Political Violence and the Authoritarian State in

Political Violence and the Authoritarian State in Peru Silencing Civil Society

Jo-Marie Burt

Palgrave macmillan POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND THE AUTHORITARIAN STATE IN PERU Copyright © Jo-Marie Burt, 2007. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2007 978-0-230-60038-6 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles or reviews. First published in 2007 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN™ 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 and Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England RG21 6XS Companies and representatives throughout the world. PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries.

ISBN 978-0-230-62117-6 ISBN 978-1-137-06486-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-137-06486-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Burt, Jo-Marie. Political violence and the authoritarian state in Peru : silencing civil society / by Jo-Marie Burt. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-312-22132-4 1. Political violence—Peru. 2. Authoritarianism—Peru. 3. Peru—Politics and government—1980– 4. Civil society—Peru. I. Title. HN350.Z9V513 2007 985.06943—dc22 2007011744 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: December 2007 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Transferred to Digital Printing in 2008 To the Lamas-Espejo family Y, sobre todo, a Teresa, César, y Simón

CONTENTS

List of Figures ix List of Tables xi Acknowledgments xiii List of Acronyms xvii

Introduction 1

Part 1 State Formation and State Deformation One The Weak State 25 Two Social Consequences of State Breakdown 41 Three Terror versus Terror 53 Four The Crisis of Organized Politics 69

Part 2 Gray Zones and Guerrillas: Shining Path and the Battle of Lima Five The Iron Belts of Misery 91 Six In the Gray Zones: States of Shining Path 103 Seven The Battle of Villa El Salvador 125

Part 3 State Making against Democracy Eight The Authoritarian Reconstitution of the State 159 Nine Quien Habla es Terrorista: The Politics of Fear 189 Ten The Authoritarian State and the Resurgence of Civil Society 213

Notes 243 Bibliography 261 Index 277

LIST OF FIGURES

I.1 Soldiers Patrol Villa El Salvador after 1992 Coup d’état 7 3.1 Terror versus Terror: Soldier and Shining Path Graffiti 65 4.1 Police Repress University Student Protest 84 5.1 Aftermath of a Shining Path Car Bomb in Lima 97 6.1 Soldiers Direct Civic-Action Campaign in Lima Shantytown 120 7.1 María Elena Moyano Leads Protest against Hunger and Violence 126 8.1 The Arrest of Abimael Guzmán 174 9.1 Remembering the Dead of La Cantuta 203 10.1 Students Protest Fraudulent Elections 230

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Distribution of households according to levels of poverty and lack of basic necessities in Lima, comparison of period between July 1985–July 1986 and June–July 1990 43 2.2 Reported crimes per 1,000 inhabitants, select years 45 3.1 Deaths due to political violence during the Belaúnde administration, 1980–1985 categorized by victims 57 3.2 Number of persons detained and forcibly disappeared by security forces, 1983–1985 57 3.3 Number of deaths and forced disappearances reported to the CVR according to year in which the reported events occurred, 1980–2000 57 3.4 Deaths due to political violence during the García administration, 1986–1990, categorized by victims 64 3.5 Number of persons detained and forcibly disappeared by security forces, 1986–1990 64 3.6 Terrorist attacks, 1980–1991 67 6.1 Popular attitudes toward Shining Path activities in two Lima shantytowns, 1994 109 6.2 Popular attitudes toward Shining Path actions in Lima according to social class, 1992 116 8.1 Macroeconomic Indicators, 1990–1995 164

