti lemper atau arem-arem tinggal dimakan… (103/ST/52) TL text: …the NICA troops can advance to Ambarawa once again and then hop over Guava Mountain and pounce down on Magelang, a strategic city since the KNIL had its barracks there in the old days, so that then they could just roll on into Yogya, thus the Island of Java would be sliced into two parts like snacks all ready to eat… (103/TT/65)

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From the context, it is told that if NICA troops were able to occupy Ambarawa, later on, the important cities of Magelang and Yogya would be soon taken over.

As consequences, the Dutch might take control the center of Java and split it into two. This made them easier to occupy the entire island. The terms lemper and arem-arem are used as metaphors on how easy the entire Java might be occupied.

It is because as snacks, they are considered soft and easy to bite or cut into pieces.

In translating lemper and arem-arem, the translator simply employs generalization technique by replacing the SL phrases with “snacks”, since they are, actually, kinds of snack. Another cultural concept in this sub-category translated by using generalization is sapi empal (beef).

The Javanese material culture that is related to house, household good, and surrounding sub-category is amben. According to Robson and Wibisono (2002), it refers to a low bench that is made from wood or bamboo for sitting or sleeping on.

This amben is usually placed in the terrace or the front or back yard of the house under the tree. Javanese people spend their leisure time sleeping, laying, or sitting on amben while reading newspaper and drinking a cup of tea or coffee.

SL text: …maka satu persatu mereka minta diri untuk tidur di gubug masing-masing, hanya sebagian masih tinggal dan menggeletak begitu saja, tidur pulas di amben sampai matahari agak tinggi…(214/ST/165) TL text: …thus one by one they took their leave to go sleep in their own shacks, only some of them stayed sprawled out anywhere, falling fast asleep on the sleeping platform till the sun was pretty high… (214/TT/153)

The technique employed by the translator in rendering amben into “the sleeping platform” is generalization. He generalizes the ambem, which has specific features

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of the materials (wood or bamboo) and functions (for spending leisure time: sleeping, sitting, or laying down), into platform that is used to sleep on that can be in any form, such as bed, mat, sofa, couch etc. This is under consideration of the context in the story, because amben is described as the place where the people who stayed there sprawled and fell asleep until the sun was pretty high.

The material culture in weapon, tool, and toy sub-category is bedug. It is a mosque drum or gamelan drum resembling a mosque drum. In Javanese traditional culture, bedug sounding of the mosque is used to summon Muslims to prayer (Robson and Wibisono, 2002). In the old times in Indonesia, the sound of bedug is eventually heard in the neighborhood nearby the mosques. The bedug sounding becomes a sign that there will be adzan (summons by the muezzin, the one who summons adzan), meaning that the prayer will start very soon.

SL text: …uah sombongnya orang-orang cebol berkaki o bedug masjid itu… (73/ST/31) TL text: …man these dwarves with legs like o‟s as round as a mosque‟s drum are so arrogant… (73/TT/49)

In the context, the author wants to compare the shape of Japanese‟s legs to bedug masjid that is round. In translating the term bedug masjid the translator employs generalization technique. It is done by rendering the term bedug as a “drum”. The term “drum” is defined as a musical instrument, especially one made from a skin stretched over the end of a hollow tube or bowl played by hitting with the hand or sticks (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary). The generalization of bedug into “drum” makes the TL readers easily imagine its general form. The “mosque drum” can be simply understood as a drum used in a mosque, although its

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functions are not reflected. Another cultural word in this sub-category translated by generalization technique is bola bekel mainan anak-anak (children‟s toy ball).

The next cultural concept is related to job or profession, ulama. According to Stephen and Tellings (2010), it is used to refer to a learned man, who is an

Islamic scholar or a theologian in Islamic matters. Usually, it is used following the term alim, meaning learned, pious, religious, or devout. Thus, alim ulama refers to a theologian in Islamic matters that is learned, pious, religious, or devout.

SL text: …setan-setan desa seperti lurah, tuan tanah, ulama dan priyayi- priyayi dan tentu saja tengkulak-tengkulak yang menguasai alat- alat produksi dan distribusi di pelosok masih merajalela menghisap kaum tani dan buruh kecil... (150/ST/107) TL text: …evil spirits like village headmen, landlords, religious officials, and aristocrats and of course the brokers who control the means of production and distribution in hinterland still swarmed about sucking the blood of the farmers and pretty laborers… (150/TT/109)

In the context of the story, ulama is one of setan desa (translated as “evil spirits”), a popular concept in the end of Soekarno regime. It was formulated by D.N. Aidit, one of the leaders of Communist Party, the strongest political party in Indonesia in

1960s. According to Aidit (1964), setan desa are: 1) evil landlords (tuan tanah jahat), 2) shark loaners (lintah darat), 3) future contractors (tukang ijon), 4) capitalist bureaucrats (kapitalis birokrat), 5) evil brokers (tengkulak jahat), 6) village bandits (bandit desa), and evil leaders (penguasa jahat). They were the enemies of Indonesian common citizens: labors and farmers. Ulama is translated by employing generalization technique into “religious officials”, which may refer to the officials of any religion, or the officials that are religious. Thus, “religious officials” is too general, comparing to ulama, the Islamic scholars.

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The next is an addressing term Kang, a clipped form of kakang that is used to address an older brother. It is also used to address a husband as it is uttered by the wife (Steven and Tellings, 2012). In daily interaction, kang is also used to address someone who is a bit older than the speaker as a matter of politeness.

ST text: Istrinya sendiri malahan lebih membuat Kang Brojol minder akibat olok-oloknya… (/47/ST/18) TL text: His wife meanwhile only made him feel worse with all her ridicule… (47/TT/38)

In the context, the use of Kang is to address the male character Brojol that is humiliated by his own wife. Considering to the context of story that involves the wife of Brojol, the author addresses him Kang. However, the translator sees the character of Kang Brojol obviously presented as the object of his wife humiliation. This makes him to replace Kang Brojol with “him”. This replacement generalizes specific character Brojol that is addressed with Kang in ST into a male object pronoun in TT.

The next concept is lurah. It refers to the highest chief administrative official of a kelurahan or a sub-district, which is also known as the head of a village (Steven and Tellings, 2010).

ST text: Abangnya secara serampangan diangkat oleh para pemuda pelopor menjadi kepala desa karena lurah sebelumya didaulat dipecat… (92/ST/48) TL text: Her older brother had been picked up willy-nilly by the advance fighters to be the village headman because the headman before him had been ousted by the will of the people… (92/TT/63)

In the context it is told that her brother is chosen as the village headman because the previous village headman had been discharged. The concept kepala desa is translated into “the village headman. Meanwhile, the concept lurah in the context

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directly connects to “the headman”. When reading along with the context the TL readers may still understand that “the headman” refers to “the village headman”, but when “the headman” stands alone, the readers may confuse about the meaning of “the headman” that can be the head of anything. Since there is no specific information of the concept “the headman” (e.g. the area), the translator applies generalization technique. Another cultural concept translated by using generalization technique is ulu-ulu (leaders).

The next is Javanese religious concept, salat magrib. According to Seven and Tellings (2010) salat means prayers, ritual prayers prescribed by Islam to be recited five times a day at stipulated times and in a stimulated way using Arabic phrases. The prayers are Magrib (sunset prayer), Isya (early evening prayer),

Subuh (dawn prayer), Lohor (noon prayer), Asar (afternoon prayer).

ST text: …sesudah salat magrib, barulah Ibu Mertua yang baik hati itu memberanikan diri membuka bungkusan itu, langsung berteriak dan pingsan… (210/ST/162) TL text: …after evening prayers, only then did the kindly old Mrs. Mother-in-law work up the nerve to open the package, immediately screamed and fainted… (210/TT/152)

In the context, salat magrib is used to indicate the timing. It (after salat magrib) is the time when the mother-in-law to open the package given by a mysterious guest.

For most Javanese, after magrib is considered as a time to gather with the family before dinner in a house after a day of activities. The translator generalizes the concept of salat magrib into “evening prayers”, which is lack of features of exact timing (around 6 p.m.) and the ritual details. Other concepts which are translated by using generalization are Gusti Allah (God) and halal (religiously sanctioned).

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The following is day and measurement concept, lima bahu. The concept bahu is used by most Javanese to measure the extent of an area (e.g. farming field). According to Seven and Tellings (2010), 1 bahu is equal to 1.75 acres, or about 7076 square meters. Therefore, lima bahu is about 5.75 acres.

ST text: …karena padi yang sudah menguning di sawah seluas lima bahu dipotong ganas oleh orang palu-arit…(143/ST/93) TL text: …because just when the rice plants were turning yellow and about ready to harvest in his extensive fields they all got cut down savagely by hammer-and-sickle people… (143/TT/98)

In the context, the concept lima bahu is used to give information on the extent of farming field belonged to the main character‟s brother. The farming field grows rice paddy that is almost ready to harvest but destructed by certain people. The extent of a rice field lima bahu or 5.75 acres is considered extensive. Moreover, it belongs to local farmer. The translation technique employed by the translator is generalization. He generalizes the Javanese concept lima bahu with its feature of extensiveness “extensive”. However, extensiveness is relative, because what is meant by “extensive” can be understood differently from one people to others.

The other concepts that may be understood differently when they are generalized in the translation are pakem dan lakon (the story) – since pakem is different with lakon in Javanese shadow-play, and hijau sirih (green) – as they have different association.

5. Borrowing

Borrowing is adopting a word or expression straight from the SL since there is no equivalence or it does not exist in the TL before, such as a new technical or

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unknown concept. There are 12 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into

English by employing this technique, and are presented in the following table.

Table 4.6 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Borrowing

Culture SL Text TL Text Category Ecology kamboja (50) camboja (65) Food & gethuk cothot (5) gethuk cothot (28) Consumption Nyai (2) Nyai (25) Term of Ken (3) Ken (26) Address Empu (3) Empu (26) Brojol (20) Brojol (39) Proper Name Rohadi (112) Rohadi (113) Workfield Tumenggung (24) Tumenggung (43) (Bureaucracy) Religious, Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Mystical & Allahuakbar (36) Allahuakbar (52) Mythical Idul Fitri (154) Idul Fitri (145) Conception Place & Area Plengkung (13) Plengkung (19) Gesture & ooh oahem ahem ohem ohem ooh oahem ahem ohem ohem Habit (vii) (19)

The Javanese cultural concept related to ecology is kamboja. According to

Steven and Tellings (2010) kamboja or kemboja refers to a certain kind of tree with fragrant blossoms which are often cultivated in cemeteries. It has Latin name

Plumiera acuminate. The flowers of kamboja will continuously grow in and out of season. Although the old ones fall, the tree keeps growing the new flowers.

SL text: …yang datang itu semua pahlawan dan calon pahlawan yang mungkin sekali akan gugur dalam medan bakti seperti bunga melati atau kamboja gugur satu tumbuh seribu… (94/ST/50) TL text: …those guys showing up were heroes or candidate heroes who might very possibly fall on the sacrificial field like jasmine or camboja flowers, one falls and a thousand grow in its place… (94/TT/65)

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Contextually, the author wants to say that many heroes and candidate heroes come to stay in the nearby village to rest and eat. They may be possibly to die at war, but many others will replace their positions to fight for their nation. It is just like flowers (jasmine or “camboja”) that may fall but the new ones will grow. It relates with Indonesian proverb that is also clearly mentioned in the story, ”gugur

(or mati) satu tumbuh seribu”, which is translated into “one falls and a thousand grow in its place”. In translating kamboja into “camboja”, the translator employs a particular borrowing known as naturalization, in which the spelling of the term is changed to fit the TL. The initial consonant [k] is replaced with [c], although they may share the similar sound /k/ when pronounced. Borrowing technique is applied since kamboja is unknown in the TL culture due to cultural differences.

The Javanese cultural concept related to food and consumption is gethuk cothot. According to Robson and Wibisono (2002), gethuk refers to mashed food, especially cassava, thus it is named as cassava cake. Steven and Tellings (2010) define gethuk in more detailed way referring to snacks made from yams or cassava that have been crushed and to which sugar and coconut have been added.

Gethuk cothot is a variant of gethuk. It is described as fried cassava filled with melting sugar and shaped into oval. Somehow, as the gethuk is bitten, the melting sugar inside will mecothot (burst out).

SL text: Andai saja dia dulu meluncur dari gua garba ibunya (…) yang menjual gethuk cothot* yang sangat digemari orang… *(singkong goreng yang diisi gula cair, kuih lonjong pipih) (29/ST/5) TL text: …supposing she had slid out of the womb of her mother (…) who sold gethuk cothot* that people were very fond of… *(fried cassava filed with sugar syrup and shaped into little flat round) (29/TT/28)

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In the context, it is told that the main character‟s mother is a gethuk cothot seller.

Though, many Indonesian readers may know what gethuk is, the author still puts asterisk mark after the specific variant of this food to let the readers get clearer description of the term with a note at the bottom of the page. Similarly, in rendering gethuk cothot the translator maintains the original term in the sentence translated, puts asterisk after the term, and translates literally the description as a footnote. By maintaining the original term gethuk cothot in the text, borrowing technique is employed by the translator. The intention of keeping the footnote and translating it is to let the TL readers recognize what short of food gethuk cothot is, in terms of its ingredients, shape and way to cook.

The Javanese addressing term Nyai has several meanings. Accoding to

Seven and Tellings (2010), first, denoting a woman who becomes a mistress of either a(n) European or Chinese man, second, referring to an old woman (a grandmother), and third, indicating an old woman of a social status or of religious accomplishment or the wife or daughter of a kiayi, a highly respected oldman.

ST text: …ya, punyo yang satu ini sungguh orang yang kaya raya melebihi figur legenda Nyai Singobarong dari Pekalongan… (19/ST/2) TL text: …anyway this punyo was filthy rich, surpassing even that legendary personage Nyai Singobarong from Pekalongan… (19/TT/25)

In the context of the story, the addressing term Nyai refers to Nyai Singobarong, a legendary character from Pekalongan. The translator does not make any changing in translating the concept Nyai. He borrows the concept from the SL text and brings it to the TL text. Other addressing terms translated by employing borrowing technique are Ken (Ken) and Empu (Empu).

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The Javanese name Rohadi contains two words roh (spirit) and adi (glorious or excellent). Mangunwijaya (1997) mentions that when his lover found out that

Rohadi had died she said that she no longer had Roh which was Adi. Thus, it may have meaning of having an excellent spirit. Another Javanese name Brojol is from

Javanese verb brojol that has meaning of coming out of a hole unexpectedly or very easily (Steven and Tellings, 2010). It may indicate the process Brojol‟s birth did not take a very long time and much of his mother effort. He was born very easily or unexpectedly. Both of the Javanese proper names Rohadi and Brojol are translated by borrowing technique, as the translator borrows the original proper names from the SL text to the TL text.

The concept in relation to Javanese social and administrative conception is tumenggung. According to Steven and Tellings (2010) tumenggung refers to a title of a high-ranking official. It can be the one who holds position directly under the chamberlain, or the one who is given a title conferred on a Bupati, the head of regency.

ST text: …bibir-bibirnya yang dengan atau tanpa rokok filter ditengahnya berdaya pukau Roro Mendut yang membuat kaum sejenis Tumenggung Wiroguno senewen… (67/ST/24) TL text: …lips that with or without filter cigarettes between them have Maiden Mendut‟s stupefying power, power that gives the likes of Tumenggung Wiroguno nervous fits… (67/TT/43)

In the context, the title tumenggung belongs to Wiroguno. Tumenggung Wiroguno is a Javanese historical character who is known for his „madly in love‟ feeling to an ordinary girl, Roro Mendut. Holding a power a tumenggung, he applied very strict authority and high tax to his people. As consequences, his people disliked

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him, including Roro Mendut. The translation technique that is applied in translating the concept tumenggung is borrowing, as there is no changing.

The next concept is Idul Fitri, a holy-day for Muslim. It refers to the feast of celebrating the end of fasting month in Ramadhan. It is celebrated in the first day of Syawal month (the tenth month in the Muslim year). Since the majority of

Indonesian citizen are Muslims, Idul Fitri becomes a very important day almost for everyone. It is the time when most of the workers or students, especially

Javanese who stay outside their hometowns to work or study, go back to their homes to see their families and all nearby relatives. This returning home ritual is called mudik, meaning going back to udik (the native village or hometown)

ST text: Memang Kang Brojol sering bercerita punya adik kembar-dampit di Jakarta, kemudaian Kang Brojol juga tidak tahu lagi dia ke mana, katanya kalau Idul Fitri kan pulang dia… (202/ST/154) TL text: It‟s true Pa Brojol often talked about having some twin sister in Jakarta, but then Pa Brojol himself when she had gotten to, he always says she‟s sure to come back on Idul Fitri… (202/TT/145)

In the context above it is told that Brojol stated that he had a twin sister that never returned home. Even though he always said that she surely went back home on

Idul Fitri, it never happened. Idul Fitri is always a perfect time to go home, and becomes a culture for most Javanese people. The translator directly borrows the concept and brings it in the TL text. He seems to believe that Idul Fitri is very common celebration for the Muslims all over the world, thus it is not necessary to replace it or give description in relation to it. Another borrowing Javanese concept related to religion, myth, and mysticism is Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar

(Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar).

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The next Javanese concept is (selokan) Plengkung. It refers to a kind of a gate to enter the Yogyakartan palace area that has arch shape. The palace area is bordered with high wall with the outer parts surrounded with kind of canal.

ST text: …ya nun saat itu terasalah lagi betapa si Obrus rindu-ricis kepada Legimah, yang dulu sebelum menikah secara sukarela amu diperkosanya model tangsi, di antara perdu-perdu bunga kuning dan bougainville ungu di lereng selokan Plengkung yang selalu gelap sepi sebelum matahari terbenam… (40/ST/13) TL text: …thus at this time he sensed once again how deeply he longed for Legimah, who long ago before they were married had willingly let him rape her, barrack style, among the clumps of yellow flowers and purple bougainvillea on the slopes next to the Plengkung canal that was always dark after the sun went down… (40/TT/19)

From the context above, it is found that the translator employs borrowing techniques in translating (selokan) Plengkung in “the Plengkung (canal)”. By applying this technique, the TL readers may be left with the confusion on what

Plengkung is, its shape, and functions.

The last is a Javanese concept that is categorized in gesture and habit, ooh oahem ahem ohem ohem. This interjection is often uttered by a dalang with rhythmical voice like singing while delivering a story in a Javanese shadow-play performance. The translator borrows directly the concept in the TL text by maintaining the original concept ooh oahem ahem ohem ohem. Since there is no such interjection in English, this borrowing may confuse the TL readers, especially those who are not familiar with Javanese culture.

