ETHNOBOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AMONG THE TRIBAL COMMUNITIES OF THAKHT‐E‐SULAIMAN HILLS, PAKISTAN

BY

KHALID AHMAD

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES QUAID‐I‐AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN 2014

ETHNOBOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AMONG THE TRIBAL COMMUNITIES OF THAKHT‐E‐SULAIMAN HILLS, PAKISTAN

KHALID AHMAD

Thesis submitted to The Department of Plant Sciences Quaid‐I‐Azam University Islamabad

In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

In

Plant Sciences

DEPARTMENT OF PLANT SCIENCES QUAID‐I‐AZAM UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN 2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises to Almighty Allah, who enabled me to accomplish this task. I would like to take this opportunity to convey my cordial gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Assistant Prof. Dr. Mushtaq Ahmad, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid‐I‐Azam University Islamabad Pakistan and my co‐supervisor, Dr. Caroline Weckerle, Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich, Switzerland. I am really indebted to them for their accommodating attitude, thought provoking guidance, immense intellectual input, patience and sympathetic behavior. Thanks to Prof. Dr. Asghari Bano, Dean, Faculty of Biological Sciences and Chairperson, Department of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U, Islamabad, for providing me all the possible research facilities during the present studies and Prof. Dr. Mir Ajab Khan for giving the insight whenever I get stuck in my project. Sincere thanks to my friend Zahid‐Ullah (QAU), who helped me in identification of plant specimens and Maja Dal Cero (Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich, Switzerland) for continued help in data management and analysis. I would extend my thanks to Dr. Muhammad Zafar, Herbarium Botanist, Department of Plant Sciences, Q.A.U., for his co‐operation and support. Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Franz K. Huber (ETH Zurich‐ Switzerland) and Dr. Brigitta Hug (Zollikerstrasse, 193, Zurich‐ Switzerland) for their cordial help during my entire stay in Switzerland (for data analysis and compilation). I can’t forget the help of my friends Abdul Aziz (QAU) and Zulqarnain (University of Campinas, Brazil) for their special help during this project. Words are lacking to express my thanks and appreciation to all the tribal men of Thakht‐e‐ Sulaiman Mountains for sharing their knowledge. Last but not least, I really acknowledge and offer my heartiest gratitude to my whole family who afford my time devoted to my studies at the time when they were in real need of it. This thesis is very much the product of my personal efforts and Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan for their financial assistance for my PhD studies and supporting me through IRSIP which make me able to compile my work under the direct supervision of my co‐ supervisor. I am thankful to all my friends, colleagues, Lab fellows, department and hostel fellows for their friendly behaviors.

Khalid Ahmad

This thesis is dedicated to the most hospitable tribal communities of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman Hills (residents of the present research area)

Contents Abstract ...... 1 Chapter 1 Introduction ...... 2 1. Introduction to Ethnobotany ...... 2 2. Introduction to the Area ...... 5 2.1 Area and ethnicity ...... 5 3. Reasons for selection of area ...... 7 4. Objectives of research ...... 8 Chapter 2 Material and Methods ...... 10 1. Study sites ...... 10 2. Methodology ...... 10 3. Total population and sample size ...... 11 4. Collection and identification of plant specimens...... 13 5. Classification of diseases ...... 13 6. Data analysis ...... 13 Chapter 3 Results and Discussion ...... 15 Multiple sources of income ...... 15 Overview of the plants used ...... 16 Table 1 ...... 18 1. Medicinal Plants ...... 24 Table 2 ...... 36 2. Wild Food Plants ...... 40 2.1 Self‐eaten wild food plants ...... 40 2.2 Commercial wild food species ...... 48 Table 3 ...... 56 3. Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants ...... 60 Table 4 ...... 66 4. Fodder species ...... 69 Table 5 ...... 79 5. Timber and Construction species ...... 86

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5.1 Self‐used timber ...... 86 5.2 Commercial timber ...... 92 5.3 Construction ...... 96 Table 6 ...... 101 6. Fuel Wood Species ...... 104 Table 7 ...... 109 7. Goods/Leather Water Carrier making Species ...... 111 Table 8 ...... 111 8. Ten Most Important Plants ...... 114 Table 9 ...... 118 Conclusion ...... 120 Recommendations ...... 120 Acknowledgments ...... 120 Chapter 4 References ...... 121 Appendix I ...... 131 Appendix II ...... 133

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Abstract

The tribal communities on the eastern side of thakht‐e‐sulaiman hills were investigated for the wild plants knowledge, factors affecting this knowledge, its cultural significance and economic contribution for a period of two years during 2010‐1012. The area and ultimately the species were divided into two sites of occurrence on the basis of altitude and vegetation‐ as zone 1 and zone 2. The information was collected from 124 informants, who were basically from five foothill villages (zone 1) but two village’s people were migrating in summer to five different migratory villages at zone 2, which were followed. The ages of informants were from 20‐100 with an average of 41.29 ±15. 13 years. Rising of livestock, commercial timber cutting, labor work on daily wages and non‐ wood forest products selling were the prominent income sources of locals in descending order. Detailed structured, semi‐structured interviews and group discussion were made with key informants and successive oral freelisting were performed with informants selected randomly. Data was analyzed in excel spreadsheets. Age, exposure to a wide range of flora, economic dependencies and surrounding vegetation of the village were the influencing variables on traditional knowledge.

A total of 141 species from 63 families with 5781 use reports were reported as having ethnobotanical uses. Ninety species with 3587 use reports were reported from zone 1, forty‐seven species with 2019 use reports from zone 2 and four species with 175 use reports were reported as common to both zones. Regarding habit, there were seventy‐two herbs with 1632 use reports, thirty‐seven shrubs with 1748 use reports, twenty‐two trees with 2325 use reports, nine climbers with 36 use reports and one fungus with 40 use reports.

Seven different ethnobotanical categories were investigated including medicinal plants category composed of 35 species, 27 families and 461 use reports, wild food plants (containing self‐ used and commercial food plants‐ wild fruits and vegetables) composed of 53 species, 31 families and 1069 use reports, ethnoveterinary species composed of 21 species, 19 families and 434 use reports, fodder species composed of 121 species, 52 families and 2280 use reports, timber species (containing self‐used timber, commercial timber and used for construction or roof covering) composed of 42 species, 29 families and 761 use reports, fuel wood species composed of 41 species, 29 families and 563 use reports and species used in preparing leather water carrier composed of 8 species, 7 families and 213 use reports. All the ethno important species were at last combined in the category of ‘ten most important plants of the area’ composed of 49 species from 36 families.

Species with a wider range of usage were considered important than extensively used for single category and more useful species were collected near human settlements regardless the diversity of species at distant area. Overgrazing, commercial timber cutting and in some cases lack of individual ownership were the reasons of unsustainable exploitation of natural resources while pluralism in medicinal system, partial decrease in timber exploitation as an income source and increasing trends towards commercial NWFPs were the positive signals for local flora which were observed in the area.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction

1. Introduction to Ethnobotany Since 1895, the term ethnobotany has been practiced, however the definitions and range has reformed. Current definitions still fluctuate prominently, but in conclusion, it is about the study of native people's understanding and associations with plants (Balick, 1994; Cox and Balick, 1994; Balick and Cox, 1996; FAO, 2001; Martin, 2004).

The vital environmental resources and diverse human culture are rapidly degrading. Among the remaining 7000 languages, 50% will be lost in the next 50 years which is the loss of cultural heritage because each of these has a distinct philosophical and rational way of representing the life (Kaua'i Declaration, 2007). To save these biocultural assets, a separate research field called ethnobotany is devoted, as it collects and extrapolates empirical wisdom which came into being after interaction with nature from prehistoric times to exploit nature in a sustainable way (Johns, 1990; Kaua'i Declaration, 2007). From its origin till the date, it is in an evolutionary state changing from classical and descriptive to measurable discipline as it acquires approaches from allied fields for best performances. It crossed the boundaries of social and biological sciences and gained recognition as a separate field. The word ethno has been started to use for viewing nature in a cooperative and distinct way (Martin, 2001). As ethnobotanists have to perform a vital role in resource management which make it essential that their recommendations should be best in avoiding overharvesting (Cunningham, 1996) for which quantifiable techniques are essential in the provision of best management.

Maintenance of life necessities in indigenous areas is substantially more complex and tough because of remoteness, fragility and susceptibility‐ arising from landscape complexity, altitudinal incline, and poor physical and socioeconomic infrastructure (Jodha, 2005; Rasul and Kollmair, 2010) so they directly depend on natural resources for their livelihoods which strongly link them with natural ecosystems. Many of the landscapes where these people live are of astonishing importance not only for their loveliness and the local ecosystem services they sustain, but for the biodiversity as well. Such people, their culture and the land they have are the elements of special importance for regional and national conservation plans (Painemilla et al. 2011) but unfortunately those territories are experiencing rapid social and economic change resulting not only the destruction of native lifestyle, putting indigenous communities in more troubles but also vanishing the traditional knowledge which can play a vital role in improving food safety through nutritional diversification and conservation of biological diversity worldwide (Talberth and Leopold, 2012).

Medicinal plants are an important element of aboriginal curative systems. This knowledge is considered as a part of cultural assets (Heinrich et al. 1998). However, many indigenous groups fail to sustain and preserve this communal knowledge (Panyaphu et al. 2011) that is why the systematic evaluation of this knowledge in order to contribute to health care in marginalized areas has been sighted on programs of national and international organizations (Heinrich, 2000). Ethnobotanical research helps in drug discovery but the drugs which are not marketed as modern pharmaceuticals

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Chapter 1 Introduction but are acceptable in the country of their origin, particularly if they can be produced cheaply, should be encouraged, as ethnobotanical research should not be limited in discovering new pharmaceuticals for westerners but must be of benefits to people in developing countries (Balick and Cox, 1996). However, the continuum of medicinal plant knowledge is threatened due to lack of transmission between the elder and younger generation (Kargioglu et al. 2008) therefore such rich tradition should be preserved through reliable approach before it gets lost due to various anthropogenic and other causes. Out of the total flowering plants reported from the world, more than 50,000 are used for medicinal purposes (Govaerts, 2001; Schippmann et al. 2002).

An increasing interest in wild food plants, led to many ethnobotanical studies which are related to biodiversity conservation and with human diet and health (Tardίo et al. 2006) and playing a vital role in the livelihoods of rural communities in the developing world. Wild food plants play an important role in complementing staple foods to provide balanced nourishment by providing trace elements, vitamins, and minerals. Their importance as a source of ‘Nutraceuticals’ has been emphasized in recent studies (Heinrich et al. 2005; Marwat et al. 2009; Abbasi et al. 2013). The nourishing role and health benefits of wild food capitals have been reported in many inspections globally (Balemie et al. 2006; Della et al. 2006; Ansari et al. 2005 and Pieroni et al. 2002). However, consumption of wild food is determined less by calorie idea and more by the preference of collecting wild resources, recreating traditional practices and loving typical tastes (Pardo‐de‐Santayana et al. 2007; Gul et al. 2012). Recently, only three crops provide about 50% of human energy consumption but some 10 000 species are used as food in different communities which are valuable genetic assets that can be used for new crop development or expansion of the present crops.

World's major livestock population is found in rural communities which have major dependencies on it for livelihood (Pica‐Ciamarra et al. 2011). Most of them live in marginal areas where endemic and epidemic livestock diseases are the main constraint in production and development system. They have no access to modern veterinary medicines nor have the economic capability to buy it. The survival of these people and their animals are based on their own inherited traditional knowledge of health care system. In order to improve the livelihood of these people through livestock industry, performance and production system of livestock has to be improved through ethnoveterinary remedies. For which it is essential to acquire, assess and encourage the beneficial aspects of traditional animal health care system and incorporate them into existing primary livestock health care services (Wanzala et al. 2005). There is yet to document this knowledge which is decreasing with tremendous speed, as according to Dr. Patricia A. L. Cochran‐ ‘When an elder dies, that is just like a library burning down’.

Ethnobotanical studies are important for biodiversity exploration, conservation issues and more importantly for collection of collective wisdom of several generations. Research on such lines has been conducted in several areas of Pakistan but lack of comparability and specific patterns of exploration is lacking in such studies. Unfortunately not a single regional population has been subjected to a broad ethnobotanical analysis and the necessity to do so become more apparent with each passing day (Shinwari and Shinwari, 2010).

The total area of Pakistan is nearly 10 million hectares, of which 88 percent is classified as arid and semi‐arid and only 12 percent is humid and sub‐humid. It has an altitude ranging from 0 to

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Chapter 1 Introduction

8611 m, therefore, has a variety of climatic zones, soil conditions and a unique biodiversity. It harbors more than 6000 vascular plant species (Stewart, 1972) and there are more or less sixty languages spoken, having numerous diverse cultures and ethnic groups. Each area, culture and ethnicity has its own background and traditional knowledge which makes a hub of diversity and an essential spot for ethnobotanical research. The specific area of the present research project has its own rich culture and habitat diversification which can be understood by its altitudinal variation from 2000 feet above sea level to 11320 feet above sea level, in a very short area.

Pakistan has about 6,000 species of higher plants, among them 600‐700 species has been reported for medicinal purposes (Shinwari, 2010). According to a survey by the Pakistan Forest Institute, 75 crude herbal drugs are extensively exported and more than 200 are locally traded in Pakistan. Crude medicinal plant materials worth more than Rs. 150 million (US$2. 3 million) per year are used in Pakistan, most of these plants are obtained from the wild (Atta‐ur‐Rahman and Choudhary, 2003). After 1980s, there had been an increased focus on ethnobotanical studies in Pakistan with main focus on medicinal plants with some other aspects but on documentation level and conducted mainly in universities only which continued up till 2000 but couldn’t cope with the recent advancement in this field which results in avoiding its importance in recent research activities. The local communities of different regions and ethnic groups have century’s old knowledge about traditional uses of plants occurring in their area and such knowledge is based on different medical systems. In some area different medicinal systems including modern medicines, are prevailing at the same time which leads the locals to choose the best items from all. The same pattern of using different medicinal systems in one community was observed in present research area.

Pakistan, China and India as a whole, account for two fifth population of humanity, which are the greatest users of medicinal plants; their customs of plant medications date back at least 7000 years. Although people are using different medicinal systems mainly Unani, Ayurvedic and Chinese medicines respectively but there is quite similarity in their floras. They have much to teach the world as certain experiences in these countries can be used to facilitate medicinal plants conservation, cultivation, community participation and sustainable development not even in these countries but also in the rest of the world (Iqbal et al. 2005). Several similarities were found between present research work and ethnobotanical studies conducted in southwest China and literature also supports striking ethnobotanical similarities between India and Pakistan. Therefore a comparison of ethnobotanical studies among these countries will be of utmost importance.

Ethnobotanical studies on wild food species from different areas of Pakistan has been reported but very few are mainly concerned on wild edibles and most of these studies lack a proper methodology and more important deficiency in such studies is the lack of quantification. Also, majority of ethnobotanical studies concerning wild edible species are centered on Himalaya range and Margalla hills, some studies are reported from Karakoram range, Hindu Kush range and Salt ranges, while remote indigenous areas of Pamir Mountain range, Hidu Raj Mountain range, Toba Kakar range, Makran range, Kirthar range and Sulaiman Mountains range and some other indigenous mountain area are completely ignored or very rarely reported for ethnobotanical studies and especially for wild food species. The present project was an attempt on hardly approachable, remote but more indigenous and resourceful mountain communities of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman which is never explored through any type of research.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

The climatic conditions and topography of Pakistan offer favorable conditions for the growth and proliferation of diverse medicinal plants which constitutes a major part of ethnoveterinary medicine (but no database of veterinary medicinal plants has been compiled so far). The ethnoveterinary knowledge and experience of livestock farmers in Pakistan is about 4000 years old which is conserved in verbal histories and traditions amongst different groups (Iqbal et al. 2005). Also, Pakistan has the 3rd largest herd size in the world and this sector alone contributes 11% of Pakistan’s GDP and involved some 35 million people (Shahid et al. 2012). So a reduction in poverty of these poor livestock farmers is possible if traditional ethnoveterinary knowledge is properly analyzed and then incorporated into livestock industry.

2. Introduction to the Area

2.1 Area and ethnicity The present project was based on ethnobotanical studies of tribal communities living on the eastern side of thakht‐e‐sulaiman hills‐ the highest peak of Sulaiman ranges (locally called as kaesa gher) which is the border of Frontier Region of Dera Ismail Khan (often abbreviated as F. R, D. I. Khan) administration with district Zhobe‐ but recently it has been declared as ‘district Sherani’ of Baluchistan province. F. R Dera Ismail Khan as a whole is located between 31˚30’ and 31˚34’ north latitudes and 69˚55’ and 70˚24’ west longitudes and spreads over an area of 2008 square kilometers with a population of approximately 39000 (Anon. 1998). It is bounded on the north by South Waziristan Agency (FATA), on east by Kalachi Tehsil of D.I. Khan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, on south by D.G khan district of Punjab province and on the west by Zhobe district of Baluchistan province. The area is a small administrative unit in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) of Pakistan. It is administered by the Assistant political agent working under district coordination officer (DCO) of the Dera Ismail Khan District. There are 20 ‘Maliks’ (consultants) and 60 ‘Lungi Holders’ (elders of the tribes) and 294 ‘Khasasadars’ (responsible for law and order maintenance i.e. work like Police). The overall administration of this Frontier Region is carried out by the FATA Secretariat based in Peshawar‐ the capital of Khyber‐Pakhtunkhwa province who works under the Governor, appointed by the federal government.

