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Animal Remains From the Midway Site (21BL37), Beltrami County, Minnesota

Article · January 2005

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The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. ,ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE (2lBL37), BEI:fRAMI COUNTY, MINNESOTA

Jonathan D. Balcer Department ofAnthropology The University ofTennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996 [email protected]

James L. Theler Department of Sociology and Archaeology University ofWisconsin-La Crosse, La Crosse, Wl 54601 . [email protected]

Excavations at the Midway Site, located in the city ofBemidji, Minnesota produced an extensive vertebrate faunal assemblage, with over 23,000 remains representing a minimum of 116 individual animals from 55 different taxa. Despite the lack ofa detailed analysis ofthe cultural remains, the faunal data provide impor­ tant information on Woodland subsistence strategies in northern Minnesota. Although fish are numerically most abundant, large mammals, including moose, white-tailed deer, elk, black bear, and caribou, likely provided the bulk of the animal protein in the local diet. Evidence indicates a multi-season use ofthe site, with a fall-winter deer harvest, use ofmoose (probably along with wild rice) during the winter, and spring harvest of riparian animals, spawning fish, and turtles. The representation of large mammal skeletal ele­ ments suggests an off-site processing of the animal carcasses, with the retention of only specific elements. Overall, the species represented at the Midway Site indicate that the Bemidji area, with its lakes, marshes, and deciduous forest margin located at the southern margin of Beltrami County, may have fUrnished an optimal ecotonal niche to be exploited by prehistoric peoples.

Introduction was recommended as eligible for listing on the Na­ tional Register of Historic Places. The Midway Site (21BL37) is multi-component pre­ The parameters of the proposed construction historic occupation located in the city of Bemidji in activities made avoidance of the site infeasible. Ac­ Beltrami County, Minnesota. The site is situated on cordingly, an extensive Phase III data recovery plan a narrow isthmus between Lalce Bemidji and Lake was implemented to mitigate impacts to the archae­ Irving, both flowages of the upper Mississippi Riv­ ological deposits (Kluth and Kluth 2000; LLHSP er (Fig. I). The area surrounding the site has been 2002). This involved the excavation of 48 one-me­ heavily developed, and construction associated with ter units in three discrete portions of the site. Phase the expansion of Minnesota Trunk Highway 197 III excavations commenced in the fall of 2000 and provided a substantial threat to the archaeological were completed in the summer of 2001. A final re­ deposits. port was produced on these investigations (LLHSP In order to evaluate the site's integrity and ar­ 2002), and a version of this paper was included as chaeological potential, Phase II excavations were partofthatreport (Theler and Balcer 2002). Unfortu­ conducted during the fall of 1999 by the Leech Lake nately, the analysis of the cultural material from the Heritage Sites Program (LLHSP) of the Leech Lake site has remained preliminary. Certainly, this faunal Band of Ojibwe (Kluth and Kluth 2000). These analysis will be much more meaningful if a detailed investigations revealed substantial archaeological stndy of the cultural data is conducted at some point deposits, including evidence of seven culturally in the future. However, by itself this analysis does distinct groups: Late Archaic, Brainerd, Laurel, St. provide some important information on Woodland Croix, Blackduck, Sandy Lake, and Oneota-like subsistence strategies in the Headwater Lakes re­ components (Kluth and Kluth 2000). Given the ex­ gion and adds to the limited, yet growing, database tent and integrity of the cultural deposits, the site p

106 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64 • 2005

Figure 1. USGS quad map showing the location of the Midway site (21BL37).

of prehistoric faunal remains from northern Minne­ from 19 flotation samples also were analyzed. The sota. flotation material came from a variety of contexts and was processed through 1/16-inch screen. Methods Faunal materials from the 1999 Phase II exca­ vations had been inventoried earlier by personnel Most of the analyzed faunal materials were from the from the LLHSP (Kluth and Kluth 2000). For the Phase III excavation. A total of22,983 fragments of current analysis, they were reexamined only to find animal bone were recovered from the 48 one-meter any identifiable elements. Excavation and initial units. The units were excavated in arbitrary 3-cm processing methods for the Phase II materials were levels, with each level divided horizontally into four similar to those for Phase III, although all of the 50-cm quadrants and each quadrant excavated sepa­ Phase II soil was screened through 1/4-inch mesh. ''' rately. Soil from the northeast, southeast, and south­ The animal remains were identified through west quadrants was screened through 1/4-inch mesh, comparison to modern skeletal collections housed and soil from the northwest quadrant was screened at the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse. Several through 1/8-inch mesh. Many units contained an bird elements were sent for identification to Dr. Paul upper level of redeposited A horizon material exca­ W. Parmalee at the McClung Museum of the Uni­ vated as a single level, processed through 1/4-inch versity of Tennessee. Dr. Hohnes A. Semken, Jr. at screen, and analyzed separately. Heavy fractions BAKER I THELER- ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 107 the University of Iowa identified the vole and shrew After identification, the animal remains were remains. placed in polyethylene bags, with a tag on white Prior to analysis, all ofthe bone fragments were acid-free paper identifying the acquisition numbers screened again through 1/4-inch mesh. Fragments and the appropriate provenience and taxonomic smaller than 1/4 inch were scanned for identifiable information. With completion of the analysis, the material and counted, but not identified to class. remains were returned to LLHSP for curation at Fragments larger than 1/4 inch were sorted by class the Minnesota History Center through a repository and identified to the most specific taxonomic des­ agreement with the Minnesota Historical Society. ignation possible, with element, portion, and side recorded as appropriate. Each fragment larger than Results .1/4 inch was also examined for burning, rodent/car­ nivore gnawing, ingestion, fracturing, cut marks, Of the 22,983 tabulated fragments from the Phase and other signs of human or natural modification. III excavations, 11,158 were identified to class, and Provenience, taxonomic, and attribute information 892 were further identified to the family, genus, or was recorded on a paper datasheet and entered into species level. The Phase II materials contributed a Microsoft Access database (Stevenson eta!. n.d.). another 328 specimens identified to family, genus, Taxonomic names for manunals follow Haz­ or species. The following sections summarize the ard (1982), with the exception of the American elk analyzed remains by taxonomic category. Elements ( Cervus canadensis), which is after Thomas and To­ from the redeposited A horizon or other contexts la­ weill (1982). Bird terminology comes from Green beled as disturbed are noted as appropriate. and Janssen (1975), with the "true duck" subfamily (Anatinae) after Kaufman (1996). Terminology for Mammals fish comes from Becker (1983), reptiles and am­ phibians are from Oldfield and Moriarty (1994), and Manunal bones dominate the faunal assemblage. In the single freshwater mussel follows Turgeon et a!. all, 8,869 mammal bones/fragments were tabulated, (1998). with 826 (9.3%) identified to the species, genus, or To understand the dietary significance of the family level, representing at least 46 individuals of species and classes of animals, usable meat weights 28 native and 2 introduced mammal species. As a were estimated for animals identified to the genus or class, manunals contributed 1,096 kg (95%) of the species level. Manunals the size of a Plains pock­ usable meat (Table 1). et gopher (Geomys bursarius) or smaller, as well as toads (Bufo sp.), were excluded from the meat Even-Toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla) weight estimates because their occurrence at the site was probably natural. Variation in animal size was Deer Family (Cervidae) accommodated through the use of conservative es­ timates for usable meat: for mammals, 50 percent In terms of both usable meat and hides, the most im­ of the live weight; for birds, 70 percent of the live portant mammals were four members of the Cervi­ weight, following White (1953:398); and for fish dae or deer family: deer, moose, elk, and woodland and reptiles, 50 percent of the live weight. caribou. A fifth large manunal species, black bear, Live weights for ungulates come from Banfield will be discussed below with other carnivores. (1974), and those for other mammals come from Deer (Odocoileus sp.): Deer elements were by The1er (1987), with the exception of the porcupine far the most numerous ofthe large mammal remains, (Erethizon dorsatum) and the snowshoe hare (Lepus with 354 elements positively identified and another americanus), which are derived from Hazard (1982). 38 identified as probable deer. 1\vo deer species oc­ Live weight estimates for fishes and turtles are based cur in Minnesota, the mule deer ( Odocoileus hernia­ on individual comparisons to modern specimens of nus) and the white-tailed deer (0. virginianus). The known size. Live weights for birds come from sev­ Midway deer remains could not be separated by eral different sources, listed for each species as ap­ species based on their osteological characteristics. propriate. Range information is somewhat more helpful. The 108 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Figure 2. Upper row: modern moose (Alces alces) elements. Lower row: moose elements from the Midway site (21BL37); (a) left astragalus, (b) first phalanx, (c) second phalanx, (d) third phalanx.

,. ! i

Figure 3. Left naviculo-cuboid (a) from a modern caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and (b) that of one from the Midway site (21BL37). ' '

. r BAKER I THELER -ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 109

Figure 4. Black bear (Ursus americanus) canines (a, b), and cf. black bear canine (c) from the Midway site (21BL37).

Figure 5. Modern right mandible (a) of a dog (Canis familiaris), and two right mandibles (b, c) identified as Canis sp, from the Midway site (21BL37). Modern left mandible (d) of a beaver (Castor canadensis), and (e) one recov­ ered from Midway. 110 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Figure 6. Eagle remains from the Midway site (21BL37): (a-c) bald eagle, (d-e) cf. bald eagle, and (f) cf. eagle. Unpositioned foot phalanges (a, b, d, f) and terminal foot phalanges/ talons (c, e) .

