School of Media, Culture and Creative Arts The Politics of Cinematic Realism during the Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966 – 1976 Bohua Lu This thesis is presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University July 2013 Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been previously accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by any other person except where all information sources and literature used are indicated in the thesis. Signature: ___________________ Date: 24 July 2013 Abstract This thesis explores the politics of cinematic realism during the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Mao Zedong (), the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, not only launched the Cultural Revolution in 1966 but also acted in an incendiary role during the Cultural Revolution with the help of his wife Jiang Qing (), his collaborator Premier Zhou Enlai () and other political allies. In order to achieve his personal goals to eliminate his deputy Liu Shaoqi () and to further consolidate his political power, Mao instigated students as Red Guards () to attack Liu as well as intellectuals, especially in the realm of literature and arts. He then expelled his political opponents and sent the students to the countryside to be re- educated. The Cultural Revolution not only had a severe impact on Chinese economic development, but also hampered literary and artistic creativity, especially in the film industry. The thesis examines the impact of Jiang Qing’s Three Prominences Theory on film production and the role she played in film censorship during the Cultural Revolution. It explains how she ensured film production was in line with the spirit of the Cultural Revolution and how it served to strengthen the Cultural Revolution. The Chinese film industry produced 93 films among the nine major film studios during a ten-year long period of the Cultural Revolution; each film portrays a similar political message. This thesis also analyses, through selected films, the major filmic themes of class struggle and wartime. Class struggle is the theme of two significant types of films: the poor against the rich; the proletariat against the bourgeoisie. Wartime is the theme of films on two major topics: the Chinese civil war and the Chinese resistance i war against the Japanese invasion. Regardless of theme, all of these films represented the social and political ideology of the Communist Party at the time, while also serving as popular entertainment. Jiang Qing’s model film style not only dominated the film industry but also embodied particular aesthetic characteristics, such as the positioning of protagonists as central, bright and lofty in mise-en-scène. These films thus had entertainment value as well as pedagogical realism to ensure the engagement of audiences in the ideology of the Cultural Revolution. This thesis sheds light on the critical challenges faced during the Cultural Revolution by the Chinese film industry. It is hoped that its findings on a much neglected field — the influence of the politics of cinematic realism during the Cultural Revolution on film production — will contribute to an understanding of the Chinese film industry of that time. ii Acknowledgements This study was supported by a Curtin University Postgraduate Award. Not only did this Award facilitate my engagement in an investigatory journey to China to collect useful film materials and to visit some Chinese film scholars, but it also allowed me to participate in the Conference of Southwest/Texas Popular Culture and American Culture Association in Albuquerque, USA, to exchange ideas and perspectives on politicised films around the world. First and foremost, I would like to thank my main supervisor Professor Niall Lucy, who assisted me in the final stages of my research; without his knowledge and understanding of my research this thesis would not have been successfully completed. I would also like to show my gratitude to Dr Joyce Bell who has helped me all along with valuable and meticulous suggestions and comments on my thesis, and I dedicate much of this thesis to her. In addition, I would like to thank Professor Wanning Sun at the University of Technology Sydney who initially guided me on this research journey at Curtin University. I also wish to thank A/Professor Steve Mickler for being the chairperson of my thesis committee; Dr Antonio Traverso for being my main supervisor for three years; and A/Professor Michele Willson for being my associate supervisor for these years. Furthermore, I am grateful to Mr Howard Worth for inspiring me to study for the masters degree and then a doctoral degree. I also want to thank Dr Julienne van