Two tribes i.e. Sherani and Ustranas inhabit this frontier region (Ahmad et al, 2013). Usthranas tribe occupied the eastern side adjoin D. I. Khan district while Shiranis are on the western side. The Sheranis are geographically divided into two zones namely Bargha (western side of Thakht‐ e‐Sulaiman hills‐ District Zhob, Balochistan province) and Largha (eastern side of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman hills‐ F. R, D.I. Khan‐ FATA). According to Caroe, (1957) Shiranis are the descendants of Sharkhbun, son of Sarban, the eldest son of Qais Abdul Rashid‐ who tomb is on the top of Thakht‐e‐Sulaminan Hill.Therefore they are commonly categorized as Ghurghusht Pathans. They are divided into three clans‐ Hassan Khel, Oba Khel and Chuhal Khel (Ahmad, 2004; Wazir, 2009). The selected five villages included in the present study were from cast Sulthanzai which is the descending branch of Oba kheal Sub‐tribe, each of these villages represent sub‐cast within Sulthanzai. The villager’s main income sources are livestock rising. Livestock rising is the basis of the culture of this area and the area is the main cradle of animal domestication and the home of many indigenous livestock rises (Raziq et al, 2010). According to local ethnic experts their tribe name (i.e. Shirani) is actually derived from “Charani” which means herders and they are involved in this job from very earlier times (Raziq et al, 2010). Some other prominent income sources include timber cutting in higher altitudes, Non Wood Forest Products selling (Pinus gerardiana seeds and some others like Morchella esculanta,

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Chapter 1 Introduction

Monotheca buxifolia fruits etc.) and some go abroad to middle east countries, mostly for labor work (as they are not skillful to perform any technical job) are the other main income sources.

Map of FATA‐ indicating F.R, D. I. Khan

F.R. D.I.Khan

Source: http://www.opinion‐maker.org/wp‐content/uploads/2011/03/FATA‐Tribal‐Area‐pakistan.jpg

2.2 Sulaiman range and thakht‐e‐sulaiman Sulaiman range or Sulaiman Mountains are Pakistan’s major geological feature and one of the bordering mountain ranges between Iranian Plateau and Asian subcontinent. It is the high Plateau in the west and southwest act as a natural barrier against the winds called “Humid” that blows from the Indian Ocean thus creating arid conditions across southern Afghanistan and in the north it finally touches the Hindu Kush range. This mountain range approaches the Indus River near Mithankot in Rajanpur district of Punjab. The central line or axis of the Sulaiman range lies a little east of the meridian of 70deg E., and it is geologically composed of one or more great folds of the Cretaceous series. The top of Takht‐e‐Sulaiman is shrouded in myth and mystery. The massif of the Takht is a high tableland, bounded on its eastern and western edges by high, rugged and steep parallel ridges. This tableland is formed by a huge cap of coral limestone, estimated by Griesbach at from 4000 to 5000 ft. in thickness. According to Ibn Battuta (who named it Kohi Sulaiman) the name was given because of Hazrat Sulaiman, one of the prophets of Almighty Allah, climbed on Thakht‐e Sulaiman Mountain and looked out over the dark land of south Asia and then turned back and left

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Chapter 1 Introduction the mountain which is named after him. Al Buruni writes of this mountain range in his memories as being the western frontier mountain of South Asia and the homeland of people known as the Afghans or Pashtuns. This peak (Takht‐e‐Sulaiman) possesses a strange healing quality. Locals firmly believe that Prophet Sulaiman exercised his miraculous power to confine mischievous jinns inside the park after they would refuse to obey his command. Some local tradition says that Solomon (prophet Sulaiman) halted on a ledge some distance below the crest of the mountain to take a last look over India, when he was carrying off an Indian bride to Jerusalem. The shrine marks the spot‐ which attract many pilgrims (Ahmad et al. 2013; Encyclopedia Britannica, 2010; Pakistan Mountains, 2008; NASA Earth Observatory, 2002; Wazir, 2009; Personal observations; personal communications).

The geography of F.R Dera Ismail Khan is mostly hilly areas (Plate A) of Sulaiman range. All Sherani Area is totally under the eastern shadow of highest peak of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman. This mountain is covered by coniferous forest. The area is arid to semi‐arid land, receiving 200‐500 mm precipitation bimodal (Raziq et al. 2010). It experiences hot summer and cold winters. Summer season starts in April and continues till October. June, July and August are the hottest months. In summer and winter, the mean daily maximum temperature is 40 Co and 5.7‐7.6 Co respectively while monthly rainfall in winter and summer is 13 mm and 21‐38 mm respectively (M. Dost, 2006). Winter season starts in November and lasts till March. December, January and February are the coldest months. The weather is warmer on eastern side and becoming pleasant towards west in summer.A western side winter season is more harsh than eastern. The vegetation changes while going from east towards west with change in altitude. This change in altitude and vegetation is continued up till the peak of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman (Ahmad, 2004).

3. Reasons for selection of area This area was selected due to the following reasons:

 The area is remote and isolated, has high endemism, full of natural resources, having rich floral diversity and indigenous life style. Also, no previous research work has been conducted so far. But due to increasing acculturation pressure, especially after 2008 when a road was built into these foothill villages which make the area more accessible, it became essential to preserve the indigenous knowledge before it becomes vanished.  As local depends on livestock as main income source, beside this they have flexible and diverse livelihood activities including timber cutting for sell and recently increasing trend on commercial wild food plants and other NWFPs. Due to increased market pressure and lack of individual ownership of resources (the forest and woodland is managed by the community) especially the wild plant resources are over harvesting and depleting unsustainably. So there was a need to look at these factors for better management of these precious natural resources.  Majority of indigenous communities on the north western side of Pakistan are under the effect of ‘war on terror’ which make them inaccessible and unsuitable for any research activities, but this area (thakht‐e‐sulaiman) is quite peaceful and safe from the effect of war. The people being lowest in literacy rate but are very peace loving, cooperative and hospitable. These factors were also the attracting points for conducting the present project in this area.

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Chapter 1 Introduction

4. Objectives of research The general goal of the study was to advance our understanding about the human‐plant interaction complexes through study in the area having rich cultural and floral diversity and the gathering of indigenous wisdoms for maintaining the floral diversity and its application for improving the socioeconomic settings of the locals on a sustainable basis. However the specific objectives were:

 The documentation of wild plant knowledge in the area  To analyze the plant knowledge of the ethnic group to assess its cultural significance  To determine the factors effecting plant knowledge in the area  To determine the economic contribution of local flora in livelihood

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Chapter 1 Introduction

a b

c d

Plate A: a‐d are the glimpses of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman mountains

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Chapter 2 Meterial and Methods

Chapter 2

Material and Methods

A field work was conducted for two years during 2010‐2012. A total of 124 informants were interviewed (Plate B) for seven different ethnobotanical categories (some of which have sub‐categories as well). The informants were from five different villages at the foothills of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman hills. Among these 5 villages, two village people were migrating to migratory villages at higher altitude in summer, one village remains in foothills round the year, one village is semi‐migrant i.e. some people came here in summer from lower altitude while the last villages remains within foothills boundary but some of its residents shift to a place with some higher altitude having comparatively dense flora. The informants of the two migrating villages live in five different migratory villages which were followed to interview them for the differences in use of higher altitude flora. So the species were also divided into two categories on the basis of its use locality i.e. the species which were used in foothill villages were considered of zone 1 while the species used in migratory villages or at the top of the hills were considered of zone 2. Few of the species were having use reports from both zones so they were considered occurrence wise, as from zone 1 & 2 (i.e. occurred in both zones).We maintained a continuing relationship with the local communities in order to construct a sense of trust and to be allowed to stay within foothills and migratory villages and to accompany them during their daily life activities and participate in ceremonies. In this study, a record of any specific use of plant or its part resulting from any ethnobotanical interview from a specific informant is termed as‘use report’ while a ‘category’ is a group of plants usages by locals of particular local domain.

1. Study sites Two study sites were selected on the eastern side of thakht‐e‐sulaiman hills. (1). Foothills having 5 villages at an altitude of 2500 feet ‐6000 feet. (2). Migratory villages also containing 5 villages at an altitude above 6000 feet‐ 10,000 feet. The flora of the first site was named as zone 1 and at second as zone 2 respectively. These sites were different from one another in altitude, climate and geology, so were having complete change floras.

2. Methodology A detailed unstructured and semi‐structured, formal and informal interviews were performed with key informants (including walk in the wood) and group discussion were made in the first year (1st phase) of the study to get about the general concepts of locals about natural phenomena (Berlin & Berlin, 2005) to get familiar with ethnographic terms and their emic definitions and specifically to know about their dependence on local flora. In the second year‐ when locally important ethnobotanical categories were confirmed, we used the 1st phase research data to design a strategy for the second phase of the research (second year). Successive ‘oral freelisting’ (because literacy rate was near to zero) were performed to obtain more salient species of those specific ethnobotanical categories and to check the

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Chapter 2 Meterial and Methods

variations in individual and village wise knowledge. Detailed structured interviews were mostly followed after freelists (Appendix I). Ages of the interviewee were from 20‐100 with an average of 41.29 ±15.13 years. We provide supplementary prompting to enlarge the freelists (Brewer, 2002). Special care was taken to avoid bystander contamination during freelisting exercise (Quinlan, 2005; Brewer, 1995) and responses from freelists were cross‐checked through informal methods up till confirmation.Freelisting methodology was selected due to following reasons: Emic perspective exploration, citation of species in order of familiarity, good for determining the effect of variables on individual’s knowledge and as it is easy and quantifiable method (Quinlan, 2005; Brewer, 1995; Gatewood, 1983).Consent was taken from each informant before every interview and discussion and the objectives and procedure/methodology of project were explained. Local language (Pashtu) was used as a communication source with informants and main author was able to understand it properly (the interviews were later on converted to English). As interviewing females were contradictory with cultural paradigm, so we only relied on male informants. The ethical guidelines of international society of ethnobiology, (2006) were strictly followed.

3. Total population and sample size Mostly an informant from every 4th house was included in the sample (interview) with some variations in different ethnobotanical categories. Some of the informants were interviewed for only one ethnobotanical category while the others were interviewed for two to all ethnobotanical categories. The five villages at foothills were named as:

A) Payor Mela‐ having 36 houses/families B) Landi Kutherzai‐ having 55 houses/families C) Zindawar‐ having 21 houses/families D) Jatty Ghbaz‐ having 45 houses/families and E) Kurachai‐ having 21 houses/families

The migratory villages were based on the residents from the 1st two villages of foothills and others residents of those villages were from lower altitude of the area, but we followed only the people who migrate to migratory villages from foothill villages. The names of five migratory villages were

a) Khuney b) Goraban c) Ghoshker d) Ponga and e) Land Nishpona

The factors like family size/number of individuals per family, migration ratio, sources of income, per month family expenditure, number of livestock, bilingualism and sample size were taken as independent variables to test either these have some influence of ethnobotanical knowledge of informants. The comparative details about these for the five foothills villages are given in table A.

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Chapter 2 Meterial and Methods

Table A: Comparison of demographic situation and informants in the different villages Landi Village Name Payor Mela Zindawar Jatty Ghbaz Kurachai Kutherzai Village size (No. of Families) 36 55 21 42 25 aSample size 25 42 11 32 14 (No. of Informants) 39.65 35.83 Informants average age 43.54 ±16.38 39.72 ±15.94 45±15.11 ±12.38 ±9.73 Average family members 14.92 ±5.64 12.44 ±6.65 15.67 ±6.38 14.75 ±6.25 10 ±2.48 50 61 50 38 bMigration ratio (%) 0 (to zone 2) (to zone 2) (in zone 1) (in zone 1) Bilingualism (%) 54 25 1 24 8 Average/month/head 931 ±212 1063 ±370 941 ±194 1166 ±537 1420 ±457 expenditure(in PKR) (a):The total number of informants in each village. Each informant may be interviewed for only one or several aspects of our ethnobotanical survey. (b): Two villages migrate to zone 2 while two villages migrate with in zone 1 during summer season. 50% migration ratio means half of the families of this village migrate in summer.

Despite the independent variables there were some explanatory variables about each village.

Table B: Short description about each village Elevation Soil, area, population and vegetation Villages (feet) Payor Mela 3660′ Have stony soil and less vegetation with in the direct surrounding of village but has reserved forests in vicinity and a very fertile valley. Population and area of the village is moderate. Half of its residents migrate to higher altitude in summer (zone 2). Landi 3450′ Have better soil for vegetation but has more population and less area Kutherzai which make the surrounding of village nearly barren, has no reserve forests. More than half of residents migrate to higher altitude in summer (zone 2). Zindawar 3760′ Having diverse types of soil and flora. Have less population and more area, so vegetation is comparatively undisturbed. It also has the floral elements of higher altitudes (zone 2). 50% people came to this village from another village named ‘Ragha Sar’ which is comparatively warmer. Jatty Ghbaz 3790′ Soil mostly stony. Have moderate human population and diverse area due to which it has better vegetation. 38% of its residents migrate to the higher altitude of the same village (zone 1) where there is good vegetation cover and pleasant summer. Kurachai 3885′ Soil very stony which cannot support herbaceous flora. Also has less area which more anthropogenic pressure. The village is at comparatively higher altitude where summer is not so warm and that is why these people do not migrate in summer

12

Chapter 2 Meterial and Methods

4. Collection and identification of plant specimens The plant specimens were collected triplet according to standard botanical and ethnobotanical protocols, during the field work, mostly at the occasion of walk in wood with key informants, which were then properly dried, processed (followed Martin, 2004) and identified by taxonomist in Quaid‐i‐ Azam University Islamabad Pakistan and reconfirmed it by comparing with already identified specimens in the Herbarium of QAU Islamabad and also matched the taxonomic characters of specimens with Flora of Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1971‐1995, Ali & Qaisar, 1995‐2010). The families’ names were assigned according to angiosperm phylogeny group (APG III, 2009). The voucher specimens were numbered and deposited in the Herbarium of Pakistan (ISL), Quaid‐i‐Azam University Islamabad Pakistan, for future reference work.

5. Classification of diseases All the human diseases were grouped into 13 categories. These diseases were categorized as described by the informants according to the symptoms they cause, the organs they affect and for some of them they have a local names which were an exact alternative of its English/medical name which were later on reconfirmed from the regional doctors having familiarity which such local medical terms . The details of making these categories are given in the appendix II. Nearly the same procedure was adopted for ethnoveterinary diseases.

6. Data analysis Freelist data were analyzed through descriptive statistics, for ranking the species, determining more salient species and informants consensus, using excel spreadsheets (Excel 2010) and were checked for variables effect on individuals' knowledge using pivot tables.

Map of Research Area

Source: The GPS points were taken during field work which was used for constructing map in the WWF Lab Islamabad, Pakistan.

13

Chapter 2 Meterial and Methods

e f

g h

i j

Plate B:e‐j are the interviews scens of author with informants

14

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Chapter 3

Results and Discussion

Multiple sources of income Each family in the area has adopted multiple sources of income for a livelihood (table C). The percentage dependencies on sources of income (%) are obtained from the informants. For example 50% dependency on livestock does not mean that half of the livelihood income is from this source but it indicates that 50% families have livestock as one of their income source.

Table C: Comparison of sources of income among different villages

Overall Sources of income (values Payor Landi Jatty Zindawar Kurachai contribution as in %) Mela Kutherzai Ghbaz income(%) Livestock 75 64 87 55 67 33 Timber 42 36 75 31 42 21 Labor work 33 44 12 24 75 18 Wild food species 24 39 25 24 8 11 Working in foreign countries 17 14 0 52 8 9 Local business 12 6 0 21 0 4 Agriculture 8 6 12 0 0 2 Government jobs 8 3 0 10 0 2

As livestock sector was the largest source of income in the area with some variations for each village. Table D shows the number of livestock in each village.