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Chinese character for the word “person” is made up of two mutually supporting strokes leaning on one another; if one stroke is taken away, the other collapses, symbolizing the interdependence we as human beings share with one another. Nothing more aptly describes the way an author leans on multiple oth- ers in the course of researching and writing a book. Taking credit for sole authorship seems a violation of the myriad kindnesses, collaborations, and friendships that sustained me during this project and were essential to its culmination. Without the many people who assisted me, shared their insights with me, and collaborated in various ways in this project, the book you hold in your hands would simply not exist. My debts are many, because in researching and writing this book I relied not only on the sup- port and encouragement of family, friends, and colleagues, but also on the kindness of strangers, those who without knowing me willingly shared their time and knowledge so that I could better comprehend Peruvian politics. To my joy, many of these strangers are now dear friends. This book is based on field research in Peru that stretches over more than a decade. Extended periods of fieldwork in the early and mid- 1990s were possible thanks to the generous support of the Inter- American Foundation, the Institute for the Study of World Politics, the United States Institute of Peace, and The Aspen Institute. Follow-up visits in 1996, 1997, and 1998 were possible thanks to support from the North American Congress on Latin America, where I worked as edi- tor of NACLA Report on the Americas between 1995 and 2000. Fieldwork conducted for a book project on Peru’s human rights movement by my good friend and fellow peruanista, Coletta Youngers, allowed me to observe firsthand the dramatic social protests that emerged in 2000 to contest the fraudulent electoral process mounted by the Fujimori regime to assure its continuance in power. Further research on civil society and its role in the collapse of the Fujimori regime was con- ducted in the summers of 2001 and 2003 with generous funding from the Department of Public and International Affairs and the Office of the Provost at George Mason University. I also conducted research on the causes and consequences of political violence in Villa El Salvador for the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission in 2002, xiv Acknowledgments which permitted me to carry out follow-up interviews of individuals I had interviewed in 1993–1994 as well as conduct new interviews. That any of this even happened is due to the generosity of the Thomas J. Watson Foundation, which awarded me an independent study and travel grant in 1986 that launched my life-long fascination with and love for Peru. Nancy Bekavac, who was director of the foundation during my Watson year, was especially supportive of my project and my process. I am especially grateful to Maurizio Vannicelli, my professor at the College of the Holy Cross, for it was his encouragement that motivated me to apply to the Watson, which—as I am certain he foresaw—would prove to be such a formative experience. His vision, compassion, and concern for all of humanity fundamentally shaped my view of intellectual life as part of a broader struggle for social justice. His presence is sorely missed. At Columbia University my advisor, Douglas Chalmers, was a support- ive and judicious guide as well as tough critic. That I am also able to call him friend is a testament to Doug’s grace and goodwill. I am grateful to Lisa Anderson, Margaret Crahan, Robert Kaufman, and Alfred Stepan, also my intellectual mentors, for their invaluable advice and support during different stages of this project. A special mention is due to Paolo Sérgio Pinheiro, who was a Visiting Tinker Professor at Columbia during my second year of graduate work there, and whose groundbreaking scholarship-activism inspired me and a number of my colleagues to pursue scholarly research on the effects of violence and authoritarianism in Latin America. At the Institute of Latin American and Iberian Studies at Columbia University, Ana María Bejarano, Marc Chernick, Katherine Hite, Rayda Márquez, Scott Martin, Kerianne Piester, Monique Segarra, and Melina Selverston, were exceptional colleagues and friends, and their camaraderie and intelligence continue to inspire me. Several people read parts or all of this manuscript at different stages and provided critical feedback and suggestions to improve it, and I am deeply grateful to each of them: Julio Carrión, Margaret Crahan, Nena Delpino, Lesley Gill, Francisco Gutiérrez, Eric Hershberg, Steve Heydemann, Billie Jean Isbell, Robert Kaufman, Charles Kenney, Nelson Manrique, Philip Mauceri, Cynthia McClintock, J. Patrice McSherry, Luis Pásara, Carlos Reyna, Karen Sosnoski, Steve Stern, Charles Tilly, Carlos Vilas, and Coletta Youngers. I am also indebted to Carlos Iván Degregori, whose writings on Shining Path have been prolific and insightful, for his valu- able comments on earlier versions of the chapters on Shining Path, and to Ariel Armony for stimulating my thinking on civil society. Discussions about Peruvian politics with numerous other colleagues and friends over the years have also helped shape my thinking on many issues addressed in this book and deserve special mention: Alberto Adrianzén, Carlos Basombrío, César Bedoya, Maxwell Cameron, Baltazar Caravedo, Pilar Coll, Ernesto de la Jara, Susan Eckstein, Marcial Godoy- Anativia, José Gonzales, Kevin Goonan, Gustavo Gorriti, Jane Henrici, Josefina Huamán, Robin Kirk, Amy Lind, José López Ricci, Enrique Acknowledgments xv