.I

Figure 7. Worked bone from the Midway site (21BL37): (a) harpoon head, (b) awl fragment?, (c) mammal bone with grooves on edge, (d) polished mammal bone, (e) mammal bone with groove, and (f) drilled turtle carapace. BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 111

rnule deer is a western species, aud the eastern mar­ The 38 elements identified as probable deer gin of its range is marked with rare, sporadic oc­ (Table 6) show patterns similar to those of the posi­ currences in Minnesota, including in counties adja­ tively identified remains: 15 (40%) are limb extrem­ cent to Beltrami (Hall and Kelson 1959: 1006, Map ities, and 22 (58%) are tooth aud cranial fragments. 490; Hazard 1982:Map 71 ). Mule deer might have Disturbed/redeposited contexts contributed 11 addi­ been native to northwestern Minnesota in Kittson, tional deer elements and 4 other probable deer frag­ Roseau, and Wilkin Counties, but there is no resi­ ments. dent popnlation known in the state today (Hazard Moose (Alces alces): The Midway excavations 1982:158; Swanson et al. 1945:15). produced 23 positively identified moose bones and White-tailed deer, in contrast, are common and six probable moose bones. An additional two moose widespread in north-central Minnesota today, in­ remains and one probable came from disturbed/re­ cluding Beltrami County (Hazard 1982:159-162, deposited contexts. Moose would have been rela­ Map 72). They were not always so widespread. tively abundaut in the deciduous-coniferous forests Before logging and fires reshaped vegetation re­ of north-central Minnesota. During the summer, gimes after A.D. 1860, deer were rare in the region's moose browse on aquatic vegetation, particularly closed coniferous forests (Pike 1966 appendix I: 54- the leaves and tubers of the water lily and the ear~ 56; Swanson et al. 1945:26; Schoolcraft 1966:223- ly successional stages of deciduous vegetation. In 4, 244-252). Higher densities, however, occurred winter, moose often seek cover in dense stands of in vegetational edge habitats such as those found hardwoods or conifers (Banfield 1974:396; Hazard at Bemidji. Most of the deer elements from Mid­ 1982:163). way can probably be attributed to white-tailed deer, In 1806, Zebulon Pike reported that moose were based on records of historic distributions. present in the Leech Lake area and above there in Table 2 shows the numbers of different deer ele­ the Mississippi Headwaters, but there were very ments in the Midway assemblage. Of the 354 posi­ few deer or bear (Pike 1966:Appendix 1:54). In the tively identified elements, 327 (92%) are either limb historic period, moose were present in the Bemi­ extremities (n = 220, or 62%) or crauia1 fragments dji area (Hazard 1982:Map 73), a region that could or teeth (n = 107, 30%) (Table 3). This element dis­ be considered ecotonal in terms of the distribu­ tribution might reflect deboning of deer at kill lo­ tions of white-tailed deer aud moose. Moose have cations, with only selected elements returned to the a competitive advantage in deep snow, while deer site. are more resistaut to the endemic flatworm Parelo­ The minimum number of individuals (MNI) for phostrongylus tenus, which is fatal to moose (Haz­ deer, as determined from unique element counts, is ard 1982:164; see also Discussion, below). There five, as indicated by five lower right third premolars are at least five records of moose at Late Holocene and five lower right third molars (Table 4). Tooth archaeological sites in north-central Minnesota wear aualysis (Table 5) provides auother meaus for (Faunmap 1994:445). Moose bones also have been evaluating MNI. Tooth wear in the Midway sample reported recently from mound burial contexts at the shows evidence of deer up to at least seven years of Gull Lake Dam site in Cass County; they were origi­ age. Dividing the dentition into age classes raises nally identified as bison until reexamined by David the MNI from five to six: one fawn, two yearlings, Mather, as reported by Blue (2000). two deer 2.5 to 5.0 years old, and one deer seven The identified moose elements from Midway years or older at death. (Table 7, Fig. 2), except for one molar, are all from The season of deer harvest is indicated by tooth the limb extremities. At least two moose are rep­ eruption patterns aud a male frontal bone (Table 5). resented, as indicated by left distal tibia and right Based on dentition, at least one fawn and two year­ proximal metatarsals. Interestingly, of the elements lings were killed during the period October through that could be identified as coming from the front or December. A left frontal bone with the antler base hindquarters, all were from the meat-rich hindquar­ attached to the skull also reflects a fall to early win­ ters (excluding a distal humerus from the redepos­ ter kill. ited A horizon). As suggested for deer, moose were probably deboned at the kill location, with only a