Table D: Average livestock per family in each village

Livestock Payor Mela Landi Kutherzai Zindawar Jatty Ghbaz Kurachai Goats 38.16 ±23 39 ±33 44 ±47 23.51 ±16.26 21.5 ±20 Sheep 5.125 ±9.64 4.7 ±13.34 43 ±20 8.93 ±13.4 12 ±2 Cows 4.04 ±2.85 1.36 ±1.77 6 ±3 1.9 ±1.93 3 ±3 Donkeys 1.96 ±1.92 1.67 ±1.97 0.875 ±0.99 1.2 ±0.77 1.42 ±2.43 Camel 0.45 ±0.59 0.13 ±0.25 0.75 ±0.46 0.27 ±0.45 0.33 ±0.65

15

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Overview of the plants used A total 141 species from 63 families with 5781 use reports (often abbreviated as UR in the following text) were obtained by interviewing 124 informants (table 1) for seven different ethnobotanical categories i.e. medicinal plants (35 species, 27 families and 461 use reports), wild food plants (53 species, 31 families and 1068 use reports), ethnoveterinary (21 species, 19 families and 434 use reports), fodder (121 species, 52 families and 2280 use reports), timber (42 species, 29 families and 761 use reports), fuel (41 species, 29 families and 563 use reports) and species used in preparing leather water carrier ( 8 species, 7 families and 213 use reports).

% Species % Use Reports 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Ethnobotanical categories

Fig. 1Distribution of all 141 species with use reports among different use categories

The category of fodder species was the largest one regarding number of species and use reports as well which is followed by wild food plant, timber wood, fuel wood, medicine, ethnoveterinary medicine and Goods, which are due to high dependency on livestock, woody houses structure and harsh winter. According to Ahmad et al. (2012) the overall ethnobotanical findings in the area are the signs of the particular culture as more fodder species indicate the dependency on livestock and timber as indicators of the house's structure.

Regarding habit, there were seventy‐two herbs (with 1632 UR) thirty‐seven shrubs (with 1748 UR), twenty‐two trees (with 2325 UR) and one fungus (with 40 UR) ‐ which is excluded in figure 2 for the purpose of convenience.

16

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Herb Shrub Tree Climber

51 40 30 26 28 16 6 1

% of species % UR

Fig. 2 Habit wise distribution of all 141 ethnobotanical species with use reports

It shows the step wise decrease in number of species from herbs to shrubs to trees and then climber respectively while its use reports are opposite except for climbers.

Ninety species with 3587 UR were reported from zone 1, forty‐seven species (with 2019 UR) from zone 2 and four species (with 175 UR) were reported as common to both zones.

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1 & 2

64 62

33 35

33

% of species % UR

Fig. 3 Zone wise distribution of all 141 ethnobotanical species with use reports

Almost double numbers of species are reported from zone 1 as compared to zone 2 instead of more phytodiversity in zone 2. This is because of the fact that only 2 villages out of 5 villages at the foothills (study sites) migrate to zone 2 during the summer so the informants of the remaining three villages has no proper introduction to the flora of zone 2 while only few species has an occurrence in both zones. The use reports are almost directly proportional to the number of species reported from both zones.

17

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 1

Over‐all use report table

d)

c) (UR) No. (UR)

(UR) (UR)

(UR)

UR Name

food

(UR)

Family Local Occurrence Specimen Habit Ethnoveterinary (UR) Timber Fuel Goods Medicine Fodder Wild Total Species Acacia modesta Wall. Fabaceae PALOUS Zone 1 127146 Tree 49 43 14 122 12 240 Acer cappadocicum Gleditsch Aceraceae GHWASHA WANA Zone 2 127215 Tree 16 8 42 8 74 Achyranthes aspera Linn. Amaranthaceae JEZGAI Zone 1 127179 Herb 4 4 Achyranthes bidentata Blume Amaranthaceae JEZA LASHTHA Zone 1 127164 Herb 3 2 5 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Amaranthaceae SPAROKAI Zone 1 127216 Herb 4 12 16 J.A. Schultes Allium carolinianum DC. Alliaceae KHOKHAI Zone 2 127194 Herb 10 27 37 Allium Spp Alliaceae COOK Zone 2 127217 Herb 9 38 47 Alternanthera paronychioides St. Amaranthaceae PENDERWASH Zone 1 127218 Herb 6 6 Hil. Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Amaranthaceae SARMAY Zone 1 127219 Herb 5 29 34 Amygdalus brahuica Boiss. Rosaceae GHORGHOSTHAI Zone 1 127160 Tree 3 12 8 11 34 Apluda mutica Linn. Poaceae POGHAI Zone 1 127175 Herb 52 52 Arisaema jacquemontii Blume. Araceae KHARPATA Zone 2 127174 Herb 2 2 Aristida adscensionis Linn. Poaceae SABEH Zone 1 127207 Herb 10 10 Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Asteraceae DORWARAN Zone 1 127220 Herb 4 4 Bauhinia retusa Roxb. Fabaceae CAR GHWAZA Zone 1 127221 Tree 4 4 8 16 Berberis calliobotrys Aitch. ex Berberidaceae THOR KORAI Zone 2 127222 Shrub 41 1 3 27 9 8 89 Koehne Bidens biternata Loureiro Asteraceae THOR KONAI Zone 1 127223 Herb 3 3 Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T. Poaceae SRA BAZ Zone 1 127224 Herb 53 53 Blake Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf Poaceae SAMAKY Zone 2 127225 Herb 5 5 Bromus danthoniae Trin. Poaceae KHER MAL Zone 1 127226 Herb 24 24 Buddleja crispa Benth. Buddlejaceae KHARA Zone 1 127227 Shrub 1 12 12 25 SPERHANDA

18

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Buxus wallichiana Baill. Buxaceae KAZAWANAI Zone 1 127186 Shrub 2 25 18 10 7 62 Calotropis procera (Aiton) W. T. Asclepiadaceae SPELMAIY Zone 1 127228 Shrub 25 2 27 Aiton Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. Capparaceae KRERA Zone 1 127229 Shrub 3 1 2 1 7 Caragana ambigua Stocks Fabaceae ZARAY Zone 2 127205 Shrub 12 2 14 Caralluma tuberculata N.E. Brown Asclepiadaceae PAMANAI Zone 1 127133 Herb 54 54 Celtis caucasica Willd. Ulmaceae THAGHAH Zone 1 127176 Tree 19 18 109 4 150 Chrysopogon gryllus(L.) Trin. Poaceae MARGHA Zone 2 127230 Herb 12 12 Cicer nuristanicum Kitamura Fabaceae CHENRAH Zone 2 127183 Herb 8 5 13 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae DA KHWARAK 127231 Herb 4 5 9 AZGHAI Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Cucurbitaceae KANDELAY Zone 1 127182 Herb 3 3 Schrad. Clematis montana Buch. ‐Ham. ex Ranunculaceae BARRY Zone 2 127165 Climber 3 3 DC. Clematis orientalis L. Ranunculaceae CHENGENWALY Zone 2 127139 Climber 3 3 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Convolvulaceae PERWATHY Zone 1 & 2 127192 Climber 1 1 Cornus macrophylla Wall. ex Cornaceae KHALANJA Zone 1 127232 Tree 10 2 4 16 Roxb. Cotoneaster buxifolius Lindl. Rosaceae THOR WARAI Zone 2 127233 Shrub 1 9 10 Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex Rosaceae MANRAY Zone 1 127234 Shrub 8 19 3 27 32 89 Lindl. Cotoneaster minutus Klotz Rosaceae SHARAVO Zone 2 127125 Shrub 25 24 51 43 143 Cotoneaster pruinosus G.Klotz Rosaceae PUSHTHAWERGAI Zone 2 127206 Shrub 1 5 16 22 Curcuma longa Linn. Zingiberaceae KURKAMAN Zone 1 127235 Herb 6 16 22 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Poaceae BOYAN SERGARAI Zone 1 127141 Herb 4 4 Schult. Cymbopogon pospischilii (K. Poaceae SERGARAI Zone 1 127236 Herb 58 58 Schum.) C.E. Hubbard Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk Boraginaceae JEZGAI Zone 2 127212 Herb 1 1 2 Cyperus rotundus Linn. Cyperaceae DA GHARCHANI Zone 1 127155 Herb 3 3 KHURYAS Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Fabaceae SAWA Zone 1 127237 Tree 2 2

19

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Daphne papyracea Wall. ex Steud. Thymelaeaceae THOR Zone 1 127171 Shrub 39 2 2 43 MALAGHONAI Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) Urticaceae MERMANDAI Zone 1 127143 Shrub 8 9 6 14 37 Rendle Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.) Jacq. Sapindaceae MALAGHONAI Zone 1 127142 Shrub 35 21 24 80 Echinochloa crus‐galli (Linn.) P. Poaceae ZERKAZDAN Zone 1 127202 Herb 4 4 Beauv. Ehretia obtusifolia Hochst. ex DC. Boraginaceae MARAGHONEY Zone 1 127161 Shrub 9 12 3 36 60 Elymus caninus (Linn.) Linn. Poaceae SHAKAI Zone 2 127152 Herb 2 2 Elymus kuramensis (Meld.) T.A. Poaceae THORA Zone 2 127149 Herb 3 3 Cope, comb. THARAGHRIJA Ephedra gerardiana Wall.ex Stapf. Ephedraceae OMAN Zone 2 127150 Shrub 4 43 44 2 93 Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl.) Asteraceae DA GHRA GAJARA Zone 2 127238 Herb 17 17 Benth. Erioscripus comosus (Wall.) Palla Cyperaceae DA GHARCHANI Zone 1 127167 Herb 7 7 BERWAJ Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Poaceae BARWAJ Zone 1 127137 Herb 1 82 83 Hubbard Euphorbia prolifera Buch. Euphorbiaceae THANDAWANEY Zone 2 127159 Herb 42 5 47 Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Euphorbiaceae THANDAWANY Zone 1 127239 Herb 1 1 2 Festuca olgae (Regel) Krivot. Poaceae NARAI SHAKAI Zone 2 127140 Herb 5 5 Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae INJAR Zone 1 127240 Tree 8 13 4 16 50 91 Ficus virens Dryand. Moraceae WASH POLAI Zone 1 127241 Tree 1 2 3 Fraxinus xanthoxyloides (G. Don) Oleaceae SHANG Zone 2 127242 Tree 32 10 16 58 DC., Prodr. Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori Tiliaceae PASTHAWAI Zone 1 127126 Shrub 7 15 106 1 129 Grewia villosa Wild. Tiliaceae INJERAI Zone 1 127243 Shrub 1 5 22 6 34 Hedera nepalensis K. Koch Araliaceae DA MRAGHY Zone 2 127136 Climber 5 5 GHOL Heteropogon contortus (Linn.) P. Poaceae SUR MAL Zone 1 127244 Herb 34 34 Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Ipomoea turbinata Lag. Convolvulaceae KULMOVALA Zone 1 127245 Climber 9 9 Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Lamiaceae SONGARAI Zone 1 127246 Shrub 29 29 Codd Jasminum humile Linn. Oleaceae GHULMETHAI Zone 2 127129 Shrub 1 1 3 5

20

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Pyracantha Spp M. Roam. Rosaceae KHRA SHARAVO Zone 2 127127 Shrub 40 25 22 1 88 Lactuca dissecta D.Don Asteraceae RAYWERKA Zone 1 127184 Herb 1 4 5 Launaea procumbens (Roxb) Asteraceae SONDRASHI Zone 1 127180 Herb 4 9 13 Amin. Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Poaceae KHURYAS Zone 1 127247 Herb 197 197 Limonium cabulicum (Boiss.) O. Plumbaginaceae BOTYARAI Zone 1 127170 Herb 4 4 Kuntze. Lindelofia stylosa (Kar. & Kir.) Boraginaceae DA KHAM GAJARA Zone 1 127248 Herb 2 2 Brand Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Lauraceae ZYER LARGAI Zone 1 127249 Tree 40 5 5 18 3 71 Persoon Lonicera hypoleuca Decne. Caprifoliaceae SHNA Zone 2 127250 Shrub 25 5 35 65 SPERHANDA Lonicera quinquelocularis Caprifoliaceae SHPAL GHWAZAI Zone 1 127190 Shrub 1 10 11 Hardwicke in Hook. f. Malva sylvestris Linn. Malvaceae METHRAI Zone 1 & 2 127123 Herb 2 6 8 Maytenus royleanus (Wall. ex Celastraceae KEKAR Zone 1 127173 Shrub 7 20 20 47 Lawson) Cufodontis in Senck. Mentha longifolia (L.) L. Lamiaceae SHAMSHOBAI Zone 2 127209 Herb 2 28 4 34 Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Cucurbitaceae DA GEDAR BANAI Zone 1 127251 Climber 1 1 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. Sapotaceae GURGUR Zone 1 127185 Tree 64 43 2 121 80 310 Morchella esculenta Fr. Morchellaceae GOMAI Zone 2 127252 Fungi 40 40 Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. Morinaceae JEAZ AZGHAI Zone 2 127204 Herb 1 1 Nannorrhops ritchiana (Griff.) Palmae MAZARAI Zone 1 127253 Shrub 1 1 1 3 Aitchison Nerium oleander Linn. Apocynaceae GANDERAI Zone 1 127130 Shrub 1 1 2 Notholirion thomsonianum (D. Liliaceae SHYAJEY Zone 1 127166 Herb 1 11 23 35 Don) Stapf Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Poaceae PAHA Zone 1 127254 Herb 104 104 Hilu Olea ferruginea Royle Oleaceae SHWAWAN Zone 1 127151 Tree 3 85 43 40 32 112 109 424 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae THERWASHKA Zone 1 127198 Herb 3 5 8 Panicum antidotale Retz. Poaceae MALAY Zone 1 127187 Herb 2 2 Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall. Vitaceae DA MAR MALAVO Zone 1 127255 Herb 2 2 ex Roxb.) Planch.

21

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Peganum harmala Linn. Zygophyllaceae SPANDA Zone 1 127154 Herb 23 1 1 25 Pennisetum flaccidum Griseb. Poaceae WEZA Zone 1 127256 Herb 34 34 Pennisetum orientale L.C. Rich. in Poaceae GHANUM RANG Zone 2 127189 Herb 41 41 Pers. Periploca aphylla Dcne. Asclepiadaceae BARRARR Zone 1 127156 Shrub 2 1 3 Periploca hydaspidis Falc. Asclepiadaceae KHWAZA WALEY Zone 1 127128 Climber 2 1 3 Portulaca quadrifida Linn. Portulacaceae PAKHARAI Zone 1 127257 Herb 1 3 4 Phlomis spectabilis Falc. ex Benth. Lamiaceae ZER PANRAY Zone 2 127258 Herb 1 3 4 Physalis divaricata D. Don Solanaceae BAND MALKHOVJ Zone 1 127181 Herb 1 1 Pinus gerardiana Wall. ex. Lamb. Pinaceae ZANGHOZAI Zone 2 127203 Tree 76 71 43 19 19 81 309 Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson Pinaceae NASHTAR Zone 2 127213 Tree 67 79 44 30 10 21 251 Pistacia Integerrima (J. L. Stewart) Anacardiaceae SHRAWAN Zone 1 127191 Tree 9 15 44 11 26 105 Rech. f. Pistacia khinjuk Stocks in J.D. Anacardiaceae SAHO SHRAWAN Zone 1 127259 Tree 1 4 1 6 Hooker, Punica granatum Linn. Punicaceae NERGOS Zone 1 & 2 127208 Shrub 26 5 11 32 6 24 53 157 Quercus dilatata Royle Fagaceae PERGAI Zone 1 127260 Tree 8 6 14 Ribes alpestre Decne. Grossulariaceae SHEEN KORAI Zone 2 127193 Shrub 2 6 1 9 Rosa brunonii Lindl. Rosaceae KHORACH Zone 2 127134 Shrub 5 16 24 45 Rottboellia exaltata Linn t. Poaceae KHER WASHEH Zone 2 127188 Herb 33 33 Rubus fruticosus L. Rosaceae GHARANGAVO Zone 2 127197 Herb 10 19 29 Rumex dentatus Linnaeus, Polygonaceae SKHERYAI Zone 2 127196 Herb 9 3 2 14 Saccharum ravennae (Linn.) Murr. Poaceae MUSHKANRAI Zone 1 127261 Herb 1 1 Saccharum spontaneum Linn. Poaceae SERGHASAI Zone 1 127132 Herb 37 37 Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Salicaceae THORA WALA Zone 1 127163 Tree 51 51 Salvadora oleoides Decne Salvadoraceae PLAYWAN Zone 1 127262 Shrub 1 1 6 1 9 Salvia moocroftiana Wall. ex Lamiaceae DERSAI Zone 2 127131 Herb 17 34 51 Benth. Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet, Lamiaceae DA KHRA DERSAI Zone 2 127263 Herb 3 3 Scaligeria aitchisonii Wolff Apiaceae JURRA Zone 2 127264 Herb 12 25 37 Setaria verticillata (Linn.) P. Poaceae CHARMASOL Zone 1 127178 Herb 16 16 Beauv. Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae MALKHOVJ Zone 1 127158 Herb 1 7 8 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae MARAGHONEY Zone 1 127157 Herb 4 1 5

22

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Sophora mollis (Royle) Graham ex Fabaceae GHOJERAN Zone 1 127135 Shrub 10 10 Baker Spiraea canescens D. Don Rosaceae SRA WANY Zone 1 127265 Shrub 3 15 20 29 9 76 Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle Oleaceae METHAI Zone 1 127266 Shrub 9 9 Tecomella undulata (Roxb.) Bignoniaceae READAWAN Zone 1 127162 Tree 4 5 7 16 Seeman Tetrapogon villosus Desf. Poaceae WASTHA Zone 1 127144 Herb 10 10 Teucrium stocksianum Boiss. Lamiaceae DA THABY BOTAI Zone 1 127267 Herb 47 47 Thymus linearis Benth. Lamiaceae MARVEIY Zone 2 127211 Herb 26 7 33 Tragopogan gracilis D. Don. Asteraceae SHABEY Zone 2 127167 Herb 10 9 19 Trigonella pubescens Edgew. Fabaceae ONGAI Zone 2 127268 Herb 7 7 Tulipa lehmanniana Merckl. ex Liliaceae SONDAI Zone 2 127148 Herb 21 20 41 Bunge Valeriana jatamansi Jones in Valerianaceae DA DASTHO Zone 2 127214 Herb 10 21 31 Asiat. BOTAI Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don, Caprifoliaceae THORAYI Zone 2 127210 Shrub 35 11 36 41 123 Prodr. Viscum cruciatum Sieber ex Loranthaceae DA SHWAWNA Zone 1 127269 Climber 1 8 9 Spreng. LEWANAI Vitis parvifolia Roxb. Vitaceae MALAVO Zone 1 127270 Climber 2 2 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Solanaceae KHAMAZOR Zone 1 127195 Shrub 23 32 55 Dunal Zanthoxylum armatumDC., Prodr. Rutaceae DANGI BARA Zone 1 127147 Shrub 15 7 9 31 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae BERA Zone 1 127153 Tree 7 9 2 14 10 42 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Rhamnaceae KARKANR Zone 1 127271 Shrub 1 1 4 1 7 Wight & Arn., Prodr. Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew. Rhamnaceae HEILANEIY Zone 1 127199 Tree 3 5 3 9 22 42

(C) All the species at foothill villages (from altitude 2500‐ 6000 feet above sea level) are included in zone 1 while all the species at migratory villages (from altitude above 6000‐ 10,000 feet from sea level) are included in zone 2.