6. Adaptation - Borrowing

Adaptation - borrowing is a mixed technique used in the translation. The concept is partially translated by adaptation – replacing the SL concept with the

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one that is known or has approximately similar meaning/function in TL, and partially translated by borrowing – maintaining the original concept in the TL text.

There are 13 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique, and are presented in the following table.

Table 4.7 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation - Borrowing Culture SL Text TL Text Category Workfield Lurah “Kiblik” (48) the “Kiblik” Headman (63) (Bureaucracy) Batari Durga (vii) Goddess Durga (19) Batara Guru (viii) Lord Guru (20) Batara Kala, (xi) Lord Kala (23) Dewa Basuki (20) Lord Basuki (40) Dewa Wisnu (20) Lord Wisnu (40) Dewi Sri (21) Goddess Sri (41) Art Dewi Uma (63) Lady Uma (74) Batara Wisnu (112) Lord Wishnu (113) Garuda Jetayu (112) the great Jetayu bird (113) Raja Dasamuka (115) King Dasamuka (116) gamelan slendro (147) a gamelan orchestra (140) Istana Kurawa (172) the Kurawa court (159)

The Javanese cultural concept that relates to bureaucracy is Lurah “Kiblik”.

As it has been discussed previously, the concept lurah refers to the one who holds position of becoming the head of a certain area or an administrative unit that is as big as a village. Meanwhile, “Kiblik” refers to the concept of republik (republic), a form of governance based on the concept that sovereignty resides in the people.

The concept Lurah “Kiblik”, then, refers to lurah which is delegated to become the head of an area by an election. In the old times, most Javanese people were unable to pronounce the concept republic properly and simply pronounced it

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kiblik as a matter of easiness. In the translation, the concept Lurah “Kiblik” is maintained in the TL text, thus the translator employs borrowing technique.

The Javanese concept related to artistic conception sub-category is Dewi Sri.

As it has been stated in the previous discussion, Dewi Sri refers to the Goddes of

Rice as well as Goddess who brings wealth and prosperity.

ST text: …karena dalam pandangan Brojol yang penting adalah istrinya, Dewi Sri-nya, yang sungguh perempuan alias yang diperempu… (65/ST/21) TL text: …because in Brojol‟s view the important thing was his wife, his own Goddess Sri, who truly was a woman, aka a venerable font of wisdom… (65/TT/41)

In translating Dewi Sri, the translator employs adaptation and borrowing. He adapts the concept “Goddess” to replace the concept Dewi because they share the same features on divinity and authority. However, he maintains the concept Sri, thus Dewi Sri becomes “Goddess Sri”. The other concepts translated by using adaptation-borrowing technique are Betari Durga (Goddess Durga), Batara Guru

(Lord Guru), Batara Kala (Lord Kala), Dewa Basuki (Lord Basuki), Dewa Wisnu

(Lord Wisnu), Dewi Uma (Lady Uma), Batara Wisnu (Lord Wisnu), Garuda

Jetayu (great Jetayu bird), Raja Dasamuka (King Dasamuka), gamelan slendro

(gamelan orchestra), dan Istana Kurawa (the Kurawa Court).

7. Literal Translation

Literal translation is done by transferring directly the SL text grammatically and idiomatically appropriate inthe TL text. In the application, the translator translates each element from the SL into TL. There are 9 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table

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Table 4.8 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Literal Translation Culture SL Text TL Text Category Proper Name Mbok Tomblok, (131) Ma Basket (127) wire tendons and iron bones berotot kawat tulang besi (15) (36) bayi kemarin sore (33) kids born yesterday (50) Social pintar seperti kancil (35) smart like a mouse deer (52) Conception hammer-and-sickle people orang palu-arit (93) (98) pagar ayu (94) the decorative landscape (99) Gedung Agung (47) the Great Hall (62) Place & Area Pasar Burung (109) the Bird Market (111) Gesture & geleng-geleng kepala (162) shook her head (152) Habit

The concept berotot kawat tulang besi is intended to refer to the body- building of Gatotkaca, one character in Javanese Mahabharata shadow-play. He is always described as a very strong character, with moustache and muscular body.

Not only that, he is also famous for his ability to fly across the sky. For his strength and ability, Gatotkaca is often called upon when the fighting (or war) in shadow-play is getting rough (Steven and Tellings, 2012). Thus, he is called as having tendons made of wires (otot kawat) and bones made of irons (tulang besi).

ST text: Pemakaman amat mengharukan dengan terompet genderang haru memilukan, dengan lagu puja pahlawan yang meneteskan air mata para patriot kawakan berotot kawat tulang besi… (43/ST/15) TL text: The burial was very touching with trumpets and drums moving people deeply, as airs in praise of heroes brought tears to the eyes of fading patriots with their wire tendons and iron bones… (43/TT/36)

The story employs the phrase berotot kawat tulang besi to refer to the spirit of the patriots, the heroes of war, who died sacrificing their lives. It means they have very strong and powerful spirit. In translating the phrase, the translator render

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literally, thus the phrases in both ST and TT have the similar idea as they are understood in the SL culture. However, being understood in the TL culture, “wire tendons and iron bones” may create misunderstandings on what short of character it has. Other social conceptions that are literally translated is pagar ayu

(decorative landscape), bayi kemarin sore (kids born yesterday), pintar seperti kancil (smart like mousedeer) and orang palu-arit (hammer-and-sickle people).

The concept Gedung Agung refers to the presidential palace in Yogyakarta.

Although Yogyakarta is no longer serves as the capital city of Indonesia, Gedung

Agung is still preserved. In the TL text Gedung Agung is translated literally into

“the Great Hall”. The concept “the Great Hall” may not show the features of

Gedung Agung that has function as presidential palace. Similarly, literal translation also applied in translating Pasar Burung into “Bird Market”.

8. Particularization

Particularization is done by using a more precise or concrete concept in the

TL which is considered appropriate to the overall context. There are 7 data of

Javanese cultural concepts that are translated into English by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table.

Table 4.9 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Particularization Culture SL Text TL Text Category Food & kerupuk (54) shrimp crackers (68) Consumption es (69) ice cream (79) hyang (42) boyfriend (57) hyang (42) girlfriend (57) Term of simbok (126) a peasant woman (124) Address yu-yu (152) sisters (144) Kang (154) Pa (145)

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The cultural concept kerupuk is a generic term for all kinds of chip made from a starch base and ground shrimps, fish, or other ingredients. They come dried and are fried before eaten (Stevens and Tellings, 2010). In Indonesia, kerupuk becomes another side dish for people in eating the main course. It can be seen in every food stalls in Indonesia the cans of of kerupuk are made available.

Thus, no wonder Indonesian people create variants of kerupuk.

SL text: …maka terpaksalah Tiwi dalam malam buta berkeliling ke desa- desa sekitarnya untuk meminta bantuan apalah tempe atau tahu atau teri atau buntil atau kethak atau bongko atau pelas atau saren atau kerupuk atau telur pokoknya jangan sampai diperkosa… (115/ST/54) TL text: …thus Tiwi was forced to go wandering around the dead of night from village to village to beg for help no matter whether it was crunchy soybean cake or soft or dried anchovies or fried peanut dregs or reasted taro leaves or peanut dregs or steamed bean and coconut packets or dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (115/TT/68)

From the context above, the author wants to tell how the main character must go out at midnight to look for any kind of food from nearby villages. She should do it in order not to get raped by the local heroes, the consequence that she might get if she could not serve any meals for them. Kerupuk is one of the dishes she tried to get. The translator renders kerupuk into “shrimp crackers”, meaning crackers made from shrimp. By doing this, he has particularized the term kerupuk, a generic term for all kinds of chips, into crackers that is made from particular ingredient. Hence, particularization technique is employed in translating kerupuk.

Another food and consumption that is particularized is es (ice cream).

The next addressing term is hyang. It is a homonymous word that has several meanings as a noun. The first meaning of hyang, which is also another

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word form of yang (clipped form of Indonesian sayang) is honey or darling, referring to the one that is affected to. Another meaning of hyang is deity or

God/ess (Steven and Tellings, 2012). In relation with the second meaning, there is also an Indonesian word sembahyang, meaning to bring sembah (ritual prayer) to hyang (the God).

ST text: “Hei, kamu dicari hyangmu si pemuda senapan kayu,” bisik bibinya, tetapi Tiwi menggeleng-gelengkan kepalanya dan berkata, “Saya bukan hyangnya” (82/ST/42) TL text: “Hey, your boyfriend‟s looking for you, the guy with the wooden rifle,” wisphered her aunt, but Siwi shook her head, “I‟m not his girlfriend.” (82/TT/57)

In the context of the story, the addressing term hyang refers to its meaning

„honey‟ or „darling‟. It is used to address the boy the female main character loves.

Her auntie tells her that the boy (whom she loves to) is approaching. Hyang or yang actually can be used to refer to either male or female. Thus, there is no feature of gender identity (male or female) in hyang. As the translator renders the term hyang into the term “boyfriend”, which contains the gender identity of the loved one, he applies particularization technique. Other cultural addressing terms translated by employing particularization are hyang (girlfriend), simbok (peasant woman), yu-yu (sisters), and Kang (Pa)

9. Reduction

Reduction is done by suppressing the SL information item in the TL. The omission of the information in the SL can be accepted as long as the shorter concept in the TL is sufficient in expressing the essence of the original. There are

4 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique. Those data are presented in the following table

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Table 4.10 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Reduction Culture SL TL Category Ecology duku langsep (44) omitted pak (16) omitted Term of Mas (20) omitted Address Dik (114) omitted

The concept duku langsep refers a sweet and tasty yellow-white fruit which is similar to duku (Steven and Tellings, 2010). Having beautiful yellow color, especially in Javanese culture, duku langsep is associated to beautiful skin for

Indonesian female. Therefore, those who have a beautiful Indonesian-original skin color (yellow-white), are called of having yellow langsep skin.

SL text: …aduhai banyak sekali orang berkulit cokelat atau mahoni atau merbau atau sonokeling atau duku langsep ya masih saja ada yang lebih suka diperintah orang-orang Holland… (85/ST/44) TL text: …oh man there were lot of people with brown or mahogany or teak or chocolate-colored skin there were a lot of them who actually preferred being bossed around by the Dutch… (85/TT/60)

Contextually, duku langsep is used to compare with mahoni, merbau, and sonokeling (the kinds of tree) that all have brown (or darker) color. It indicates darker skin colors compared to yellow langsep. In this case, the writer wants to emphasize the numerous nations that were colonialized or led by the Dutch. They were the people who had darker skin (having the color of certain trees: mahoni or merbau or sonokeling, that are, probably, those from India) until those who had lighter skin (having the color of duku langsep, such as most of Indonesian). In the

TL text, the two trees that have dark color are translated as “mahogany” (mahoni),

“teak” (merbau), while sonokeling is rendered as “chocolate-color” by

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considering to its color. But, duku langsep is not translated. As the concept of duku langsep is omitted, reduction technique is applied. The intention of doing the omission is usually a matter of efficiency as the information deleted is obviously known by the target readers or it does not give any significance that may affect the overall meaning. However, by omitting duku langsep, the context (the comparison of skin colors, from darker to lighter) in the TL text becomes relatively unclear.

The next is Javanese addressing term pak (a clipped form of bapak).

Accoring to Steven and Tellings (2010) this term of address is not only used to refer to a father in a family, but also to title before the name of any grow-up man.

In the context of Javanese culture, pak or bapak is also used before a certain profession. Generally, the use of pak or bapak is intended to show politeness.

ST text: …dulu tidak ada bujet logistik yang didukung oleh perhitungan cermat BAPPENAS dan restu dari DPR Pusat RI dsb, sehingga semua makanan dan kebutuhan apa saja yang diminta dari rakyat lewat pak Lurah… (44/ST/16) TL text: ...in the old days there was no logistical budget underwritten by the careful calculations of the National Planning Development Board and the Blessings of the National People‟s Representative Council of the Republic of Indonesia and so that all food and any other needs had to come from the people, via the village headman… (44/TT/37)

In the context above, in the ST, the one chosen Lurah, a certain profession of becoming the head or leader of a society area of kelurahan (a sub-district administrative unit), was initially addressed with pak. This is to show politeness in

Javanese culture. The translator renders pak lurah into “the village headman” with a reduction of pak. Therefore, the translation technique employed here is reduction. The other terms of address that are omitted are Mas and Dik.

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10. Adaptation - Amplification

Adaptation - amplification is a mixed technique used in the translation. The concept is partially translated by adaptation – replacing the SL concept with the one that already known or has approximately similar meaning/function in TL, and partially translated by amplification – giving the additional information of the SL concept in the TL text. There are 4 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique, and are presented in the following table.

Table 4.11 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Adaptation - Amplification Culture SL Text TL Text Category Religious, Nyai Roro Kidul (123) Mistress Roro Kidul (121) Mystical & Mythical Mbah Petruk (123) Old Man Petruk (121) Conception Art (Shadow- si Limbuk-Cangik (84) Miss Limbuk-Cangik (90) play Ratu Banowati (172) Queen Banowati (159) Character)

The cultural conception that is related to Javanese religion, myth, and mysticism is Nyai Roro Kidul. She is a mythical character that becomes the goddess controlling the Indian Ocean around whom so many traditional stories are told (Steven and Tellings, 2010). Yogyakarta is believed to have three points that lies in line from the south to the north. The Tugu monument is the center among two. The south point is the Indian Ocean, and Nyai Roro Kidul becomes the controller. Meanwhile, the north point is in Merapi and guarded by Mbah Petruk.

The use of the terms nyai in Nyai Roro Kidul and mbah in Mbah Petruk is to show respectful addresses to them.

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ST text: …ingatlah bahwa pujaan Yogyakarta selain Nyai Roro Kidul adalah juga Mbah Petruk Gunung Merapi… (180/ST/123) TL text: …don‟t forget that what comes in for praise in Yogyakarta isn‟t just Mistress Roro Kidul but also Old Man Petruk of Mt. Merapi… (180/TT/121)

The translator employs adaptation technique in translating the term of address

Nyai into “Mistress”. He is aware of the story of Nyai Roro Kidul and considers that she is a mistress, the one who holds power, authority, and ownership toward the area of south Indian Ocean. Referring to the context of the story, the term Nyai and “Mistress” show the similar function. However, the translator maintains the concept of Roro Kidul, and gives additional information about Nyai Roro Kidul in the endnote. Thus, the translation technique employed is a combination of adaptation and amplification. Other concepts that are translated by adaptation- amplification are Mbah Petruk (Old Man Petruk), si Limbuk-Cangik (Miss

Limbuk-Cangik), and Ratu Banowati (Queen Banowati).

11. Calque

Calque is a special kind of borrowing in which the expression from SL is borrowed and then translated literally into TL in terms of each of its element. It imitates the structure or manner of expression of the ST in the translation. There are 3 data of Javanese cultural concepts translated into English by employing this technique, and are presented in the following table.

Table 4.12 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Calque Culture SL Text TL Text Category Religious, Mystical & Gusti Allah (14) Lord God (35) Mythical

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Conception Setragandamayit (vii) Corpstenchfield (19) Art (Shadow- Batara Sang Manikmaya Noble Lord Briliantjewel play) Maharaja (vii) Maharaja (19)

The next concept related to Javanese culture is Setragandamayit. It is the lair or Batari Durga (formerly Dewi Umayi) deep down in the underworld. The concept Setragandamayit contains of several words that form its meaning. Setra means an isolation place or area for temporary burial of a corpse, ganda means odor, fragrance, or aroma, and mayit is dead body. Thus, Setragandamayit may have meaning a certain isolation place that has corpse odor. Steven and Tellings

(2010) define Setragadhamayu as a legendary forest where the Goddess Durga dwells with host of demons.

ST text: nun di waktu itu Batari Durga ratu rangah rakus rampus dari Loka lanyau lanyah Setragandamayit… (6/ST/vii) TL text: once at that time Goddess Durga vaunting vocarious vile-mouthed queen from muddy murky Corpstenchfield… (6/TT/19)

In order to translate the concept Setragandamayit, the translation tries to make

\another concept literally translated from the original one. This literal translation that creates a new concept in the TL is called as calque. The Javanese concept is translated into “Corpstenchfield” that contains three words: corpse (dead body), stench (odor), and field (area). This calque technique can give TL readers an impression on what kind of place Setragandamayit is. Other Javanese concepts translated by using calque are Gusti Allah (Lord God) and Batara Sang

Manikmaya Maharaja (Noble Lord Briliantjewel Maharaja).

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12. Compensation

Compensation is introducing a SL element of information or stylistic effect in another place in the TL text because it cannot be reflected in the same place as in the SL text. There is 1 datum of Javanese cultural concept translated into

English by employing this technique, and it is presented in the following table.

Table 4.13 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Compensation Culture SL Text TL Text Category House, Household gandok (48) another house (63) Good & Surrounding

What is meant by gandok, according to Steven and Tellings (2010), is a pavilion or a wing of the main house. Javanese traditional house, particularly which belongs to the rich one, is divided into several parts or buildings. The main part is in the middle, it is the place where the owner and the main family stay and spend their daily activities. The front part is the place where the owner receives guests, that is known as pendopo. Meanwhile, gandok is the wing of the main house in form of pavilion where the relatives or guests stay to spend the nights.

SL text: Sampai di desa yang ditunjukkan ternyata rumah pekarangan abangnya yang mendompleng di gandok dan dua dari dua dari tetangga punya sudah dipakai sebagai dapur umum… (91/ST/48) TL text: When she got to the village she had been directed to it turned out her brother‟s house which was tacked onto the side of another house plus two of the neighbors‟ houses were all being used as a makeshift public kitchen… (91/TT/63)

In the context, the author describes that the house and the yard, which were also gandok of the main character‟s brother, was used as a public kitchen. The translator may assume that gandok seems to be a building house separated from

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the main house, thus it can be said as “another house”. In doing this, he employs compensation technique. It means introducing a SL element of information

(gandok as a separated house) in another place in the TL that cannot be reflected in the same place as in the SL.

13. Description - Amplification

Description - amplification is another mixed technique in translation. The

SL concept is partially translated by description – describing the meaning of the original concept in the TL text, and partially translated by amplification – adding the information related to the original concept in the TL text. There is 1 datum of

Javanese cultural concept translated into English by employing this technique, and is presented in the following table.

Table 4.14 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Description - Amplification Culture SL Text TL Text Category Art (Shadow- Madukara (vii) Arjun‟s Honeyrealm (19) play)

The Javanese shadow-play concept, Madukara, refers to the palace where

Arjuna has an ownership. Arjuna is known as one of Pandawa brothers, a heroic character who has many wives and mistresses. For older Javanese people, Arjuna is considered as an ideal man.