L 112 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

few elements from the limb extremities returned surface level, its association with the pre-European to the site. Moose elements from the McKinstry occupation ofthe site is difficult to confirm. Mound in northern Minnesota showed a similar high proportion of extremities; of the 191 moose el­ Other Artiodactyla Remains ements from McKinstry, 54 percent were phalanges (Lukens 1973:40-41). Among the seven Midway The 92 remaining elements from ungulates included bones identified as probable moose (Table 8) was I eroded third molar of a cervid and 91 elements one ulna, representing a front quarter. The other six assigned to the order Artiodactyla (Table 1). Of the were from hindquarters or undetermined positions. 91 specimens from good context (not from the rede­ Two of the moose elements from Midway (a distal posited A horizon or other contexts labeled as dis­ tibia and a first phalanx) had cut marks produced by turbed), 9 were metatarsal or metacarpal fragments, a metal implement, indicating they were associated and the remaining 82 were teeth. All of the tooth with a historic occupation of the site. fragments were from molars or premolars, and most A moose provides a substantial package of meat. were probably from deer ( Odocoileus sp. ); however, Adult males range from 385 to 545 kg and females they were too fragmented to permit positive identi­ from 330 to 385 kg (Banfield 1974; Hazard 1982; fication. Jackson 1961). On average, a moose offers roughly 13 5 to 225 kg of usable meat. The two moose rep­ Carnivores (Carnivora) resented in the Midway assemblage might have pro­ vided as much meat as the six deer. The Midway assemblage includes elements from American Elk (Corvus canadensis): The four elk 11 carnivores: timber wolf, probable domestic dog, bones identified from Midway, including one from red fox, black bear, raccoon, pine marten, probable the redeposited A horizon, are all from limb extrem­ mink, badger, striped skunk, river otter, and domesc ities and represent an MNI of one (Table 9). Two tic house cat (discussed separately with other do­ additional bones were classified as probable elk. In mestic species). In terms of usable meat, fat, and earlier historic times, elk were widespread in Min­ hides, black bear would have been the most impor­ nesota, particularly at the prairie-hardwood forest tant of these species. ecotone, and were present in the Beltrami County Black Bear (Ursus americanus): The nine bear region (Hazard 1982:156; Swanson eta!. 1945:13- bones found at Midway (Table I 0) are consistent 14). An adult male elk can weigh as much as 320 with those of a black bear. They are a left maxilla, kg and provide 160 kg of usable meat (Banfield a right and a left canine, an incisor, four metatarsals, 1974; Jackson 1961). Elk remains also have been and an astragalus. An MNI of two individuals is reported at archaeological sites near Mille Lacs, 160 based upon two upper canines. Although one is a km southeast of the Midway site (Whelan 1990:64, right and one is a left, the two teeth differ signifi­ "! 70). cantly in size and obviously came from two indi­ Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus): A viduals (Fig. 4). Another damaged canine from the caribou is represented by one element, a naviculo­ redeposited A horizon was identified as probable cuboid from the distal portion of the rear leg (Fig. bear. An additional cranial fragment, an occipital 3), found in the uppermost level of a unit. In the his­ condyle, also came from the redeposited A horizon toric period, caribou were reported from the northern material. portion of the state, including Beltrami County, east The black bear is a widespread, low-density of the prairie biome (Hall and Kelson 1959: 1021; species in northern Minnesota and a characteristic Hazard 1982:165; Surber 1932:16; Swanson eta!. species of the Mississippi Headwaters region. The 1945:100). Two late Holocene occurrences are re­ presence of canines and a maxillary portion might corded in north-central Minnesota for the McKin­ reflect an interest in securing canines for ornamental stry Mound and the White Oak Mound (Faunmap or ritual purposes, and the metatarsals might indicate 1994:455; Lukens 1973). Because the caribou el­ use of the bear skin, transport of the hindquarters, or ement in the Midway assemblage was found in a removal of the terminal (third) phalanx or claw for ornamental or ritual uses. . . BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 113 rf It is unlikely that the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) fragment identified as probable mink (Mustela vi­ occurred as a resident in north-central Minnesota son). during the later prehistoric period. Euro-Ameri­ can sightings of these bears were reported around Rodents (Rodentia) the year 1800 as close as the Red River of North (Hazard 1982: 126), where grizzlies were cotermi­ Bones from at least eight species of rodents were re­ nous with bison herds near what is now the Min­ covered at the Midway site (Table 1). Some species nesota-North Dakota border. Grizzly bear terminal (porcupine, beaver, muslaat, and perhaps the wood­ phalanges were found in mortuary context at the chuck) were probably subsistence related, but others McKinstry Mound (Stoltman 1973), and they were (Plains pocket gopher, chipmunk, meadow vole and .probably items acquired to the west. red-backed vole) would have occurred naturally at Dog Family (domestic dog, coyote, or wolf) (Ca­ the site. nis sp.): The assemblage contains 16 elements iden­ Beaver (Castor canadensis): The assemblage in­ tified as Canis species and 2 additional bones classi­ cludes W 1 elements positively identified as beaver fied as probable Canis species (Table 11). The MNI and 9 others classified as possible beaver. Three of of three is based on the number of!ower right fourth the positively identified elements are from the rede­ premolars. Of the 16 positively identified elements, posited A horizon material, hut of the remaining 98 13 are teeth or related cranial fragments (Fig. 5), and specimens, 56 (57%) are cranial or tooth fragments. the others are an atlas vertebra, a distal metapodial, The MNI of four individuals was based on lower and a distal femur. The two elements classified as right fourth premolars (Table 12). The proportions probable Canis sp. are atlas vertebra fragments from of different elements seem to indicate that the beaver the same provenience (Unit 17, Level 7). All of the were processed at the site. An emphasis on cranial­ recovered elements are consistent in size and form mandibular bones (Fig. 5) might reflect a desire to to the domestic dog, Canis familiaris. The over­ procure the sturdy incisors to use as woodworking whelming predominance of cranial elements might tools (Lukens 1973:39-40; Theler 2000:127); how­ be attributable to disposal practices for animals used ever, none of the 6 incisors or 17 incisor fragments as food (Synder 1991; Theler 2000:127, 129). found show signs of such wear or modification. Timber Wolf (Cauis lupus): A timber wolf was Historically, beaver were widespread in north­ represented at the Midway site by two bone frag­ ern Minnesota. They live in colonies of 4 to 10 ments, a right proximal metapodial and a proximal individuals, and their primary warm-season foods second phalanx. Another left metapodial is probably are aquatic vegetation and tree baric. During cold that of a timber wolf. The timber wolf is widespread weather, they subsist on bark-covered deciduous across North America and preys on a range of verte­ limbs they cache near their lodge. Stable winter brate species, especially deer, elk, and moose in the water levels controlled by log dams are essential Minnesota Headwaters region. Its presence in the to their existence (Hazard 1982:80). Several early Midway assemblage is not surprising. travelers in the Mississippi Headwaters region men­ Other Carnivores: Eight other carnivore spe­ tioned beaver as important dietary resources (Pike cies are present in the Midway assemblage, each 1966 appendix 1:54,56; Schoolcraft 1966:223-224, identified by a small number of fragments. At least 244-245). Minnesota archaeological sites, includ­ two river otters (Lutra canadensis) are represented ing McKinstry Mound (Lukens 1973; Morey et a!. by two left proximal ulnae and one lower first molar. 1996) and Woodland sites near Mille Lacs (Whelan Other carnivore elements are a fourth premolar of a 1990), have produced abundant beaver remains. red fox (Vulpes vulpes), a second phalanx of a bad­ Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus): The Midway ger (Taxidea laxus), a distal right fibula of a striped remains include 59 elements positively identified skunk (Mephitis mephitis), and a left horizontal ra­ as muslaat (two of them from disturbed context), mus of a raccoon (Procyon lotor). Additional ma­ and an additional six classified as probable muslaat terials from the redeposited A horizon include a left (Table 13). The 57 definite muskrat bones not from horizontal ramus (with the first molar) from a pine disturbed contexts represent at least five individuals, I marten (Maries americana), and an axis vertebra based on right first molars. At least three individu- : 114 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005 als are represented by the postcranial bones (from food, and perhaps they were rarely selected in pre­ proximal ulnas and proximal femurs). Twenty-sev­ modern times. en (48.0%) of the bones are cranial-dentary and the rest are postcranial; the distribution shows repre­ Insectivores (lnsectivora) sentation of all major bones but also some apparent selection for cranial elements. The bones holding This family is represented by one mandible from a the muskrat incisors might have been selected for masked shrew (Sorex cinerus), a species cmumon to potential use of the incisors as tools, like those of the Mississippi Headwaters region, including Bel­ beaver. trami County (Hazard 1982:21, Map 5). This spe­ Muskrats require stable water levels and depend cies is part of the natural "rain" of fauna that could primarily on aquatic vegetation as a food source be expected at the site. (Hazard 1982:98). Muskrats were and are wide­ spread across northern Minnesota, including the Birds Mississippi Headwaters region. . Other Rodent Taxa: Two other rodent species At least 14 individual birds, of 10 different taxa, are that might have been part of the aboriginal diet are represented at the site (Table 15). The most com­ porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum ), with an MNI of mon bird remains are those of ducks, with three one based on an upper left first or second molar, and individuals identified to the genus or species level woodchuck (Marmota monax), with an MNI of one and three others to the subfamily level. The second from a horizontal ramus with a fourth premolar and most common bird is the double-crested cormorant, first molar. with an MNI of three. Other species with an MNI One species that is not treated here as part of of one are the bald eagle, common loon, great blue the human diet, but might have been consumed, is heron, and ruffed grouse. The identified birds do · the Plains pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius). This not appear to have been an overly important com­ species is represented by 24 positively identified ponent of the diet, ranldng third in both NISP aod elements and 7 probable identifications (Table 14). MNI, behind both mammals and fish. In terms of The 24 definite gopher bones have an MNI of 4, weight, the birds would have provided 10.2 kg of from left mandibles with dentition. Of the 24, 11 usable meat, ranldng fourth behind mammals, fish, (46.0%) are cranial or dentary. The MNI from the and reptiles and contributing only 0.9 percent of the postcranial remains is 2 (from left humeri and left usable meat. innominates ), a pattern similar to that for muslcrats. Other small rodent species interpreted as natu­ Ducks (Anatidae) rally occurring at the site are the eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus), the red-backed vole (Clethriono­ The most common bird family in the assemblage is mys gappen), the meadow vole (Microtus pennsyl­ Anatidae (ducks, geese, and swans). A total of 36 vanicus), and a white-footed mouse (Peromyscus bones could be confidently assigned to the family sp.), with one individual each (Table 1). and an additional three compared favorably (Table 15). All of these elements are believed to be from Rabbits and Hares (Leporidae) the subfamily Anatinae (the true ducks), based upon size. Five elements could be placed in the genus The only remains from this family recovered at Mid­ Anas (dabbling/puddle ducks). Two other Anatidae way are those of the snowshoe hare (Lepus ameri­ elements were assigned to the genus Aythya (diving canus ). One element was positively identified, and ducks). another was classified as probable (Table 1). The Within the genus Anas, three bones were identi­ scarcity of snowshoe hare remains at prehistoric fied to definite or probable species. A single gadwall Woodland sites in the heart of this species' range has (Anas strepa) was represented by a left coracoid. been commented on by others (Lukens 1973:42). This species is a regular inhabitant of Minnesota, Some societies consider this species a starvation but in modern times it has been rare in the north­ central portion of the state, including the Bemidji r-­ r BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 115 area (Green and Janssen 1975:46). Observations of Double-Crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax au­ migration patterns indicate that the earliest gadwalls ritus): Four bones from Midway were identified as arrive at the very end of March and the latest leave those of the double-crested cormorant. The pres­ by mid-December. No winter stragglers are known ence of three anterior sternums (with the coracoid north of the Twin Cities area. facets) indicates an MNI of three. Cormorants are A distal right coracoid compares favorably to a regular summer inhabitant of Minnesota, although mallard (Anas cf. A. platyrhynchos), but this spe­ their numbers have dropped dramatically since the cies is too similar osteologically to the black duck 1950s. They were once abundant in flocks of 1,000 (Anas rubripes) to permit a positive identification. to 5,000 individuals (Green and Janssen 1975:34) Although the two species arc similar in both their and were probably common in prehistoric times. physiology and their behavior, mallards are far more They inhabit the shores of lakes and rivers, subsist­ collllllon in the region, with the black duck being a ing on fish and other small aquatic animals as well as rare traveler of the Upper Mississippi flyway (Bell­ some plants (Kaufman 1996:423-43). Cormorants rose 1976:254-257). The two species are most com­ are migratory, arriving in northern Minnesota during mon in northern Minnesota from March through No­ mid-March and leaving by late October (Green and vember, with some individuals remaining through Janssen 1975:34). the winter. In prehistoric times, wintering individu­ Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus): Three als would have been unlikely, since most of today's elements were positively identified as bald eagle, winter residents are drawn to open water near power two others compared favorably to bald eagle, and plants (Green and Janssen 1975:45-46). one compared favorably to either bald or golden A final member of the genus Anas was identified eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus/ Aquila chrysae­ from a complete right coracoid. This element com­ tos). In total, these elements may only represent pared well to both green-winged teal (Anas crecca) a single individual, but they are significant in that and blue-winged teal (Anas discors), and the two they seem to be the only eagle remains from a non­ species could not be separated osteologically. Both mortuary archaeological assemblage in north-cen­ species are common throughout Minnesota during tral Minnesota. They are also interesting in terms the warmer months; they are usually among the ear­ of the elements represented (Fig. 6): all six bones liest to leave during the fall and the latest to return are phalanges from the foot, including two termi­ during the spring. In the north, most of these birds nal phalanges or talons. The dominance of these are usually gone by the middle of October and do elements, together with the general scarcity of eagle not return until April, and in the historic period, few remains, suggests ritual significance. On the other have been observed to winter in the northern half of hand, these elements are also the most likely to be the state (Green and Janssen 1975:47-48). preserved from a carnivore-scavenged animal, since Based on distal right scapulas, an MNI of six they come from the part of the leg with no meat. is calculated for the family Anatidae. This includes In fact, two of the phalanges do show evidence of the three individuals identified more specifically, carnivore gnawing or pitting, which would not be even though these individuals were not identified expected if humans were reserving these elements from their right scapulas; they are included in this for special use. Because of their possible ritual sig­ total count because one or more of the six scapu­ nificance, the eagle elements are not interpreted as a las may belong to them. Variation in body weights dietary item and are not included in the estimates of among ducks precludes calculating meat weights for usable meat weights. the three individuals not identified to genus or spe­ Bald eagles are regular summer inhabitants of cies. northern Minnesota. They typically live on large Overall, the ducks at the site were most likely lakes and rivers and are most often seen within taken during the spring through fall, since few if any 200 m of such water bodies (Grim and Kallem­ would have remained in northern Minnesota during eyn 1995: 16). The eagle's diet consists mainly of the winter. This seasonal information corresponds fish, small manunals, other birds, and carrion. Like well with that derived from the deer and fish remains ducks, bald eagles are migratory birds that leave the and from the other birds. area as the lakes become ice covered in the late fall,