(d) All the specimens were collected by the Author

23

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

1. Medicinal Plants Medicinal plants are often the focus of ethnobotanical studies. Past study in such lines has given very promising results in discovery of new drugs (Cox & Balick, 1996). Also, it is a precious heritage of the indigenous people which needs to be documented and preserved, as it may play an important role in primary health care (Roberson, 2008).

During the present studies a total of 35 species from 27 families with 461 use reports from 47 informants were documented as medicinal plants (table 2). They were distributed in both zones as 23 species (66%) were confined to zone 1 and remaining 12 species (34%) to zone 2. The Punica granatum was present in both zones but its abundance was in zone 1 so we included that in zone 1. Regarding habit 16 species (46%) were herbs, 9 species (26%) were shrubs and 10 species (28%) were of trees (Here we included one liana species in herbs).

By comparing the present results with the literature, all the species are reported from various areas in Pakistan and elsewhere in the world but there is no literature available on the plants used against “voice infection” ‐ apotropaic concept. So all the seven species (table 1.3) are newly reported species against “voice infection”. Ephedra gerardiana is commonly reported medicinal plant and extensively used from ancient times in Unani, Ayurvedic and as Traditional Chinese Medicine system, which threatened this species, but its use for stomach problems is reported here for the first time. Similarly Litsea monopetala use against jaundice is rarely reported before (Choudhury et al., 2012). Teucrium stocksianum has common ethnomedicinal uses but it use against fever is not common but according to our study it is the medicinal plant with highest use reports against fever.

Main research activities on medicinal plant research in Pakistan are up till on documenting level. There are few books available on this topic (Abbasi at al. 2012; Ahmad et al. 2007; Husain et al. 2007; Shinwari et al. 2006). Various regional reports, which mostly lack proper methodology and inability to be compared with other studies, are published from different parts of the country. Some of the generalized research articles on comparatively larger regions are available like Shinwari. (2010) published a review on medicinal plant research in Pakistan. Ali and Qaisar, (2009) reported 83 taxa that were used locally in Chitral district of Hindukush range. Haq and Hussein (1993) reported 70 species of medicinal plants from Mansehra, NWFP province. Goodman and Ghafoor, (1992) reported 114 species with local ethnobotanical usage from Baluchistan province.

Figures 4 & 5 show the number of use reports per species and family, respectively (in Fig. 4 the six species with only one use report are not indicated).

24

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

50 45 40 35 30 25 reports 20

Use 15 10 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata

buxifolia prolifera modesta

dentatus

longifolia

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

monopetala Cotoneaster… stocksianum

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Ehretia Calotropis Litsea Ipomoea Euphorbia Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes species Arisaema

Fig. 4 Most used medicinal plant species (number of use reports per species (n= 47))

80 70 60 50 40 Reports 30 20 Use 10 0 Araceae Liliaceae Pinaceae Oleaceae Rosaceae Moraceae Lauraceae Arecaceae Lamiaceae Fabacaeae Solanaceae Punicaceae Sapotaceae Morinaceae Rhamnaceae Ephedraceae Boraginaceae Polygonaceae Zingiberaceae Valerianaceae Caprifoliaceae Berberidaceae Euphorbiaceae Asclepiadaceae Zygophyllaceae Convolvulaceae Amaranthaceae Families

Fig. 5 Families of medicinal plants (number of use reports per family)

Figure 6 shows the use repots of all the species in both zones while the figure 7 shows it on the basis of habit (Species with single use reports are not indicated in the fig. 6 &7).

25

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Zone 1 Zone 2 50 45 40 35 30 25 reports

20 15

Use 10 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata

buxifolia prolifera modesta

dentatus

longifolia

oxyphylla bidentata granatum jatamansi

turbinata coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

calliobotrys

cotinifolium monopetala

stocksianum

microphyllus

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Ehretia Litsea Calotropis Ipomoea Euphorbia Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes Species Arisaema Cotoneaster

Fig. 6 Zone wise distribution of medicinal plant species (number of use reports per species)

Figure 6 shows that more medicinal plants are found in zone 1 (foot hill villages). This is probably due to more dependence of locals on surrounding flora. Weckerle et al. (2006) postulated that convenience and experience make the close vicinity favorable collection sites. Similarly Salick et al. (1999) noted that the Dusun people of Mt. Kinabalu, Borneo, gather maximum useful plants near their villages and only a limited number of plants from higher altitudes. The present studies demonstrate that instead of more species reported from zone 1 (i.e. foothills villages) the over‐all use reports are similar for both zones which mean that the zone 2 (migratory villages) species has more prominent and broad usage and acceptation probably due to selection of the better ones in more diverse flora.

Herbs Shrubs Trees 50 45 40 35 30 25 reports

20 15

Use 10 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata

prolifera buxifolia modesta dentatus

longifolia

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

monopetala Cotoneaster… stocksianum

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Ehretia Calotropis Litsea Ipomoea Euphorbia Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes Arisaema Species

Fig. 7 Habit wise distribution of medicinal plant species (number of use reports per species) 26

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Figure 7 shows that the herbaceous habit has more medicinal species and use reports than shrubs and trees while shrubs were more often mentioned (i.e. having more use reports per species) than trees. The herbaceous habit followed by shrubs and trees having more medicinal species, has been reported from Swat, North Pakistan (Akhter et al. 2013), from Terai forest of western Nepal (Singh et al. 2012) and Trans‐Himalayan arid zone of district Mustang, Nepal (Bhattarai et al. 2010) and from Shuhi, Hengduan Mountains, Southwest China (Weckerle et al. 2006).

1.1 Different diseases treated Figure 8 shows all the 13 different medicinal sub‐categories (detail is given in appendix II) in which the medicinal plants were used. Among treated diseases the gastrointestinal diseases were the most often with high number of species and use reports followed by apotropaic (used against voice infection) and skeleto‐muscular in regard of use reports. Similarly multisystem diseases have more number of species with less use reports. This order of reported number of medicinal species is the indication of most prevalence of these diseases respectively in the area. The figure of known therapies in a specific area reveals the usually contracted diseases (Weckerle et al. 2006). Similarly as dermatological ailments are prevailing in humid and warm areas, and, accordingly, more medicinal plants for such diseases are reported from those areas (Joshi and Joshi, 2000; Huai and Pei, 2004; Huang et al. 2004).

51% species were used for a single medicinal category, 23% species for two, 20% species for three and 6% species were used for four different categories among all the 13 medicinal sub‐categories. From this It can be assumed that the species used for more different categories will be having more medicinal potential which is supported by the present results as the average use reports of species which are used for single category, two categories, three categories and four categories is 7, 15, 21 and 35 respectively.

% Species % Use Reports 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Medicinal sub‐categories

Fig. 8 Medicinal plants documented in different medicinal sub‐categories

Gastrointestinal diseases are affecting 70% of the world population (Ouyang and Chen, 2004). Medicinal plants are usually preferred to treat gastrointestinal disorders like constipation and diarrhea, due to the presence of multiple constituents with effect‐enhancing and/or side effect‐neutralizing potential

27

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

(Gilaniand Rahman, 2005) and therefore considered comparatively safe in extended usage (Bashir et al. 2011). Sanitation and hygiene are critical in the area. The meals of the locals are not hygienic as are placed for longer time without having any preservatives. Similarly the presence of livestock and scarcity of water and absence of toilets in the area make the house's surroundings unhealthy which cause more gastrointestinal problem. As a result they need to have more and reliable plant species for its treatment. The direct proportionality of specific ailments and number of medicinal species discovered has been postulated by Weckerle et al. (2006). The present result shows the same phenomena. Due to low living standards, gastrointestinal problems are more common in indigenous societies that are why frequently reported in different ethnobotanical studies (e.g Jan.2008 from Pakistan; Dey and Jitendra. 2012 from India; Joshi and Joshi, 2000 from Nepal; Huang et al. 2004 and Weckerle et al. 2006 from China; Macia et al. 2005 from Bolivia; De‐La‐Cruz et al. 2007 and Monigatti et al. 2013 from Peru and Olajuyigbe and Afolyan, 2012 from South Africa). These gastrointestinal diseases in severe conditions become fatal especially for kids and old age people and annually cause about 2 million deaths in developing countries (WHO, 2011; WHO, 2009). The predominant numbers of species used against mild gastrointestinal ailments were mostly wild edible fruits (table 1.1) which indicate the continuum among medicinal and edible plants and might reflect their joint origin (Johns, 1990:285–287).

Table 1.1 Mediicinal food Species Family Occurrence Habit Part Used URs Olea ferrugenia Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits 28 Viburnum cotinifolium Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Fruits 11 Ficus palmata Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits (3), Leaves (1) 4 Cotoneaster microphyllus Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruits 3 Ehretia obtusifolia Boraginaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruits 3 Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits 2 Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits 1 Notholirion thomsonianum Liliaceae Zone 1 Herb Leaves 1 Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 & 2 Shrub Fruits 1 Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits 1

The second most common problem in the area is the skeleto‐muscular problems due to carrying heavy commercial timbers from higher altitude (zone 2 ‐which is away and having very steep slopes and groves) and doing extra hard labor work for earning and construction. Also, as the regions have very steep slopes and uneven surfaces where humans falling frequently take place, causes skeleto‐muscular problems which the locals treat through specific popular species (table 1.2).

Table 1.2 Details of plants used for skeleto‐muscular problems Species Family Occurrence Habit Parts Used URs Berberis calliobotrys Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub Roots 24 Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Resin 22 Acacia modesta Mimosaceae Zone 1 Tree Gums 11 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Zone 1 Herb Rhizome 8 Ephedra gerardiana Ephedraceae Zone 2 Shrub Secondary & Tertiary branches 1 Solanum surattense Solanaceae Zone 1 Herb Seeds 1

28

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Similarly the multisystem diseases which include mostly the typhoid fever and sun stroke which are common in the area, as due to deficiency of water, locals rely on rain water which get accumulated in groves contains animals and human feces which cause typhoid while the people who migrate to zone 2 in summer, came to markets at foot hills for food stuff, are not habitual to hot shining sun, get affected from sun stroke.

In summer, the lack of water to take bath at intervals, sweating after a heavy labor work and unclean residences due to livestock keeping, cause frequent dermatological problems. Such problems have been reported from tropical regions (Leonti et al. 2003) and from semi‐arid sub‐tropical regions (Ilahi, 2008). Skin related problems due to livestock by have been discussed by Bussmann, (2006).

Also at the start and end of summer there is some rainy season which makes some places damp and wet which are the dwelling places of mosquitoes which in turn cause malaria as locals has no electricity to have fans to repel mosquitoes. As the season is hot so fumigation as a mosquito repellent is rarely used and due to large family sizes it becomes difficult to manage mosquito nets for everyone and there is no trend of nets using. Similarly the resins of Pinus spp mixed with Brassica oil are used as mosquito repellent but its unpleasant smell and blockage of sweeting property decreases its use spectra. (Malaria comes in category Fever). Hepatitis A (category Liver) is also common in the area especially in summer season.

The gastrointestinal, skeleto‐muscular, multisystem and dermatological problems were most common in the area and nearly similar results have been reported by other researcher (Thapa, 2012 from Magar, district Parbat, Central Nepal and by Quiroga et al. 2012 from Huacareta Chuquisaca, Bolivia). Some of the diseases are attributed to supernatural causes, such as epilepsy, which is common especially among females (Local medical doctors also confirmed it) or allergy or any other unusual diseases are treated through their own traditional or religious way. A specific local health problem treated through some specific plants (which are well known species in the area) is the concept of “Voice infection” which means that some peoples voices has an infectious effect on already affect people i.e. patients (when they are ill or wounded). To avoid this infectious effect they use these plants (detail is given in the table 1.3).

Table 1.3 Details of the plants used against “Voice infection” Species Family Habit Occurrence Parts Used Used for URs Euphorbia prolifera Euphorbiaceae Herb Zone 2 Arial parts Voice infection 42 Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae Shrub Zone 1 Latex Voice infection 16 Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Tree Zone 2 Resin Voice infection 10 Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Tree Zone 2 Resin Voice infection 7 Arisaema Fruit (1), jacquemontii Araceae Herb Zone 2 Root (1) Unusual disease 2 Euphorbia prostata Euphorbiaceae Herb Zone 1 Latex Voice infection 1

1.2 Parts used Figure 9 shows that leave followed by fruits are the mostly used parts. Such findings are in accordance with the finding of Akhter et al. (2013) from Pakistan and Parente and Rosa, (2001) from

29

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Brazil. Resins are reported from 5% species which has 11% use reports so it’s also comparatively an important medicinal part. Tertiary branches and Arial parts are reported only for one species each but have comparatively high use reports while the remaining parts seems to have not prominent medicinal potential. There is controversy among the different authors in regard of most frequently parts used in ethnomedicines probably due to different medical concepts. As mostly used plant parts are subterranean (Weckerle et al. 2009; Bensky et al. 2004), Whole plant (Long and Li, 2004), Leaves (Monigatti et al. 2013), leaves and fruits (Akhter et al. 2013; Parente and Rosa, 2001), Root (Thapa, 2012) and all parts are used in equal degrees (Huai and Pei, 2004; Huang et al. 2004).

83% species were that whose single part were used for medicinal purpose, 14% species were those whose two different parts were medicinally used while 3% species were having 3 different parts which were medicinally used. So the assumption can be made that species with more different parts used will be having more medicinal potential which is supported by the present results as the species with single parts used, two different parts used and three different parts used has an average use reports of 12, 15 and 32 respectively.

% Species % Use Reports 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Parts used

Fig. 9 Medicinal plant species with use reports per part used

1.3 Route of administration All the documented medicinal preparations were based on a single plant except the mixing of Curcuma longa (in powder form) with half boiled egg for skeleto‐muscular ailments, there was no mixing of different species for any medicinal use. Figure 10 shows the species with use reports in regard of the route of administration, which are oral, topical or both (i.e. some plants are used both as oral and topical mostly for the same ailment and sometimes for different purposes). Orally administrated rout is the most prominent one both from number of species and use reports while the plants which are administered both orally and topically has comparatively less number of species but has high use reports because they are more reliable that is why having diverse usage ways. Oral administration of medicinal plants dominates in other ethnomedicinal studies as well (Thapa, 2012; Monigatti et al. 2013; Bhattarai et al.2010; Rana et al.2010; Lulekal et al.2008; Macia et al. 2005; Agelet and Valles, 2003; Giday and Ameni, 2003; Giday et al. 2003). 30

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Administrated Orally Administrated Topically Administrated both Orally & Topically 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata harmala

prostata buxifolia prolifera

modesta

dentatus

longifolia longifolia

ritchiana

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata

coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

spectabilis

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

Notholirion…

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

monopetala Cotoneaster…

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Morina Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Peganum Ehretia Litsea Calotropis Euphorbia Ipomoea Euphorbia Phlomis Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Viburnum Achyranthes Arisaema Nannorrhops Species

Fig. 10 Route of administration of medicinal plant species with use reports

1.4 Mode of preparation Regarding mode of preparation 83% species has one method, 14% has two methods and 3% has three methods of preparation. Directly used was the most common method among all the 6 preparation methods, as was practiced in 52% species with 47% use reports, which mostly include freshly eaten wild fruits or some are dried and then eaten (Ephedra gerardiana). The infusions were made of 12% species but having 26% use reports which means that it is also an effective method of preparation while decoction was made for 14% species with 11% use reports. Powder was made by using piston and mortar after drying the specific plant part which was then stored and used at the time of need. The smoke of Citrullus colocynthis seeds is directed to mouth to kill the teeth worms. The figure 11 shows preparatory methods with percentage species and use reports while the figure 12 shows these details for each species.

