Dicionário Da Idade Média Dicionário Da Idade Média

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Dicionário Da Idade Média Dicionário Da Idade Média DICIONÁRIO DA IDADE MÉDIA DICIONÁRIO DA IDADE MÉDIA Organizado por HENRY R. LOYN Professor Emérito de História Medieval, Universidade de Londres Com 250 ilustrações Tradução: ÁLVARO CABRAL Licenciado em Ciências Históricas e Filosóficas, Faculdade de Letras da Universidade Clássica de Lisboa Revisão Técnica: 4/1127 HILÁRIO FRANCO JUNIOR Professor de História Medieval, Universidade de São Paulo Jorge Zahar Editor Rio de Janeiro Título original: The Middle Ages - A Concise Encyclopaedia Tradução autorizada da primeira edição inglesa publicada em 1989 por Thames and Hudson Ltd., de Londres, Inglaterra Copyright © 1989 Thames and Hudson Ltd., London Copyright © 1990 da edição em língua portuguesa: Jorge Zahar Editor Ltda. rua México 31 sobreloja 20031-144 Rio de Janeiro, RJ tel.: (21) 240-0226 / fax: (21) 262-5123 e-mail: [email protected] Todos os direitos reservados. A reprodução não-autorizada desta publicação, no todo ou em parte, constitui violação do Copyright. (Lei 5.988) Ilustração da capa: Pierre Salmon, Réponses à Charles VI et Lamentation au Roi, 1409 (Paris, Biblioteca Nacional) CIP-Brasil. Catalogação-na-fonte Sindicato Nacional dos Editores de Livros, RJ. D541 Dicionário da Idade Média / organizado por Henry R. Loyn; tradução, Álvaro Cabral; revisão técnica, Hilário Franco Júnior. — Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Ed., 1997: il. Tradução de: The Middle Ages: a concise encyclopaedia ISBN: 85-7110-151-5 1. Idade Média - Dicionários. I. Loyn, H.R. 7/1127 2. (Henry Royston). CDD — 940.1403 97-1721 CDU — 940 (038) APRESENTAÇÃO À EDIÇÃO BRASILEIRA: BREVE PANORAMA MEDIEVAL FRANKLIN DE OLIVEIRA A grande maioria dos brasileiros continua prisioneira do preconceito forjado pelos historiadores liberais do século XIX, que definiam a Idade Média como um “período de trevas”. É pre- ciso soterrar, de vez, equívoco tão grosseiro. O Medievo não signi- fica somente a fundação da Europa em suas bases cristã e ro- mana. No bojo da Idade Média gerou-se o mundo moderno. Lá, com Ockham, Oresme e outros, surgiram os fundamentos da ciência contemporânea, como tão claramente comprovou Pierre Duhem. Ao chamarem de obscurantista a Idade Média, os historiadores liberais a ela opuseram o grande clarão do Renas- cimento. Ao fazê-lo, esqueceram duas coisas: os inúmeros proto- renascimentos que ocorreram durante o Medievo, e o fato de que os homens geniais da Renascença formaram-se no chamado Baixo Medievo. E mais: esqueceram a revivescência dos sentimentos re- ligiosos no Quatrocento, e ainda, que a Renascença não começou com os humanistas e Petrarca, mas com Francisco de Assis. E mais: que o Medievo foi uma eclosão contínua de Renascenças: a Carolíngia, a do Século XII, a Franciscana, a Otoniana, a Escolástica, a Nominalista. Duas Renascenças assinalaram o iní- cio da Idade Média: a Carolíngia, no século IX, que promoveu a 9/1127 latinização dos povos germânicos e sua conquista espiritual pela Igreja Católica, e a do Século XII, quando se dá, nos conventos, a ressurreição dos estudos clássicos, fonte do humanismo europeu. Precedendo uma outra Renascença medieval — a da Escolástica, já referida —, ocorre com a Patrística o encontro do Cristianismo com o mundo. Esse encontro foi preparado pelos padres gregos, sobretudo Clemente e Orígenes. É o momento da maturidade do platonismo, que ilumina toda a Idade Média. Como pode um período tão rico em fatos culturais, que modelaram a fisionomia do Ocidente, ser chamado de “época das trevas”? É claro que a civilização medieval foi uma civilização emin- entemente religiosa, mas não divorciou o homem da terra. Ela, a terra, se transformou em sua oficina. Explodiram as invenções: a do arado, a do moinho d’água e do moinho de vento, a dos teares etc. Se a atividade rural continuou sendo a base de tudo, um insurgente artesanato provocou um movimento de urbaniz- ação. Com o nascimento das cidades aceleraram-se as trocas, desenvolveu-se o comércio. Delinearam-se as bases de uma eco- nomia monetária. Não há erro em dizer que no século XII estabeleceram-se princípios econômicos que ainda hoje regem a nossa civilização. Mas, quando se inicia a Idade Média? Suas origens datam do final do Império Romano (começo do século V) e sua vigência histórica estende-se até o século XVI, 10/1127 quando se instaura a grande Renascença Italiana, que ela pre- parou. O Convento e o Castelo são os seus emblemas, mas o maior de todos é a catedral gótica, que parecia procurar abolir as fronteiras entre o finito e o infinito. Erwin Panofsky, o ex- traordinário historiador da arte, formado na escola de Warburg, e que fundou uma nova disciplina — a história da produção das imagens —, viu no gótico a trasladação estética da Escolástica. Sociedade densamente hierarquizada, a Idade Média foi, por isso mesmo, cenário de revoltas sociais contínuas que têm o seu paradigma na Jacquérie, em que os camponeses oprimidos tentaram quebrar os grilhões do feudalismo assassinando