'i"' 116 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64 • 2005

and return in mid- to late March (Green and Janssen Ruffed Grouse (Bonasa umbellus): The ruffed i 1975:66-67). Occasionally, eagles remain for the grouse is the only bird identified in the assemblage winter in areas with sufficient open water. that is consistently a year-round resident. A single :I Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias): A heron is carpometacarpus compared favorably to this spe­ .,!I .I represented by three elements (a coracoid, a prox­ cies, and measurements (Hargrave 1972) separated .I imal humerus, and a dentary). Great blue herons it from the spruce grouse (Canachites canadensis), are common summer residents of Milmesota. They the sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioecetes phasianellus), are most abundant in non-wooded areas of south­ and the greater prairie chicken (Tympanuchus cu­ ern Minnesota but are found throughout the state. pido). All four species exist in the area, but ruffed They are a highly adaptable species that can live in grouse are the most common (Green and Janssen several habitats, but they are common along lakes 1975:71-73). Although this element is identified and rivers, where they eat a variety of foods, includ­ as probable, a weight estimate of 0.6 kg (Johnsgard ing fish, crayfish, amphibians, and small manunals 1975) is still given, because at least one grouse is and reptiles (Kauffinan 1996:51-52). These migra­ represented, and the other possible species are simi­ tory birds arrive in northern Minnesota beginning lar in size. The grouse would have provided 0.4 kg in late March, and most leave by November (Green of usable meat. and Janssen 1975:35). No wintering individuals are known north of the Twin Cities. Amphibians Common Loon (Gavia immer): Loons are a common summer inhabitant of northern Minnesota, In all, 23 elements were identified as Bufo and one with a stable population and breeding colonies as far as probable Bufo. Based on historic species distri­ south as the Twin Cities area (Mcintyre 1988:153). butions, these bones are probably those of the Amer­ Their range once extended as far south as Iowa ican toad, Bufo americanus. According to Oldfield' (Green and Janssen 1975:30). At the Midway site, and Moriarty (1994:68-69), the American toad is a loon is represented by two elements (a tarsometa­ recorded for Beltrami County and is widespread in tarsus and a frontal). Although loons are common in Minnesota. Other species that occur in Minnesota the area, they are uncommon in prehistoric archaeo­ include the Great Plains toad (Bufo cognatus), found logical assemblages from northern Minnesota (see west of Beltrami County, and the Canadian toad Mather 1998; Lukens 1973; Whelan 1990). Loon (Bufo hemiophrys), which occurs in northwestern remains were abundant at the nearby Horseshoe Bay Minnesota but is not reported for Beltrami County site (Hannes 1994), a 19" century fur-trading post, (Oldfield and Moriarty 1994:72, 74). where they were perhaps taken more readily with At least three individual toads are represented, firearms. In modern tilnes, loons often get caught based on left ilia. Fifteen bones from one context accidentally in gill nets. Although such netting prac­ (Unit 15, Level 10) are from one individual, and tices were used prehistorically in the Great Lakes re­ another six bones are from Unit 3, Levels 8 and 9. gion (Cleland 1982), netting does not appear to have These clusters of bones probably represent individu­ occurred at the Midway site (see discussion offish, als that died in place. below) and probably does not account for the loon elements. Reptiles Loons are diving birds that subsist mainly on fish but are also known to eat insects, crayfish, mollusks, Spiny ? softshell turtle (Apalone cf A. spinifera): and some plants. They typically live on large lakes One carapace fragment of a softshell turtle was re­ with ample room for take-off and plentiful small covered from redeposited A horizon material at the fish. Females usually nest along protected, vege­ Midway site. There are two softshell species in Min­ tated shorelines, where they could have been taken nesota, the smooth softshell (Apalone mutica) and during the summer months. Common loons arrive the spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera). The smooth in northern Minnesota in late March, and most leave softshell is known from the southeastern portion of by mid-October (Green and Janssen 1975:30). the state, while the spiny softshell occurs as far north as Itasca County, which adjoins Beltrami County BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 117 on the east (Oldfield and Moriarty 1994:112, 116). Pike (Esox sp): Two species of Esox occur Based on distributional rather than osteological evi­ in the Mississippi Headwaters region, the northern dence, this specimen can be tentatively assigned to pike (Esox lucius), and the muskellunge or muskie A. spinifera. The small size of this fragment pre­ (Esox masquinongy). Osteologically, these species cludes au accurate weight estimate. are difficult to distinguish except that the dentary of Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina): The a muslde has a larger number of pore openings on its Midway excavations produced 16 specimens iden­ inferior surface. The Esox dentary bones in Midway tified as snapping turtle and an additional phalanx assemblage were fragmentary, so the species identi­ probably assignable to this species. Carapace and fication could not be confirmed. plastron segments were identified to this species Pike were the most important fish species at . because of their distinct texture. Two right humeri Midway, with 74 bones and three probable ones rep­ shafts indicate at least two individuals in the Mid­ resenting at least 15 individuals. Their live weights way assemblage. One distinct cluster of eight bones are estimated to total32.6 kg, or 49.2 percent of the was found in Unit 8, Level 6, and the other eight total foF fish. The nmnber of pike represented can bones came from various contexts. be determined from unique elements as well as indi­ This aquatic species in widespread in Minnesota vidual fish size. One small 50-gram fish is present, and is recorded for Beltrami County (Oldfield and and 11 pike between 0.5 kg and 2.5 kg are indicated Moriarty 1994:120). Native Americans through­ by left anterior dentary bones. Three additional fish out the Great Lakes region used snapping turtles each weighed between 4.0 and 6.0 kg. in small numbers for food. Snappers are most vul­ The pike recovered at Midway could have been nerable in the spring, when females venture on dry taken at any time of year; however, except for the land to lay their eggs. Both individuals from the site smallest, they were all of breeding age when har­ were larger than our modern comparative specimens vested, and northern pike are exceptionally vulner­ and together are estimated to have weighed 22.8 kg, able to hmnan predation when they spawn in shal­ yielding about 11.4 kg of useable meat. low water during the spring. Spawning takes place Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta): Painted in flooded marshes or lake inlets and begins when turtles are represented by three positively identi­ the winter ice starts to break up during late March fied specimens and two additional elements prob­ or April and water temperatures reach 1.1 to 4.4 ° C ably assignable to this species. The presence of two (Becker 1983:399). carapace nuchal segments document an MNI of two. Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum): Walleye are the This common aquatic species has not been record­ second most important fish species in the Midway as­ ed in Beltrami County but is found in neighboring semblage, in terms of the amount of meat provided. counties (Oldfield and Moriarty 1994:126). A com­ Osteologically, walleye are hard to distinguish from bined meat weight estimate for the two individuals the closely related sanger (Stizostedion canadense), is 0.4 kg. but sanger are not native to the Mississippi Headwa­ ters region (Hatch and Schmidt 2004), so the Mid­ Fishes way specimens can be attributed to walleye. Here, a total of 118 elements were present, constituting at The Midway excavations produced 1, 762 fish bones least 14 individuals, based on the anterior portion from good contexts, 318 (18%) of which were as­ of the dentary. An additional 13 elements were as­ signable to the family, genus, or species level, with signed probable identifications. The 14 individual 10 taxa and 47 individuals represented (Table 16). fish had estimated live weights ranging from 0.7 kg These 4 7 fish had a total estimated live weight of to 4.5 kg and totaled 21 kg, or 29.7 percent of all 66.3 kg and contributed about 2 percent of the us­ fish. This would have provided 10.5 kg of useable able meat represented at the site. Two taxa in partic­ meat. ular, pike and walleye, represented about 80 percent The sizes of the 14 fish indicate that they would of the total. An additional 30 elements came from have been sexually mature. Like pike, walleye are redeposited or disturbed material. most vulnerable during spring when they spawn in shallow waters. Walleye spawning begins after ice- 118 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST -VOLUME 64 • 2005 out, when water temperatures reach 3.3 to 6.7° C, (Clarke 1981). This shell showed no indications and preferred locations are shallow waters of lake of modification and might have been deposited by inlets on gravel substrates, wave-washed shores, humans or by animals. A few other unidentifiable or flooded marshes. Spawning peaks when waters mussel shell fragments were recovered. wann to 5.6 to 10.0° C (Becker 1983:872-875). Suckers (Catostomidae): Suckers are repre­ Domestic Animal Species sented by one white sucker ( Catostomus commer­ soni) with a live weight of 1.0 kg, a probable white Bones of four different domestic animal species sucker weighing 1.2 kg, and two redhorse suckers were identified. One of these, identified as prob­ (Moxostoma sp.) weighing 2.3 and 3.4 kg. Although able domestic dog (Canisfamiliaris), is most likely 17 sucker species are listed for Minnesota, only of prehistoric origin and was described earlier with the white sucker and three species of redhorse are carnivores. The other three species are associated considered native in the Headwaters region (Hatch with Euro-American presence. The first is the do­ and Schmidt 2004). These four .sucker species are mestic pig (Sus scofa), represented by a two first spring spawners, with peak activity between 6.7 and phalanges, one of which came from deposits classi­ 19.0° C, when they typically move into shallow­ fied as undisturbed. Its presence is clearly intrusive water streams or lake inlets (Becker 1983). and might reflect bioturbation. Bullhead Catfish (Ictalurus) (= Ameiurus): The The second species is the domestic cat (Felis Midway assemblage contained 53 Ictalurus ele­ callus), with probable identifications of an anterior ments representing at least three black bullheads mandible (with the third incisor) and a right astraga­ (Ictalurus me/as) and four brown bullheads (Ictal­ lus. One of these elements is also from an apparent­ urus nebulosus). One additional Ictalurus bone was ly undisturbed context and must result from some found in the redeposited A horizon. The individual form of disturbance. The other was recovered from· bullheads were rather large, ranging in size from 0.3 the uppermost level of an excavation unit and could to 0.5 kg. easily be associated with historic activities. Yellow Perch (Perea flavcsccns): Yellow perch The final domestic species is the chicken (Gal­ were represented by 20 positively identified ele­ lus gallus), represented by a complete scapula and ments from at least four individuals. Three of these a proximal femur, both of them recovered from the fish were estimated to have live weights of 0.5 kg. uppermost excavation level. They, like the cat, are Seven probable perch bones also were found. Yel­ probably the result of historic activity. A complete low perch spawn shortly after ice-out, when water chicken skeleton was discovered in the Phase II ex­ temperatures reach 7.2 to 11.1° C, closely follow­ cavation (Kluth and Kluth 2000). ing the spawning times for northern pike and wall­ Overall, the recovery of historic species from eye and coinciding with that of suckers (Becker the upper levels of some of excavation units is not 1983:886-887). unexpected. The occurrence of domestic cat and pig Other Fish Taxa: Three additional fish taxa were elements in apparently undisturbed contexts is less identified in the Midway assemblage, each from a expected; however, these are only two bones out of single element: a pumpkinseed sunfish (Lepomis thousands in the assemblage. They could have been gibbosus), a probable rock bass (Ambloplites rupes­ incorporated into the prehistoric deposits through tris), and a probable smallmouth bass (Micropterus some form of small-scale disturbance, such as ro­ dolomieui). All three species would have occurred dent burrowing. in the Lake Bemidji-Headwaters region. Worked Bone Freshwater Mussels Six pieces of culturally-modified bone were iden­ The only identifiable shell in the Midway assem­ tified in the Phase III material (Fig. 7). Three are blage was a fatrnucket (Lampsilis siliquoidea), a manunal bone fragments with clear signs of modifi­ common freshwater mussel species found in rela­ cation. One has several small grooves carved along tively shallow waters of northern lakes and streams its edge, the second has a single groove carved into BAKER I THELER -ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 119