Loon, the Graduate Studies Director for the School of Media, Culture and Creative and Arts, for reorganising my thesis committee to enable me to complete my thesis. Of course, I would like to express my gratitude to the staff at the Humanities Research iii and Graduate Studies Office and the Office of Research and Development at Curtin University for their generous assistance throughout my research study years. Finally, I owe special thanks to my close friend Mr Geoffrey Davis AM, an honorary fellow at the Confucius Institute of The University of Western Australia whose knowledge of Chinese language, history and politics has been of great value as I prepared this study. iv Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………. iii List of Illustrations ………………………………………………………….......... vi Preface ………………………………………………………………………….... viii Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….. 1 A Short History of Cinematic Realism …………………………………… 1 Cinematic Realism in China ………………………………………………. 8 Overview ……………………………………………………………….... 18 The Politics of Cinematic Realism in China …………………………….. 22 Chapter One: The Chinese Film Industry during the Cultural Revolution ..... 32 Historical Background …………………………………………………... 33 Chinese Film Industry …………………………………………………… 50 Chapter Two: The Three Prominences ……………………………………...…. 68 The Theory of The Three Prominences …………………………………. 69 Film Production during the Cultural Revolution ………………………... 82 Chapter Three: Diegesis and Censorship ……………………………………... 101 Political Narratives and Figures ………………………………………... 102 Film Censorship ………………………………………………………... 120 Interrelation of Film Distribution and Consumption with Education ….. 129 Chapter Four: Film Adaptation, Transplantation and Reproduction …….... 137 Film Adaptation ………………………………………………………... 138 Film Transplantation …………………………………………………… 154 Film Reproduction ……………………………………………………... 164 Chapter Five: Significant Themes of Cinematic Realism …………………… 174 Class Struggle on the Medical Front — Spring Seedling ……………… 175 Class Struggle against Capitalist Roaders — Jubilant Small Cool River .. 187 Chinese Civil War — Sparkling Red Star ……………………………… 201 Chinese Resistance War against the Japanese Invasion — The Red Lantern ………. 213 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………...….. 226 Appendix: productions, themes and types ………………………………..…….. 233 Bibliography of works cited and consulted ……………………...…………..... 234 Filmography ………………………………………………………………….…. 249 v List of Illustrations Figure 1: The first ‘Big-Character Poster’ at Beijing University ………….... 35 Figure 2: Mao’s ‘Big-character Poster’ in his own handwriting ………….… 37 Figure 3: Various editions of ‘The Little Red Book’ compiled by Lin Biao containing selected quotations from Mao’s works …………. 38 Figure 4: The last photo of Mao Zedong and Liu Shaoqi taken together on 19 September 1966 …………………………………………..… 47 Figure 5: Richard Nixon, the President of the United States, and his wife Pat Nixon watched Jiang Qing’s model ballet The Red Detachment of Women at the Great Hall of the People on 22 February 1972 …………………………..……. 53 Figure 6: The twenty-two elected Mainland Chinese Film Stars in 1962 …… 60 Figure 7: Stills from the Model Ballet Film, White Haired Girl, and the Model Opera Film, Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy ………...... 76 Figure 8: Mao Zedong accompanied by Lin Biao watching Jiang Qing’s model operas during the Cultural Revolution .………..…... 79 Figure 9: Still from The Harbour, one of eight Jiang Qing’s model films ………………………………………………............... 81 Figure 10: Stills from The Red Detachment of Women ………………………. 93 Figure 11: Still from Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy, one of Jiang Qing’s model opera films ………………………………...… 99 Figure 12: Stills from The Fiery Year; Undertaking; The Iron and Steel Giant; and Fighting on the Slipway …………. 105 Figure 13: The main protagonist, Fang Jiyun (the Party secretary), advises village head Zhou Cheng in Green Pine Ridge …………. 110 Figure 14: The main protagonist, Gao Daquan, in the film Golden Road …… 113 Figure 15: The main protagonist, Tian Wenzhong, fights the main Antagonist, Chen Futang, in Unforgettable Battle ……................. 117 Figure 16: The main protagonist, Yu Hualong, performed by a handsome young actor, Tang Guoqiang, in South China Sea Storms ………. 119 vi Figure 17: Jiang Qing with her political allies ………………………………. 121 Figure 18: Zuo Dafen’s family photo and performing in the Hunan opera film Songs of Teachers ……………………... 122 Figure 19: Still from Sunny Courtyard Story ……………………………….. 141 Figure 20: Still from Acupuncture Needles Praised Under A Shadowless Lamp …………………………………………….... 156 Figure 21: Stills from