ST text: sebetulnya dulu noon nun dulu ya dulu dewi cantik santing sani sanjai bernama manis semanis madu Madukara: Uma atau Umayi (7/ST/vii) TL text: Actually once whereupon way back once yes once A goddess attractive arresting imposing sweetly named As sweet as the honey in Arjun’s Honeyrealm, Uma or Umayi (7/TT/19)

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In order to translate the concept Madukara, the translator employs descriptive and amplification technique. He describes that Madukara is “Arjun‟s Honeyrealm”.

However, he also adds his description in the endnote, by stating that “Arjun‟s

Honeyrealm” refers to the kingdom ruled by Arjuna, third of the five Pandawa brothers in Mahabharata (Keeler in Mangunwijaya, 2004).

14. Established Equivalent

Established equivalent is replacing the concept or expression from SL into the recognized one in TL which is considered appropriate in the communicative situation and equivalent to that of the TL context. There is 1 datum of Javanese cultural concept translated into English by employing this technique, and is presented in the following table.

Table 4.15 Javanese Cultural Concepts Translated by Using Established Equivalent Culture SL Text TL Text Category Social gebyah-uyah pukul rata… lump it all together six of one Conception (87) a half dozen of the other (93)

The concept of gebyah-uyah pukul rata contain of two versions of the idiom, Javanese and Indonesian. Gebyah-uyah is a Javanese concept for the

Indonesian pukul rata. They share similar meaning that is to overgeneralize or to assume that everything is one kind, no distinction (Steven and Tellings, 2010).

ST text: Ibu Perti atau Tante Wi Cik Bi, menyatakan keyakinannya bahwa keunggulan dan harta paling berharga wanita adalah kefeminaannya; tetapi ini harus dilihat menurut situasi dan kondisinya, jangan digebyah-uyah pukul rata… (140/ST/87) TL text: Mrs. Perti or Auntie Wie Miss Bi stated that it was her femininity; but this has to be understood according to the situation and condition, but don‟t lump it all together six of one a half dozen of the other… (140/TT/93)

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In the context above, the female main character assumes that the most valuable thing for woman is her femininity, but it cannot be overgeneralized, as many things to consider, depending on the situation on condition. In order to translate gebyah-uyah pukul rata the translator makes an adaptation by using

English idiom “six of one a half dozen of the other”, meaning that everything is the same, nothing is better or worse (Cambridge Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary).

It means no distinction, because six is a half dozen. Therefore, the adaptation of gebyah-uyah pukul rata into“six of one a half dozen of the other” is accepted.

Table 4.16 Translation Techniques Percentage Translation Technique Number of Data Precentage (%) Adaptation 70 31.82 Description 41 18.64 Amplification 39 17.72 Generalization 15 6.82 Borrowing 13 5.91 Adaptation - Borrowing 12 5.45 Literal Translation 9 4.09 Particularization 7 3.18 Reduction 4 1.82 Adaptation - Amplification 4 1.82 Calque 3 1.35 Compensation 1 0.45 Description - Amplification 1 0.45 Established Equivalent 1 0.45

4.2. Dominant Translation Ideology of in Translating the Javanese Cultural Concepts Domestication and foreignization are two basic ideologies in translation

(Venutti, 1995). In the domestication, a translator tries to produce as naturally as possible a product of translation by minimizing the strangeness or the

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foreigneness that may be gained from the original. This domestication ideology is said to be TL oriented as the translated text is made to be more familiar to the TL readers. Meanwhile, in the foreignization, the translator maintains the strangeness and foreignness of the TL text so that the TL reader can consider the cultural and linguistics differences. Foreignization ideology is more on SL oriented.

The translation techniques chosen by the translator has big role in determining the dominant translation ideology whether it is oriented more on the

SL or TL. There are some translation techniques employed in translating the

Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi, which are oriented to the SL

(borrowing, amplification, literal translation, and calque). Several translation techniques that are oriented to the TL (adaptation, description, generalization, particularization, compensation, reduction, and established equivalent).

Meanwhile, the mixed techniques (adaptation - amplification, adaptation - borrowing, and description - amplification) are hybridized in the orientation, as they are oriented toward both SL and TL.

Table 4.17 Newmark‟s Method (1988) and Molina & Albir Techniques (2002) Orientation Newmark’s Methods Molina & Albir’s Techniques Word-for-word translation Borrowing Literal translation Amplification SL Faithful translation Literal Translation Semantic translation Calque Adaptation Adaptation Description Generalization Free translation TL Particularization Compensation Idiomatic translation Reduction Communicative translation Established Equivalent SL and TL Adaptation - Amplification

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(Hybridized) Adaptation - Borrowing Description - Amplification

Borrowing emphasizes SL because in the application the translator brings the Javanese cultural concept from the SL into the TL text, so that the TL readers may feel the foreignness when reading the translation. The translator may directly use the SL concept, such as in translating the proper names Rohadi and Brojol and the exclamation Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar, or modify the concept to meet the TL requirements like in translating of kamboja (camboja). Amplification is done by maintaining the original concepts in the TL and giving short of explanations. It emphasizes the SL because the TL readers are introduced to the

SL cultural concepts that they might not know before. The example of amplification is the translation of several shadow-play characters like Petruk,

Arjuna, Wrekudara, etc. that are also given explanation in the endnote. Literal translation also emphasizes SL. The concept is translated literally and it may result in the meaning transference failure as the TL readers may not get the meaning of the translated concepts precisely. It happens as the SL concepts and

TL concepts may not share the similar meanings due to the cultural diference, for example the translation of bayi kemarin sore (kids born yesterday) pintar seperti kancil (smart like mousedeer) and orang palu-arit (hammer-and-sickle people).

Calque is intended to familiarize the SL concepts to the TL readers by modifying the SL concepts to meet the requirements in the TL but still maintaining the style of SL culture, for example Setragandamayit (Corpstenchfield). The TL concepts translated by employing calque usually do not exist in the TL. Through the application of translation techniques that are oriented to SL, the translator has

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introduced the SL culture to the TL readers. From the calculation of the translation techniques applied, there are 28.64 % of the Javanese cultural concepts are foreignized.

Adaptation emphasizes TL because in applying this technique the translator uses the closest equivalent concepts in the TL to replace the SL concepts. The application is found in translating addressing terms mbak (miss) and mbok (ma), social conceptions while maintaining the rhymes dapur-sumur-kasur (cooking- cleaning-cuddling), alon-alon-waton-kelakon (slowly-but-surely), and kalem adem ayem (cool, calm, collected), and religious concepts Rahmatullah (God‟s mercy) and Alhamdulillah (Praise the Lord). Replacing the SL concepts with their explanations in the application of description makes the TL readers understand the concepts without being interfered with the foreign atmosphere of SL in the TL text. This technique is applied in translating food and consumption concepts like gethuk cothot (the fried cassava snacks), gula jawa (coconut sugar), rokok kretek

(clove-scented cigarette) and terasi (shrimp paste). Particularization is like adaptation but narrowing the original meaning of the SL concepts. Beside the factor of the lack of general concepts in the TL, particularization is done to match the context of the story, for example the translation of kerupuk (shrimp crakers), hyang (girlfriend/boy friend). Reduction is done by omitting the SL concept in the translation. As long as it does not ruin the context of the story, reduction is acceptable (e.g. the omission of the addressing term pak, mas, and dik).

Compensation is done by replacing SL concept with those in the TL. The cultural nuance of the SL concepts may be missing, but often it does not disturb the

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overall context (e.g. Sri Kendi into “Miss Jugs”). Established equivalent is also

TL oriented. It is done by replacing the SL concepts with TL concepts because they share approximately similar functions, for example gebyah uyah (lump it all together six of one a half dozen of the other). Those translation techniques are oriented toward TL because in the translator attempts to replace the cultural essence of the SL with that of the TL. In the calculation, it is found that 63.18 % of the Javanese cultural concepts are domesticated. It means more than half of the

Javanese cultural concepts found in the novel are rendered naturally into the TL to meet the TL readers‟ understanding. As 63.18 % of the translation techniques employed is TL oriented, the most dominant translation ideology carried by the translator in dealing with Javanese cultural concepts is domestication.

The application of translation technique combination like adaptation- borrowing (e.g. Garuda Jetayu (the great Jetayu bird), gamelan slendro (gamelan orchestra)), adaptation-amplification (Nyai Roro Kidul (Mistress Roro Kidul) and

Mbah Petruk (Old Man Petruk) with explanation in the endnote), and description- amplification (Madukara (Arjun‟s Honeyrealm) with explanation in the endnote) also emphazising SL culture as the SL culture is brought to the TL readers. Those mixed techniques are considered of having orientation toward both SL and TL. It is because the translator changes the parts of SL cultural concepts into that of the

TL, but also maintain the other parts of original concept. There is about 8.18 % from the total data. The hibridity of orientation may create linguistics and cultural confusion of the TL readers in reading the TL text. However, the readers are introduced to the Sl culture. The translator is aware of the importance of the SL

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cultural concepts that need to be introduced, and those that are not crucial to be maintained in the translation, such as Lurah (Headman) in Lurah “Kiblik”, Batari

(Goddess), Mbah (Oldman) in Mbah Petruk, and si (Miss) in si Limbuk-Cangik.

Table 4.18 Percentage of the Translation Technique Orientation Number of Orientation Translation Technique Total Percentage Data Borrowing 12 Amplification 39 SL 63 28.64 % Literal Translation 9 Calque 3 Adaptation 68 Description 42 Generalization 16 TL Particularization 7 139 63.18 % Reduction 4 Compensation 1 Established Equivalent 1 Adaptation - Borrowing 13 SL and TL Adaptation - Amplification 4 18 8.18 % (Hybridized) Description - Amplification 1

Based on the analysis of Keeler‟s translation of Durga/Umayi the translation ideology that is carried by the translator may be led by several factors. The basic factors are cultural factor, linguistics factor and translator‟s preference. The cultural factor plays a big role since there is a different gap between Javanese and

English. This is because people who hold different culture may see things based on their thought, belief, values and attitudes. Taken for example, the concept of addressing term Pak in Pak Lurah that is omitted. Pak Lurah is then translated into “village headman”. The intension of putting the term of address before a job position is to show politeness, a cultural value that is strictly hold by Javanese society, yet, it does not mean that English-speaking persons are not polite in the

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omission of Pak in “village headman”. This is because it is not a crucial aspect in

Western culture. Similarly, it also happens when the concept Pak Kebon as it is translated into “gardener”. However, Keeler sometimes misinterpretes the

Javanese cultural concepts, such as Javanese gesture of geleng-geleng kepala. The meaning of the gesture is specifically to show the element of surprise with a bit of negative feeling or even anger. In his translation, he simply literally translates it into “shook her head”, which may indicate the doer‟s refusal or amazement. Thus, the expression of geleng-geleng kepala and “shook her head” cannot be understood similarly, as they have different meanings.

The linguistics factor also influences the ideology in translation because there is different linguistics system between Javanese and English. This is proven as there are several Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi are translated into different translation unit. The concepts of inyong - rika, which actually refer to the terms of address “I - you”, are translated into their description, “strange old- fashioned words”. This happens because Javanese linguistics is rich with the division of power and solidarity. The terms of address of inyong - rika is intended to be used regionally by those who have close relations. Inyong - rika belongs to ngapak language that are spoken in certain regions in Java and considered distinct to the common Javanese. For most Indonesian, ngapak language is odd and becomes the source of mockery as seen on television programs. The translator is aware about this phenomena, thus, he translates the concept inyong - rika into a phrase “strange old-fashioned words”. In addition, English “I - you” does not have such division of power and solidarity and premise. Another linguistics‟ influence

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on translation can be seen in the translation of Setragandamayit, a legendary forest where the goddess Durga dwells with hosts of demons. The concept contains of words forming its meaning: setra (an isolation place or area for temporary burial of a corpse), ganda (odor, fragrance, or aroma), and mayit (dead body). In the translation, the translator renders it into “Corpstenchfield”, which also contains words “corpse”, “stench”, and “field”. To match the English rule, the order of the words constructing the concept is modified.

The knowledge and the background of the translator also become the important aspects in shaping the translation ideology. The translator of

Durga/Umayi is a professor of anthropology who gives a lot of concern on Asian

Studies, especially Javanese culture. He is also interested in the study of Javanese shadow-play. Therefore, almost all of the Javanese cultural concepts in the novel

Durga/Umayi can be comprehended very well. He even gives a lot of explanation on the concepts that he considers important in scrutinizing the story. Not only about the conceptual meaning, the translator also tries to maintain the style of the original author by keeping aesthetic and beauty of the language used in the novel, for example the rhyme. The concept of dapur-sumur-kasur used to express the reponsibilities of a Javanese woman in a patriarchal society, which are cooking

(olah-olah in dapur), washing (umbah-umbah in sumur) and love-making

(melumah on kasur). The concept is translated into “cooking-cleaning-cuddling”.

The original concept has the similar rhyme –ur in the words it is constructed.

Thus, the translator prefers English words that represent the idea of the concept and have rhyme. The words in English translation have -ing rhyme and similar

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initial consonance sound [k]. Other translations that also need the translator‟s effort to get the English concepts that have rhyme or similar consonance sounds are alon-alon-waton-kelakon (slowly-but-surely), kalem adem ayem (cool, calm, collected), and adem ayem ngglenggem (cool calm accommodating).

Early in the beginning of the TL text, the translator has mentioned several issues that become his main concerns because the English translation is read by non-Indoesian readers. They are Javanese shadow-play, language and Indonesian history (Mangunwijaya, 2004). The translator refers to give much explanation to those issues. As a professor of anthropology who also experts in Javanese language - culture and has spent years researching Javanese wayang kulit, he should be the right person in translating Durga/Umayi. Dingwaney (1995) states that a translator needs to have knowledge on cultures of both SL and TL, and those should be studied before the translation can be proceeded.

Javenese shadow-play becomes the media of Mangunwijaya in delivering the story. In relation with this issue, there are many cultural concepts related to

Javanese shadow-play are presented in the novel. They must have significance in the context of the story. Those cultural concepts related to Javanese shadow-play are the names of character (Betari Durga, Batara Guru, Arjuna, Gatotkaca,

Rama, Sinta, Garuda Jetayu, Limbuk-Cangik, etc.), kingdom (Madukoro, istana

Kurawa), realm (Setragandamayit, ngarcapada), kinship (Pandawa Kurawa), war

(Baratayuda), and specific shadow-play terms (lakon, pakem, kakayon wayang).

Most of the names are translated by amplification by maintaining the original concepts in the TL text and giving the brief explanation in the endnote. The

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translator must be aware that the SL cultural concepts cannot be replaced, and the

TL readers need to get information about those concepts to understand the story.

The style of dalang (Javanese shadow-play puppeteer) is also maintained by the translator. The original author, as it has been reviewed before, adopts the style of dalang in presenting the story. The interjection, ooh oahem ahem ohem ohem, is eventually used by the author in the story, especially in Prawayang, and borrowed by the translator in the TL text. At the end of Prawayang the author closes with a dalang‟s mantra, which is quite difficult for common readers to understand since it is in the form of wordplay. The following quotations are the mantra taken from the novel and also its English translation.

…Yamaraja jayarama, yamarani, rinumaya, yasiraya yarasiya, yasirapa parasiya, lawagna lawagni, si rumaya si rumayi si hudaya si hudayi, si srimaya gedah maya, si dayudi si dayuda, hadayudi nihujaya... (1994: ix)

…Lord of Death mortolord, ladymorta malymordo mortolatus tuslatomor, mortopanem nempatomor laconus lacona, si domicus si domica si sidanus si sidani si regimagus spec imagus si dometa si dometus andometa modatane… (2004: 23)

This kind of mantra can also be found at the end of the story that functions as a closing. It is similar to the way dalang ends the story in the Javanese shadow-play performance. He spells the mantra with unique intonation like singing. Basically, the mantra concludes the story and contains such a prayer asking for goodness.

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The translator, with his own style, tries to render the mantra, and make it matches with English language wordplay. However, similar to the original, the mantra is often very difficult to understand, and it seems meaningless for common readers.

The language that becomes the concern of the translator is the style and dictions of the original author. In delivering the story, Mangunwijaya uses the style and dictions that resembles the oral story telling of a dalang (puppeteer) in the Javanese shadow-play performance. The indications can be seen in the use of one page long sentences, rhymed dictions, and overwhelming use of adjectives and verbs that are combined in such way so that one clause can contain three to four adjectives/verbs. Instead of those style and dictions that resemble shadow- play oral story telling, Mangunwijaya also employs unusual terms like foreign, technical, philosophical, regional, and even old-fashioned words in the novel.

Keeler states that much of the novel is written in everyday Javanese translated into everyday Indonesian (Mangunwijaya, 2004). Therefore, regionalism that involves

Javanese culture is obviously plenty in the novel. They are ranged from ecology to gesture and habit, and are translated by using various techniques.

Indonesian history is the main theme of the story, so it also becomes the main issue in the novel. The main characters are present in every important event in the history of Indonesia since the 1930‟s to the beginning of New Order era.

There are also concepts representing Indonesian history, like official/non-offical organizations and their abbreviations, historical figures, places and also areas. The

Javanese historical concepts found are setan desa, seragam hijau sirih, and orang palu-arit. Those concepts are translated by using various techniques.

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The various techniques employed by the translator and also the translation ideology he carries in translating the Javanese cultural concepts in Durga/Umayi indicate that translation is dynamic. If the translator wants to introduce the

Javanese cultural concepts to the TL he will employs techniques that emphasize the SL culture and carries foreignization ideology. However, he must know that it may raise TL readers‟ confusion if they cannot reconstruct the story because there in much foreignness in the novel. Thus, the translator should prepare for the additional explanation about those SL cultural concepts. Keeler has provided 25 pages long of endnote for the TL readers to understand the concepts in order to comprehend the story. Heriyanto (1997) claims that if the purpose is to present the culture before the TL readership, the concepts must be italicized and accompanied with a lot of explanation.

Meanwhile, if the translator assumes that the Javanese cultural concepts are not necessary to be introduced to the TL readers, he can just adjust them to fit with the TL culture. This is done by domesticating the foreign cultures in the SL texts to meet the English-language culture in the TL text, so that the TL readers find less foreignness in the novel, as if they read not the translated one. Venutti

(1995) claims that most English translations of the “third world” text implement fluency strategies that evoke the illusion of authorial presence and maintain the cultural dominance of Anglo-American. However, in the case of Durga/Umayi translation, Venutti‟s claim cannot be taken absolute because foreignization and domestication ideologies are applied alternately or even hybridized in the translation of a text, and this surely depends upon the translator‟s intention.