its surface, and the third has wear or polishing on Burned Bone the bone surface and the edges. Unfortunately, these fragments cannot be classified as any particular type Burning documents human manipulation of the ani­ of artifact. mal remains. Burned bone was assigned to iliree The fourth bone artifact is a small piece of categories: scorched, bmned/carbonized, and cal­ grom1d, polished manunal bone that might be an cined. These categories represent different degrees awl fi·agment. This specimen seems to have been of burning (Lyman 1994:384-391). Scorching or made from a long-bone splinter of a medium-sized superficial buming darkens or blackens the surface to large animal. The fifth artifact is a turtle carapace or portions of ilie bone bnt leaves tl1e rest unaltered. fragment with a small drilled hole, the exact purpose Longer exposure to heat carbonizes more of tile col­ of which is unknown, but probably relates to use of lagen, causing burned or carbonized bone iliat is the carapace for a bowl, container, rattle, or oilier darkened or black throughout. If the heat exposure item. continues, ilie newly carbonized material begins to The final artifact is a piece of mammal bone that oxidize and change color from black to white or might be ilie tip of a harpoon. This long-bone shaft grayish blue. This white or gray, calcined bone also fi·agment from a medium-sized to large mannnal has a chalkier texture. Of the 11,158 analyzed frag­ was flattened through grinding and sharpened to a ments, 1,371 (12.3%) displayed signs ofburning; 36 point on one end. Just behind ilie point is a small (0.3%) of them were scorched, 642 (5.6%) bumed fracture along ilie shaft that appears to be where a or carbonized, and 693 ( 6.2%) calcined (Table 17). barb broke off. This item seems to have been bro­ Occurrences of bumed bone were also studied ken, discarded, and burned. A spear/harpoon point to look for differential distribution across ilie site. would fit well at ilie site, since iliis was probably the While ilie bones were still being identified, it was primary meiliod for harvesting the fish represented noted iliat ilie fragments from illlits 33 through 41 (see above). seemed different from the rest of ilie assemblage. Bone artifacts recovered from the Phase II exca­ These units were inAreaF, the portion of the site in­ vations were not reexamined for tllis analysis. De­ terpreted from the Phase II investigation as contain­ scriptions and photographs (Kluili and Kluth 2000) ing possible Late Archaic deposits. The 9 Phase III indicate nine probable bone tools, among them a units in Area F produced only 431 bone fragments, 9.9-cm-long bone needle with an eyelet, a piece de­ significantly less than oilier portions of the site. The scribed as an awl fragment, and a small bone tube. fragments were small; in fact, only 56 were larger than 114 inch (Table 17). Ofilie 56 larger fragments, Taphonomic Modifications 42 (75%) were calcined. Despite the small sample size, iliis high proportion of calcined bone contrasts All of ilie bones larger than 1/4 inch were exam­ strongly to the proportion for the site as a whole ined for other human-induced alterations (burning, (6.2%). fracturing, and cut marks) and oilier types of modi­ Burned and calcined bone does preserve better fication not human-induced (rodent or carnivore than nonburned bone, because carbonization of the gnawing, carnivore ingestion, and weathering). The organic material makes the bone less vulnerable to Phase II materials were not included in iliis portion the action of microorganisms (Lyman 1994:391). of the analysis, since only the identifiable elements The higher propmtion of calcined bone in the Area were recorded. Excluding the Phase II materials F units could well result from its greater resistance and the Phase III fragments smaller ilian 114 inch to decay, which would fit ilie interpretation of iliis left 11,158 fragments in the analyzed sample. The portion of the site as older. Only eight bones from modifications are summarized by unit in Table 17. units 33 to 41 were identifiable beyond class. One of them was an intrusive rodent, and five were large­ mammal tooth enamel fragments, which are also resistant to decay. Fish bones, which decay more readily, were rare in these units (only three ele­ ments), altllough they were common throughout the

. l··". f'; I 120 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST ·VOLUME 64 • 2005

rest of the site. Finally, the bone fragments from Cut Marks these units, particularly those that were unburned, were small, fragile, and poorly presCJved. All of Bones exhibiting cut marks were rare at Midway. these factors suggest that the bone in this portion of Even including the identified Phase II materials , the site was deposited earlier than in the other areas. only 20 elements had cut marks. Ofthose, four were I Once again, this data would certainly be more useful specimens with historic knife or saw marks (two in light of more detailed cultural information. moose elements, one pig phalanx, and one piece of ,Ii: unidentified mammal bone), and all were from dis­ 'I 1: Fractured Bone turbed contexts sampled during the Phase II excava­ ·' il tions. Only 16 pieces (13 mammal, two bird, and one ..I In addition to burning, humans modify bone by turtle) had cut marks caused by stone tools. Of the fracturing it. Fracture patterns on fresh (or "green") mammal bones, two were deer (a navicula-cuboid bone are different from those on dried bone (Ly­ and a distal metapodial), one was moose (a first pha­ man 1994:320). Fresh bone typically shows clean, lanx), one was an artiodactyla (a metapodial), one smooth fractures at acute or obtuse angles to the was a muskrat, and eight were unidentified. Except bone surface and often has "spiral" fractures. Green­ for the muskrat, all of the cut marks were on the ex­ bone fractures can also have a fial