os seus senhores, violando suas mulheres. A de 1358 foi seguramente a mais sangrenta de todas as revoltas sociais do século XIV. Se o cenário social alberga insurreições camponesas, há no pólo oposto talvez a maior criação humana medieval: a Universidade, que surge em Praga, Pádua, Bolonha, Salamanca, Paris, Montpellier, Oxford, Cambridge, Viena, Cracóvia e Heidelberg. Em Toledo funda-se a escola dos grandes tradutores árabes, que redescobrem Aristóteles. Ao lado dos pensadores laicos formam-se, nos Países Baixos e na Renânia, as correntes dos místicos: Mestre Eckhart, João Tauler, Henrique Suso e Jan Van Ruysbroeck. Há a caça às feiticeiras. E há Dante. E há Giotto. Nas cidades flamengas, pintores como os irmãos Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden, e escultores como Sluter ampliam 11/1127 gloriosamente o patrimônio cultural do Ocidente. Se os nomes de Dante, Petrarca, Villon e o lirismo dos trovadores provençais não bastassem para assegurar a grandeza literária medieval, ter- íamos para assegurar esta mesma grandeza a poesia proletária dos goliardos. Esses poetas, que exaltavam o vinho e o amor físico, foram os críticos existenciais da sociedade medieval, rebe- lados contra as estruturas estabelecidas, “Jograis vermelhos”, se assim se pode dizer. Abelardo é a primeira figura do intelectual moderno. Chamaram-lhe de cavaleiro da dialética. Abelardo e Heloísa. Ela tem 17 anos, é bela e culta. O amor que os une realça o significado da mulher no mundo, re- forçando a teoria do amor natural tal como ele aparece no Ro- mance da Rosa, um século depois. A aparição de Heloísa ao lado de Abelardo é a glorificação da carne, do amor carnal que mais tarde os humanistas iriam considerar o principal requisito da plenitude do ser humano. Estamos longe do lirismo abstrato dos trovadores e da aura do Tristão e Isolda, em que pese o erotismo intenso da lenda. Ao falar dos homens da Idade Média, um historiador moderno não se conteve, e exclamou: “Mas esses homens somos nós mesmos!” Nossa modernidade vem de lá, queiramos ou não. Há um fato singelo, mas que fulmina o mito do obscurant- ismo medieval. Ele é encontrado no traje, sobretudo no 12/1127 vestuário feminino. A Idade Média tinha aversão às cores som- brias. As mulheres medievais usavam roupas que seguiam a linha do corpo, expondo-lhes sobretudo o busto — não tinham nada de monacal. Serviam ao corpo e não à alma. Mas a valorização da mulher padeceu, na Idade Média, de grave limitação, consubstanciada no “direito de pernada”: versão popular do ijus primae noctis. A camponesa que casasse era obrigada, na primeira noite de núpcias, a entregar a sua vir- gindade ao patrão ou ao capataz por ele indicado. Era intenso o cultivo da vinha no Medievo. O vinho estava sempre presente em todos os momentos, festivos ou não, da so- ciedade medieval, que distinguia entre o escravo, tratado como coisa, e o servo da terra, que podia possuir família, além de uma minúscula propriedade onde praticava a agricultura de sobrevivência. A partir do século XIII, o ponto de partida da reflexão econômica é o mesmo de Adam Smith: o problema da divisão do trabalho. Em um curso ministrado em 1763, em Glasgow, Adam Smith conservava ainda o esquema do tratado dos escolásticos. Só mais tarde, no Inquérito sobre a natureza e as causas da riqueza das nações, separará a filosofia moral da ciência econômica, emancipando esta última. Apesar de manter o seu universalismo religioso, no final da Idade Média surgem os espaços nacionais: nascem os 13/1127 Estados. O latim, língua comum, se assim podemos dizer, perde a sua hegemonia cultural. Surgem as línguas nacionais. Começa a se desenvolver uma analogia entre o mundo e o homem, entre o macrocosmo e esse universo em miniatura que é o ser humano. Publica-se a grande enciclopédia de Adelardo de Bath que explora longamente a anatomia e a fisiologia humanas. O hu- manismo medieval não esperou pelo humanismo renascentista para penetrar os segredos do corpo. E retornou à concepção estóica do mundo como uma fábrica: ela produz segundo a vontade do homem. A oposição entre a razão e a experiência se torna menor graças a Roger Bacon e Rober Grosseteste. O em- pirismo começa a dar sinais de vida. A Idade Média é constituída de ciclos: o de Carlos Magno, o de Alexandre, o Grande, o de Rolando, o do rei Ar- tur, do qual demanda um ideal de justiça e de fé religiosa, de procura da bem-amada inatingível, da galanteria cavaleiresca, dos sentimentos de honra, do misticismo e das façanhas guer- reiras. Mas esses ciclos guardam entre si profundas diferenças. No bretão, predomina o sentimento amoroso; no ciclo carolín- gio, a predominância é guerreira. A necessidade de delimitar o gigantesco território que se estende da Antigüidade à Modernidade determinou a criação do período medieval e da divisão tripartida do mundo — 14/1127 Antigüidade Clássica, Época Romana e Idade Média —, divisão que veio a ser consagrada em 1583, por Christoph Keller, embora nunca se registrasse concordância e unanimidade quanto a tais delimitações.

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