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

After conducting a research on Mangunwijaya‟s Durga/Umayi and its translation, there are some conclusions that can be drawn. Dealing with the first problem formulation, which is to identify the Javanese cultural concepts in the novel and their English translation, this thesis has shown that the concept can be categorized into: 1) ecology (4 data); 2) material culture, sub-catergorized into dress and clothing (8 data), food and consumption (25 data), house, household good, and house surrounding (7 data), and weapon, tool and toy (5 data); 3) social conception, sub-categorized into profession (6 data), term of address (27 data), and proper name (5 data); 4) organization, custom, activity, procedure, and social conception, sub-categorized into political and administrative conception (11 data), religious, mystical, and mythical conception (22 data), artistic conception (44 data), social conception (31 data), day and measurement (7 data), and place and area (14 data); and 5) gesture (1 datum) and interjection (3 data).

In analyzing the translation of the 220 Javanese cultural concepts in

Durga/Umayi, it is found that there are several techniques of translation used by the translator, namely adaptation (30.91 %), description (19.09 %), amplification

(17.72 %), generalization (7.27 %), adaptation - borrowing (5.91 %), borrowing

(5.45 %), literal translation (4.09 %), particularization (3.18 %), adaptation - amplification (1.82 %), reduction (1.82 %), calque (1.36 %), compensation (0.45

%), established equivalent (0.45 %), and description - amplification (0.45 %).

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Based on the findings, it can be concluded that the most dominant ideology of translation in dealing with the translation of Javanese cultural concepts in the novel Durga/Umayi is domestication. It can be seen from the number of translation techniques that are oriented to TL is higher than those that are oriented toward SL. The translation techniques oriented to TL is about 63.18 %. They are adaptation, description, generalization, particularization, compensation, reduction, and established equivalent. Meanwhile, the translation techniques oriented to SL is only about 28.64 %, consisting borrowing, amplification, literal translation, and calque. Meanwhile, there are mixed techniques that are oriented toward both SL and TL, they are adaptation - borrowing, adaptation - amplification, and description - amplification. This hybridity in translation ideology is about 8.18 %.

By applying domestication ideology, the translator adapts the cultural concepts form the SL into the culture known in the TL in order to avoid confusion. Venutti (1995) states domestication contains reduction of the „foreign‟ as much as possible so that the TL text sounds natural and more familiar to the TL readers. The intention of domesticating the concepts is to make the TL readers easier to understand the story, and this is called as minimax strategy, in which the

SL text is tackled with minimum treatment to gain the maximum effect on the TL readers. However, the analysis of foreignization and domestication carried by the translator is only limited in the case of tendency, which cannot be taken absolute.

It is because foreignization and domestication is dynamic in the application. The translation ideologies are applied alternately or even hybridized in translating

Durga/Umayi, and this surely depends upon the translator‟s intention.

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From the analysis, there are three basic aspects that determine the translator in carrying the ideology of translation, they are cultural factor, linguistics factor and the translator‟s preference. Those asepect are connected to the main issues in

Durga/Umayi that become the focus of the translator. The main issues are

Javanese shadow-play, language, and Indonesian modern history.

A part from the limitation of the English translation of Durga/Umayi,

Indonesian people should be grateful as one of the literary works from their country is translated into the world lingua franca. The translation of Indonesian literary works is very limited as compared to the number of books published. The number of Indonesian versions of foreign books is always higher than the number of the translation of Indonesian books into foreign languages, and this happens every year. Mc Glynn (2012) estimates in 2011 among 20,000 books published in

Indonesia there are about 6,000 books were the translation from other languages, but the Indonesian books translated into English were not more than a dozen.

The naturalness and accuracy of the translation of Durga/Umayi are very subjective to decide. Some readers may be satisfied with the translation, while the others may not. However, the translation is very important to become a bridge of the foreign readers to get access of knowledge about the Indonesian culture, history, and society. Lindsay (2004) states that the original version of Durga

Umayi is not yet reprinted since its second edition published in 1994, meanwhile the English version is still on sale. Therefore, Durga/Umayi is still accessible for the readers although with the different language play in the English translation.

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Appendix: The Javanese cultural concepts and their translations, the Javanese cultural categories, and the translation techniques Javanese Translation No. SL Text TL Text Cultural Technique Category Noon nun di waktu itu Whereupon once at that cipta carita berkisah- time kidung tentang an idea a tale old story Gesture & 1. ooh oahem ahem betold about Habit Borrowing ohem ohem kakang ooh oahem ahem (Interjection) kadang lanang… (vii) ohem ohem my dear manly spouse… (19) Noon nun di waktu itu Whereupon once at that cipta carita berkisah- time kidung tentang an idea a tale old story Term of 2. ooh oahem ahem ohem betold about Adaptation Address ohem kakang kadang ooh oahem ahem ohem lanang… (vii) ohem my dear manly spouse… (19) ooh oahem ahem ohem ooh oahem ahem ohem Term of 3. simbok ayu mbok my preety wife preety Adaptation Address ayu… (vii) one… (19) mbakyu ohem oahem my dear ohem oahem Term of 4. Adaptation ahem (vii) ahem (19) Address nun di waktu itu Batari once at that time Durga Goddess Durga Art (Shadow- ratu rangah rakus vaunting vicarious vile- Adaptation 5. play rampus dari loka lanyau mouthed queen from - Borrowing Character) lanyah muddy murky Setragandamayit… (vii) Corpstenchfield… (19) nun di waktu itu Batari once at that time Durga Goddess Durga ratu rangah rakus vaunting vocarious vile- Art (Shadow- 6. rampus dari mouthed queen from Calque play) Loka lanyau lanyah muddy murky Setragandamayit… Corpstenchfield… (vii) (19) sebetulnya dulu noon Actually once nun dulu ya dulu whereupon way back dewi cantik santing once yes once Description sani sanjai bernama A goddess attractive Art (Shadow- 7. - Amplifica manis semanis madu arresting imposing play) tion** Madukara: Uma atau sweetly named Umayi (vii) As sweet as the honey in Arjun’s

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Honeyrealm, Uma or Umayi (19) Sebetulnya dulu noon Actually once nun dulu ya dulu whereupon way back dewi cantik santing once yes once sani sanjai bernama A goddess attractive Art (Shadow- Amplifica 8. manis semanis madu arresting imposing play tion Madukara: Uma atau sweetly named Character) Umayi (vii) As sweet as the honey in Arjun‟s Honeyrealm, Uma or Umayi (19) para dewa dan dewi, of many gods and Art (Shadow- 9. batara dan betari (vii) goddesses, divine lords Description play) and ladies (19) Hatta bercerita: Thereupon it is told: Batara Sang Noble Lord Manikmaya Maharaja Briliantjewel Art (Shadow- 10. Calque Kayangan Maharaja of Heaven play) noon nun suatu waktu. whereupon once at that (vii) time. (19) …masih jauh …still far from menjelang senja, ketika approaching twilight, hujan musim telah when menghilang ke balik the season‟s rains had Art (Shadow- Amplifica 11. cakrawala, dan bumi vanished play) tion** ngarcapada* *(Dunia beyond the heavens, tengah = bumi) (viii) and the earth ngarcapada* *(Middle World = earth) (20) …maka Batara Guru …thus Lord Guru Sang Manikmaya Noble Briliantjewel Art (Shadow- Maharaja Kayangan Maharaja of Heaven Adaptation 12. play terkijat niat hasrat was seized of a great - Borrowing Character) untuk bersantai desire to take pleasure berwisata… (viii) in travel… (20) Sang Manikmaya Noble Briliantjewel Religious, Maharaja Kayangan Maharaja of Heaven Mystical & 13. terkijat niat hasrat was seized of a great Adaptation Mythical untuk bersantai desire to take pleasure Conception berwisata… (viii) in travel… (20) Maka oooh oahem Thus oooh oahem ahem ahem ohem ohem bagai ohem ohem like egrets bangau sent circling smoothly Art (Shadow- 14. Adaptation baruna berbegar bebas surveying the rainbow play) membusuri bianglala they soared terbanglah with pleasure

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dengan gembira two god-goddesses dua dewa-dewi batara- divine lord and lady the batari Sakaguru Pillar of Heaven… Indraloka… (viii) (20) si yuyu kangkang his softshell astraddle nafsu berahi binal bilahi excited unchecked long Social 15. dari Sang Maharaja with desire of the Noble Adaptation Conception Kayangan tak Maharaja of Heaven terkekang… (viii) unrestrained… (20) Mosok dewa-dewi No way could divinities berpangkat mulia of glorious stature bermartabat ningrat of illustrious prestige Social 16. Adaptation kok saling bergulang- go rubbing rolling Conception guling bergelimpang… spread-eagling… (21) (ix) tangan hanya satu yang Only one hand that can dapat bergerak, move, Social Amplifica 17. bokong Togog dan Togog’s fat buttocks Conception tion kaki tangan kudisan… and fungus-blotched (x) legs… (22) kumpul buaya jelas ya to live in the manner of gamblangnya beasts to be frank Art (Shadow- Adaptation 18. ya dengan Batara yes with Lord Kala, play - Borrowing Kala, Penguasa Waktu Master of Time (23) Character) (xi) …ya, punyo yang satu …anyway this punyo ini sungguh orang yang was filthy rich, kaya raya melebihi surpassing even that Term of 19. Borrowing figur legenda Nyai legendary personage Address Singobarong dari Nyai Singobarong from Pekalongan… (2) Pekalongan… (25) …ya, punyo yang satu …anyway this punyo ini sungguh orang yang was filthy rich, kaya raya melebihi surprassing even that figur legenda Nyai legendary personage Singobarong dari Nyai Singobarong from Term of 20. Pekalongan, menurut Pekalongan made Adaptation Address cerita separuh historis famous by the story, separuh fiksi Roro half history, half Mendut-Pronocitro… fiction, of the Maiden (2) Mendut and her lover Pronocitro… (26) …para pejuang generasi …the fighters of the muda yang tergabung younger generation who Term of 21. Adaptation dalam itu lho Gerakan are joined together in Address Martabat Perempuan the, you know, the

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(…) tidak mau Movement for mengakui Mbak Iin Women‟s Right (…) atau Kak Linda atau don‟t choose to Tante Wi atau Kamerad recognize Miss Iin or Tiwi atau Nusa atau Sister Linda or Auntie Madame Nussy atau Wie or Comrade Tiwi juga Cik Bi (…) or Nus or Madame sebagai perempuan… Nussy or Sis Bi (…) as (2) a woman… (26) …cukuplah sudah …but just a female; but hanya sebagai wanita: that of course comes jelas datang dari suatu from a normal if gejala yang normal irritating trait, though namun menjengkelkan one never yet tetapi belum pernah susceptible of complete Job or 22. Description dapat diterangkan analysis by Charles Profession tuntas oleh Charles Darwin or Sigmund Darwin atau Sigmund Freud or any local Freud maupun para magic specialists or dukun dan suhu paranormals… (26) paranormal… (2) …apa sih jeleknya …what‟s so bad about sebutan wanita yang calling someone a konon mengacu pada female when they say it arti makhluk yang brings out the meaning punya rahim dan a creature that has a Term of 23. payudara , titik (dan womb and breasts Description Address bukan seperti kata period (unlike the word perempuan: beliau puan lady: the matron of the rumah tangga yang household who is dihargai sebagai venerated as a font of empu)… (3) wisdom)… (26) …pendek kata, …in a word, she‟s a legendaris, tidak kalah legend on both counts, dari Ratu Ken Dedes the equal of Queen Ken Term of 24. yang tidak hanya Dedes not only had the Borrowing Address mampu mempesona means to enchant the Ken Arok sayang handsome but hapless namun malang… (3) Ken Arok… (26) … tidak kalah dari Ratu … the equal of Queen Ken Dedes yang tidak Ken Dedes not only had hanya mampu the means to enchant Weapon, 25. mempesona Ken Arok the handsome but Adaptation Tool & Toy sayang namun malang, hapless Ken Arok, konsumen keris consumer of Empu pusaka Empu Gandring‟s potent

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Gandring… (3) dagger… (26) … tidak kalah dari Ratu … the equal of Queen Ken Dedes yang tidak Ken Dedes not only had hanya mampu the means to enchant mempesona Ken Arok the handsome but Term of 26. Borrowing sayang namun malang, hapless Ken Arok, Address konsumen keris pusaka consumer of Empu Empu Gandring… (3) Gandring‟s potent dagger… (26) ...namun terlepas dari …still apart from all itu semua, apalah arti that, what can fatale, fatale alias sumber sial that is, the source of bagi negeri Zamrud misfortune, mean for Katulistiwa ini yang this Emerald Equator pernah pasrah country, which, it‟s Social 27. Adaptation sumarah nglokro true, surrendered and Conception sekian lama di bawah submitted out of bendera Merah Putih exhaustion for such Biru… (4) long time to the Netherland‟s tri colored flag… (27) Andai saja dia dulu Supposing she had slid meluncur dari gua out of the womb of her garba ibunya (…) yang mother (…) who sold Social 28. Adaptation menjual gethuk cothot* gethuk cothot* that Conception yang sangat digemari people were very fond orang… (5) of… (28) Andai saja dia dulu Supposing she had slid meluncur dari gua out of the womb of her garba ibunya (…) yang mother (…) who sold menjual gethuk gethuk cothot* that Food & 29. cothot* yang sangat people were very fond Consump Borrowing digemari orang… of… *(fried cassava tion *(singkong goreng yang filed with sugar syrup diisi gula cair, kuih and shaped into little lonjong pipih) (5) flat round) (28) …ya seandainya IIn …supposing Iin had dulu lahir dengan been born with secret sebatang jimat anu amulet rod thingy like rahasia seperti yang Rockefeller had and Job or 30. Adaptation dipunyai Rockefeller, Roctschild and also Profession Roctschild maupun Ken Ken Arok and every Arok dan setiap sopir pedicap driver for that becak sekalipun… (5) matter… (28) Dulu memang Iin kecil As a matter of fact IIn Social Amplifica 31. sering jengkel setengah had often been irritated Conception tion

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mati tidak habis something terrific, mudeng mengapa abang unable to figure out kembar dampitnya (…) how come her older selalu boleh brother kembar gentayangan mengejar dampit* (…) could layang-layang putus… always go roaming *(Anak kembar lelaki around chasing after dan perempuan) (6) kites broken off from their strings… *(twins, one male, one female) (29) …abang kembar … her older brother dampitnya (sudah kembar dampit (strange mentok sampai to say he‟s hit a dead sekarang hanya puas end, happy to this day Job or 32. menjadi petani gurem just to be a dim farmer Adaptation Profession yang ikut mertuanya di living with his in-laws dareah pegunungan in a dry dusty desertous kering kersang hills)… (29) kerontang)… (6) …Linda yang longgor …Linda, big for her bagur terpilih oleh pak age, was chosen by her guru wali kelasnya (…) teacher (…) to play the untuk memerankan role of the symbolic Social 33. Description tokoh simbolis Ibu figure Mother Pertiwi, Conception Pertiwi, walaupun although it was just a hanya peran bisu… (7) nonspeaking part.… (29) Untunglah Jepang It was a good thing the masuk mengusir Japanese came and Belanda sehingga Mas drove the Dutch out so Obrus (…) kopral that Young Man Obrus KNIL kita langsung (…), our corporal in the Term of 34. dapat berputar haluan KNIL, could turn his Adaptation Address menjadi heiho yang rudder right around and menghabiskan bagian become a heiho who besar waktunya di spent the largest part of Halmahera… (8) his service time in Halmahera… (31) …Legimah namanya …whose name was karena lahir di suatu Legimah because she Amplifica 35. Proper Name hari Jemuah Legi… was born on a Friday tion** (10) Legi…(32) …Legimah namanya …whose name was Measure Amplifica 36. karena lahir di suatu Legimah because she ment tion** hari Jemuah Legi… was born on a Friday

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(10) Legi… (32) …berpulangnya …his wife passing – the perempuan yang sangat wife whom he very ia sayangi sebagai much loved – the kerelaan seorang istri benevolent act of a true Religious, Jawa sejati yang Javanese wife who was Mystical & 37. sanggup mengorbankan willing to sacrifice all Description Mythical segala-galanya sebagai as a means to assure Conception tumbal demi the well-being of her keselamatan suami dan husband and twin kedua anak kembar- children… (32) dampitnya… (11) …dengan keyakinan …convinced as he was Religious, bahwa bagaimanapun that in any case God Mystical & Generaliza 38. toh Gusti Allah itu was All Merciful and Mythical tion Maha Rahim Maha All Forgiving… (33) Conception Pengampun… (11) …paling tidak istrinya, …at the very at least, menurut perhitungan according to the nalar heiho kontrakan, reckoning of this rent-a- pasti sudah menjadi heiho, that his wife, Religious, sebentuk tumbal before becoming a Mystical & 39. ruwatan sebelum helpful go-between Adaptation Mythical menjadi perantara yang between heaven and her Conception baik antara surga dan husband and children, suaminya serta anak- had surely turn into anaknya… (12) some kind of sacrificial victim for them… (33) …ya nun saat itu …thus at this time he terasalah lagi betapa si sensed once again how Obrus rindu-ricis deeply he longed for kepada Legimah, yang Legimah, who long ago dulu sebelum menikah before they were secara sukarela amu married had willingly diperkosanya model let him rape her, tangsi, di antara perdu- barrack style, among 40. Place & Area Borrowing perdu bunga kuning dan the clumps of yellow bougainville ungu di flowers and purple lereng selokan bougainvillea on the Plengkung yang selalu slopes next to the gelap sepi sebelum Plengkung canal that matahari terbenam… was always dark after (13) the sun went down… (19) Pastilah Allah mampu Certainly God can Religious, 41. Calque membuat akhirat seperti make the hereafter like Mystical &

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itu karena Allah Maha that because God is All Mythical Kuasa, walaupun harus Powerful, even though Conception diakui di dunia fana hal it has to be admitted itu tidaklah mungkin that it couldn‟t happen terjadi, tetapi duh Gusti in this world, but dear Allah, kan dunia Lord God, isn‟t the akhirat itu lain sama world hereafter sekali dari yang fana completely different (14) with this one? (35) …ya meninggallah Yes, he passed away, Obrus dengan tenang quietly, peacefully, damai bangga yakin sip, proudly, secure in his seperti sepantasnya beliefs and set to go, as Social 42. seorang manusia yang appropriate to a human Adaptation Conception setiawan yang being of good faith berkenan kepada Tuhan who is agreeable to maupun masyarakat… both God and his (15) fellows… (36) Pemakaman amat The burial was very mengharukan dengan touching with trumpets terompet genderang and drums moving haru memilukan, people deeply, as airs in dengan lagu puja praise of heroes brought Social Literal 43. pahlawan yang tears to the eyes of Conception Translation meneteskan air mata fading patriots with para patriot kawakan their wire tendons and berotot kawat tulang iron bones… (36) besi mulut mortir… (15) …dulu tidak ada bujet ...in the old days there logistik yang didukung was no logistical budget oleh perhitungan cermat underwritten by the BAPPENAS dan restu careful calculations of dari DPR Pusat RI dsb, the National Planning sehingga semua Development Board makanan dan kebutuhan and the blessings of the Term of 44. apa saja yang diminta National People‟s Reduction Address dari rakyat lewat pak Representative Council Lurah… (16) of the Republic of Indonesia and so that all food and any other needs had to come from the people, via the village headman… (37) Jelaslah tragedi itu Obviously this tragedy Art (Shadow- Amplifica 45. terjadi karena pada happened at the time play tion**