1981). Domestic dogs were probably responsible western portion ofthe isthmus. These four units were for most ofthe carnivore gnawing and ingestion seen the closest to the river channel and had a higher den­ at the site. The gnawing is primarily on the ends of sity of faunal remains than any other proveniences. long bones, typically the first portions destroyed by Together, they contained 6,884 pieces ofbone, or 30 dogs and similar carnivores. No differential distri­ percent of the entire Phase III assemblage. These bution of gnawed or ingested bone was noted at the units were also different from the others in terms site, except that in the Archaic area, the bones were of their fish remains. To examine this difference, in too poor of a condition to identify these forms of several fish species were grouped together by family modification. or genus, and the numbers of identified specimens (NISP) were compared to those from the other units . Weathering at the site. Ideally, this comparison would have used MNI rather than NISP, but the sample sizes were too Many of the Midway specimens show considerable small. surface wear and, in some cases, polish. Although Using NISP, these four units had a higher per­ i the cause is difficult to determine, exposure on a centage of suckers (Catostomidae) and bullheads '.' beach/shoreline setting seems likely. Many land­ (Ictalurus sp.) than the site as a whole (Table 18). In marks and surface features are worn or polished as fact, 63 percent of all of the bullhead bones and 42.3 though they had been subjected to water action. It percent of all of the sucker bones from the entire would have been difficult for the specimens to ac­ site came from these four units. Walleye (Stizoste­ . ~· quire these characteristics if they had remained in dion vitreum) were still the most abundant remains situ from the time they were first deposited. Most of in these four units but ranked very close to the bull­ the bone fragments in the assemblage are also much heads. In addition, the percent of pike (.Esox sp.) smaller than would typically be expected, perhaps remains is smaller, while that of the yellow perch another reflection of exposure to the turbulence of (Perea flavescens) remains is about the same. These a beach enviromuent. Unfortunately, the literature four units are closest to the river and might represent offers little information on these taphonomic pro­ a different activity area or perhaps a different sea­ cesses. sonal or cultural occupation. From the large number ,. of bullheads, this portion of the site might represent Distribution Patterns a more surmuer-focused activity area or.occupation. Comparison with the other cultural materials might The faunal data were sorted in numerous ways to try help to clarify the differences. to find patterning in the vertical or horizontal distri­ butions of different species, different elements, or Discussion and Conclusions cultural modifications. In terms of vertical stratig­ raphy, no significant patterning was observed other The Midway site produced a large and diverse fau­ than changes in the number ofbones per level. Usu­ nal assemblage. Given the general scarcity of ana­ ally about three or four adjacent levels contained lyzed faunal material from northern Minnesota, the more bone than the others in the same unit, but inter­ remains from this site are particularly significant. preting these concentrations as possible occupation Unfortunately, the lack of a conclusive analysis of zones would require comparison to the distributions the Midway cultural material makes the assemblage of ceramics and other artifacts. rather difficult to interpret and place into a regional In terms of horizontal patterning, two important perspective. As mentioned above, Phase II excava­ differences were observed. The first was the small tions at the site produced evidence of Late Archaic, size of the fragments and much higher proportion Brainerd, Laurel, St. Croix, Blackduck, Sandy Lake, of calcined bone in Area F, as discussed earlier in and Oneota-like components (Kluth and Kluth the section on burned bone. These Area F remains 2000). Preliminary analysis of the diagnostic lith­ might represent earlier deposits. ics and ceramics from the Phase III mitigation sup­ The second difference was observed in Units 42, ports this initial observation and indicates that the 43, 44, and 45, all of which were in Area A, on the Brainerd, Blackduck, and Sandy Lake peoples were ;Ir' I I I 122 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST -VOLUME 64 • 2005 i I the primary occupants of the site (LLHSP 2002). The exploitation oflarge mammals was heavily The additional recovery of a Hi-Lo projectile point supplemented by a wide range of medium to small from Area F pushes the site's initial occupation back m=als that were likely obtained from a variety to Late Paleoindian!Early Archaic times (LLHSP of environments. Based upon MNI and NISP, we 2002:38). As such, we see that the site has been oc­ see that the beaver and muskrat are the second most cupied for nearly 10,000 years, although the greatest abundant mammals at the site. Both of these ani­ density of occupation appears to have occurred dur­ mals live exclusively in aquatic habitats and would ing the Woodland Tradition. have likely been available in the immediate vicinity With little to no data available for correlating of the site. Historic documents (Pike 1966 appen­ the faunal remains to a particular cultural compo­ dix 1:54,56; Schoolcraft 1966:223-224, 244-245) nent, we must consider these remains as a composite and other northern Millllesota archaeological sites assemblage. It is important to note that in doing so, (Lukens 1963, 1973; Whelan 1990; Morey et a!. we may be masking a great deal ofvariability in sea­ 1996) attest their importance in the prehistoric diet. sonal occupations and resource exploitation at the The presence of the river otter and raccoon at Mid­ site. Therefore, the following discussion will reflect way also indicate the exploitation of lacustrine and a generalized analysis for the site as a whole. Fur­ riverine zones. Other matllffials from the site are ther study of the cultural remains will undoubtedly found in a variety of habitats. The snowshoe hare, help to refine these interpretations. porcupine, and pine marten are commonly found in coniferous forests, while the badger was likely taken Subsistence & Seasonality from a more open environment. Although a major­ ity of the canid material was not identifiable to the Based upon rough estimates of useable meat weight, species level, most of it likely comes from domestic it can be postulated that large mammals (moose, dogs that would have been maintained and utilized · white-tailed deer, elk, black bear, and caribou) pro­ by the Midway inhabitants. vided most of the animal protein in the local diet The fish remains from Midway are dominated prior to the arrival of Europeans (sec Table 19). by pike and walleye, both of which aw easily har­ Moose might have been taken along lake margins or vested during spring spawning. Other speoies in in shallow-water marshes during the warm season, the assemblage, including the suckers and yellow or at nearby refuges in the closed coniferous forest perch, also might have been taken during spawning. during the winter. For deer, tooth eruption evidence Based on their sizes, the Midway specimens were (Table 5) indicates hatvest in the fall to early winter; primarily mature fish. The temperatures at which this is the mating period, during which they are less spawning occurs suggest a several-week period of cautious and therefore more vulnerable. fish harvest, beginning with northern pike at ice-out As noted above, an exat11ination of the skeletal­ in March and continuing with walleye, suckers, and part frequencies of deer and moose indicates a dis­ perhaps perch into May. Schoolcraft reported that proportionate number of limb extremities. This·is when their winter store of wild rice was exhausted, probably the result of the deboning of the animal at the Ojibwe lived on fish (1966:229). Given the rela­ the ldlllocality to aid in transportation of the meat tively poor bone preservation at the Midway site it and hide back to the site. Ethnographic accounts is quite possible that the actual dietary contribution demonstrate that native peoples frequently subdivide offish may be extremely underestimated. kills for ease of transport (Binford 1978:47-59). In The relatively small sample of preserved fish this instance, the low utility extremities were likely remains makes it difficult to quantitatively evaluate left attached to the hide, while the heavier elements how they may have been procured. At the nearby were stripped of their meat and left behind. This Horseshoe Bay Site, on Leech Lake in Cass County, differential transport of ungulate skeletal elements significant amounts of fish bones and scales have has been reported from numerous sites elsewhere in been recovered from historic fur trade components the upper Midwest (Theler 2000: 127) and is closely (Shane 1996). These assemblages, like Midway, are mirrored by the skeletal part representations at Mid­ dominated by large walleye and pike remains. Esti­ way. mates of total lengths, through regression analysis, BAKER I THELER- ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 123 indicates that the Horseshoe Bay walleyes and pikes and Wright 1990; cf. Michlovic 1980). This eco­ where generally of a consistent size and probably tone generally nms from the northwest to the south­ harvested through gill-netting during the spawn east through the center of the state, and represents (Shane 1996:14-16). Significant historic, ethno­ a physiographic transition from the prairies and graphic, and archaeological data have documented grasslands of the south and west to the forests of the the use of this technique throughout the Great Lakes north and east. It should be noted that the ecotone is area and demonstrate its role in the inland shore fish­ far from static and varies greatly in both geographic ery (Cleland 1982). Although this technique may width and vegetational composition. Furthermore, have been employed by the prehistoric occupants at the extent and position of the ecotone have experi­ Midway, other harvest methods, particularly spear­ enced substantial temporal changes, commensurate . ing during the spawn, could have also been utilized. with climate-induced succession of floral and faunal In addition to fish, another probable spring resource communities (Anfinson and Wright 1990:216-218). was turtles, especially snapping turtles, which could Before extirpation atthe hands ofEuropean hunt­ have been harvested while they were laying their ers, bison were common in the prairies of southwest eggs. Minnesota (Faunrnap 1994:461; Hazard 1982:168- Birds seem to have been an important dietary 169, Map 76). Archaeological sites demonstrate supplement. All of the Midway birds, except for that bison were a significant economic resource in the ruffed grouse, migrate north for the summer and southern Minnesota, northern Iowa, and the eastern were probably taken between March and November. Dakotas (Lukens 1963; Shay 1978, 1985). The bi­ These migratory species are strongly associated with son also appears to have flourished in the grasslands lake and riverside environments and were probably and deciduous edge habitats of the prairie-forest ec­ available very near the site. Ruffed grouse, the only otone. Mather (2002:19-20) briefly reviews several non-aquatic species represented, prefers a landscape sites from Minnesota's prairie-forest border where with greater cover but also could have been taken bison are present and in several cases quite abun­ nearby. dant. In the Mille Lacs area bison were also found Besides animal resources, certain plant species in limited mnnbers (Whelan 1990). also probably played an important role in the ancient Early Holocene bison species (Bison occiden­ diet. The position of the Midway site in the Head­ talis) ranged to the east of Beltrami County during water Lakes region places it in the heart of wild rice warm, dry climatic phases (Shay 1971), but during later Holocene times, the coniferous and deciduous 'I country. A study of five ceramic rim sherds from I the Midway site produced evidence of wild rice vegetational communities that dominated the region (Zizania palustris) phytoliths on four of the sherds would not have favored Bison bison. Interestingly, (Thompson 2000). Analysis of macro botanical re­ bison remains have been recovered from Woodland mains from the Phase III excavations has also pro­ contexts at the McKinstry Mound in Koochiching duced remains of wild rice, along with chenopods County and the Pike Bay Mound in St. Louis Coun­ (Chenopodium spp.), amaranth (Amaranthus retro­ ty (Lukens 1973), as well as the White Oak Mounds flexus), and smartweeds (Polygonum spp.), which in Itasca County (Lukens 1963). It should be noted, may have served as food sources (Valppu 2002). however, that in all ofthese instances bison make up a very limited portion of the faunal assemblage and, Environmental Setting given their possible mortuary association, it is diffi­ cult to ascertain their position in the local economy. A further discussion ofthe composition ofMidway's No bison remains were identified from the Midway large mammal assemblage provides some interest­ site. Although the absence ofbison could be attrib­ ing insights about the site's environmental setting. uted to cultural or seasonal factors, it is most likely There has been much discussion about the signifi­ due to the lack of appropriate habitat within the vi­ cance of the prairie-forest border ecotone in shap­ cinity of the site. ing the diets and cultural manifestations of the pre­ Another prairie-plains species missing from the historic occupants of Minnesota (Hickerson 1970; Midway assemblage is the pronghorn antelope (An­ Shay 1978; Spector and Johnson 1985; Anfinson tilocarpra americana). This species is found in the 124 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005 short-grass steppe of the westem Great Plains, with ous edge habitats (Swanson et al. 1945:26; Schorger western Minnesota at the extreme eastern margin 1953:197, 212; Swift 1946:18-23). of its potential historic range. Pronghorn has been The region's deep winter snow cover would reported occasionally in the tall-grass prairies of have placed white-tailed deer at a distinct disadvan­ southwestern Minnesota, where they are presumed tage. In the Beltrami County area, annual snowfall to have wandered from the west (Hazard 1982:167, from 1899 to 1938 (post Nco-Boreal era) was 100 Map 75). The coniferous and deciduous forest set­ em (USDA 1941 :727). Deer movements are sharply ting of the Midway site would place it just east of limited when snow is more than 50 em deep or crust­ the pronghom's potential range. Pronghorn ele­ ed with ice (Hazard 1982:163). At such times, deer ments have not been recorded at archaeological sites are forced into small "yards" with some available in Minnesota, but this species is documented from a forage (Schorger 1953:209-211). This vulnerability late prehistoric context in northwestern Iowa (Faun­ in deep snow virtually insured a low deer population map 1994:457, 645; Tiffany et al.l988:238-239). density, perhaps with cyclical variation correspond­ The lack of pronghorn and, J:VOre importantly, ing to climate and vegetation changes. bison remains, demonstrates that the Midway site White-tailed deer are the normal and tolerant is situated beyond the grasslands and open decidu­ host of the nematode parasite Parelaphostrangy­ ous forests of the prairie-forest ecotone. Most maps lus tenuis (Karns 1967:299). This parasite is wide­ of Minnesota's pre-European/early historic floral spread in high-density deer populations and readily communities show that the area near Midway was infects moose when large numbers of deer spread comprised of a coniferous or coniferous-hardwood northward as a result of favorable habitat changes forest (Wendt and Coffin 1988; Borchert and Yaeger associated with logging, climatic conditions, or 1969; Kuchler 1964). Pollen sequences from exten­ predator reduction. In moose, P. tenuis causes a fa­ sive investigations of varved lake sediments at Elk tal neurological disorder. The spread of this parasite Lalce (40 km to the westoftheMidway site in Clear­ accompanying northern shifts in deer range has led water County), indicate that by the end of the Altith­ to a sharp decline in the mnnbers of moose along ermal, mixed deciduous and coniferous forests had the southern fringe of moose habitat. To maintain a begun to replace the oak savanna habitat (Whitlock viable moose population, deer density should be 12 et al. 1993). Following the onset of cooler climatic or fewer per square mile (Kams 1967:302). conditions, white pine (Pinus strobus) appeared in The southern margins of the native range for the pollen record at 2700 BP and came to dominate moose include northwest to south-central Minnesota the forests by 2000 BP. (Hazard 1982:163, Fig. 73). Moose prefer a boreal Although most evidence indicates that the Mid­ forest habitat with abundant deciduous browse and way site is beyond the large expanses of prairie/sa­ often take cover in closed coniferous or decidu­ vanna habitat, additional evaluation of its mammal ous woodlands during winter (Hazard 1982:163). assemblage shows that the area was part of the ceo­ Prior to the twentieth century, the ranges of white­ tonal environment representing a shift from more tailed deer and moose showed little overlap (Kams open deciduous habitats to the coniferous-hardwood 1967:299). The moose's large body and long legs forests of the north. PriortoA.D.l860, white-tailed allowed it to move through snow up to 100 em deep deer were uncommon to rare in most of northern (Hazard 1982:163). In good habitat, moose densi­ Minnesota and Wisconsin (DeVos l964:Fig. 7, 220- ty was probably about 1 to 1.5 animals per square 221; Swanson et al. 1945:15; Schorger 1953:197- mile (I<.arns 1967:299; Peek et al. 1976:19). Early 199, 233, 241). According to one estimate, in the European travelers into the Mississippi Headwaters year 1800 there were no deer in northern Minnesota, region reported that moose was a principal food including what is now Beltrami County (De Vas item from Leech Lake north in the Headwaters re­ 1964:Fig. 7 :220). After the Euro-American logging gion (Pike 1966:62; Schoolcraft 1966:223-224, 244 boom of the mid-nineteenth century, deer popula­ -252). tions increased dramatically, commensurate with The region to the north of Bemidji was in conif­ the development of successional stages of decidu- erous forest, one of the poorest habitats for deer in the early Euro-American contact era. The few ana- BAKER I THELER -ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 125

lyzed faunal assemblages from northern Minnesota semblage, the bone fragments from Area F are com­ suppmt this assertion. At the Knutson Darn site, in patible with the Phase II interpretations of this area southeast Beltrami County, deer comptise only 7.3 as representing an earlier occupation, and tl1e Area A percent (NISP) of the mammal assemblage (Hohrn­ units closest to the river are noticeably different from an-Caine and Goltz 1998). Low numbers of deer are the other units in terms of both abundance of faunal also observed at tl1e McKinstry Mounds (0.6 percent remains and proportions offish types. Comparisons ofNISP) and Smith Mounds (7 .0 percent ofNISP) in of these findings wiili patterning in ceramics, other Koochiching County (Lukens 1973; see also Morey diagnostic artifacts, or other lines of evidence could et al. 1996). Conversely, McKinstry Mounds and provide additional information on activity areas or Knutson Dam both have abundant moose remains, changes in subsistence activities ilirough time . . comprising 25 percent and 67 percent of the respec­ tive manunal assemblages. Acknowledgments. As it is with any large faunal analysis, this At Midway, however, deer make up 56 percent project would not have been possible without the help many in­ dividuals. First and foremost, thanks go to Dr. Kathrine Steven­ of the mammal remains (those identified to at least son and 'Elizabeth Schultz. Kathy created the database, assisted the genus level) while moose, although still pres­ with some of the identifications, and helped in preparation of ent, comprise only 4 percent of the manunal NISP. the report. Elizabeth was responsible for labeling the rem