% Species % Use Reports 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Directly used Decoction Infusion Powder Paste Smoke/Smell (fresh/dried) Mode of preparation

Fig.11 Mode of preparation of medicinal plant species with use reports

31

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Decoction Directly Used Infusion Paste Powder Smoke/smell 50 45 40 35 30 25 20

Reports 15 10

Use 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata harmala

prostata prolifera buxifolia modesta

dentatus

longifolia longifolia

ritchiana

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata

coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

spectabilis

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

monopetala stocksianum

microphyllus

jacquemontii

Ficus thomsonianum Olea Curcuma Acacia

Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Morina Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Peganum Ehretia Calotropis Litsea Euphorbia Ipomoea Euphorbia Phlomis Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes Arisaema Nannorrhops Cotoneaster Notholirion Species

Fig. 12 Mode of preparation of medicinal plants with use reports per species

1.5 Comparison of use reports and frequency In order to understand the actual importance of each medicinal plant (as in freelist more important plants are cited first…Quinlan, 2005), a comparison is made between overall use reports and frequency of each species in the 1st eight cited species. Figure 13 shows this comparison.

Overall Use Reports Frequecy in 1st cited 8 plants 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata harmala

prostata prolifera buxifolia modesta

dentatus

longifolia longifolia

ritchiana

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata

coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

spectabilis

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

Notholirion…

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

monopetala stocksianum

microphyllus

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Morina Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Peganum Ehretia Calotropis Litsea Euphorbia Ipomoea Euphorbia Phlomis Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes Arisaema Species Nannorrhops Cotoneaster

Fig. 13 Comparison of over‐all use reports and frequency in 1steight cited medicinal plant species (n= 47) 32

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Teucrium stocksianum, Ephedra gerardiana, Withania coagulance, Mentha longifolia and Valeriana jatamansi are very important and famous due to its use against (a) Common local diseases and has (b) High efficacy against the diseases or has (c) multiple uses. The frequent use of these ethnomedicinally important species has been reported from various areas of Pakistan (Ahmad et al. 2013; Ishtiaq et al. 2012; Farooq et al. 2012; Shah et al. 2012; Khan et al. 2011; IUCN, 2009; Hamayun et al. 2006; Ayaz, 1999). Some species have high use reports but low frequency e.g. The Euphorbia prolifera is highly cited but not at the primary positions in the medicinal freelist because its main use is not against any disease but for protection against voice infection (an apotropaic concept), similarly Pinus wallichiana and P. gerardiana main use was against “voice infection” but they were also used for dermatological purposes as well that is why they have a bit higher frequency than E. prolifera. Olea ferruginea, Vibernum Cotonifolium (mostly used against constipation) were not considered medicinal plants in sensu stricto but were considered as medicinal food so these species were cited later in the response of sub questions as an attempt to prolong the freelist by the interviewer. Litsea monopetala is used only for a single disease and also more frequently used for livestock than humans, so due to its restricted single use and its main consideration for livestock decrease its frequency. Curcuma longa frequency reduction is the reason of its availability in the market while our main considerations were to restrict the informants to the local wild medicinal species. Berberis callibotrys and Calotropis procera growing zones are at the extreme of both zones as Berberis callibotrys is growing at the end of zone 2 where all the informants has no direct access while Calotropis procera growth basically ends at the start of zone 1 (foot hills) which is the reason of its elimination from the very fresh memories of informants while thinking about medicinal plants of their area. According to author’s personal observations ‐after two years stay in field and the impression taken during discussion with the locals, that it is the frequency not the use reports which gave the actual picture of each plant importance for locals in the area.

1.6 Degrees of agreement among villages Figure 14 shows the usage circle of each medicinal plant used in all the five villages which in turn indicates the diversity of knowledge and surrounding flora. This shows the degree of agreement and uniqueness of each village’s knowledge. As there is 100% agreement on 34% species while 16% species are unique to Payor Mela, 4% to Landi Kutherzai, 16% to Zindawar, 8% to Jatty Ghbaz and 4% species are unique to Kurachai village in present study. Similarly Kurachai village lack 49% use of the total medicinal plant usage of the area, Jatty Ghbaz lacks 46%, Landi Kutherzai lacks 40%, Payor Mela lacks 34% and Zindawar lacks 31% use of medicinal plants.

Multiple factors are involved in variation of knowledge among the villages. Village Zindawar has 16% unique knowledge and lacking 31% of total medicinal plant knowledge in the area probably due to two main reasons i.e. (a) The surrounding flora of this village has the flora of zone 1 and also contain the elements of zone 2 and (b) Its more dependence of NTFPs and livestock make their close contact with nature which make them more knowledgeable. The village Kurachai has only 4% unique knowledge and lacking 49% of the total knowledge probably due to three reasons i.e. (a) due to comparatively small village/sample size than other villages (except Zindawar), (b) Unawareness about the vegetation of zone 2 as they do not migrate in summer to zone 2, (c) less diversity of flora in village surroundings due to stony soil and (d) their main dependence of livelihood is on labor work which weakened their direct connection with nature (table A‐ D also helps in understanding the variations among villages). 33

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

(Note: If a species is cited by at least one informant from each village then it gets 100 points which is considered as 100% agreement while the species indicated by informant/informants from only one village that is considered as unique to that village, it get 20 points. As there are total 5 villages, each village informants has 20 points).

Jatty Ghbazh Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Kurachai Zindawar 100

80

60 agreement

of 40

Degree 20

0 longa

sissoo

procera palmata harmala

prostata buxifolia prolifera modesta

dentatus

longifolia longifolia

ritchiana

oxyphylla bidentata jatamansi granatum

turbinata

coagulans

ferrugenia

obtusifolia gerardiana gerardiana mauritiana

spectabilis

wallichiana surattense colocynthis

Notholirion…

calliobotrys

cotinifolium monopetala

stocksianum

microphyllus

jacquemontii

Ficus Curcuma Olea Acacia Rumex Dalbergia Pinus Punica Morina Pinus Mentha Ziziphus Peganum Ehretia Litsea Calotropis Euphorbia Ipomoea Euphorbia Phlomis Ziziphus Withania Ephedra Valeriana Citrullus Berberis Solanum Monotheca Teucrium Viburnum Achyranthes Arisaema Nannorrhops

Species Cotoneaster

Fig. 14 Medicinal plant species with degree of agreement among different villages

1.7 Age wise variations in medicinal plant knowledge Figure 15 shows age wise differences in knowledge of locals. In the age groups (with ten years difference, indicated by the red bars) shows the pattern that such knowledge is directly proportional to age (Giovannini et al. 2011) except the people of age above 60 as they can’t memorize this knowledge. As the area of present research work has very hard life, so on an average a decline get started after 60. The age groups on the basis of 5 years difference (shown by blue bars in fig. 15) shows the same pattern with a bit variation that the people of age group 40 and 45 has decline in knowledge but that is not due to decline in memory but change of responsibilities in the family and culture. At this age the locals are terribly engaged in managing the income sources, construction and in fulfilling some specific cultural responsibilities which make them less knowledgeable about the surrounding flora and its traditional usages.

34

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

No. of species known (Grouping with age difference of 5) No. of species known (Grouping with age difference of 10) 14 12 10 Known 8 6 4 species 2 of 0

No. Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 above 60 Age Groups

Fig. 15 Variations of medicinal plant knowledge among different age groups

It is common ethnobotanical phenomena that medicinal plant knowledge is directly proportional to the age of informants (Poderoso et al. 2012; Quinlan and Quanlan, 2007; Qureshi et al. 2006; Voeks and Leony, 2004).

The numbers of medicinal plant species reported during the present study were less than expectation as the ethnic group has a very long history of living in this faraway and isolated area which is mostly directly proportional to the number of medicinal plant species. Also, other studies in similar areas of the country usually recorded more medicinal species. The reporting of all medicinal preparations based on single plant is also the indication of unawareness about complex medicinal remedies, use of medicinal plants mostly for simple ailments and the absence of any herbalist in the area (as elder family members are taking health care of family) directed us to conclude that the traditional healing system in this area is not totally based on medicinal plants but it is the combination of medicinal plants, religious healing system and allopathic medications which also support the view of co‐existence of both traditional and biomedical systems (Byg at al.2010; Muela et al. 2002; Etkin et al. 1990) but one negative point of syncretism between traditional and biomedicine was as there is no or negligible side effect of traditional medicines which encourage laypeople about repeated use of biomedicines like pain killers due to having no concept of side effect.

Learning about the medicinal plants is yet continue in the area as the use of Valeriana jatamansi against diarrhea (for human) is very recent (5 year ago) and they also started its practice on livestock as well (locals learnt about this plant from a person of another area). Similarly, detailed interviews (that data is not included here) demonstrate that Thymus linearis use against stomach problem is not older than 10 years. Key informants claimed that the extensive use of few medicinal plants like Teucrium stocksianum, Ephedra gerardiana, Withania coagulans and Valeriana jatamansi are due to its better results as compared to available alternative modern medicines. These new learnings and preference of effective medicinal plant remedies are good signal of gaining and sustaining ethnomedicinal knowledge.

35

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 2

Medicinal plants species

of of

Used

Category

‐ URs Species Family Occurrence Habit Parts Sub Route Administration Mode Preparation Acacia modesta Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Gums (13), Multisystem (1), Oral Its young branches are chewed for 14 Growing Skeleto‐muscular body coolness. Gums are eaten Tips (1) (11), Tonic (2) directly for skeleto‐muscular ailments and are given to women as tonic after child birth Achyranthes Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Leaves Multisystem (1), Oral Decoction of leaves is drunk for high 3 bidentata Fever (2) temperature, Malaria and Sun shock Arisaema Araceae Zone 2 Herb Fruit (1), Ritual Oral Its Root or fruit is eaten fresh in a 2 jacquemontii Root (1) small amount which finish the “MASEYAT” disease (Any unusual disease is called MASEYAT which is believed to be related to ghosts, probably this is used against allergies) Berberis Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub Roots Skeleto‐muscular Oral Paste of root bark is taken directly for 27 calliobotrys (24), Liver (1), Male internal Skeleto‐muscular diseases (1), Blood inflammations, against high blood System (1) pressure and spontaneous release of sperms (but its excessive use or its touching which teeth may fall off the teeth). Decoction of root bark is drunk for Hepatitis Calotropis Asclepiadaceae Zone 1 Shrub Latex (22), Dermatological (9), Topical Milky latex and a paste of young 25 procera Stem (3) Ritual (16) shoots are applied on external wound. Latex is applied on external wound against "Voice Infection"

36

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Citrullus Solanaceae Zone 1 Herb Seeds Dental Incense Smoke is directed to the infected 3 colocynthis teeth Cotoneaster Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruit Gastrointestinal Oral Fruit is eaten directly against 3 microphyllus constipation Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Zone 1 Herb Rhizome Skeleto‐muscular Oral Powder is mostly mixed with half 16 (8), Liver (8) boiled egg for skeleto‐muscular inflammations. Powdered is taken directly with water or its rhizome is hanged through neck for hepatitis. (This plant is not local but is bought from the market)

Dalbergia Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Leaves Multisystem Topical Paste is applied on head for cooling 2 sissoo Ehretia Boraginaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruit Gastrointestinal Oral Fruit is eaten directly against 3 obtusifolia constipation Ephedra Ephedraceae Zone 2 Shrub Secondary Dental (1), Oral, Young stem is chewed for teeth 44 gerardiana & Tertiary Dermatological (3), Topical bleeding, Powder is taken with water branches Gastrointestinal for stomach and spread on wounds for (39), Skeleto‐ rapid healing muscular (1) Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae Zone 2 Herb Arial parts Ritual Topical Fasten around the wounded spot to 42 prolifera avoid "Voice Infection" which is a local ritual concept that some people voice produce infections in the already affect organs Euphorbia Euphorbiaceae Zone 1 Herb Latex Ritual Topical Fasten around the wounded part to 1 prostata avoid "Voice Infection" Ficus palmata Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit Gastrointestinal Oral Fruit is eaten fresh against 4 constipation Ipomoea Convolvulaceae Zone 1 Climber Stem Gastrointestinal Oral Decoction of stem is drunk for 9 turbinata (2), Liver (1), stomach gasses and against obesity, Obesity (6) also used against hepatitis Litsea Lauraceae Zone 1 Tree Stem wood Liver Oral Decoction of wood is drunk for 18 monopetala hepatitis

37

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Mentha Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Fever (1), Oral, The powder is taken with water for 28 longifolia Gastrointestinal Topical Fever and stomach problems. Infusion (26), Multisystem is drunk for abdominal pain and (1) Leaves are placed beneath the pillow for Typhoid Monotheca Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Leaves (1), Dermatological (1), Topical, Paste is applied on wound due to 2 buxifolia Fruit (1) Gastrointestinal (1) Oral spins. Fruit is considered better against constipation (but its excessive use may cause diarrhea) Morina Morinaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Multisystem Oral Direct Extract of leaves are drunk for 1 longifolia cooling Nannorrhops Arecaceae Zone 1 Shrub Flower Gastrointestinal Oral Flowers are directly eaten for 1 ritchiana abdominal pain Notholirion Liliaceae Zone 1 Herb Leaves Gastrointestinal Oral It is used as a wild vegetable which are 1 thomsonianum & 2 cooked and eaten which is considered better against constipation Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Gums (3), Ophthalmological Oral, Leaves are chewed for dental 32 Leaves (1), (3), Dental (1), Topical problems and small smooth wood Fruit (28) Gastrointestinal stick is inserted in the gums is then (28) passed through the eyes for irritations etc. Fruits are eaten (both fresh & dried) against constipation Peganum Zygophyllaceae Zone 1 Herb Leaves Multisystem Incense Fresh leaves are smashed in finger and 1 harmala strongly smelled for influenza Phlomis Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Dermatological Topical Take a bath with Infusion of leaves 1 spectabilis against skin allergy Pinus Pinaceae Zone 2 Herb Resin Dermatological (9), Topical Resin is applied on wound for healing. 19 gerardiana Ritual (10) Also Resin is applied on wound against "Voice Infection" Pinus Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Resin Skeleto‐muscular Oral, Resin is eaten directly or taken with 30 wallichiana (22), Topical water for Skeleto‐muscular Dermatological (1), inflammations. Applied directly for Ritual (7) dermatological purpose and against "Voice Infection"

38

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Punica Punicaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruits Respiratory (5), Oral Fruit is warmed on fire for cough in 6 granatum & 2 Gastrointestinal (1) winter. Fruit is eaten fresh against constipation Rumex dentatus Polygonaceae Zone 2 Herb Roots Liver Oral Decoction of root is drunk for hepatitis 3 Solanum Solanaceae Zone 1 Herb Seeds Skeleto‐muscular Oral Seeds are mixed with something 4 surattense (1), Obesity (1), sweet (as these are very bitter) and Gastrointestinal (2) taken directly for gasses in the body, for abdominal worms, muscular pain and against obesity Teucrium Lamiaceae Zone 1 Herb Leaves Multisystem (1), Oral Infusion of leaves are drunk for body 47 stocksianum Fever (46) cooling and against Malaria Valeriana Valerianaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Gastrointestinal Oral Infusion of leaves are drunk against 21 jatamansi diarrhea Viburnum Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Fruit Gastrointestinal Oral Fruit is eaten fresh against 11 cotinifolium constipation Withania Solanaceae Zone 1 Shrub Leaves (1), Gastrointestinal Oral, Infusion of fruit is drunk for body 32 coagulans Fruit (31) (27), Liver (1), Topical coolness, fruits are taken with water Multisystem (4) (after removing its exocarp) for abdominal pain and gasses in the body and Leaves are dried and powdered which is spread on wounds Ziziphus Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit Gastrointestinal Oral Fruit is eaten fresh against 2 mauritiana constipation Ziziphus Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruits Respiratory (2), Oral Fruit is eaten fresh for cough and 3 oxyphylla Gastrointestinal (1) against constipation Total 461

39

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

2. Wild Food Plants

2.1 Self‐eaten wild food plants Wild edibles are important ethnobotanical category including every edible species growing wild in the surrounding of local people which are culturally acceptable as edibles. It varies from region to region (Motlhanka and Shimane, 2011). Diversity of such edibles depends on the cultural perceptions, life style and on surrounding flora. A large portion of developing world depends on such wild resources (FAO, 2004). The diversity in wild food species offers a multiplicity in household nutrition and contributes well to food security (Anonymous, 2004).