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waktu itu Zus Tiwi Sis Tiwi was fending Character) sedang menolak off the indecent pendekatan-pendekatan approaches of the mesum dari perwira officer who was in yang menjadi kunci charge of the whole dalam soal kenaikan matter if matter of pangkat; bukan karena promotions; it wasn‟t perwira itu buruk rupa because the officer was atau sadis dan ugly or sadistic or sebagainya, o kalau itu anything, oh as for that dia Gatotkaca… (16) he was a regular Gatotkaca… (37) …mengapa dia tidak …asking why she meniru gaya didn‟t take on the metropolitan yang metropolitan style as sudah diteladankan oleh demonstrated by the para Ibu agung Dharma well-heeled ladies of 46. Perempuan yang sering the Civil Servants‟ Place & Area Adaptation dipertontonkan dalam Ladies‟ Auxiliary layar tilipisi kantor association, often kecamatan itu… (18) appearing on the subdistrict office‟s television screen… (38) Istrinya sendiri malahan His wife meanwhile lebih membuat Kang only made him feel Term of Generaliza 47. Brojol minder akibat worse with all her Address tion olok-oloknya… (18) ridicule… (38) …mengapa adiknya …how come his sister begitu rupawan, kekar was such a looker, seperti Indo, dengan stacked like a Eurasian, sosok berukuran with well-proportioned proporsional antara hips, waist, and those pantat, pinggang, dan perfect breasts, all dada yang begitu combined with that Art (Shadow- Amplifica 48. sempurna terkombinasi American face play tion** dengan wajah Amerika (everything fabulous is Character) (semua yang hebat American) whereas her adalah Amerika), honored husband had sedangkan sang suami Petruk‟s look and a hanya model Petruk body shaped like the bentuk gethuk cothot… fried cassava snacks… (18) (39) …mengapa adiknya …how come his sister Food & begitu rupawan, kekar was such a looker, 49. Consump Description seperti Indo, dengan stacked like a Eurasian, tion sosok berukuran with well-proportioned

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proporsional antara hips, waist, and those pantat, pinggang, dan perfect breasts, all dada yang begitu combined with that sempurna terkombinasi American face dengan wajah Amerika (everything fabulous is (semua yang hebat American) whereas her adalah Amerika), honored husband had sedangkan sang suami Petruk‟s look and a hanya model Petruk body shaped like the bentuk gethuk fried cassava snacks… cothot… (18) (39) …sedangkan sang …whereas her honored suami hanya model husband had Petruk‟s Petruk bentuk gethuk look and a body shaped cothot seperti yang dulu like the fried cassava dijual sambil snacks his dear 50. berjongkok oleh ibunda departed mother used to Place & Area Adaptation almarhumah di sudut sell as she squatted at Kelenteng Cina dekat the corner of the alun-alun… (18) Chinese temple near the town square… (39) …mengingat kakek …bearing in mind that moyang pihak Mbok one of Ma Legimah‟s Term of 51. Legimah masih forefathers was of Arab Adaptation Address keturunan orang descent… (39) Arab… (19) …ya sosok-sosok Arab …had Arab features yang di zaman tempo that you still often saw dulu masih sering in those days in kelihatan di jalan Magelang‟s Chinatown, Pecinan Magelang, amazingly tall with a tinggi mencolok dengan head-covering called a Dress & Generaliza 52. tutup kelapa yang fez or a cap like a court Clothing tion disebut fez atau topi official‟s or a prince‟s kuluk seperti in the palace, only tumenggung dan plain… (39) pangeran keraton tetapi polos… (19) …sarung palekat …a checked sarong sampai betis yang diikat reaching down to his gaya Melayu dengan calf and secured in the Dress & 53. sabuk kulit lebar Malay style with a wide Adaptation Clothing berdompet dan kaki leather belt, a wallet, dalam selop kulit yang and his feet in leather diseret-seret berbunyi slippers that dragged as

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berirama… (19) he walked… (39) …sarung palekat …a checked sarong sampai betis yang diikat reaching down to his gaya Melayu dengan calf and secured in the sabuk kulit lebar Malay style with a wide Dress & 54. Adaptation berdompet dan kaki leather belt, a wallet, Clothing dalam selop kulit yang and his feet in leather diseret-seret berbunyi slippers that dragged as berirama… (19) he walked… (39) …baik Brojol maupun …both Brojol and Iin Iin memiliki hidung had the same nose and yang sama dan the same eyes, too, that sepasang mata kembar special jet black that juga, melolo yang khas you can‟t order at the tak dapat dipesan di store but then again, in Social 55. Adaptation toko tetapi toh dalam a more moderate, local Conception versi pribumi yang version, not too samadya tidak ekstrim, extreme, so very jadi laras sekali dan becoming and cause for bahan iri hati… (20) envy among their friends… (39) …baik Brojol maupun …both Brojol and Iin Iin memiliki hidung had the same nose and yang sama dan the same eyes, too, that sepasang mata kembar special jet black that juga, melolo yang khas you can‟t order at the tak dapat dipesan di store but then again, in 56. Proper Name Borrowing toko tetapi toh dalam a more moderate, local versi pribumi yang version, not too samadya tidak ekstrim, extreme, so very jadi laras sekali dan becoming and cause for bahan iri hati… (20) envy among their friends… (39) …sehingga satu- …in the end the one satunya keterangan explanation that made yang masih dapat any sense, and as a diterima, dan memang matter of fact Obrus nyatanya juga pernah himself once said it diungkapkan oleh Mas when he was still alive, Term of 57. Obrus waktu masih was that in reality Reduction Address hidup ialah, bahwa pada Brojol was descended hakekatnya Brojol from Lord Basuki, the adalah keturunan Dewa Snake King who lives Basuki, Raja Ular yang beneath the ground… tinggal di bawah (40) tanah… (20)

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…sehingga satu- …in the end the one satunya keterangan explanation that made yang masih dapat any sense, and as a diterima, dan memang matter of fact Obrus nyatanya juga pernah himself once said it diungkapkan oleh Mas when he was still alive, Art (Shadow- Adaptation 58. Obrus waktu masih was that in reality play - Borrowing hidup ialah, bahwa pada Brojol was descended Character) hakekatnya Brojol from Lord Basuki, the adalah keturunan Dewa Snake King who lives Basuki, Raja Ular yang beneath the ground… tinggal di bawah (40) tanah… (20) …sedangkan Iin adalah …while Iin was keturunan Dewa Wisnu descended from Lord Art (Shadow- yang istananya di Wisnu whose palace is Adaptation 59. play kayangan dengan in heaven and uses the - Borrowing Character) boeingnya Garuda Garuda Jetayu as his Jetayu… (20) Boeing jet... (40) …sedangkan Iin adalah …while Iin was keturunan Dewa Wisnu descended from Lord yang istananya di Wisnu whose palace is kayangan dengan in heaven and uses the boeingnya Garuda Garuda Jetayu* as his Jetayu*… (*Garuda Boeing jet… (*The Art (Shadow- Amplifica 60. pembela Dewi Sinta garuda [mystical & play tion** ketika diculik mythical bird] that Character) Rahwana) (20) defended Goddes Sinta when she was kidnapped by Rahwana in the Indian epic Ramayana) (40) …peristiwa yang tidak …something that has pernah dapat ditemukan never been known to dalam semua lontar dan happen in all the palm- seluruh pakem wayang, leaf manuscripts and all akan tetapi Kopral the shadow-play Obrus hanya stories, but Corporal Art (Shadow- 61. melontarkan alasan Obrus just palmed off Adaptation play) yang cukup fanatik an explanation, yakni bahwa daerah reflecting fanatical Kedu itu daerah yang regional pride, saying istimewa… (20) that the area of Kedu is an exceptional one… (40) 62. …jelas -jelaslah bukti …it was a clear proof Religious, Description

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betapa merdeka daerah- of just how free the tax- Mystical & daerah perdikan Kedu exempt areas of Kedu Mythical itu di zaman dulu, were in old days, and Conception bahkan sampai indeed still are down to sekarang pun masih, the present day, due to berkat kemurahan hati the generosity of the kiai pembaureksa venerable founding Merapi Merbabu fathers of Merapi Telomoyo Sumbing Merbabu Telomoyo Sindoro dan abdi dalem Sumbing Sindoro and Pegunungan Menoreh the courtiers of the yang penuh hikayat Menoreh Mountains historis maupun tidak which are so full of historis itu… (21) chronicles both historical and ahistorical… (41) …berkat kemurahan …due to the generosity hati kiai pembaureksa of the venerable Merapi Merbabu founding fathers of Telomoyo Sumbing Merapi Merbabu Sindoro dan abdi Telomoyo Sumbing dalem Pegunungan Sindoro and the Social 63. Adaptation Menoreh yang penuh courtiers of the Conception hikayat historis maupun Menoreh Mountains tidak historis itu… (21) which are so full of chronicles both historical and ahistorical… (41) …candi-candi …the temple Borobudur-Mendut- Borobudur-Mendut- Pawon sebagai harta Pawon as the most Religious, pusaka yang paling valuable heirlooms, Mystical & 64. Adaptation berharga dan khas ones uniquely able to Mythical spesial memancarkan spread the fame of the Conception pamor daerah Kedu… region of Kedu… (41) (21) …karena dalam …because in Brojol‟s pandangan Brojol yang view the important penting adalah istrinya, thing was his wife, his Art (Shadow- Adaptation 65. Dewi Sri-nya, yang own Goddess Sri, who play - Borrowing sungguh perempuan truly was a woman, aka Character) alias yang diperempu… a venerable font of (21) wisdom… (41) …jadi ular yang …so the snakes that eat Religious, 66. memakan tikus jelaslah rats are clearly the fruit Mystical & Adaptation buah Rahmatullah of God’s mercy, and of Mythical

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yang tiada terperikan inestimable value… Conception harganya... (22) (41) …bibir-bibirnya yang …lips that with or dengan atau tanpa without filter cigarettes rokok filter ditengahnya between them have berdaya pukau Roro Maiden Mendut‟s Workfield 67. Mendut yang membuat stupefying power, (Bureaucra Borrowing kaum sejenis power that gives the cy) Tumenggung likes of Tumenggung Wiroguno senewen… Wiroguno nervous (24) fits… (43) … tetapi menurut buku … but who according to Who’s Who, terbitan Who’s Who, the majalah berwibawa ibu capital„s influential kota ynag disponsori publication, which is beberapa bank bonafide underwritten by several yang sudah go public, bona fide banks that adalah putri Professor have gone public, is the Term of Amplifica 68. Gilbert Wahington Bsc. daughter of Professor Address tion** MBA. PhD. ThD dan Gilbert Washington (Nobility) Bendoro Raden Ayu Bsc. MBA. PhD. ThD Theresia Ursula and Bendoro Raden Nurhayati Ayu Theresia Ursula Tejakusumaningrum… Nurhayati (24) Tejakusumaningrum… (43) …sebab penguasaan …because this bahasa Belanda gadis mysterious maiden misterius asal Lembah from Progo and Elo Progo dan Elo ini Valleys has a really sungguh luar biasa, extraordinary command padahal hanya produk of Dutch, even though 69. Place & Area Adaptation Bijzondere H.I School she‟s only a product of Jalan Pendowo di muka the Bijzondere H.I Kantor Kabupaten School on Pendowo Magelang… (25) street opposite the old Regency Office of Magelang …Bung Karno waktu …a young Bung Karno, masih muda, berpici in a high, somewhat tinggi agak oleng, unsteady black velvet Dress & 70. berjas rapi berdasi cap, a neat jacket and a Description Clothing hitam bintik-bintik black tie with white putih atau biru tua atau polka dots or dark blue merah tua… (27) or dark red… (45) 71. …seorang pemuda …a young man with Social Generaliza

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dengan baju berkantong double pockets on his Conception tion dobel dan bercelana shirt and scouts‟ style short gaya pandu hijau green short, carrying sirih, bersenapan kayu, wooden rifle, with kepala gundul berpici black velvet cap at a beledu oleng… (30) jaunty angle… (48) …biarlah gadis udik …let the girl from the Kedu itu tahu sedikit Kedu hinterlands learn tentang dunia a little about the noble adiluhung kaum politik world of the political Social 72. yang sedang class who were Adaptation Conception menggodog rakyat demi bringing the masses to persiapan Indonesia the boil to prepare them Merdeka… (31) for Free Indonesia… (48) …uah sombongnya …man these dwarves orang-orang cebol with legs like o‟s as Weapon, Generaliza 73. berkaki o bedug masjid round as a mosque‟s Tool & Toy tion itu… (31) drum are so arrogant… (49) …semua akan beres …everything‟s going to seandainya semua be fine provided orang taat saja kepada everybody obeys the pimpinan Bung Karno leadership of Bung dan Bung Hatta, tetapi Karno and Bung Hatta, kok si pemuda bayi but now along come kemarin sore yang these kids born Social Literal 74. cuma bawa senapan yesterday carrying Conception Translation kayu dan pici beledu nothing more than rifles yang sudah mulai lusuh made out of wood and itu ikut-ikutan untuk ya wearing velvet caps that untuk apa sebetulnya… are already getting (33) threadbare jumping in to, well, to do what exactly? (50) Tetapi di hari berkutnya But in the following alhamdulillah anak- days, Praise the Lord anak beringas itu sudah those wild kids brought memulangkan Bung back Bung Karno, Bung Religious, Karno, Bung Hatta, Bu Hatta, Bu Fat and above Mystical & 75. Fat dan terutama dan all and most Adaptation Mythical terpenting si bayi importantly little baby Conception Guntur yang kasihan Guntur the poor thing menangis karena ibunya who cried because his lupa membawa susu mother forgot to take a botol … (33) long a bottle of milk for

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him… (50) …menuruti pemuda- …the way the young pemuda yang katanya guys want it who they sering berembugan say often discuss things dengan seorang pendek with some short little Social Literal 76. kecil dari Minang yang guy from Minang who Conception Translation suka tertawa terbahak- has a mad laugh but bahak tetapi katanya they say he‟s smart pintar seperti kancil… like a mouse deer… (35) (52) …semua harus …everyone has to cut menghemat, tetapi kan corners, but a woman‟s kehormatan perempuan self-respect shouldn‟t itu tidak sepantasnya be where you cut Religious, dihemat, tetapi ya corners, should it? But Mystical & 77. Borrowing sudahlah semua di allright nevermind Mythical dalam tangan everything‟s in the hand Conception Allahuakbar of Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar Allahuakbar… (36) Allahuakbar… (52) …beres Bu, lantai …everything‟s in order, ruangan dalam maupun Madam, the floors House, pendapa muka sudah inside as well as in the Household 78. Adaptation dipel hingga reception hall in front Good & mengkilat… (36) have been mopped till Surrounding they shine… (53) …Pak Kebon kemarin …the gardener got a sudah mempersiapkan bamboo flagpole ready bambu tiang bendera yesterday well it‟s been Job or 79. Adaptation yang biar lama tetapi around for a while but Profession dicat baru… (36) he painted it like new… (52) …maklumlah laki-laki …you know how it is, itu banyak yang hebat there‟s a lot of guys out genteng seperti there really great Gatotkaca tetapi ya looking Gatotkaca types sukanya terbang melulu but all they want to do dan berkelahi, maka is fly around and get Art (Shadow- pilihlah model Gareng into brawls, so choose Amplifica 80. play atau Petruk atau yourself some guy like tion** Character) Bagong sajalah biar Gareng or Petruk or badut rupanya tidak Bagong, never mind bermutu tetapi seumur they‟re servants, don‟t hidup hanya gelak look like much but what ketawa pahalanya tanpa you‟ll get back is a harus jaga gengsi… good laugh your whole

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(37) life through and you won‟t have to worry about keeping up appearances… (54) …Bung Karno tegap …Bung Karno with his dan gagah perkasa large powerful frame penuh kesadaran diri, looking dashing and Social 81. sedangkan Bung Hatta self-assured, while Adaptation Conception kalem adem ayem… bung Hatta looked cool, (39) calm and collected… (55) “Hei, kamu dicari “Hey, your boyfriend‟s hyangmu si pemuda looking for you, the guy senapan kayu,” bisik with the wooden rifle,” bibinya, tetapi Tiwi whispered her aunt, but Term of Particulari 82. menggeleng-gelengkan Siwi shook her head, Address zation kepalanya dan berkata, “I‟m not his girlfriend”. “Saya bukan (57) hyangnya”. (42) “Hei, kamu dicari “Hey, your boyfriend‟s hyangmu si pemuda looking for you, the guy senapan kayu,” bisik with the wooden rifle,” bibinya, tetapi Tiwi whispered her aunt, but Term of Particulari 83. menggeleng-gelengkan Siwi shook her head, Address zation kepalanya dan berkata, “I‟m not his “Saya bukan girlfriend”. (57) hyangnya”. (42) …ditambah jangan lupa …in addition don‟t sekian banyak buaya forget all those native priyayi kolot maupun aristocrats crocodiles, intelektual cari enak old fashioned or Social 84. Adaptation yang mengkhianati intellectual seeking Conception Republik… (44) their own comfort who were slandering the Republic… (60) …aduhai banyak sekali …oh man there were lot orang berkulit cokelat of people with brown or atau mahoni atau mahogany or teak or merbau atau sonokeling chocolate-colored skin 85. atau duku langsep ya there were a lot of them Ecology Reduction masih saja ada yang who actually preferred lebih suka diperintah being bossed around by orang-orang Holland… the Dutch… (60) (44) …Divisi ke-23 Inggris …the English India Food & 86. Description India di bawah Jendral Twenty-third Division Consump