In sum, the overall subsistence patterns represented in the site are fall-winter deer harvest, use of moose (probably along with wild rice) during the winter, and spring harvest of riparian animals, spawning fish, and turtles. In terms of patterning within the as- 126 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Table l. Identified Mammal Remains from the Midway Site (21BL37)

Total Live tr'otal Use- Weight able Meat pood Context Fill/Disturbed (kg) (kg) ITaxon lrommon Name NISP MNI INISP MNI *Sorex cinereus Masked shrew 1 1 - H- + Leporidae !Hare & rabbit familv l3 - - Lepus americanus Snowshoe hare 1 I - 1.6 .8 f. Lepus americanus Snowshoe hare ? I - - - 'T'amias strlatus Eastern chimnunk 6 1 I + + f. Tamias striatus IBastern chiomunk ? l - - - Marmota monax KVoodchuck 1 1 - 14.6 .3 Sciuridae Sauirrel farnilv ?. - - - - Geomys bursarius !Plains pocket £onher 24 - - + + Geomvs cf. G. bursarius Plains oocket ~ooher ? 17 - - - astor canadensis lBeaver 98 - 88.0 44.0 f. Castor canadensis !Beaver? 9 - - Peromvscus so. !Mouse 2 I - + f. Peromyscus sp. !Mouse? t3 - - *Clethrionomvs ~aooeri Southern red-backed vole 2 I - + + *Microtus. pennslyvanicus Meadow vole l l + + Microtus sp. Meadow vole/Prairie vole 2 - - Ondatra zibethicus Muskrat 57 5 2 6.0 3.0 f. Ondatra zibethicus Muskrat? Ki - - - - Brethizon dorsatum Porcuoine 12 I - - 6.8 3.4 Rodentia Rodent order 17 - - ranis luous Wolf 2 1 1.8 15.9 anis cf. C. luous Wlolf? 1 - - anis sp. Do~/coyote 16 3 18.0 9.0 I cf. Canis so. Dog/covote? 12 - Vulpes vulpes Redfox I I 5.0 2.5 Ursus americanus Black bear 9 2 I 312.0 156.0 I f. Ursus americanus Black bear? I - - - Procyon lotor Raccoon I I - - 9.0 4.5 Martes americana Pine marten I I 1.2 .6 f. Mustela vison Mink? I I - 1.0 .5 Taxidea taxus Badger I I 9.0 4.5 - I l\'[ephitis mephitis Striped skunk I I 3.2 1.6 utra canadensis River otter l3 I - 9.0 4.5 Felis cattus (D) Domestic cat 2 I - + + Sus scrofa (D) Domestic oig I I I + + C:ervus canadensis American elk 3 I I 320.0 160.0 of. Cervus canadensis American elk ? 2 - - - - - Odocoileus so. Deer 54 11 - 56.0 228.0 c:f. Odocoileus sp. Deer? 8 4 - - - Alces alces Moose 3 ?. - 818.2 409.1 cf. Alces alces Moose? 6 1 - - Rangifer tarandus raribou I I 91.0 45.5 rervidae rervid familv I - - b,rtiodacty Ia Bven-toed ungulates 91 - I - - Subtotal 796 42 30 3 2191.4 1095.7 Unid. mammal> \4 inch ]722 321 - -

. OTAL 8518 142 351 3 2191.4 1095.7

cf. =compares favorably/probable identification D = domestic animal associated with European settlement *::::specimens identified by Holmes A. Semken, Jr. +::::species not considered a dietary item BAKER I THELER- ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 127

Table 2. Deer (Odocoileus sp.) Remains, by Element, liom the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U ELEMENT R L AIU

SKULL TIBIA occipital condyle 1 proximal 1 auditory meatus 2 distal 4 2 frontal I METATARSAL maxilla 1 I proximal 5 I maodibular condyle I 2 distal 2 horizontal ramus 5 shaft I 3 4 coronoid process 1 CALCANEUM gonia! angle 1 complete 1 isolated maodibular teeth 21 15 9 ahterior 2 isolated maxillary teeth 26 16 2 posterior 2 I AXIS VERTEBRA 1 ASTRAGALUS SCAPULA 2 complete 3 4 HUMERUS proximal 1 shaft distal 1 distal 1 NAVICULO-CUBOID ULNA complete proximal 2 1 lateral 1 RADIUS medial 2 1 proximal 3 3 anterior 3 distal 2 !''TARSAL RADIAL CARPAL 2 FUSED 2"'/3'' TARSAL 3 5 ULNAR CARPAL 1 4'hTARSAL 1 INTERMEDIATE CARPAL 2 2 LATERAL MALLEOLUS 4 1 FUSED 2"'/ 3" CARPAL I METAPODIAL 4''CARPAL 3 1 distal 1 20 ACCESSORY CARPAL 1 RESIDUAL METAPODIALS METACARPAL &PHALANGES 18 proximal 2 1 SESAMOIDS 21 shaft 1 !"PHALANX INNOMINATE complete 1 ilium 2 proximal 14 pubis 2 distal 12 ischium 1 I misc. fragments 11 ischium/ilium 2"'PHALANX FEMUR proximal 21 proximal distal 12 distal misc. fragments 3 shaft 2 3''PHALANX PATELLA 2 I complete 5 proximal I misc. fragments 1 *R~right L -left AIU - axial/unsided ...., ..f' . !i 128 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST -VOLUME 64 - 2005

Table 3. Element Distribution of Limb Extremities and Cranial/Dentition Fragments ofDeer (Odocoileus sp.) from the Midway Site (21BL37)

Limb Extremities NISP Carpals 13 Tarsals 15 Metacarpals 4 Metatarsals 16 Calcaneus 6 Astragalus 9 Naviculo-cuboid 8 Dew claw complex 18 Metapodials 21 l- Phalanges 81 ti,, Sesamoids 21 Distal tibia 2 Distal ulna, radius 2

Total 220 -- of 354 identified deer remains = 62 % of deer remains

Cranial & Dentition NISP Mandibular fragments & teeth 55 Maxillary fragments & teeth 46 Other cranial fragments 6

Total I 07 -- of 354 identified deer remains = 30 % of deer remains

Limb Extremities 62 % Cranial & Dentition 30 %

Total 92%

. I -1

J BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 129

Table 4. Deer (Odocoileus sp.) Dentition from the Midway Site (21BL37)

Mandibular Dentition .R* L !l. Isolated Teeth i1 1 i2 1 i3 1 i2 or i3 1 1 i3 or canine 1 dp4 1 p2 1 p3 5 3 p4 3 m1 orm2 2 5 m3 5 molars- position? 2 premolars- position? 9 Mandibular Rami ramus w/ p2, p3 1 ramus w/ p2, p3, p4 1 ramus w/ p4, m1 ramus w/ ml, m2 Maxillarx Dentition Isolated Teeth dP2 1 dP3 or dP4 I dP4 P2 4 P3 4 P3 orP4 1 2 P4 1 M1 orM2 4 5 M3 3 molars- position ? 4 5 1 premolars·- position? 2 2 1 Maxilla w/ Teeth maxilla w/ dP2, dP3, dP4, M1 1 maxilla w/M1, M2 1 maxilla w/ M2 M3

*R- right L -left u-unsided 130 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Table 5. Ages and Seasonal Dates Obtained from Deer (Odocoileus sp.) Remains from Various Proveniences at the Midway Site (21BL37)

Age Season rooiii S1de 5-6 mos. Oct-Nov UpperP3 R 5-6 mos. Oct-Nov Lowerp3 L 6-7 mos. Nov-Dec Lowerp4 R 6-7 mos. Nov-Dec Maxilla w/ dP2, dP3, dP4, R

1.5 yrs. Oct-Dec f':'lo\ver dp4 R 1.5 yrs. Oct-Dec Lower dp4 L 1.5 yrs Oct-Dec Upper dP4 R 1.5 yrs. Oct-Dec Lowerp2 R 1.5 yrs. Oct-Dec UpperP4 R !.5-2.5 yrs. UpperP3 L 2-2.5 yrs. Lowerp2 R 2-2.5 yrs. Lowerp3 R 2-2.5 yrs. Lowerp3 R 2.5 yrs. Mandible w/ p4 &ml L 2-3 yrs. Lowerm3 R 3.5-4.5 yrs. Mandible w/ p2 & p3 L 3+y:rs. Lowerp3 R 4-5 y:rs. Mandible w/ p2, p3, & p4 L 4+yrs. Lower p3 L 4+ yrs. Indet. upper molar R 4.5+y:rs. Upper M2 or M3 R 5+yrs Indet. upper molar Indet. 5+ yrs. Lowerp4 R 5+ yrs. Indet. upper molar L 7+yrs. Upper Ml or M2 R 7+yrs. UpperMl orM2 L 7-8+ yrs. Lower ml or m2 L

Estimate not Late Male deer frontal with L available summer attached fully grown to early antler BAKER I THELER -ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 131

Table 6. Probable Deer (cf. Odocoileus sp.) Remains from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L u CRANIAL maxillary molar/premolar mandibular condyle 1 mandibular premolar I incisor molar/premolar fragments 18 HUMERUS proximal 1 FUSED 2"'f3nl CARPAL 1 INNOMINATE pubis 1 METATARSAL proximal 2 METAPODIAL distal 4 posterior 1 CUBOID medial !"PHALANX misc. fragments 3 2""PHALANX misc. fragments 1 3m PHALANX misc. fra rnents