During the present study a total of 51 species from 29 families with 813 use reports from 44 informants, comprise the category of wild food plants (table 3). These include wild fruits, wild vegetable (which are cooked), wild vegetables (which are eaten fresh, we may call it wild salad), directly eatables (eaten without bread) and wild tea (from which tea is prepared). The percentage number of species and use reports of each sub‐category is shown in the figure 16, while parts used are shown in the figure 17.

% Species % Use Reports 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wild Fruits Wild Vegetable Directly Eatable Wild Tea Wild Vegetable (Cooked) (Eaten Fresh) Wild food categories

Fig. 16 Distribution of wild food species with use reports among different sub‐categories

% species % Use reports 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Fruit Leaves Whole Plant Stem Bulb Bark Flower Parts Used

Fig. 17 Wild food species with use reports per part used

40

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

The wild food plants are mostly collected by the younger boys (age 25 and below‐ they prefer to collect wild fruits) and the women of age above 40 are mostly collecting wild vegetables to cook at home for their family. The directly eatables are taken mostly on the spot who find it while going on the way as locals are not searching for it nor bringing it to homes. The season of these wild edibles starts at the end of March and ends in October (table 3).

2.1.1 Wild fruits As 31 species (56%) of the total 51 wild food plants, with 486 (60%) use reports are wild fruits, which high‐lightening the importance of the wild fruits. Among wild edibles, fruits with a dominant number of species have been reported by Weckerle et al, (2006) from Shuhi, Hengduan mountains southwest China. Wild fruit serves as an alternative to cultivated food at dry seasons and at the time of famine (Wilson, 1990). In most of the rural communities of developing countries, wild fruits are the only fruits which are consumed by the local people as they cannot afford the commercial fruits (Mahapatra et al. 2012).

The wild fruits were distributed among both zones as zone 1 was having 11 species (36%) while zone 2 has 19 species (61%) but their use reports are equal which means that quality wise the fruits of zone 2 are better. The higher number of useful species from zone close to human settlements has been reported in other studies (Weckerle et al. 2006; Salick et al. 1999). Regarding use reports, as some of the wild fruits of zone 2 are very famous in the area like Pinus gerardiana, Cotoneaster minutus and Viburnum cotinifolium and the repeated citation of those species by nearly all informants make the overall use reports of both zones similar. Another factor involved in this equality of use reports was that, the area is clearly divided into two zones in the mind of locals, as foot hill villages (i.e. zone 1) and migratory villages (i.e. zone 2), so while freelisting wild fruits, the informants were trying to cover both zones, which make the use reports on both zones similar. Figure 18 shows more diversity and use reports of wild fruit trees at zone 1 and of shrubs at zone 2 and in case of herbs, the herbs have better potential at zone 2 because of more rainfall which causes more herbs diversity while less rainfall and obnoxious grazing pressure at foot hills or zone 1, do not allow palatable/edible herbaceous flora to flourish.

80 70 60 50 Trees 40 Shrubs 30 20 Herb 10 Climber 0 % Species % UR % Species % UR Zone 1Zone 2

Fig. 18 Habit and zone wise distribution of wild fruit species with use reports

41

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

2.1.1.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency of wild fruits Figure 19 shows the level of stability of wild fruit species in the mind of locals in the area. Pinus gerardiana (which is very important wild fruit) has less stability than the trees of zone 1 like Monotheca buxifolia and Olea ferrugenia. The reason is the extra importance of Pinus gerardiana (as it is among the main source of income) make it above the level of just wild fruit in the mind of informants during freelist. In response of wild fruits freelist, the informants underestimate the Punica granatum due to its less density in the wild and by considering it as cultivated one instead of wild (as locals has started its cultivation), which decreased its frequency in the 1st cited species which cause the rapid decrease in the different ranges of its frequency. Similarly Pistacia chinensis is considered as a good quality wild fruit but it’s less density is the reason of its decrease in frequency, while Cotoneaster pruinosus is not known to all informants as is restricted to zone 2 and also is not considered as of good quality fruit.

Use Reports Frequency in 1st 10 cited species Frequency in 1st 8 cited species Frequency in 1st 5 cited species 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 19 Comparison of over‐all use reports (of wild fruit species) with different range of frequencies

Figure 20 shows the degree of agreement among different villages about wild fruit species. 40% species are well known to all the five villages, 20% are known to 4 villages, 10% species to 3 villages and next 10% to two villages while 20% are known/ reported by only one village. This variation is due to change in surrounding flora, differences in knowledge of informants of different villages and the spectra of diversity of acceptations of each wild fruit species.

42

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Jaty Ghbazh Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Kurachai Zindawar 100 80 60 40 agreement

of 20

0 Spp Degree

tenax

villosa

nigrum

khanjak alpestre palmata minutus

buxifolia

brunonii

chinensis salicifolia caucasica oxyphylla

granatum

pruinosus fruticosus parvifolia

canescens

ferrugenia

gerardiana mauritiana

wallichiana

calliobotrys

cotinifolium

nummularia Cotoneaster…

nuristanicum Grewia

Ficus Grewia Ribes Rosa Vitis Celtis Pyracantha Olea Pistacia Solanum Rubus Pinus Punica Pinus Pistacia Ziziphus Spiraea Cicer Ziziphus Berberis Monotheca Ziziphus Cotoneaster Debregeasia Viburnum Cotoneaster Species

Fig. 20 Degrees of agreement among different villages (for wild fruit species)

2.1.1.2 Age wise variation in the knowledge of wild fruits There is no remarkable difference among the different age groups, but the maximum number of wild fruit species were known to age group 41‐50, the reason is, earlier relying on more wild fruits due to poverty, which is now getting change that is why the older people know more wild fruits then youngsters, even youngsters are more fond of wild fruits and has to collect it not only for themselves but for their elder family members as well.

No. of Plants Known to age group (with 10 years difference) No. of Plants Known to age group (with 5 years difference) 14 12 10 8 6 13 13 12 12 13 12 10 11 10 11 11 10 11 10 4 2 0 Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Above 60 Age groups

Fig. 21 Number of wild fruit species known to each age group

2.1.2 Wild vegetables (cooked/eaten fresh/directly eatable) Wild food resources are the part of traditional knowledge which is mostly transmitted via cultural context to household (Setalaphruk et al. 2007). The laboratory analysis revealed that some of

43

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

the wild food species have comparable and even more nutritional potential than domesticated ones (Kabuye, 1997; Yumnam et al. 2003).

18 species from 12 families with 269 use reports obtained from 44 informants which are included in this sub‐category. It has 3 sub‐categories i.e. wild vegetables which are cooked (and then taken with bread); wild vegetables which are eaten fresh with bread (without cooking) and directly eatables are those which are eaten fresh without bread. Food plant species has been classified by Prosea, (1993) and Tindal, (1983) into different types on the basis of its use. The present species are distributed within these 3 sub‐categories as shown in figure 22.

% Species % Use Reports 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wild Vegetable (Cooked) Directly Eatable Wild Vegetable (Eaten fresh) Wild vegetable categories

Fig. 22 Distribution of wild vegetable species with use reports among sub‐categories

The numbers of wild vegetables are less reported as compared to other ethnobotanical study at such indigenous areas. The reasons are (1). Less annual rainfall‐ as majority of the wild vegetables are annual herbs which are directly related to rainfall (Ahmad et al, 2013), (2). The vegetables which are cooked needs all the other requirements like ghee (saturated fatty oil), condiments, breads etc., which has no net gain for the locals so they do not considered them important enough as compared to wild fruit which can be eaten directly and then there will be no need of meal. (3) Also, as these people are mostly relying on livestock rearing so they mostly eat dairy products and in such cases there is very less margin remains for search and usage of wild vegetables. Wild vegetable are of less significance for pastoral communities (Maundu, 1997). The above figure also shows that the numbers of species of wild vegetables (cooked) are more but the use reports of directly eatables and wild vegetables (eaten fresh) are higher which is due to the reason of its ease in usage i.e. acts as a meal on the spot.

Figure 23 shows the wild vegetables with use reports. The interesting feature in it is that all the wild vegetables which are cooked are reported only from Zone 1, all wild vegetables eaten fresh are reported only from zone 2, while directly eatables are distributed within both zones which indicate its importance. The need of wild vegetables (cooked) seems more in zone 2 due to have no access to markets but as stated above the dairy products has fulfilled their needs. Also while collecting data in regard of why some people are not migrating to zone 2 at summer, one of the prominent respond was as “the non‐migrating families have not more livestock as like the migrating people to go away for it”. So as the people of zone 2 have more livestock which decreased their dependence of wild vegetables for

44

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

cooking but in meals they need freshly used wild vegetables to take with dairy products so they discovered it and vice versa in case of zone 1. The discovery of directly eatable wild vegetables at both zones is probably due to its need at both places.

Directly eatable Wild Vegetable (Eaten Fresh with bread)Salad Wild Vegetable (Cooked and then eaten with bread) 40 35 30 25 20 Reports 15

Use 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 23 Distribution of wild vegetables among sub‐categories with use reports per species

Figure 24 shows the degree of agreement on wild vegetables among different villages. 42% species has 100 degree agreement among all villages, 11% species has 80 degree agreement, 16% species has 60 degree agreement and another 16% has 40 degrees while the last 16% species are unique i.e. reported only from one village. Similarly village Jatty Ghbaz lack 26% knowledge from over all wild vegetables knowledge in the area, Landi Kutherzai village lacks 11%, village Payor Mela lacks 21%, village Kurachai lacks 53% and village Zindawar lacks 42% knowledge of the overall wild vegetable knowledge in the area. Three reasons seems to play a role in this variations i.e. (1) Exposure to a wide range of flora. For example, the two villages i.e. Landi Kutherzai and Payor Mela has houses at both zones so they are familiar with both types of flora containing wild vegetables that is why they lack less knowledge than the others three villages. (2) The size of village and in turn sample size plays a role (See table A) in total knowledge gathered from a village and (3) The surrounding flora and sources of income/ profession play a role in traditional knowledge (See table B and D).

So we postulate one strong factor in accumulation of traditional knowledge “Exposure to a wide range of flora and surrounding vegetation of settlements has a key role in traditional knowledge”.

45

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Jatty Ghbaz Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Kurachai Zindawar 100 90 80 villages 70 60 50 among

40 30 20 10 0 agreement

of

Degree

Species

Fig. 24 Degrees of agreement among different villages for wild vegetables

2.1.2.1 Age wise variation in knowledge of wild vegetables Figure 25 shows that age group 25 has more knowledge in the grouping on the basis of 5 years differences because of their active role in its collection and usage. Also at this age as they are mostly rearing livestock at day time and sidewise they are searching for wild vegetables as well, so have these species in their active memories while among the age groups with 10 years difference, the people of age above 40 has more knowledge than the younger which is due to the present decrease in its consumption as famine food.

No. of species known to age group (with 10 years difference) No. of species known to age group (with 5 years difference) 9 8 7 6 5 4 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 6 6 6 6 6 2 5 5 1 0 Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 above 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Above 60 60 Age groups

Fig. 25 Number of wild vegetables known to each age group

46

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

2.1.3 Wild tea The wild tea was not much important aspect from local perspective due to less dependency on it but was important enough due to finishing of its use and knowledge. The economic potentials of the locals are now not so weak as earlier it was, to afford the market tea. So the use of wild tea is now occasional and this knowledge is only in the memories which make it essential to collect this precious knowledge before extinct forever.

In spite of general strong element of local culture, wild tea was used as an alternative by the people while at distance from their settlements. Tea is considered as refresher after heavy work of timber cutting or building/construction work or when walked for a long distance. Similarly it is also considered as a body warmer so drunk in winter several times a day.

Five species from five different families with 58 use reports obtained from 43 informants comprise the wild tea sub category of self‐used wild food plant. Figure 26 shows the percentage of wild tea species (habit wise) with use reports and its distribution in both zones.

50

33 33 33 species

of

17 17 17 Percentage Herb Shrub Tree Climber Zone 1Zone 2Zone 1 & 2

Habit and occurrence

Fig. 26 Habit and zone wise distribution of wild tea species (%)

Figure 27 shows the degree of agreement among different villages in this regard which indicate the importance and spectrum of use of each species.

Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Zindawar Payor Mela

100 80 60 villages agreement

of 40

among 20

Degree 0 Olea Viscum Thymus Limonium Punica Spiraea ferrugenia cruciatum linearis cabulicum granatum canescens Species

Fig. 27 Degrees of agreement among different villages for wild tea species

47

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

2.2 Commercial wild food species These are an important source of income for 11% households in the study area (table C). A large number of people around the world especially the poor communities, depend on these resources as a valuable substitute of revenue (Vedeld et al. 2004;Kaimowitz, 2003; Ajesh et al. 2012).

Livestcok Labour work Timber Commercial food species Forign Local business Govt service Agriculture

4% 2% 5%

6% 31%

11%

20% 21%

Fig. 28 Different sources of income of locals (n= 124)

A total of 13 species from 13 different families with 256 use reports obtained from 40 informants, comprise the commercial wild food plants category (table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Commercial wild food species

fresh)

(cooked) (taken

food

vegetable UR

Fruits Spices Vegetable

Used

Species Family Occurrence Habit Part Medicinal Wild Wild Wild Wild Total Acacia modesta Mimosaceae Zone 1 Tree Gums 12 12 Allium Spp Liliaceae Zone 2 Herb Whole plant 2 2 Caralluma Asclepiadaceae Zone 1 Herb Whole plant 38 38 tuberculata Cotoneaster Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruit 10 10 microphyllus Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit 40 40

48

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Morchella esculenta Morchellaceae Zone 2 Fungi Whole plant 40 40 Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit 32 32 Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Seeds 38 38 Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit 4 4 Zone 1 & Punica granatum Punicaceae Shrub Fruit 13 13 2 Salvadora oleoides Salvadoraceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruit 1 1 Scaligeria aitchisonii Apiaceae Zone 2 Herb Fruit 25 25 Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Fruit 1 1 Total 52 139 2 25 38 256 (Note: The actual part used of Caralluma tuberculata and Morchella esculanta are Arial parts and fruiting bodies but the locals mostly uprooted it directly, as its easy way to collect and also increase in weight occur for commercial purpose).

These commercial wild food plants are categorized into 5 sub‐categories. Figure 29 indicates their use reports, percentage contribution in income and number of species in each sub‐category.

% Use Reports % Contribution % species 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Wild fruits Medicinal food Wild vegetable Wild spices Wild vegetable (Cooked) (Eaten fresh) Commercial Sub‐categories

Fig. 29 Sub‐categories of commercial food species with use reports and their contribution in income

Habit and occurrence zone of commercial food species with contribution of different parts used in percentage values are as follows (figure 30).

69 61

46

31 23 23 23

8 8 8

Fungi Shrub Tree Herb Zone 1Zone 2Zone 1 & Gums Fruit Whole 2 plant Habit, Occurrence and Parts Used

49

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Fig. 30 Habit and zone wise distribution of commercial food species with parts used (%)

(Note: Zone 1 is the area having altitude from 2500‐6000ft above sea level while zone 2 is above this altitude. Some plants occur in both zones, so they are mentioned as in zone 1 & 2. Similarly the words hoot hill villages (comprises five villages) and migratory villages (also comprises five villages) are used in text at several places, it means zone 1 and zone 2 respectively).

In order to understand the importance of each commercial food, a comparison of overall use reports and frequency in first five cited species by each informant was made (as shown in figure 31).

Use Reports Frequency in first five cited species 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 31 Comparison of over‐all use reports and frequency in 1st five cited commercial food species

A total of 40 informants from all five villages, were asked to freelist commercial food species. Each informant ranked the species according to his own preferences. Figure 31 indicates the total use reports in open ended commercial food freelist and first 5 cited species by each informant during that freelist. Monotheca buxifoliahas has the same use reports and frequency which is the indication of its importance but others species has less frequency than use reports due to the reasons as:

1. Pinus gerardiana is locally of prime importance income source, so during freelisting of commercial food species, locals do not cited it at first by considering it above this level. 2. Scaligeria aitchisonii is an important plant but is not usually collected by these tribes (it is collected and sold by the tribes inhibiting the northern part of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman Mountains). The reason is its occurrence at highest altitude where the northern side tribes migrate to its occurrence place but not these tribes (included in present study). That is why its frequency of citation among the first 5 plants is less than total use report. 3. Pistacia chinensis and Allium Spp frequency reduced to half of its use reports because the first species is not common in the area to contribute as income source but are abundant on the western side i.e. opposite side of the hills where these are collected are sold by other tribes. The second species is occasionally sold only by a small fraction of people. Mostly it is collected and consumed for self‐usage.