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Hawthorn yang under General tion diboncengi Belanda- Hawthorn brought with Belanda macam-macam all those different kinds jenis itu, dari yang of Dutchmen perched putih-anak-babi sampai on board, from piglet hitam-gula-jawa- pale to burnt coconut gosong yang memiliki sugar dark who had senapan kecil… (45) those little weapons… (61) …hanya Soekarno- …it was only Hatta yang mereka taati Soekarno-Hatta that dengan kebulatan tekad people were faithful to, yang sungguh bulat with a resolve as Weapon, Generaliza 87. seperti bola sepak atau seamless and round as a Tool & Toy tion bola bekel mainan soccer ball or maybe a anak-anak… (46) children’s toy ball… (62) …atau boleh juga atas …or maybe in the name nama seluruh bangsa of all the people of Indonesia tetapi Indonesia but with the ditambahi: kecuali added note: except for Social 88. Description priyayi dan amtenar members of the elite Conception yang masih harus diuji and officials… (62) atau dihajar biar tahu diri… (47) …atau boleh juga atas …or maybe in the name nama seluruh bangsa of all the people of Indonesia tetapi Indonesia but with the Workfield ditambahi: kecuali added note: except for 89. (Bureaucra Adaptation priyayi dan amtenar members of the elite cy) yang masih harus diuji and officials… (62) atau dihajar biar tahu diri … (47) Nah sesampai di So once she had gotten Yogyakarta di Gedung to Yogyakarta and the Agung yang dulu Great Hall that used to dipakai untuk kediaman be used as the Dutch Literal 90. Place & Area gubernur Belanda di governor‟s residence Translation muka bekas benteng facing the former Kompeni di Kota Company fort in the Sultan itu… (47) City of Sultans… (62) Sampai di desa yang When she got to the House, ditunjukkan ternyata village she had been Household Compensa 91. rumah pekarangan directed to it turned out Good & tion abangnya yang her brother‟s house Surrounding mendompleng di which was tacked onto

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gandok dan dua dari the side of another tetangga punya sudah house plus two of the dipakai sebagai dapur neighbors‟ houses were umum… (48) all being used as a makeshift public kitchen… (63) Abangnya secara Her older brother had serampangan diangkat been picked up willy- oleh para pemuda nilly by the advance pelopor menjadi kepala fighters to be the village Workfield Generaliza 92. desa karena lurah headman because the (Bureaucra tion sebelumya didaulat headman before him cy) dipecat… (48) had been ousted by the will of the people… (63) …jadi Kang Brojollah …so it was Brother sejak itu yang menjadi Brojol who since that Lurah “Kiblik” time was the “Kiblik” Workfield walaupun masih terlalu Headman even though Adaptation 93. (Bureaucra muda nyaris remaja dan he was too young - Borrowing cy) pendudu baru… (48) barely out of his teens and a newcomer to the village… (63) …karena maklumlah …since of course all yang datang itu semua those guys showing up pahlawan dan calon were heroes or pahlawan yang candidate heroes who mungkin sekali akan might very possibly fall 94. Ecology Borrowing gugur dalam medan on the sacrificial field bakti seperti bunga like jasmine or melati atau kamboja camboja flowers, one gugur satu tumbuh falls and a thousand seribu… (50) grow in its place… (65) …dan karenanya sering …and for that reason mereka mudah they were quick to mengomel kalau complain of the rice nasinya kurang putih, wasn‟t white enough kurang pulen terlalu not sticky enough too Food & 95. keras atau terlalu hard too soft or going Consump Description lembek atau agak off and the soybean tion tengik dan tempe cakes were too small or tahunya terlalu kecil the vegetables had atau sayurnya sudah gotten pretty sour… agak kecut… (50) (65) …sehingga tidaklah …so it wasn‟t easy for Workfield 96. Description mudah bagi pak lurah Mr. Headman and the (Bureaucra

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dan para kebayan dan various village officials cy) carik dan ulu-ulu and the village dibantu ibu-ibu dan secretary and leaders pemudi Tiwi yang assisted by the women hanya tukang cuci… and young Tiwi who (51) was only a laundry woman… (65) …sehingga tidaklah …so it wasn‟t easy for mudah bagi pak lurah Mr. Headman and the dan para kebayan dan various village officials carik dan ulu-ulu and the village Workfield 97. dibantu ibu-ibu dan secretary and leaders (Bureaucra Description pemudi Twi yang hanya assisted by the women cy) tukang cuci… (51) and young Tiwi who was only a laundry woman… (65) …sehingga tidaklah …so it wasn‟t easy for mudah bagi pak lurah Mr. Headman and the dan para kebayan dan various village officials carik dan ulu-ulu and the village Workfield Generaliza 98. dibantu ibu-ibu dan secretary and leaders (Bureaucra tion pemudi Twi yang hanya assisted by the women cy) tukang cuci…(51) and young Tiwi who was only a laundry woman… (65) …dana-dana non- …non budgetary bujeter dari sponsor funding from clove- pabrik rokok kretek scented cigarette atau permainan judi factory sponsors or yang sudah dihalalkan from gambling so Food & 99. besar -besaran sehingga completely cleared of Consump Description namanya bukan lagi religious prohibitions as tion judi tetapi sumbangan to no longer be called sukarela… (51) gambling but rather voluntarily contributions… (65) …jadi orang-orang desa …so villagers really sungguh pusing puyeng had to wrack their mati-matian untuk brains coming up with a membuat daftar giliran list of who would take siapa hari Senin Pon turns having to Measure Amplifica 100. harus setor gowi atau contribute young ment tion** kelapa dan Selasa jackfruit or coconuts on Pahing siapa yang harus Monday Pon and setor kambing atau Tuesday Pahing who ayam dan Rebo Kliwon would have to put in a

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siapa yang diminta goat or chickens and dengan hormat tetapi Wednesday Kliwon harus taat untuk who would be menyembelih requested respectfully sapinya…(51) but firmly to slay a cow… (65) …jadi orang-orang desa …so villagers really sungguh pusing puyeng had to wrack their mati-matian untuk brains coming up with a membuat daftar giliran list of who would take siapa hari Senin Pon turns having to harus setor gowi atau contribute young kelapa dan Selasa jackfruit or coconuts on Pahing siapa yang Monday Pon and Measure Amplifica 101. harus setor kambing Tuesday Pahing who ment tion** atau ayam dan Rebo would have to put in a Kliwon siapa yang goat or chickens and diminta dengan hormat Wednesday Kliwon tetapi harus taat untuk who would be menyembelih requested respectfully sapinya…(51) but firmly to slay a cow… (65) …jadi orang-orang desa …so villagers really sungguh pusing puyeng had to wrack their mati-matian untuk brains coming up with a membuat daftar giliran list of who would take siapa hari Senin Pon turns having to harus setor gowi atau contribute young kelapa dan Selasa jackfruit or coconuts on Pahing siapa yang harus Monday Pon and Measure Amplifica 102. setor kambing atau Tuesday Pahing who ment tion** ayam dan Rebo Kliwon would have to put in a siapa yang diminta goat or chickens and dengan hormat tetapi Wednesday Kliwon harus taat untuk who would be menyembelih requested respectfully sapinya…(51) but firmly to slay a cow… (65) …maka Pulau Jawa …thus the Island of akan terpotong menjadi Java would be sliced Food & dua belahan seperti into two parts like Generaliza 103. Consump lemper atau arem- snacks all ready to tion tion arem tinggal eat… (66) dimakan… (52) …sebab semua dan …because each and Social 104. Adaptation setiap jago kelompok every group‟s head Conception

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yang punya bambu honcho with a runcing merasa dirinya sharpened bamboo stick panglima yang merdeka thought of himself as a dan berdaulat, jadi free and autonomous semua harus general, so everyone mengindahkan had to take don’t-mess- demokrasi-wis-gede- with-me democracy moh-dikerasi karena into account because begitu banyaknyalah these guys had so many jumlah laskar… (52) troops… (66) …mesiu adalah terasi …ammunition is dan cabai sambel ulek shrimp paste and hot yang membuat setiap pepper sauce that Food & makanan apapun enak makes any food at all 105. Consump Description tetapi celakanyanya taste good although the tion membuat orang minta downside is that it tambah nasi… (53) makes people ask for more rice… (67) …mesiu adalah terasi …ammunition is dan cabai sambel ulek shrimp paste and hot yang membuat setiap pepper sauce that Food & makanan apapun enak makes any food at all 106. Consump Adaptation tetapi celakanyanya taste good although the tion membuat orang minta downside is that it tambah nasi… (53) makes people ask for more rice… (67) …sehingga Tiwi …some of them gemetar karena ada threatened to rape her is yang mengancam nanti there weren‟t any soft akan diperkosa kalau or crunchy soybean Food & Generaliza 107. tidak ada tempe atau cakes or better fried Consump tion tahu atau lebih baik slices of chicken or tion daging ayam sapi beef with spicy fried empal pakai coconut on the side… serundeng… (54) (68) …sehingga Tiwi …so Tiwi trembled gemetar karena ada because some of them yang mengancam nanti threatened to rape her is akan diperkosa kalau there weren‟t any soft Food & tidak ada tempe atau or crunchy soybean 108. Consump Description tahu atau lebih baik cakes or better fried tion daging ayam sapi empal slices of chicken or beef pakai serundeng… with spicy fried (54) coconut on the side… (68) 109. …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Food & Description

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Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around Consump berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form tion sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil soybean cake or soft or atau kethak atau dried anchovies or bongko atau pelas atau fried peanut dregs or saren atau kerupuk atau roasted taro leaves or telur pokoknya jangan peanut dregs or steamed sampai diperkosa… bean and coconut (54) packets or dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil soybean cake or soft or atau kethak atau dried anchovies or fried Food & 110. bongko atau pelas atau peanut dregs or Consump Description saren atau kerupuk atau roasted taro leaves or tion telur pokoknya jangan peanut dregs or steamed sampai diperkosa… bean and coconut (54) packets or dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy Food & 111. atau teri atau buntil atau soybean cake or soft or Consump Description kethak atau bongko dried anchovies or fried tion atau pelas atau saren peanut dregs or roasted atau kerupuk atau telur taro leaves or peanut pokoknya jangan dregs or steamed bean sampai diperkosa… and coconut packets or (54) dried blood or shrimp

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crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil atau soybean cake or soft or kethak atau bongko dried anchovies or fried Food & 112. atau pelas atau saren peanut dregs or roasted Consump Description atau kerupuk atau telur taro leaves or peanut tion pokoknya jangan dregs or steamed bean sampai diperkosa… and coconut packets or (54) dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil atau soybean cake or soft or kethak atau bongko dried anchovies or fried Food & 113. atau pelas atau saren peanut dregs or roasted Consump Description atau telur pokoknya taro leaves or peanut tion jangan sampai dregs or steamed bean diperkosa… (54) and coconut packets or dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form Food & sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg 114. Consump Description meminta bantuan for help no matter tion apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil atau soybean cake or soft or kethak atau bongko dried anchovies or fried

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atau pelas atau saren peanut dregs or reasted atau kerupuk atau telur taro leaves or peanut pokoknya jangan dregs or steamed bean sampai diperkosa… and coconut packets or (54) dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …maka terpaksalah …thus Tiwi was forced Tiwi dalam malam buta to go wandering around berkeliling ke desa-desa the dead of night form sekitarnya untuk village to village to beg meminta bantuan for help no matter apalah tempe atau tahu whether it was crunchy atau teri atau buntil atau soybean cake or soft or kethak atau bongko dried anchovies or fried Food & Particulari 115. atau pelas atau saren peanut dregs or reasted Consump zation atau kerupuk atau telur taro leaves or peanut tion pokoknya jangan dregs or steamed bean sampai diperkosa… and coconut packets or (54) dried blood or shrimp crackers or eggs the important thing was for her not to get raped… (68) …termasuk keris …including the potent pusaka dari kakek dari heirloom dagger from moyang di Bagelen his grandfather on his yang konon pernah Bagelen ancestors‟ side minum darah sekian said to have drunk the Religious, prajurit Pangeran blood of so many of Mystical & 116. Adaptation Diponegoro itu Prince Diponegoro‟s Mythical (kerisnya) tetapi sudah soldiers (the dagger, Conception diruwat oleh seorang that is) but it was dukun sakti di jaman exorcised by a Jepang… (55) powerful magic specialist… (68) …sedangkan tanpa …whereas without the bantuan para help of the hulubalang Kedu kala commanders from Workfield itu Panembahan Kedu not even Lord 117. (Bureaucra Adaptation Senopati pun tidak Senopati in his time cy) mungkin mengalahkan could possibly have Demak… (55) defeated the Kingdom of Demak… (69)

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…sedangkan tanpa ...whereas without a bantuan para help of the commanders hulubalang Kedu kala from Kedu not even Workfield itu Panembahan Lord Senopati in his 118. (Bureaucra Adaptation Senopati pun tidak time could possibly cy) mungkin mengalahkan have defeated the Kerajan Demak… (56) Kingdom of Demak… (69) …orang-orang Kedu …the people of Kedu dan Bagelen yang and Bagelen who selalu merasa minder always feel put down karena dianggap hanya because the refined tani dungu lugu wagu palace types think of oleh orang-orang them as crude rude Keraton halus itu dudes from down od the Term of Amplifica 119. karena bicaranya masih farm because they Address tion** a-a-a-a bukan o-o-o dan pronounce their words berkata inyong kalau with a-a-a not o-o-o and yang dimaksud aku dan use strange old- rika kalau yang fashioned words when dimaksud kamu… (56) they mean to say I and you… (69) O Allah, kapan selesai Oh God, when this Gesture & 120. jaman merdeka ini… freedom era going to Habit Adaptation (56) end… (69) (Interjection) …dia tidak cari mertua …she wasn‟t looking atau keluarga mertua, for any parents-in-law tetapi mencari suatu or their relatives, she laskar wanita yang was looking for instead militan dan jagoan, for women soldiers who yang lebih unggul were militant and kualitasnya daripada headstrong, who were koboi-koboi fron superior in quality to Art (Shadow- Amplifica 121. terdepan bagian these cowboys of the play tion** belakang itu, untuk rear sections of the Character) melatih diri dalam forwardmost front lines, bidang kemiliteran in order to train herself seperti Srikandi istri in the military field like Arjuna walaupun belum Arjuna‟s wife Srikandi punya Arjuna… (57) eventhough she didn‟t have any Arjuna of her own… (70) …dia tidak cari mertua …she wasn‟t looking Art (Shadow- atau keluarga mertua, for any parents-in-law Amplifica 122. play tetapi mencari suatu or their relatives, she tion** Character) laskar wanita yang was looking for instead

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militan dan jagoan, for women soldiers who yang lebih unggul were militant and kualitasnya daripada headstrong, who were koboi-koboi fron superior in quality to terdepan bagian these cowboys of the belakang itu, untuk rear sections of the melatih diri dalam forwardmost front bidang kemiliteran lines,in order to train seperti Srikandi istri herself in the military Arjuna walaupun field like Arjuna‟s wife belum punya Arjuna… Srikandi eventhough (57) she didn‟t have any Arjuna of her own… (70) Rasa haru gembira He didn‟t declare his ketika bertemu lagi feeling of being dengan anaknya tidak touched and overjoyed dia nyatakan dengan on seeing his child cium-peluk seperti again with the hugs and biasanya orang sipil kisses in the usual way tetapi dengan memukul of civilians but rather Art (Shadow- meninju seluruh tubuh by boxing with her, Amplifica 123. play anaknya, diangkat ke hitting his child‟s whole tion** Character) udara dibanting di kasur body, picking her up seperti tokoh wayang and throwing her Werkudara ketika through the air, beating bersua dengan her against the mattress Arimbi… (58) like the wayang figure Wrekudara when he runs into Arimbi… (70) Rasa haru gembira He didn‟t declare his ketika bertemu lagi feeling of being dengan anaknya tidak touched and overjoyed dia nyatakan dengan on seeing his child cium-peluk seperti again with the hugs and biasanya orang sipil kisses in the usual way tetapi dengan memukul of civilians but rather Art (Shadow- meninju seluruh tubuh by boxing with her, Amplifica 124. play anaknya, diangkat ke hitting his child‟s whole tion** Character) udara dibanting di kasur body, picking her up seperti tokoh wayang and throwing her Werkudara ketika through the air, beating bersua dengan her against the mattress Arimbi… (58) like the wayang figure Wrekudara when he runs into Arimbi…

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(70) …kasar tetapi ksatria …they were rough but tentu saja ksatria dalam they warriors, warrior arti medan perang of course on the fields kasar, jangan diukur of a dirty war, you can‟t 125. Place & Area Description dengan pesantren atau judge them by the sekolah pastor… (58) standard of Muslim boarding school or Sunday school… (71) …ya mereka …indeed they esteemed menghargai and respected Sergeant menghormati anak Major Obrus‟s daughter Sersan Mayor Obrus Srikandi but still they yang Srikandi itu tetapi couldn‟t restrain the toh tidak dapat impulse to give her new 126. mengekang nafsu untuk nickname: Miss Jugs, Proper Name Adaptation memberi nama akrab alluding to her breasts baru kepadanya: Sri that were big like Kendi, menyindir dua jugs… (71) payudaranya yang besar seperti kendi-kendi… (59) …tidak dapat …couldn‟t restrain the mengekang nafsu untuk impulse to give her new memberi nama akrab nickname: Miss Jugs, baru kepadanya: Sri alluding to her breasts Weapon, 127. Adaptation Kendi, menyindir dua that were big like Tool & Toy payudaranya yang besar jugs… (71) seperti kendi-kendi… (59) …maka sejak itu Tiwi …thus after that time kadang-kadang Tiwi was occasionally diperbolehkan permitted to precede the mengawal Panglima Division Commander‟s Divisi bila sedang car‟s gas cap to show berdinas dengan duduk that this woman wasn‟t Social 128. Adaptation di atas kap mesinnya just a cooking- Conception untuk menunjukkan cleaning-and-cuddling bahwa perempuan itu slave… (73) tidak cuma budak di dapur-sumur-dan- kasur… (61) …benarkah Iin Linda …was it true that Iin Art (Shadow- Pertiwi sudah menjadi Linda Pertiwi had now Adaptation 129. play pengejawantahan Batari become the incarnation - Borrowing Character) Durga yang dulu Dewi of Goddes Durga who