*R ~right L ~ left U ~ unsided 132 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Table 7. Moose (Alces alces) Remains, by Element, From the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L AIU MOLAR upperM3 HUMERUS Adistal I TIBIA distal 2 posterior I METATARSAL proximal 2 distal CALCANEUS posterior I ASTRAGALUS complete RESIDUAL DEW CLAW PHALANX I SESAMOIDS 4 I "1 PHALANX complete distal 2 lateral 2 2''PHALANX complete I Adistal I JnlPHALANX complete proximal

*R =right L =left A/U = axial/uusided A= elements from redeposited A horizon or other disturbed contexts BAKER I THELER -ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 133

Table 8. Probable Moose (cf. Alces alces) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U ULNA proximal FEMUR distal (lateral condyle) TIBIA shaft 2 METATARSAL shaft 1 RESIDUAL DEW CLAW PHALANX 1 !"PHALANX Adistal I

*R ~right L ~ left A/U ~ axial!unsided A- elements from redeoosited A horizon or other disturbed contexts

Table 9. Elk (Cervus canadensis) Kemaius, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U

SESAMOID RESIDUAL DEW CLAW 2"'PHALANX A1"PHALANX 3"'PHALANX 1

Probable (cf.) Identifications TIBIA distal 1 2"'PHALANX distal

*R - right L ~ left AIU - axial/unsided A elements from redeposited A horizon or other disturbed contexts 134 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64 • 2005

Table 10. Black Bear (Ursus americanus) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U

CRANIAL maxilla (no dentition) I upper canine I upper 13 Aoccipital condyle I 2"' METATARSAL proximal I 3m METATARSAL proximal 1- 4'h METATARSAL proximal I METAPODiAL distal ASTRAGALUS

Probable (cf.) Identifications CRANIAL Acanine fragment

*R = right L =left A/U = axial/unsided A= elements from redeposited A horizon or other disturbed contexts

Table 11. Dog/Coyote/Wolf(Canis sp.) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (2JBL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U

MAXILLARY DENTITION upper 13 2 upper P2 or P3 I MANDIBULAR DENTITION ramus w/ p2, p3, p4, &m2 ramus w/ sockets for c, p2, p3, p4, & ml I ramus w/ no dentition I lower i3 I lower canine lowerp3 lower p3 or p4 lower p4 2 indet. premolar I,' ATLAS VERTEBRA left Y, FEMUR distal METAPODIAL distal I

Probable (cf.) Identifications ATLAS VERTEBRA anterior fragment

*R = right L = left A/U = axial/unsided BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 135 f[c: ' Table 12. Beaver (Castor canadensis) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L A/U ELEMENT R L A/U

SKULL ULNA maxilla (no dentition) 1 complete upper dentition (isolated) proximal 2 P4 1 shaft . 2 Ml orM2 3 1 RADIUS molar - position? 1 5 proximal 1 incisor fragments 1 METACARPAL lower dentition (isolated) complete 1 p4 1 1 INNOMINATE m2 1 ilium 1 m3 2 ischium ml orm2 1 FEMUR molar or premolar 4 distal 1 incisor fragments 3 4 shaft 1 1 mandibles w/ dentition TIBIA w/ml,m2,m3 1 distal 1 w/ p4, ml, m2, m3 1 shaft fragments w/ p4, ml FIBULA or m2, m2 or m3 distal 1 molar or premolar 6 METATARSAL incisor fragments 18 proximal 1 ATLAS VERTEBRA 1 4ili METATARSAL SCAPULA distal 1 distal 1 CALCANEUS posterior 1 complete 1 HUMERUS ASTRAGALUS proximal I 1 complete I distal I !"PHALANX 5 complete 2 2""PHALANX 2 3''PHALANX 3 METAPODIAL distal

*R=right L= left A!U - axial!tmsided 136 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64 • 2005

Table 13. Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L VIA CRANIAL maxilla fragments 2 2 mandible fragments 6 5 upper teeth I lower teeth 3 I incisor fragments 6 AXIS VERTEBRA I SCAPULA proximal distal HUMERUS proximal 2 distal 2 ULNA proximal 3 distal INNOMINATE illium I COCCYXGEALVERTEBRA 3 FEMUR proximal 3

~ ' distal I TIBIA shaft 2 distal CALCANEUS 2 ASTRAGALUS I 2 3_rn PHALANX I

I , I *R~ right L ~left U/A ~ unsided

'

,, I

r!.i i BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 137

Table 14. Plains Pocket Gopher (Geomys bursarius) Remains, by Element, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

ELEMENT R* L U/A CRANIAL premaxilla I maxilla I incisor (isolated) I I mandible 3 4 SCAPULA complete HUMERUS complete 2 ULNA complete I I RADIUS complete FEMUR complete 1 INNOMINATE complete 2 SACRUM 1

*R ~right L ~left U/A ~ tmsided

Table 15. Identified Bird Remains and their Estimated Weights, from the Midway Site (21BL37)

Total est. Total est. live weight useable Taxon Common Name NISP MNI lkg) meat (kg)

*Gavia immer Common loon 2 I '4.1 2.9 Double-crested *Phalacrocorax auritus cormorant 4 3 b 5.1 3.5 *Ardea herodias Great blue heron 3 1 '2.4 1.7 Anatidae Ducks 29 3 cf. Anatidae Ducks? 2 Anas sp. Dabbling ducks 2 Green-winged teal/ Anas sp. (crecca/discors) Blue-winged teal I 1 '.4 .3 Anas sp. (platyrhynchos/rupripes) Mallard/Black duck 1 I '1.2 .8 Anas cf. A. strepa Gadwall? I I '.9 .6 Aythya sp. Diving ducks 2 *Haliaeetus /eucocephalus Bald eagle 3 + + *Haliaeetus cf. H. leucocephalus Bald eagle? 2 + + *cf. Eagle (Haliaeetus Bald eagle/ /eucocephalus/Aquila chrysaetos) Golden eagle ? I + + cf. Bonasa umbel/us Ruffed grouse 1 I d .6 .4 Gallus gallus (D) Domestic chicken 2 I + + Subtotal 56 14 14.7 10.2 Unidentified bird 202 TOTALS 258 14 14.7 10.2

* ~ specimens identified by Paul W. Parmalee cf. ~ compares favorably/probable ideutification D ~domestic animal associated with European settlement + ~ not considered to be a dietary item -- Individual live weights from: 'Mcintyre (1988) and Sibley (2000),' Sibley (2000), 'Bellrose (1976), and' Johnsgard (1975) .,,.

138 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

Table 16. Identified Fish Remains and their Estimated Live Weights from the Midway Site (21BL37)

Total est. Range of est. live weight live weights Taxon Common Name NISP MNI (kg) (kgl

Esoxsp. Northern pike/muskie 74 15 32.6 .05 to 6.0 cf.Esox sp. Northern pike/muskie? 3 Catostomus commersoni White sucker 2 I 1.0 cf. Catostomus commersoni White sucker ? 2 1 1.2 Moxostoma sp. Redhorse suckers 6 2 5.3 2.3 to 3.0 Catostomidae Sucker family 16 Icta/urus sp. Bullhead group 43 Icta/urus me/as Black bullhead 4 3 1.0 .3 to .4 Icta/urus nebulosus Brown bullhead 7 4 1.6 .3 to .5 cf. Ambloplites rupestris Rock bass? I I .5 Lepomis gibbosus Pumpkinseed I 1 .4 Micropterus cf. M. do/omieui Smallmouth bass ? I I .I Percafiavescens Yellow perch 20 4 1.6 .lto.5 cf. Perea .flavescens Yellow perch ? 7 Stizostedion vitreum Walleye 118 14 21.0 .7 to 4.5 cf. Stizostedion vitreum Walleye? 13 Subtotal 318 47 66.3 kg Unid. Fish > Y., inch 1444 TOTAL 1762 47 66.3 kg

cf. =compares favorably/probable identification

Table 17. Bone Attributes for the Site Total and for the "Archaic" Units (33-41) of the Midway Site (21BL37)

NISP Scorched Burned Calcined GBF Rodent Gnaw Carniv.Gnaw Prov. > Y4" NISP% NISP % NISP % NISP % NISP % NISP %

*SiteTotal 11,158 36 .3 642 5.6 693 6.2 1332 11.9 178 1.2 118 1.1

.l.!!!i.t§ 33 3 0 0 0 0 2 66.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 I 0 0 0 0 I 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 16 0 0 0 0 14 87.5 I 6.3 0 0 0 0 37 7 0 0 0 0 7 100.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 16 0 0 1 6.3 !3 81.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 39 3 0 0 0 0 I 33.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 4 0 0 0 0 1 25.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 41 4 0 0 0 0 3 75.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total of 56 0 0 1 6.3 42 75.0 1 6.3 0 0 0 0 Units 33-41

* The site total includes on!:.;: the Phase III material greater than 114 inch. BAKER I THELER ·ANIMAL REMAINS FROM THE MIDWAY SITE 139

Table 18. Fish Remains for Total Site Compared to Those from Units 42, 43, 44, and 45 of the Midway Site (21BL37)

Site ToJJ!l Units 42-45 Units 42-45 as % NISP % NISP % gfthe Site Total """Pikes (Esox sp.) 77 24.2 20 18.0 26.0

Suckers (Catostomidae) 26 8.2 11 10.0 42.3

Bullheads . (Ictalurus sp.) 54 17.0 34 31.0 63.0

Perch (Percaflavescens) 27 8.5 10 9.0 37.0

Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) 131 41.2 36 32.0 27.5

Other species 3 .9 0 0 0

Total 318 100.0 111 100.0

Table 19. Totals by Class for Remains from Good Contexts at the Midway Site (21BL37)

Class NISP II of Taxa Est.MNI Est. Useable Meat (kg)

Mammals 8515 27 45 1095.1 Birds 246 10 13 10.2 Reptiles 535 2 3 11.8 Amphibians 36 I 2 Fishes 1732 9 33 33.2 Mollusks 26 2 3 Vertebrate Class Unknown ( < V. inch) 11,780 Historic Domestic Species 5 3 3 TOTAL 22 875 54 102 1150.3 ~._-1 . ' 140 THE MINNESOTA ARCHAEOLOGIST- VOLUME 64-2005

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