50

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

After informal cross checking of information and detailed interweaves with key informants, the real picture of commercial food was as: Allium Spp, Salvadora oleoides, Ziziphus oxyphylla were not used as commercial, as it may be sold by any one occasionally but locally has no valid role. Similarly there is no such trend of selling Punica granatum fruit due to (1). Its wild population is not common and locals have started its cultivation but due to lack of water and stony soil its cultivation is not very successful and (2) as up till the wild variety is the main source of this fruit so it cannot compete the commercial varieties in the market. The Cotoneaster microphyllus collection for sell by some youngsters is recently started but up till it has no special importance from earning perspectives. Also much commercial importance gaining fungus species i.e. Morchella esculenta has been discovered since last 5 years which was not locally known before.

Age wise knowledge of informants about commercial species were checked which shows a slight variation as shown in figure 32.

age

each

to

6 6 6 5 6 7 6 6 5 6 6 4 5 5 known

group species

of Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age

No. group group group group group group group group group group group group group group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 above 60 Age Groups

Fig. 32 Number of commercial food species cited per age group

There are less difference among the age groups as commercial food species are few and well known but the people of age group 45 are more knowledge as some 10‐20 years earlier, they were involved in its collection and sell (when they were young, as commercial food species are locally considered as the job of youngsters) which are yet in their memory and also they have an eye on recent income from this aspect by the youngers of their family, as commercial food species are gaining more importance especially after the ban of commercial timber cutting in some parts of the area.

Variations in the percentage use reports among different villages are shown in figure 33.

51

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Payor mela Landai Kutherzai Jatty Ghbaz Zindawar Kurachai 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 reports 6 4 use 2 % 0

Commercial food species

Fig. 33 Percentage use reports of different commercial food species by different villages

Acacia modesta is not mentioned by the informants of village Kurachai and Jatty Ghbaz, as this plant cannot grow in the 1st village due to its high altitude and as the 2nd village is located on the western side of a small mountain where direct sunlight falls only at afternoon time which is against the requirement of this species. So the plant is present in the second village but is less in number and also is not in healthy conditions to be beneficial enough for the villagers. Monotheca buxifolia and Olea ferruginea is mentioned most by the informants of Payor Mela as they have reserve forests of both species near to village which make them more profitable. Scaligeria aitchisonii is interestingly mostly mentioned by those two villages who has no access to this plant (i.e. Kurachai & Jatty Ghbaz) as it grows wild at the peak of zone 2 where these people do not migrate in summer as like the people of village Payor Mela and Landi Kutherzai, so apparently this plant should be mentioned less . The probable explanation is that they know this plant from the people of other villages as of commercial important but don’t have an access to collect so they are severely missing it which brings the name of this plant often in their mind while thinking/saying about commercial species.

The informants of village Landi Kutherzai and Zindawar have reported the commercial species in considerable number because these informants have more dependencies on it as compared to other villages. Figure 34 shows the dependencies of each village on commercial food category.

52

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

% Dependency on commercial wild food plants Kurachai 8%

Payor Mela 24% Landi Kutherzai 39%

Jatty Ghbaz 24% Zindawar 25%

Fig. 34 Household’s dependency on commercial food species (as income source) in different villages

Regarding sub‐categories of commercial food species, wild fruits are the most important and prominent category from which each village gets highest earnings while medicinal food and wild vegetables has comparatively similar contributions but medicinal food has village wise more variations as shown in figure 35. (Gums of Acacia modesta and fruiting body of Morchella esculenta are included in medicinal food, as they are locally considered as highly nutritious and better for health).

Payor Mela Landi Kutherzai Zindawar Jatty Ghbaz Kurachai 70 60 50 40

contribution 30

% 20 10 0 Medicinal food Wild Fruits Wild Spices Wild Vegetable Wild Salad

Commercial food sub‐categories

Fig. 35 Village wise income contribution of different sub‐categories of commercial food species

53

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

2.2.1 Economic potential Each species of table 2.1 have engaged a number of people in its collection for sell and plays a specific role in their income.

Number of Individuals involved in each species collection and sell from each village are shown in figure 36.

Payor mela Landi Kutherzai Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Zindawar 55 50 45 40 Involved 35 30 25 20

Individuals 15

of 10 5 No. 0 No. of Pinus Marchella Monotheca Acacia Caralluma Olea Families gerardiana esculanta buxifolia modesta tuberculata Ferrugenia

Fig. 36 Village size and number of individuals involved in different commercial food species

The number of individuals involved is mostly directly proportional to the village size. Per annum earning by each involved individual from each species is indicated in figure 37.

Payor mela Landi Kutherzai Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Zindawar 9000 8000

PKR 7000

in 6000 5000 income 4000 3000 Annum

2000 Per 1000 Pinus Marchella. Monotheca Caraluma Acacia modesta Olea ferrugenia gerardiana esculanta buxifolia tubercullata

Fig. 37 Per annum income to each village from different commercial food species

Figure 34 is helpful in understanding the figure 37. It indicates more income by individuals of Zindawar village from each species. Generally Pinus gerardiana and Morchella esculenta are contributing quite

54

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

well as an income source in the area. These species are also important in other area of the country. According to FAO, (1994) in Pakistan, approximately 21,000 tons of Pinus gerardiana seeds are annually produced, of which 95 percent comes from Baluchistan (Sulaiman Mountains) which are mostly exported to the Middle East. Sial, (1994) and Shah, (1991) reported that about 15 thousand people in Pakistan are involved in collection of black mushrooms or morals and annually collect 50 tons, generating an income of 130‐150 million PKR, through its export.

An awareness is growing among the locals against the timber cutting (the present project has played a considerable role in this regard) so more concentration is diverging towards commercial NWFPs (Plate C).

l k

m n

Plate C: Few of the commercial food species (k) Monotheca buxifolia (l) Morchalla esculenta (m) Pinus gerardiana seeds and (n) Scaligeria aitchisonii

55

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 3

Wild food plants (self‐used and commercial)

UR

UR

UR

use

Collection/ Occurr‐ ‐ f Species Family Fruiting season ence Habit Use and Characteristics Commercial Sel Total Acacia modesta Fabaceae Nov‐December Zone 1 Tree Its gums are considered as quite nutritional and 12 12 medicinal and has high market value and demand Aerva javanica Amaranthaceae April‐ July Zone 1 Herb Well known wild vegetable which is cooked 12 12 Allium corolinianum Alliaceae June‐ September Zone 2 Herb Well known and mostly used wild Salad, considered 27 27 better for human health and has medicinal properties against jaundice, malaria and cough Allium Spp Alliaceae June‐ September Zone 2 Herb Well known and most abundantly used wild Salad, 2 36 38 considered to have a broad spectrum of medicinal properties against various ailments like jaundice, malaria, cough and better for human health Amaranthus Amaranthaceae April‐July Zone 1 Herb Well known wild vegetable which is cooked in the 29 29 spinosus whole area, collected mostly near cultivated fields Berberis calliobotrys Berberidaceae October Zone 2 Shrub Considered as mild level of wild fruit, eaten mostly 8 8 by those people who went to higher altitudes for Pinus gerardiana seeds collection Caragana ambigua Fabaceae June Zone 2 Shrub Considered as low level of direct eatable species, its 2 2 flowers are eaten which are sweet in taste Caralluma Asclepiadaceae March‐ April Zone 1 Herb Considered as best wild vegetable having medicinal 38 16 54 tuberculata properties against cough and diabetes. Has high market demand but its unsustainable harvesting and large scale collection make it endangered Celtis caucasica Ulmaceae May Zone 1 Tree Considered as low level of wild fruit 4 4 Cicer nuristanicum Fabaceae July Zone 2 Herb Considered good wild fruit but rarely available 5 5 Cirsium arvense Asteraceae May‐ Agust Zone 1 Herb Considered as low level of directly eatable species. It 5 5 & 2 was used earlier due to famine but rarely used now

56

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Cotoneaster Rosaceae May Zone 1 Shrub Early ripening of its fruit when no else wild fruit is 10 22 32 microphyllus available makes it important. Recently its local marketing has been started Cotoneaster Rosaceae September Zone 2 Shrub Its abundant availability makes it well known wild 43 43 minutus fruit Cotoneaster Rosaceae August Zone 2 Shrub Abundant and nearer to homes availability make it 16 16 pruinosus well known Cynoglossum Boraginaceae April‐ July Zone 2 Herb Its use as a wild vegetable has nearly been forgotten 1 1 lanceolatum by the locals. One key informant claimed its good taste when cooked and frequent use in the past Debregeasia Urticaceae May Zone 1 Shrub Considered as mild level of wild fruit but not 14 14 salicifolia abundantly available Ficus palmata Moraceae July Zone 1 Tree Good quality wild fruit which is considered as best 50 50 against constipation. Its youngest leaves are used as vegetables but such use is decreasing. Also, it is considered as religiously important plant Grewia tenax Tiliaceae August Zone 1 Shrub Considered as famine fruit 1 1 Grewia villosa Tiliaceae July Zone 1 Shrub Mild level of wild fruit which is mostly eaten by 6 6 shepherds while grazing their herds Lactuca dissecta Asteraceae April‐ August Zone 1 Herb Considered as low level of direct eatable species 4 4 Launaea Asteraceae April‐ August Zone 1 Herb Considered as mild level wild fruit but not 9 9 procumbens abundantly available Limonium cabulicum Plumbaginaceae June‐ August Zone 1 Herb It was used as wild tea but no more it is used 4 4 Malva salvestris Malvaceae April‐ July Zone 1 Herb Mild level of wild vegetable but needed more 6 6 & 2 amount to cook which is difficult to collect Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae June Zone 1 Tree Considered best wild fruit and also marketed. Its 40 40 80 market value is increasing but its fruit rotted soon which do not allow its far away transportation Morchella esculenta Morchellaceae April Zone 2 Fungi It has a high market price and demand. Locals get 40 40 about Its marketability in recent years. It became an attractive source of income for youngsters but interestingly it is not eaten by the locals as they are not familiar with its taste and cooking. Various

57

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

superstitions about its growth and availability/finding are prevailing in the area Notholirion Liliaceae April‐ May Zone 1 Herb Important wild vegetable also having a good effect 23 23 thomsonianum against constipation when cooked and eaten Olea ferruginea Oleaceae September Zone 1 Tree Well known wild fruit, eaten fresh and also dried to 32 77 109 eat in winter. Considered best against constipation and better for health. Its fruits are sold. Its leaves were used as wild tea. Also, it is considered as religiously important plant Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae May Zone 1 Herb Considered as mild level of direct eatable species 5 5 Periploca aphylla Asclepiadaceae May May Shrub Its unripe fruits are chewed as an alternative of 1 1 chewing gum especially by children Periploca hydaspidis Asclepiadaceae June Zone 1 Climber Its unripe fruits are chewed as having good taste, 1 1 only for enjoyment Physalis divaricata Solanaceae August Zone 1 Herb Its unripe fruits are chewed as having good taste, for 1 1 enjoyment Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Octuber Zone 2 Tree Considered as best wild fruit and is one of the major 38 43 81 income sources. Due to its high price of seeds, the locals banned its timber cutting Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Octuber Zone 2 Tree It’s not a proper wild fruit but are eaten just as time 21 21 pass. This fruit is quite important for wild birds Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Octuber Zone 1 Tree High quality wild fruit but rarely available, so it’s 4 22 26 marketing can't be made. As this plant is available on the western side of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman hills and allied hills called ‘Sheen Gher’, so people on that side are marketing it Pistacia khanjak Anacardiaceae Octuber Zone 1 Tree Only reported by one informant as wild fruit 1 1 because of its mixing with Pistacia chinensis. Also rarely available Portulaca Portulacaceae May‐July Zone 1 Herb Considered as low level of wild vegetable 3 3 quadrafida Punica granatum Punicaceae September Zone 1 Shrub High quality wild fruit but rarely available. Also its 13 40 53 & 2 marketing cannot compete with the already

58

Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

available varieties in the market. Its cultivation as fruit and ornamental plant, get started in home gardens Pyracantha Spp Rosaceae September Zone 2 Shrub It is considered as not good for health as producing 1 1 abdominal pain when eaten abundantly Ribes alpestre Grossulariaceae July Zone 2 Shrub Considered as low quality of wild fruit 2 2 Rosa brunonii Rosaceae August Zone 2 Shrub Abundant and nearer to homes availability make it 24 24 well known Rubus fruticosus Rosaceae August Zone 2 Herb Good color and taste make it prominent wild fruit 19 19 Salvadora oleoides Salvadoraceae June Shrub Low quality of wild fruit, also really available as it 1 1 Zone 1 grows in lower altitudes Salvia moocroftiana Lamiaceae May‐ June Zone 2 Herb Abundant and nearer to homes availability make it 34 34 well known in the area Scaligeria aitchisonii Apiaceae June Zone 2 Herb Having high market value as spices 25 25 Solanum nigrum Solanaceae June Zone 1 Herb Considered mild level of wild fruit & rarely available 7 7 Spiraea canescens Rosaceae May Zone 1 Shrub Considered as low level of wild fruit. Its bark was 9 9 used as wild tea but it’s not used now Thymus linearis Lamiaceae June‐ September Zone 2 Herb Used as wild tea (alternative of green tea) having 7 7 medicinal properties against stomach problems Tragopogan gracilis Asteraceae July Zone 2 Herb Considered as mild level of direct eatable species 9 9 Tulipa lehmanniana Liliaceae April‐June Zone 2 Herb Its availability at both zones and due to its attractive 20 20 flowers make it well known directly eatable species Viburnum Caprifoliaceae August Zone 2 Shrub Abundant availability and sweet taste make it 41 41 cotinifolium important wild fruit Viscum cruciatum Loranthaceae May Zone 1 Climber Only used as a wild tea but it’s such use decreases 8 8 Vitis parvifolia Vitaceae June Zone 1 Climber High quality fruit but rarely available in wild 2 2 Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae July Zone 1 Tree Considered as good quality fruit but these trees are 10 10 rarely available, as mostly grows at lower altitude Ziziphus Rhamnaceae July Zone 1 Shrub Considered as low quality fruit but these trees are 1 1 nummularia rarely available, as mostly grows at lower altitude Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae July Zone 1 Tree Considered as good quality wild fruit, which is also 1 21 22 used against cough

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

3. Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Plants Livestock is one of the most important income sources in all the rural areas of developing countries (Pica‐Ciamarra et al; 2011). According to economic survey of Pakistan (2009), Pakistan is the 3rd largest livestock rising country of the world having a herd size of about 63 million animals which involve 35 million people having 40% income from livestock. According to FAO (2002), 30‐35% loss to the animal breeding sector is due to lack of medicines for treatment of ailments and infections in several developing countries (FAO, 2002). Ethnoveterinary medicine plays a very important role in the developing world where conventional therapies for animal wellbeing are unreachable or too expensive (McGaw et al. 2007).

Table B demonstrates the importance of livestock in the area by telling the percentage dependency on livestock as a major source of income for locals. The diseases of livestock in the area are seasonal and mostly come in epidemic form. Similarly livestock is more susceptible to seasonal changes because it brings vegetation changes. Also as livestock rising is the basis of culture in this area, as they are involved in this job from very earlier times, which has been reported by Raziq et al. (2010), that is why they are quite knowledgeable in identifying the specific plants for specific diseases and have expertise in some epidemic and endemic contagious diseases which are mostly lacking by traditional healers in other areas (Devendrakumar and Anbazhagan, 2012).

A total of 21 species from 19 families with 434 use reports obtained from 46 informants are included in the ethnoveterinary medicinal plants category (table 3). Among these, 13 species were reported from foot hill villages (zone 1) while 8 were reported from migratory villages (zone 2) with a total of 223 and 221 use reports, respectively. Regarding habit, 5 were herbs with 50 use reports, 10 shrubs with 144 use reports and 6 were trees with 240 use reports.

% Species % Use Reports 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Shrub Tree Herb Zone 1Zone 2

Habit Occurrence

Fig. 38 Habit and zone wise distribution of ethnoveterinary species with use reports

Figure 38 shows the general habit and zone wise pattern of ethnoveterinary species with use reports while figure 39 shows the detail of each species through its habit with use reports which indicate that shrubs has more species diversity than trees but use reports per species of trees exceeds shrubs which means trees have high medicinal properties while number of species and per species use reports of herbs are less than other two habits. More shrub species for ethnoveterinary purposes has been

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

reported by Khan et al. (2012) from Poonch Valley Azad Kashmir Pakistan and by Tabuti et al. (2003) from Uganda.

Herbs Shrubs Trees 80 70 60 50 40 30 Reports 20

Use 10 0

Species

Fig. 39 Habit wise distribution and use report of different ethnoveterinary species

Zone 1 Zone 2 80 70 60 50 40 30 Reports 20

Use 10 0

Species

Fig. 40 Zone wise distribution and use report of different ethnoveterinary species

Figure 40 shows that more species are reported from zone 1 but the species of zone 2 have high use reports per species which is the indication of its high medicinal potential probably due to the selection of the best ones in diverse flora. Reporting more ethnoveterinary species from surrounding area has been shown by Mishra, (2011) from Orissa India. The general findings that more useful plants are available near human settlements have been reported by Weckerle et al. (2006) and Salick et al. (1999).