Mayer, Enrique Obando, David Scott Palmer, Ponciano del Pino, Guillermo Rochabrún, Isaías Rojas, Fernando Rospigliosi, Jorge Salazar, Francisco Soberón, Orin Starn, Lucía Vásquez, and Robert Weiner. My work benefited enormously from the collaborations, insights, and assis- tance of these and many other colleagues and friends, though of course I alone am responsible for the contents of this manuscript and whatever fail- ings lie within. Over the course of my years of research in Peru I have enjoyed affilia- tions and collaborations with a variety institutions that greatly facilitated my research and initiated new and enduring friendships. Colleagues at DESCO offered thought-provoking debate and enduring support, and I am especially grateful for the continued friendship of Nelson Manrique, Carlos Reyna, and Gustavo Riofrío. The Instituto Diálogo y Propuesta (IDS) also provided a supportive environment for my research, and I am deeply indebted to Rolando Ames for his friendship and solidarity. Pilar Coll, Susana Villarán, and Sofía Macher, each of whom led the National Human Rights Coordinator in the 1980s and 1990s, were especially gen- erous, and I am grateful to them for sharing their time and insights with me on many occasions over the years. The Asociación Pro-Derechos Humanos (APRODEH) and the Instituto de Defensa Legal (IDL) pro- vided me with critical data, resources, and assistance at various points throughout this project. Special thanks are due to Francisco Soberón, Miguel Jugo, and Charo Narváez at APRODEH, and Ernesto de la Jara, Carlos Basombrío, Isaías Rojas, Nélida Gandarillas, and Cecilia Narváez at IDL. Giovanna Peñaflor and Manuel Córdova at the polling company IMASEN were a delight to work with, and they and their staff proved extremely competent in carrying out the surveys and focus groups of res- idents in Villa El Salvador and San Juan de Lurigancho. I am also grateful to several others who helped me establish contacts for my interviews, including Emma Aguirre, Cecilia Bravo, Julio Calderón, Diana Miloslavich, Néstor Ríos, and Eudosio Sifuentes. Several people were very directly involved in the research and produc- tion of this book, and I would like to express to them my deepest appre- ciation for their hard work, humor, and friendship. José López Ricci, Liliana Miranda, Rodrigo Portales, and Rosario Romero provided invalu- able research assistance at different stages of my fieldwork. Carlos Reyna provided me with information and feedback throughout the project. Gustavo Riofrío assisted me with the map of Lima’s barriadas. Vera Lentz, a courageous photographer who has documented Peru’s brutal civil con- flict since the early 1980s, graciously allowed me to use her amazing pho- tographs for this book, including the cover image. I am also grateful to Caretas and El Peruano for the use of images from their archives. At Palgrave Macmillan I would like to especially thank editors Gabriella Georgiades and Luba Ostashevsky, assistant editor Joanna Mericle, and production editor Erin Ivy. They provided critical editorial assistance through all stages of preparing the manuscript and have been kind, supportive, and a xvi Acknowledgments pleasure to work with. Finally, Maran Elancheran did an exceptional job copyediting the final manuscript. Many people from Villa El Salvador have shared their lives, struggles, and hopes with me throughout the years. I am especially grateful to for- mer mayors of Villa, Michel Azcueta, Johny Rodríguez, and Martín Pumar, and former city councilman Néstor Ríos, who helped me in numerous ways to better understand the political dynamics in the district. The Rev. Eugenio Kirke, the Rev. Gregory Chisholm, and Sister Vicky Dorrego, who each made Villa their home for long periods of their lives, shared with me their invaluable insights into the district’s history and dynamics. Though I never formally interviewed María Elena Moyano, I met her first in 1987, and spoke with her on several different occasions about women’s organizations and human rights in the district. Her brutal death at the hands of Shining Path was a terrible loss. There are many others in Villa El Salvador I would like to thank who discussed politics and life and so much more with me, but prudence requires that I do not. Their friendship and their faith in me and in my work have sustained me throughout this process. Villa El Salvador is the heroic creation of its 350,000 residents, whose labor, solidarity, and faith in the future transformed a piece of barren desert into a beautiful, bustling city that now has 20-foot trees and gardens and playgrounds, markets, schools, and clinics. This city is my second home, and I remain forever grateful to the vecinos of Grupo 17, and most especially to the loving Lamas-Espejo family, who took me in many years ago and made me part of their family. I dedicate this book to them, and especially to Teresa, who is the heart of it all, to César, whose brilliance and thirst for justice inspired me from the moment I met him, and to Simon, our little addition to this transnational family. Finally, I am deeply thankful to my parents, Arnold and Lucia Burt; to my brother Tim and his wife Tammy; and to my sister Nancy and her husband Charley for their steadfast love and support. César, thank you for our years of learning and being together. And Simon thank you for never letting me forget the most important thing in life: spending time with the ones you love. And yes, Mommy is now done with the book. Let’s go get some chocolate ice cream to celebrate! LIST OF ACRONYMS

AP Popular Action APEMIVES Association of Small Entrepreneurs of Villa El Salvador APRA American Popular Revolutionary Alliance CADE Annual Conference of Entrepreneurs CGTP General Confederation of Peruvian Workers CNDH National Human Rights Coordinator CTP Confederation of Peruvian Workers CUAVES Self-managing Urban Community of Villa El Salvador CVR Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission DESCO Center for the Study and Promotion of Development DINCOTE National Directorate against Terrorism (later DIRCOTE) FARC Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia FEPOMUVES Popular Women’s Federation of Villa El Salvador FONCODES National Fund for Social Compensation and Development FUCOMIVES Federation of Vendors and Micro Entrepreneurs of Villa El Salvador IDESI Institute for the Development of the Informal Sector IPSS Social Security Institute of Peru IS Socialist Left IU MIR Revolutionary Left Movement MRTA Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement NGDOS Nongovernmental Development Organizations OAS Organization of American States ONPE National Office of Electoral Processes PAD Direct Assistance Program PAIT Temporary Income Support Program PC Communist Party PC-Unity -Unity xviii List of Acronyms

PCP-SL Communist Party of Peru (Shining Path) PCR Revolutionary Communist Party PPC Popular Christian Party PMR Revolutionary Mariateguista Party PROEM Emergency Employment Program PUM United Mariateguista Party SIN National Intelligence Service SINAMOS National System for Social Mobilization SUNAD National Superintendency for Customs SUNAT National Superintendency for Tax Administration SUTEP Peruvian Education Workers’ Union UNCP National University of the Center UNIR National Union of the Revolutionary Left VR N PERU

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