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Uma… (63) used to be Lady Uma… (74) …tentang ibu-ibu dan …about mothers and embak-kakak yang grandparents who have harus tetap di garis to staying the rear of belakang mengungsi the fighting looking for dan gaji suami tidak shelther and their Food & pernah dikirim karena husbands never send Particulari 130. Consump sedang menyerang them their pay because zation tion Belanda, tetapi anak- they‟re busy attacking anak masih menangis the Dutch, but their minta es… (69) children keep on crying asking for ice cream… (79) …tentang ibu-ibu dan …about mothers and embak-kakak yang grandparents who have harus tetap di garis to staying the rear of belakang mengungsi the fighting looking for dan gaji suami tidak shelther and their pernah dikirim karena husbands never send sedang menyerang them their pay because Weapon, 131. Belanda, anak-anak they‟re busy attacking Adaptation Tool & Toy masih menangis minta the Dutch, but their es minta kerupuk minta children keep on crying permainan otog-otog asking forice cream kodok … (69) asking for shrimp crackers asking for noisemaker froggies… (79) …tentang ibu-ibu dan …about mothers and embak-kakak yang grandparents who have harus tetap di garis to staying the rear of belakang mengungsi the fighting looking for dan gaji suami tidak shelther and their pernah dikirim karena husbands never send sedang menyerang them their pay because Belanda, anak-anak they‟re busy attacking Foods & 132. masih menangis minta the Dutch, but their Consump Description es minta kerupuk minta children keep on crying tions permainan otog-otog asking forice cream kodok dan kincir kertas asking for shrimp dan gelali… (69) crackers asking for noisemaker froggies and paper windmills and coconut sugar candies… (79)

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…bahwa kaumnya pun …they often experience sering terkena hama pest of locusts and rats, wereng dan tikus, get ripped off by their dipreteli germo atau pimps or lady 133. Ecology Adaptation lady chaperone atau chaperone or whatever entah namanya atau they‟re called or by the kantor pajak gelap… shaddy tax office… (73) (82) Nah juga mengenai Now as for that very Religious, pasal yang gawat yang sensitive section of the Mystical & Amplifica 134. disebut oleh para ahli body that the religious Mythical tion** agama dengan kata scholars dub the Conceptions aurat… (78) aurat… (86) …sehingga jasa yang …so that the greatest paling besar seorang service a woman could perempuan adalah perform was to give melahirkan patriot birth to partriots of the bangsa yang Indonesia Glorious Indonesian Raya ini, seperti yang nation, as was done by Art (Shadow- Amplifica 135. dikerjakan oleh the revered hero of the play) tion** pahlawan Baratayuda Baratayuda war sang Arjuna yang di Arjuna who mana-mana mengawini impregnated women wanita… (81) wherever he went… (88) Pulanglah Iin dengan On home Iin went menangis, mengakui weeping, selama ini dia lebih acknowledging that for Batari Durga daripada a while now she had Batari Uma, lebih been more Goddess Art (Shadow- Sarpekenaka* Durga than Goddess Amplifica 136. play daripada Sinta… Uma, more tion** Character) (*Adik perempuan Sarpakenaka* than Rahwana yang Sinta… (*Rahwana‟s berwajah raksasa) (83) younger sister who has the face of an ogress) (90) Pulanglah Iin dengan On home Iin went menangis, mengakui weeping, selama ini dia lebih acknowledging that for Batari Durga daripada a while now she had Art (Shadow- Amplifica 137. Batari Uma, lebih been more Goddess play tion** Sarpeneka* daripada Durga than Goddess Character) Sinta… (*Adik Uma, more perempuan Rahwana Sarpakenaka* than yang berwajah raksasa) Sinta… (*Rahwana‟s

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(83) younger sister who has the face of an ogress) (90) …sebab Bung Karno …because Bung Karno yang Arjuna dan Bung who was Arjuna and Hatta yang Yudhistira Bung Hatta who was pasti belum tahu bahwa Yudhistira for sure Art (Shadow- Amplifica 138. si Limbuk-Cangik neither or them knew play tion** Linda Tiwi diam-diam that Miss Limbuk- Character) sudah menikah, atau Cangik Linda Pertiwi lebih tepat kawin… had already secretly (84) married… (90) …sebab Bung Karno …because Bung Karno yang Arjuna dan Bung who was Arjuna and Hatta yang Yudhistira Bung Hatta who was pasti belum tahu bahwa Yudhistira for sure Art (Shadow- Adaptation 139. si Limbuk-Cangik neither or them knew play - Amplifica Linda Tiwi diam-diam that Miss Limbuk- Character) tion** sudah menikah atau Cangik Linda Pertiwi lebih tepat kawin… had already secretly (84) married… (90) Ibu Perti atau Tante Wi Mrs. Perti or Auntie Cik Bi, menyatakan Wie Miss Bi stated that keyakinannya bahwa it was her femininity; keunggulan dan harta but this has to be paling berharga wanita understood according to Social Established 140. adalah kefeminaannya; the situation and Conception Equivalent tetapi ini harus dilihat condition, but don‟t menurut situasi dan lump it all together six kondisinya, jangan of one a half dozen of digebyah-uyah pukul the other… (93) rata… (87) …antithesis Kartini …the antithesis of atau Arjuna yang feodal Kartini or Arjuna who seperti sayur gudeg was feudalistic like yang biar lezat Jogja’s famous gudeg, Food & Amplifica 141. sekalipun, tetapi sudah jackfruid stewed in Consump tion habis vitamin- coconut milk which tion vitaminya… (89) may well be luscious, but all the vitamins are cooked out of it… (94) Lain, Nussy Cik Bi, Different, Miss Bi was lainlah dari sayur gudeg quite different with 142. yang patutnya hanya gudeg which should Place & Area Description dihidangkan di lesehan really only be served to kaki lima… (89) people sitting

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cassually on mats along the sidewalk… (95) …di zaman PKI dulu si …during the PKI era Abang Brojol yang poor brither Brojol was kasihan itu tidak punya broke, because just uang, karena padi yang when the rice plants sudah menguning di were turning yellow Measure Generaliza 143. sawah seluas lima and about ready to ment tion bahu dipotong ganas harvest in his extensive oleh orang palu-arit… fields they all got cut (93) down savagely by hammer-and-sickle people… (98) …karena padi yang …because just when sudah menguning di the rice plants were sawah seluas lima bahu turning yellow and dipotong ganas oleh about ready to harvest orang palu-arit yang in his extensive fields mengira tugas mereka they all got cut down Social Literal 144. hanya memalu dan savagely by hammer- Conception Translation mengarit saja asal sabet and-sickle people who hantam… (93) thought their job was just to hammer and sicle everytime the whip cracked… (98) …ya dulu memang si …well sure in those gadis masih belum days she was a girl of berarti tetapi sekarang no importance but now sudah menjadi wanita she had become a ripe matang berumur 27 woman about twenty- Measure 145. tahun kira-kira, yang seven years, who was Description ment penuh pesona bagaikan like a full moon on the bulan purnama pada thirteenth day of the tanggal 13 kalender market-day calendar… Pon-Wage-Kliwon- (99) Legi-Pahing… (94) Tiwi sering sukarela Tiwi often volunteered membantu Bagian to help the Palace Protokol Istana, atau Protocol Section, or to menjadi salah seorang play part of the Social Literal 146. pagar ayu kalau tamu decorative landscape Conception Translation agung tertinggi when the highest- mancanegara datang… ranking foreign guests (94) came… (99) 147. …tetapi sistem lobi di …but because indeed Religious, Generaliza

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belakang layar sudah the system of lobbying Mystical & tion konvensi adat kebiasaan behind the scenes has Mythical hubungan internasional been a customary Conception sejak zaman baheula, traditional convention jadi sekali lagi menurut in international Madame Nussy de relations from time Progueleaux sah dan immemorial, so once halal… (97) again according to Madame Nussy de Progueleaux it was legitimate and religiously sanctioned… (101) …tetapi terutama …but above all because karena ada pendasaran there were theological teologis dari agama, justifications drawn bukan semua agama from religion, not just tentu saja tetapi toh any religion of course rupa-rupanya cukup but stll it seems like it‟s Religious, dapat dipertanggung- pretty convincing, that Mystical & Amplifica 148. jawabkan, yakni teologi is a theology or Mythical tion atau teologi terserah ideology whichever Conception pilih istilah mana, yang term you care to mengamanatkan bahwa choose, that instructs us kekayaan adalah that wealth is Rahmatullah… (97) Rahmatullah (God’s mercy)… (102) …setan-setan desa …evil spirits like seperti lurah, tuan village headmen, tanah, ulama dan landlords, religious priyayi-priyayi dan officials, and aristocrats tentu saja tengkulak- and of course the Workfield tengkulak yang brokers who control the 149. (Bureaucra Description menguasai alat-alat means of production cy) produksi dan distribusi and distribution in di pelosok masih hinterland still swarmed meraja lela menghisap about sucking the blood kaum tani dan buruh of the farmers and kecil... (107) pretty laborers… (109) …setan-setan desa …evil spirits like seperti lurah, tuan village headmen, tanah, ulama dan landlords, religious Job or Generaliza 150. priyayi -priyayi dan officials, and aristocrats Profession tion tentu saja tengkulak- and of course the tengkulak yang brokers who control the menguasai alat-alat means of production

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produksi dan distribusi and distribution in di pelosok masih hinterland still swarmed merajalela menghisap about sucking the blood kaum tani dan buruh of the farmers and kecil... (107) pretty laborers… (109) Madam Nussy harus That Nussy had to get memotori pendobrakan the process in motion tanggung jawab seni that whould tear art yang mengabdi kepada apart and make it Revolusi di bekas responsible for serving ibukota RI yang the Revolution in the menurut ideologi Lekra city that was once the Social 151. Adaptation masih feodal borjuis capital of the Republic Conception alon-alon-waton- of Indonesia which kelakon… (108) according to Lokra ideology was still feudalistic bourgeois slowly-but-surely… (110) …masyarakat yang …its populace only like sukanya hanya gula sticky sweet coconut kelapa geplak Bantul sugar from Bantul yang terlalu gurih that‟s too cloying too Food & terlalu manis, racun sweet, a poison to lull 152. Consump Description nina-bobo bagi kaum the proletariat to sleep tion proletar yang justru that on the contarary membutuhkan gizi yang needs more dialectic lebih dialektis- constructive nutrition… konstruktif… (108) (10) …apalagi emping yang …and worse emping menjadi lambang crakers, the very keningratan usang, dan symbol of decrepit gudeg tentu saja, itu aristocracy and of Food & sayuran ganja khayalan course stewed jackfruit, Amplifica 153. Consump kaum priyayi yang that vegetable mariuana tion tion sudah dikuras of the aristocacy‟s vitaminnya… (108) dreams all whose vitamins have been drained away… (110) …juga jangan lupa kain …don‟t forget batik batik dengan surjan cloth and those feminin warna-warni womanish surjan shirts Dress & Amplifica 154. banci yang dikenakan in drag queen colors Clothing tion** kaum pria yang sama men wear that do not in sekali tidak any way exhibit menggambarkan heroism and

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kepahlawanan dan revolutionary virility… kejantanan (110) revolusioner… (108) …juga jangan lupa kain …don‟t forget batik batik dengan surjan cloth and those feminin warna-warni womanish surjan banci yang dikenakan shirts in drag queen kaum pria yang sama colors men wear that do Dress & Amplifica 155. sekali tidak not in any way exhibit Clothing tion** menggambarkan heroism and kepahlawanan dan revolutionary virility… kejantanan (110) revolusioner… (108) …termasuk blangkon …blangkon headgear yang sebetulnya adalah that actually expresses ekspresi diskriminasi the aristocrats‟ rakyat jelata dari kaum contempt for the lowly ningrat, sebab blangkon masses, because in pada hakikatnya adalah actual fact blangkon simpel ikat-kepala lepas were plain simpe Dress & Amplifica 156. belaka yang aslinya headcloths originally Clothing tion** wulung hitam-nila, solid blue-black, but tetapi lalu dicetak then they got molded digaya dibuat statis styled layered like a seperti kue lapis yang layer cake stuck stiffly ketat tanpa gelora together without any pemberontakan… (108) rebellious passion… (110) …termasuk blangkon …blangkon headgear yang sebetulnya adalah that actually expresses ekspresi diskriminasi the aristocrats’ rakyat jelata dari kaum contempt for the lowly ningrat, sebab masses, because in blangkon pada actual fact blangkon hakikatnya adalah were plain simpe Social 157. simpel ikat-kepala lepas headcloths originally Conception Adaptation belaka yang aslinya solid blue-black, but (Nobility) wulung hitam-nila, then they got molded tetapi lalu dicetak styled layered like a digaya dibuat statis layer cake stuck stiffly seperti kue lapis yang together without any ketat tanpa gelora rebellious passion… pemberontakan… (108) (110) …ingin meniru-niru …wanting to imitate Dress & Amplifica 158. pakaian orang-orang Dutchmen‟s clothes but Clothing tion Belanda tetapi tidak not getting it right and

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mudeng lalu asal trying to copycat but menjiplak tetapi getting it wrong, so ngawur, sehingga these worn-out soldiers‟ seragan prajurit-prajurit uniforms were all loyo itu serba Indo hopelessly mixed up campuran tidak keruan halfbreed and dan menertawakan, laughable, how on earth mosok topi disebut could a cap be called pacul gowang… (109) pacul gowang (chipped hoe)… (110) …mana mungkin …how could they menyerang musuh possibly attack an Food & dengan susur- enemy with a quid 159. Consump Adaptation tembakau dan sirih tobacco and sloppy tion berdubang kotor… betel spit… (111) (109) …pada suatu sore hari …one evening when it sudah gelap Kamerad was already dark Tiwi sedang sial Kamerad Tiwi was lost tersesat di barat daya southwest of the palace Keraton disekitar Pasar near the Bird Market Literal 160. Place & Area Burung setelah lelah and was tired from Translation berputar-putar sendirian wandering around by di kampung Dalem herself within the Beteng… (109) palace‟s outer walls… (111) … Kamerad Tiwi …Kamerad Tiwi was sedang sial tersesat di lost southwest of the barat daya Keraton palace near the Bird disekitar Pasar Burung Market and was tired setelah lelah berputar- from wandering around 161. Place & Area Description putar sendirian di by herself within the kampung Dalem palace’s outer walls… Beteng yang ruwet (111) seperti teka-teki labirin… (109) …wajah perseginya …they‟re square-jawed seperti orang-orang like people from Samosir, tidak begitu Samosir Island, they‟re tinggi semampai not all that tall and their proporsi sosoknyanya, body type is slender, 162. Art Adaptation tidak juga berhidung and they don‟t really bangir seperti wayang have long straight nose golek atau wayang like rod puppets or kulit… (110) shadow puppets… (112)

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…wajah perseginya …they‟re square-jawed seperti orang-orang like people from Samosir, tidak begitu Samosir Island, they‟re tinggi semampai not all that tall and their proporsi sosoknyanya, body type is slender, 163. Art Adaptation tidak juga berhidung and they don‟t really bangir seperti wayang have long straight nose golek atau wayang like rod puppets or kulit… (110) shadow puppets… (112) …memandang wajah …looked at the face of seorang ibu tua yang an older woman with berambut putih tetapi white hair but with lines dengan gores-gores on her face that spoke Religious, wajah yang menyatakan for the beauty of her Mystical & 164. Adaptation kecatikan jiwanya; dan soul; and behind her Mythical dibelakangnya sang was the noble youth Conception pemuda tadi yang duh whose neck dear God Gusti pernah ia penggal had she once slit? (112) lehernya dulu… (111) …sepanjang manusia …as long as human live hidup di tengah-tengah in this middle world of ngarcapada antara ngarcapada between the Khayangan dan Dunia Heaven and the Bawah Tanah antara Underground World Art (Shadow- Adaptation 165. istana angkasa Batara between the palace of play - Borrowing Wisnu yang menaiki Lord Wishnu who Character) sang Garuda Jetayudan rode the great Jetayu liang-liang gelap bawah bird and the dark pits in tanah wilayah Batara the ground territory of Basuki… (112) Lord Basuki… (113) …di tengah-tengah …in this middle world ngarcapada antara of ngarcapada between Khayangan dan Dunia the Heaven and the Art (Shadow- Bawah Tanah antara Underground World Adaptation 166. play istana angkasa Batara between the palace of - Borrowing Character) Wisnu yang menaiki Lord Wishnu who rode sang Garuda Jetayu… the great Jetayu (112) bird… (113) …karena tak …because she just tertahankanlah dia, couldn‟t stand it, he bagaikan magnet sejuta was like a magnet with 167. volt pemuda pelukis a million volts this poor Proper Name Borrowing miskin yang 10 tahun young painter who was lebih muda tadi, 10 years younger than Rohadi nama she, Rohadi was his

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indahnya… (112) beautiful name… (113) …ya si Dia yang …the worthy One who menghisap perhatian, had absorbed Kamerad khayalan dan perjalan Tiwi‟s attention, her Kamerad Tiwi yang fantasies and her kemudian terpaksa journey so then she had mengarang sekian to keep making up all Amplifica 168. Place & Area alasan untuk dapat these excuses to get to tion** pergi lagi dan lagi ke go back again and yet Yogyakarta again to Yogyakarta Hadiningrat hanya Hadiningrat, just in untuk bertemu dan order to meet and chat berbincang… (112) with him… (113) …akhirnya saling cium …and finally kiss each saling berangkulan other hug each other, in Social 169. dalam suasana Yogya’s formal noble Description Conception hadiningrat yang atmosphere… (113) formal… (112) …sangat baru bagi Tiwi …new for Tiwi tetapi sudah berabad- eventhough every abad dijalankan oleh young lady, young setiap den ajeng den maiden or darling Term of roro atau genduk dari daughter from Horse 170. Address Description kota Andong dengan Cart Town of Yogya (Nobility) kuda-kuda kurus- with its hopelessly kerutak tak ketolongan scrawny horses had itu… (113) experienced them for centuries… (114) …sangat baru bagi Tiwi …new for Tiwi tetapi sudah berbad- eventhough every abad dijalankan oleh young lady, young setiap den ajeng den maiden or darling Term of roro atau genduk dari daughter from Horse 171. Address Description kota Andong dengan Cart Town of Yogya (Nobility) kuda-kuda kurus- with its hopelessly kerutak tak ketolongan scrawny horses had itu… (113) experienced them for centuries… (114) …sangat baru bagi Tiwi …new for Tiwi tetapi sudah berbad- eventhough every abad dijalankan oleh young lady, young Term of setiap den ajeng den maiden or darling 172. Address Description roro atau genduk dari daughter from Horse (Nobility) kota Andong dengan Cart Town of Yogya kuda-kuda kurus- with its hopelessly kerutak tak ketolongan scrawny horses had

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itu… (113) experienced them for centuries… (114) …sangat baru bagi Tiwi …new for Tiwi tetapi sudah berbad- eventhough every abad dijalankan oleh young lady, young setiap den ajeng den maiden or darling roro atau genduk dari daughter from Horse Amplifica 173. Place & Area kota Andong dengan Cart Town of Yogya tion kuda-kuda kurus- with its hopelessly kerutak tak ketolongan scrawny horses had itu… (113) experienced them for centuries… (114) Maka terkagum- Thus Tiwi was kagumlah hati Dik astonished at how just a Tiwi, betapa beberapa few brushstrokes really Terms of 174. Reduction goresan kuas sungguh could speak and Address dapat berbicara dan whisper… (115) berbisik… (114) …nah lihatlah itu …those classical penari-penari serimpi serimpi dancers so yang halus seolah tidak refined they looked like Amplifica 175. Art punya tubuh daging they no longer have tion** tulang lagi… (115) bodies of flesh and bone… (115) …menggambarkan …playing King Raja Dasamuka yang Dasamuka who is Art (Shadow- Adaptation 176. kasar berangasan crude and has a hair- play - Borrowing seperti singa lapar… trigger temper like Character) (115) hungry lion… (116) …karena dalam diri …because among the bangsa banyaklah yang people there are some sudah mampu untuk already capable of bercita rasa sublime dan aspiring to sublime and abstrak dan sudah abstract feelings and are 177. Ecology Description sanggup terbang, ready to fly, even if not kalaupun bukan seperti yet like a garuda well garuda ya seperti then like a little bird in burung sriti atau the ricefield… (116) emprit… (116) …yang tidak disukai …the short of thing Lekra sang Durga, yang Lekra‟s goddess Umayi sebenarnya tidak lain didn‟t like, who Art (shadow- Amplifica 178. dari Dewi Umayi yang actually was none other play) tion** cantik dan ibu segala than the beautiful yang ada di Goddes Umayi who ngarcapada jagad was the mother and all,

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gede jagad cilik… here in ngarcapada (119) jagad gede jagad cilik… (118) Maka Markas Besar Thus Gerwani Gerwani dan Pimpinan Headquarters and the Pusat Lekra terpaksa Lekra Centrala mengirim kurir khusus Management had to Place & ke Yogya untuk send a special courier to House, 179. clearing dan Yogya to clear things Household Adaptation menjelaskan berbisik- up and explain in Good & bisik di tengah malam wishpers in the middle Surround ing gelap gulita dalam of the dark night in a gubug di tengah hut in the middle of the sawah… (122) rice field… (121) …ingatlah bahwa …don‟t forget that what pujaan Yogyakarta comes in for praise in Religious, selain Nyai Roro Kidul Yogyakarta isn‟t just Adaptation Mystical & 180. adalah juga Mbah Mistress Roro Kidul - Amplifica Mythical Petruk Gunung but also Old Man tion** Conception Merapi… (123) Petruk of Mt. Merapi… (121) …ingatlah bahwa …don‟t forget that what pujaan Yogyakarta comes in for praise in Religious, Adaptation selain Nyai Roro Kidul Yogyakarta isn‟t just Mystical & 181. - Amplifica adalah juga Mbah Mistress Roro Kidul but Mythical tion** Petruk Gunung also Old Man Petruk Conception Merapi… (123) of Mt. Merapi… (121) …dan ini vulkan yang …and this volcano dari jauh kelihatannya from far away just saja adem ayem looks calm cool ngglenggem dan indah accommodating and Social 182. permai tenang damai eautiful peaceful serene Adaptation Conception tetapi jika sudah kebelet but once it‟s got to go wah seenaknya sajalah watch out it just does ngawur… (123) what it wants no quarter given… (122) …jarang ia ingat …she rarely kepada ibunya Mbok remembered her Legimah istri kopral generous mother Ma KNIL itu, bukan karena Legimah the wife of the ia malu punya ibu yang KNIL corporal; it Term of Particulari 183. hanya simbok, tetapi wasn‟t because she was Address zation karena entahlah cita ashamed to have a rasa sang rahim dalam mother who just a dirinya hampir tidak peasant woman, but ada… (126) because for some

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reason her own womb within herself hardly mattered to her… (124) …tetapi Tante Wi …but Auntie Wi was yakin, meski convinced that kehilangan begitu eventhough she was out banyak modal pribadi all that private capital yang dikumpulkan that she had gathered Social 184. dengan susah payah painstakingly over so Description Conception selama tahun-tahun many years filled with penuh arisan jatuh neighborhood lending bangunnya kabinet… societies cabinets (129) getting named and dismissed… (126) …ibu Wang Ching Mei, …mother Wang Ching Gang Pinggir Mei, Border Alley Semarang, alias Semarang, alias Tukinah Senik (…) dari Tukinah Senik (…) of Literal 185. ayah Kolonel father Colonel Proper Name Translation Yamashita dan Mbok Yamashita and Ma Tomblok, Basket from Cokrodiningratan Cokrodiningratan, Yogyakarta… (131) Yogyakarta… (127) Begitulah Madame So there you have Nussy de Proguelaux Madame Nussy de sebagai meminat Progueleaux, a very investasi asing yang skilled devotee of sangat luwes tanpa foreign investment who khawatir dicurigai dan without fear of ditangkap dapat masuk suspicion or arrest kembali lewat bandara- could return via bandara Halim dan Jakarta‟s Halim Airport Adisucipto ke dalam or Yogyakarta‟s 186. Place & Area Description jantung ibukota RI Adisucipto into the selama Revokusi dan ke heart of the Republic of Dalem Beteng untuk Indonesia‟s Revolution- mencari pelukis era capital into the dambaan hatinya… aristocratic (131) compounds near the Sultan’s palace, to look for the painter for whom her heart longed… (128) …alangkah kaget dan …shocked when she Workfield 187. kejutnya ia mendengar heard from the the (Bureaucra Description dari Ketua RT bahwa Neighborhood Head cy)

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pelukis terkasih sudah that her beloved diamankan oleh para painter‟s safety had petugas… (132) been assured by the authorities… (128) Juga beribu-ribu terima A thousand thanks, too, kasih atas sumbangan kind lady, for your Nyonya yang baik hati contribution to our untuk kas RT kami; neighborhood boleh jadi akan kami treasury; maybe maybe Social 188. pergunakan untuk we‟ll use it to build a Description Conception membuat gardu ronda more representative yang lebih guardhouse in the reperesentatif demi interests of security and keamanan dan order… (129) ketertiban… (133) Juga beribu-ribu terima A thousand thanks, too, kasih atas sumbangan kind lady, for your Nyonya yang baik hati contribution to our untuk kas RT kami; neighborhood treasury; House, boleh jadi akan kami maybe maybe we‟ll use Household 189. pergunakan untuk it to build a more Adaptation Good & membuat gardu ronda representative Surround ing yang lebih guardhouse in the reperesentatif demi interests of security and keamanan dan order… (129) ketertiban… (134) …sebetulnya sayang …it is really too bad Dik Rohadi itu kok Rohadi got tripped up sampai terjerumus oleh by that Lekra woman‟s bujukan wanita Lekra cajoling, actually he Food & 190. itu dulu, padahal dia itu was a nice guy and he Consump Adaptation anak baik hati selalu always gave the guys tion memberi teh nasgitel, sweetshot tea, hot thick panas legi kentel… and sweet… (130) (134) Hancur lebur hati Tiwi Shattered shredded, Nussy, hati seorang Tiwi Nussy‟s heart was wanita sebaya berumur the heart of a woman menjelang 40-an yang going on forty or so biar sudah tidak muda okay no longer young Social 191. lagi tetapi kan masih but din‟t she have the Adaptation Conception berhak untuk bahagia right to embrace and mendekap dan kiss a young man who memeluk seorang lelaki was ideal who was an ideal yang nyaris insan almost perfect man for kamil baginya… (135) her… (131)

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…mungkin dia ingin …maybe he wanted to lari ke Pantai Selatan run to the South Coast, Bu, tetapi itu jelas Ma‟am, but that would usaha mustahil be impossible a waste mubazir karena dia because he‟d have to Religious, harus melewati hutan cross the wild forests Mystical & 192. Adaptation rimba liar penuh full of very vicious Mythical binatang buas sekali beasts and where the Conception dan masih dihuni original inhabitants of penduduk asli yang this island live and ternyata masih they‟re still cannibals… kanibal… (141) (135) …berjongkok di …she‟d squat beside samping ibunya yang her mother who was sibuk melayani para busy serving the penggemar gethuk- devotees of fried cothot; lalu pulang cassava snacks; then 193. Place & Area Description lewat Kauman dan they‟d go home passing Masjid di sudut by the Muslim quarter jembatan selokan… and the Mosque at the (143) corner of the bridge over the canal… (137) …lalu pulang lewat …pasing by the Muslim Kauman dan Masjid di quarter and the Mosque sudut jembatan selokan at the corner of the 194. Place & Area Adaptation dari Kantor Bupati… bridge over the canal (143) from the Regent’s Office… (137) …aduh lezat sekali dia …wow was it ever boleh membeli yummy she could buy a sepincuk nasi gudeg, banana leaf packet of boleh dengan daging stewed jackfruit and Measure 195. Description ayam seserat tipis boleh rice; maybe with a thin ment dengan telur hanya strip of chicken maybe seperempat bagian… with just a quarter of an (143) egg… (137) Sebuah lembah The whole valley had terbongkah-bongkah ben dug up that used to yang dulu subur dengan be fertile when green sawah-sawah hijau gold rice fileds kuning dan cermin- mirroring the sky, with Adaptation 196. Art cermin angkasa, dengan villages like heavenly - Borrowing dusun-dusun yang islands almost always bagaikan pulau-pulau billowing with firdaus dan selalu melodious sounds of a mengalunkan nada- gamelan orchestra

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nada merdu gamelan soothing hearts… (140) slendro yang melapangkan hati… (147) …dengan belokan- …the twisting turning belokan ulara-ularan curling surving snaking pita-pitaan sungai- ribboning rivers that sungai yang kadang- sometimes flashed kadang perak silver the radiance of Food & 197. memantulkan cahaya the fortune-beraring Consump Description awan-awan pembawa clouds, sometimes tion berkat, kadang-kadang looked like the dark seperti arus jenang flow of melted coconut grendul gula jawa… sugar and sticky (147) rice… (140) …dia mungkin …maybe she was a perempuan meski tidak woman but she didn‟t punya susu-susu seperti have breasts like their simbok-simbok dan mothers and sisters but yu-yu mereka tetapi her silk blouse glittered Term of 198. Adaptation baju suteranya white it was so clean Address mengkilau putih begitu there was no way you bersih sehingga itu could get anything like tidak mungkin didapat it in a village… (144) di pedesaan… (152) …dia mungkin …maybe she was a perempuan meski tidak woman but she didn‟t punya susu-susu seperti have breasts like their simbok-simbok dan yu- mothers and sisters her yu mereka tetapi baju silk blouse glittered Term of Particulari 199. suteranya mengkilau white it was so clean Address zation putih begitu bersih there was no way you sehingga itu tidak could get anything like mungkin didapat di it in a village … (144) pedesaan… (152) …melihat orang …you‟ve never seen a perempuan kok seperti woman, like you‟re melihat kunyuk ogleng looking at a saja, ayo pergi minggat, performing monkey, 200. Art Adaptation memalukan it‟s an outrage; come orangtua!… (153) on, get out, you‟re a disgrace of your parents… (144) Memang Kang Brojol It‟s true Pa Brojol often Term of Particulari 201. sering bercerita punya talked about having Address zation adik kembar-dampit di some twin sister in

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Jakarta, kemudaian Jakarta, but then Pa Kang Brojol juga tidak Brojol himself whe she tahu lagi dia ke mana, had gotten to, he always katanya kalau Idul Fitri says she‟s sure to come kan pulang dia… (154) back on Idul Fitri… (145) Memang Kang Brojol It‟s true Pa Brojol often sering bercerita punya talked about having adik kembar-dampit di some twin sister in Religious, Jakarta, kemudaian Jakarta, but then Pa Mystical & 202. Kang Brojol juga tidak Brojol himself whe she Borrowing Mythical tahu lagi dia ke mana, had gotten to, he always Conception katanya kalau Idul says she‟s sure to come Fitri kan pulang dia… back on Idul Fitri… (154) (145) …karena sekarang desa …since now our village kami sudah dikubur di has gotten buried bawah traktor dan truk- underneath those Gesture & 203. truk itu uoallah sudah tracktors and trucks Habit Adaptation morat-marit semua… good Lord is the whole (Interjection) (155) place ever a mess… (146) …jelas dia bukan adik …she‟s clearly wasn‟t kembar yang dampit that twin sister of his, itu, karena kulit Nyonya since Madam‟s ini kulit langsep complexion is the pale Social Amplifica 204. sedangkan Kang Brojol yellow of young Conception tion punya hitam galih kayu langsat fruit whereas waru… (155) Pa Brojol‟s is as dark as the heart of a hardwood tree… (146) …maka tamu agung itu …thus the local women dibawa oleh para ibu took the important masuk ke dalam kamar guest into the room for pengantin di samping newlyweds next to the kamar Dewi Sri, storage room for rice, walaupun yah darurat Goddess Sri’s House, semua masih serba chamber, although of Household Amplifica 205. gubug, untuk sedikit course given the Good & tion beristirahat dan sembuh circumstances Surrounding dari sengat matahari everything was modest tadi… (159) in extreme; so she could rest a bit and recover from the heat of he sun… (149) 206. …sehingga ibu mertua …so that Brother Term of Adaptation

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Kang Brojol yang Brojol‟s mother-in-law Address sudah lanjut usia pun who was very old but hanya dapat geleng- still had all her wits geleng kepala… (160) about her could only shake her head… (151) …ya sudahlah disuruh …that‟s enough now, minum air pala saja she should drink some yang palanya lekas- water flavored with the Job or 207. Adaptation lekas disuruhnya minta nutmeg someone was Profession dari Mbah Dukun… told to run to get from (160) the old curer… (150) …sedangkan ibu …whereas Brother mertua Kang Brojol Brojol‟s mother-in-law hanya geleng-geleng just shook her head but kepala saja tetapi full of respectful penuh perhatian hormat concern and full of Gesture & Literal 208. dba penuh reksa sayang protective feelings for Habit Translation menjaga tamu the woman guest who perempuan yang pasti had to be a very orang agung itu… (162) important person… (152) …Nyonya tadi pasti …that Madam was Malaikat Jibril atau certainly the Angel Religious, entahlah, pokoknya ini Gabriel or somebody, Mystical & 209. pasti atas perintah Allah anyway this was surely Adaptation Mythical Ynag Maha Baik dan at the command of the Conception Maha Adil… (163) All-Beneficent and All- Just-God… 9152) …sesudah salat …after evening magrib, barulah Ibu prayers, only then did Mertua yang baik hati the kindly old Mrs. Religious, itu memberanikan diri Mother-in-law work up Mystical & Generaliza 210. membuka bungkusan the nerve to open the Mythical tion itu, langsung berteriak package, immediately Conception dan pingsan… (162) screamed and fainted… (152) …memang zaman …really true these days sekarang ini macam- there‟s all kinds of macam saja lakon dan stories and plots, Art (Shadow- 211. pakemnya, semua everything‟s at cross- Adaptation play) simpang-siur dan kacau purposes and confused tidak ada garis there‟s no guidelines haluannya… (164) anymore… (153) …memang zaman …it‟s really true these Art (Shadow- 212. sekarang ini macam- days there‟s all kinds of Adaptation play) macam saja lakon dan stories and plots,

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pakemnya, semua everything‟s at cross- simpang-siur dan kacau purposes and confused tidak ada garis there‟s no guidelines haluannya… (164) anymore… (153) …maka satu persatu …thus one by one they mereka minta diri untuk took their leave to go tidur di gubug masing- sleep in their own masing, hanya sebagian shacks, only some of House, masih tinggal dan hem stayed sprawled Household 213. Adaptation menggeletak begitu out anywhere, falling Good & saja, tertidur pulas di fast asleep on the Surrounding amben sampai matahari sleeping platform till agak tinggi di langit… the sun was pretty (165) high… (153) …maka satu persatu …thus one by one they mereka minta diri untuk took their leave to go tidur di gubug masing- sleep in their own masing, hanya sebagian shacks, only some of House, masih tinggal dan them stayed sprawled Household Generaliza 214. menggeletak begitu out anywhere, falling Good & tion saja, tertidur pulas di fast asleep on the Surrounding amben sampai matahari sleeping platform till agak tinggi di langit… the sun was pretty (165) high… (153) …tetapi ibumu ingin …but your mother menjaga tempat kakek- wants to keep watch at nenekmu dan moyang- the place of your moyangmu yang grandparents and dikubur di bawah sana ancestors who where Religious, tetapi sudah digali buried over there Mystical & 215. diremuk diredam oleh although they‟ve gotten Description Mythical traktor-traktor dan truk- dug up disturbed Conception truk-bak-jungkir itu; crushed crunched by biar saja mereka kualat those tractors and dump terkutuk nanti… (165) trucks; fine let them be cursed with misfortune… (154) …ada yang bertugas …there are those whose menjadi kaya raya ada duty is to be filthy rich yang berkewajiban and there are those mulia menjadi miskin, whose noble mission is Art (Shadow- Amplifica 216. tetapi dua-duanya to be poor, but the two play tion** adalah dua kutub satu are two poles of a Character) bola, dwitunggal single sphere, two-in- semesta raya kosmos one the great universe agung, Yin dan Yang, in its entirety, Yin and

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Pandawa Kurawa… Yang, Pandawa (172) Kurawa… (159)

…inginnya Iin untuk …Iin wanted so much pergi masuk lagi ke to reenter her beloved dalam Tanah Air Homeland, to meet with tercinta, bertemu Brother Brojol, as much dengan Bang Brojol, as, although in different Art (Shadow- Adaptation 217. seperti juga, meski context, Queen play - Amplifica dalam konteks lain, Banowati of the Character) tion** Ratu Banowati dari Kurawa court longed Istana Kurawa rindu melancholic for Arjuna sendu kepada Arjuna… (159) (172) …inginnya Iin untuk …Iin wanted so much pergi masuk lagi ke to reenter her beloved dalam Tanah Air Homeland, to meet with tercinta, bertemu Brother Brojol, as much dengan Bang Brojol, as, although in different Art (Shadow- Adaptation 218. seperti juga, meski context, Queen play) - Borrowing dalam konteks lain, Banowati of the Ratu Banowati dari Kurawa court longed Istana Kurawa rindu melancholic for Arjuna sendu kepada Arjuna… (159) (172) Namun pakem dan However the story‟s lakon belum usai, not over yet, the kayon kakayon wayang belum signalling the end of the Art (Shadow- Generaliza 219. ditancapkan di tengah shadow-play hasn‟t play) tion batang pisang… (178) gotten stuck in the middle of the banana tree trunk yet… (164) Namun pakem dan …however the story‟s lakon belum usai, not over yet, the kayon kakayon wayang signalling the end of Art (Shadow- Amplifica 220. belum ditancapkan di the shadow-play hasn‟t play) tion** tengah batang pisang… gotten stuck in the (178) middle of the banana tree trunk yet… (164)

** amplified by giving brief explanation on the translated Javanese cultural concepts in the endnote in the English version (Translator’s Note)

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