3.1 Parts used Figure 41 shows that leaves are the more frequently used part (31% with 17 % UR), followed by stem bark and underground part (17% each having 12% and 14% UR respectively), wood (10% with 10% UR), fruit (9% with 10% UR), resin (7% with 31% UR), Arial parts, Tertiary branches and growing tip (3%

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

each with 5%, 1% and 0.23% UR respectively). Leave as major used part has been reported from Azad Kashmir and district Abbottabad, Pakistan (Khan et al. 2012; Shah et al. 2012), from Orissaand Karnataka, India (Mishra, 2011; Naik et al. 2012), from Eastern Amazonia, Brazil (Ritter et al. 2012; Monterio et al. 2011).

% Species % Use Reports 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Parts Used

Fig. 41 Number of ethnoveterinary species with use report per part used

3.2 Route of administration Figure 42 shows the route of administration which indicate more species are used topically but oral administration has a better result because they are comparatively highly cited.

% species % Use Reports 80

38 26 20

Oral Topical Route of Admanistration

Fig. 42 Rout of administration of ethnoveterinary species and use reports

3.3 Comparison of use reports and frequency This comparison is the indication of actual importance of any plant in the area because use reports indicate the possibilities a plant is used and the frequency gives an idea about the emic perspective.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports Frequency in first 5 cited species 80 70 60 50 40 30

Values 20 10 0

Species

Fig. 43 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st five cited ethnoveterinary species

Figure 43 shows that species which are used for more different ailments got primary position during freelisting like Pinus gerardiana and P. wallichiana while species used for single disease has low frequency as like Salix tetrasperma, Berberis colliobotrys and Litsea monopetala. The decrease in the frequency of Punica granatum is due to its cultivable nature (it occurs in wild as well) in the area as informants were directed during an interview to freelist wild ethnoveterinary species. From these findings, we postulate that the species which are used in treatment of more aliments got primary positions in freelist exercise as compared to those which are used for single ailment.

3.4 Degrees of agreement among villages Figure 44 shows the degree of agreement among the villages. 33% species have 100 degrees of agreement among all villages and 14% species are unique i.e. its knowledge is restricted to only one village. Similarly, villages Jatty Ghbaz and Zindawar lacks 43% each from the total ethnoveterinary knowledge of the area, Village Payor Mela and Landi Kutherzai lacks 24% each, while village Kurachai lacks 47% of overall ethnoveterinary knowledge. It means that the two villages which migrate to zone 2 have more ethnoveterinary knowledge due to their exposure to diverse floras.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 agreement 30 of

20 10 0 Degree

Species

Fig. 44 Degrees of agreement for ethnoveterinary species among different villages

The species with more use reports has more degree of agreement than less use reports which indicate that these are widely tested and accepted species.

3.5 Age wise variations in knowledge of ethnoveterinary species

No. of Species known (with 5 years difference) No. of Species known (with 10 years difference) 11 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 6

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group 30 Group 35 Group 40 Group 50 Group 55 Group 60 Group Group Group Group 30‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Above 60

Fig. 45 Age wise differences in ethnoveterinary plant knowledge of informants

The age groups 40 (based on 5 years difference) and 30‐40 & 51‐60 (based on 10 years difference) are more knowledgeable because the people from age 30‐40 have just completed their responsibility of rising the livestock while the age group 51‐60 has more experience. The lack of knowledge with people of age 40‐50 and above 60 is due to engagements in other activities and decline in memory respectively.

Most of the preparations were based on single plants while in some cases combinations of different plants were used. For example in case of resins of Pinus species, it is mixed with leaves extract of

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Pegnum harmalla which neutralize the heating characteristics of resins. Dominant use of single plant in ethnoveterinary preparation has been reported by Monterio et al. (2011) from Marajó Island, Eastern Amazonia, Brazil and by Merwe et al. (2001) from North West Province of South Africa.

Some of the plant species were interestingly used for the same ailments of human and livestock. For example, Withania coagulans for abdominal pain and body coolness, Curcuma longa for skeleto‐ muscular problems, Litsea monopetala for hepatitis and Valeriana jatamansi for diarrhea. The use of same plant for human and veterinary treatments has been reported in literature (Monteiroet al. 2011; Tabuti et al. 2003: Alawa et al. 2002; Giday et al. 2009). Regarding the prevailing ethnoveterinary knowledge and dependency of rural people on livestock throughout the country, there is a need of extensive studies and careful documentation of ethnoveterinary knowledge which is yet not done in Pakistan and research on such lines is even less than other ethnobotanical aspects.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 4

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants

of

Used

URs

Species Family Occurrence Habit Parts Route administration Use Total Amygdalus Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Leaves Topical Tertiary branches are spread at the entrance of their 3 brahuica residence place so they have to keep their feet on it i.e. pass through it for foot and mouth disease Berberis Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub Root Oral The root bark paste is orally given for Internal wounds 41 calliobotrys (after covering it in wheat dove‐ with water, as not to touch the teeth because it causes teeth fall Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Oral (1), Leaves powder is spread on skin for mange. Decoction is 2 Topical (1) orally given (in small amount) for mange

Capparis decidua Capparaceae Zone 1 Shrub Wood Oral Wood coal is powdered and given for bone fractures 3 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Zone 1 Herb Rhizome Oral Its powder is mixed with eggs and given for Skeleto‐ 6 muscular related problems, also given directly for hepatitis. (This plant is not growing wild nor cultivated locally but available only in market) Daphne papyracea Thymelaeaceae Zone 1 Shrub Stem Bark Oral (31), Stem bark/Leaves decoction is rubbed on livestock for 39 Topical (8) Mange. Stem bark is dried, powdered, mixed with salt and given for cough and hepatitis. Decoction of stem bark is given orally for diarrhea, intestinal worms and Contagious Pleuropneumonia Ephedra Epherdraceae Zone 2 Shrub Tertiary Topical Make its powder and spread on woundfor rapid healing 4 gerardiana branches Litsea monopetala Lauraceae Zone 1 Tree Wood Oral Wood decoction is given for hepatitis 40 Mentha longifolia Lamiaceae Zone 1 Shrub Leaves Oral Dried leaves infusion is given for abdominal pain and body 2 coolness Nannorrhops Arecaceae Zone 1 Shrub Leaves Topical Leaves are fasten around neck or tail for Foot and Mouth 1

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

ritchiana disease Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Leaves (2), Oral (2), Leaves are pieced and given for abdominal warms. Stem 3 Stem bark Topical (1) bark is fastened around the broken bone. Decoction of (1) Leaves are given for multi ailments Peganum harmala Zygophyllaceae Zone 1 Herb Whole Plant Oral (4), Infusion alone or mixed with Pinus Spp resin and applied 23 Topical (19) on skin (after cutting the hairs) for Mange, ectoparasites and coolness Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Stem Bark Oral (63), Stem bark is fastened around the broken bone. Stem bark 76 (10), Resin Topical (13) decoction is given for abdominal/intestinal and liver (66) ailments. Resin obtained directly from stem is placed on wounds. Wood oil obtained from burning the logs in a clavin‐like structure and then collect it, is applied on skin against mange and given orally for intestinal warms, warms in head, abdominal ailments, Contagious Pleuropneumonia, Foot and Mouth disease, to have better digestion, to become fatty and for other multi purposes. This is also given at the start of summer to protect the livestock from the effect of change in weather. It is either used alone or mixed with Brassica oil/ yogurt/Pegnum harmalla infusion depends on its usage purpose Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Stem Bark Oral (57), Stem bark decoction is given for abdominal/intestinal and 67 (2), Resin Topical (10) liver ailments. Resin obtained directly from stem is placed (65) on wounds. Wood oil is applied on skin against mange and given orally for intestinal warms, Contagious Pleuropneumonia, abdominal ailments, warms in head and other Multi diseases. This is also given at the start of summer and spring to protect the livestock from the effect of change in weather. It is either used alone or mixed with Brassica oil/ yogurt/Pegnum harmalla infusion depends on its usage purpose. Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 Shrub Wood (1), Oral Fruit bark and young fruit decoction are given for 26 Fruit (22), intestinal warms and abdominal ailments, diarrhea and Root (3) general body weakness (but these are not given to pregnant animals). Root bark decoction is given for

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

hepatitis. Ribes alpestre Grossulariaceae Zone 2 Shrub Root Oral The root bark paste is orally given for hepatitis 2 Rumex dentatus Polygonaceae Zone 2 Herb Root Oral Root decoction is given for Skeleto‐muscular 9 inflammations, intestinal warms and hepatitis Salix tetrasperma Salicaceae Zone 1 Tree Leaves Oral (46), Decoction of leaves is given in amount of 5CC for 52 Topical (6) Contagious Pleuropneumonia (mostly) and Foot and Mouth disease, also this is poured on its feet. The leaves are spread in its residence place. Spiraea canescens Rosaceae Zone 1 Tree Stem Bark Oral Decoction of stem bark white part is given for cough and 3 against diarrhea Valeriana Valerianaceae Zone 2 Herb Leaves Oral Used directly or its extract for diarrhea 10 jatamansi Withania Solanaceae Zone 1 Shrub Fruit (21), Oral (21), Fruits infusion is given for abdominal pain and ailments, 23 coagulans Leaves (2) Topical (2) body coolness, to have better digestion and hepatitis. Fruit is dried, powdered, mixed with salt for cough while leaves powder is spread on wounds

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

4. Fodder species Fodder is of considerable importance for locals, as livestock rising is the largest source of their income. Sedentary and transhumance pastoral system prevails in the area as the economy of these people is predominantly pastoral. Each person has own cattle, goat sheep, donkey and camel (Raziq et al. 2010). The Livestock sector contributes about 11.4% to GDP of Pakistan (The Pakistan Development Review, 2004). The locals of two villages (among all five villages) migrate in summer to zone 2 has many reasons, among that getting sufficient fodder for livestock in forests is an important one. Such migration to higher altitudes in summer season for fodders purposes has been reported in the nearby areas (Badshah and Hussain, 2011) because one third of forage to 86 million livestock of Pakistan came from forests (FAO, 2002).

The importance of livestock and fodder during present study can be determined by seeing the dependency on livestock as income source of each village in table B. A total of 121 species from 52 families with 2280 use reports obtained from 46 informants, comprise fodder category in the present study (table 4). Among these, 62 species were Herbs i.e. 51% with use reports 1077 (47%), 34 shrubs i.e. 28% with use reports 582 (25%), 19 trees i.e. 16 % with use report 606 (27%) and 6 climbers i.e. 5% with use reports 15 (0.7%). The percentage of habit wise palatable species reported by Khan and Hussain, (2012) from the semi‐arid area of Tehsil Takht‐e‐Nasrati, District Karak (Pakistan) were as; 72.6% herbs, 14%shrubs and 13.4% trees.

The percentage relation between use reports and habit wise number of species is shown in the figure 46, which indicates that trees has more use reports than shrubs and herbs. This phenomenon of more use reports of trees in fodder category during the present study has two reasons i.e. the evergreen nature of some trees and semi‐arid area‐ so lack of herbaceous flora, increased dependency on trees browsing as fodder for livestock. Similar finding or more use reports of trees followed by shrubs and then herbs have been reported by other researchers as well (Ahmad et al. 2013). The use reports and number of species has same relation. This is probably due to two reasons. (1) In fodder category herbs have more importance and (2). Considerable number of the shrubs are from zone 2, where only a 36% of informants migrate during summer so the remaining 64% informants has no proper familiarity with the flora of zone 2.

Herb Shrub Tree Climber 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 % Species % Use Report

Fig. 46 Habit wise distribution of fodder species with use reports

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Figure 47 shows more herb species from Payor Mela and Jatty Ghbaz village, as the 1st village has reserve forest and a fertile valley (from vegetation perspective) in nearby while the second village has comparatively good vegetation. The Kurachai village soil is stony so has rare herbs that are why they depend mostly on shrubs and trees. (For understanding the differences and similarities among villages see table A, B, C and D).

Zindawar Landi Kutherzai Jaty Ghbaz Kurachai Payor Mela 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 % Herb % Shrub % Tree

Habit

Fig. 47 Habit wise differences in citation of fodder species by different villages

Regarding occurrence, 75 species (62%) with 1715 (75%) use reports are from zone 1, 42 species (35%) with 534 (24%) use reports are from zone 2 and 4 species (3%) with 31 (1%) use reports are reported from both zones i.e. Zone 1 & 2. Figure 48 shows the percentage comparison among the species of different zones with their use reports.

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1 & 2

75 62

35 24

3 1

% Species % Use Reports Occurrence

Fig. 48 Zone wise distribution of fodder species with use reports

Here the species of zone 1 have more use reports than zone 2 (even zone 2 has overall more species diversity). The reason is as only 36% informants migrate to zone 2 (in summer, for few months) while all informants have most time of the year in zone 1. This is the reason that less number of species are reported from zone 2. Reporting/collecting more useful species from near human settlements has been reported by Weckerle et al. (2006) arguing accessibility as one of the main reason and by Salick et al.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

(1999). Figure 49 is more clarifying this phenomena, as highest number of species are reported from zone 2 by Landi Kutherzai village (whose major part of population migrate to zone 2) and lowest from zone 1 as compared to others (as the other villages spends more time in zone 1). Similarly lowest numbers of species are reported by Kurachai village from zone 2 and vice versa because they have less familiarity with zone 2 and higher with zone 1. (See % migration ratio of each village in table A).

Payor mela Landi Kutherzai Zindawar Jaty Ghbaz Kurachai 70 60 50 40

reports 30

20 Use 10 0 % species reported from zone 1% species reported from zone 1 & % species reported from zone 2 2 Occurrence

Fig. 49 Zone wise differences in citation of fodder species among different villages

4.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency Comparison of overall use reports and frequency of citation in first ten cited fodder species has been made for clarifying the importance of each fodder species (as shown in figure 51 & 52).

In overall data, the numbers of species included are 121, but the numbers of species are 63 in data obtained from the 1st ten cited species. So reduction in frequency bars at figure 51 and 52 are obvious but in what pattern the frequency is changing, is important and explanatory. As in present study, the differences between use reports and frequency increases after the first 15 species. The reason is that the first fodder species were cited by the informants according to their own preferences, but then the freelist was prolonged by the interviewers through supplementary prompting (see Brewer, 2002) which enlarged the freelist but that were actually not important enough fodders. That is why the change in frequency in top 15 species (fig. 51) is according to some specific pattern but became unpattern in the next species (fig. 52).

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports Frequency in first 10 cited Species 250 200 150 100 50 0

Top 15 fodder species

Fig. 51 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in the 1stten cited fodder species (n=46)

Use Reports Frequency in first 10 Cited Species 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Top 16‐30 fodder species

Fig. 52 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st ten cited fodder species

4.2 Animal preferences Figure 53 indicates the number of species and its total use reports for each animal.

No. of species Total Use Reports 131 122 100 103 90

15 19 7 14 13

Camel prefer it Cow prefer it Donkey prefer it Goat prefer it Sheep prefer it

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Fig. 53 Number of fodder species with use reports preferred by each animal

Figure 53 indicates that the locals know more about camel than goat, sheep, cow and donkey preferences, respectively. As camels are more prominent animals whose eating preferences can be easily observed by everyone even from away, which is the reason of its more use reports for a specific number of species. Next, there is more use reports for goat, sheep, cow and donkey preferences respectively and the reason for this can be understood from the table C which indicate the average number of animals per family/village with the same sequence. Regarding number of species reported for each animal, sheep show more diversity in its fodder preferences while camel has narrow spectra. Goat, cow and donkey has the same range in regard of number of species preferred. The factors for preference of fodder by livestock lies both in fodder characteristics and animal as well (Wahid, 1990; Kababia et al. 1992).

4.3 Fodder preferences of the animals A total of 27 species from 12 families with 546 use reports, which are habit wise distributed as 59% herbs, 22% shrubs and 19% trees are reported to have been preferred by at least any one of the animal. In these 27 species, there are 8 species which are reported to be preferred by a single animal only, 4 species by two animals, 10 species are shared by 3 animals, 3 species shared by 4 animals and two species are shared by all animals which are Celtis caucasica and Olea ferruginea. But by comparing the top 5 preferred species of each animal there seems some similarity and differences among the animals which are shown in figure 54.

Acacia modesta 34 32 30 Monotheca buxifolia 28 26 Celtis caucasica 24 22 Grewia tenax 20 18 Olea ferrugenia

Reports 16

14 Leptochloa panicae

Use 12 10 8 Octhochloa compressa 6 4 Bothriochloa bladhii 2 0 Eulaliopsis binata Donkey prefer Cow prefer it Sheep prefer Camel prefer Goat prefer it Saccharum spontaneum it it it Heteropogon contortus Different animals

Fig. 54 Comparison of top 5 fodder preferences of each animal

Figure 54 indicates that camel and goat have very strong resemblances in fodder preferences as having 100% similarity in top 5 preferable species. Cow has 60% similarity with donkey regarding top 5 preferable species while sheep have diversity in fodder preferences as has 50% resemblances with camel and goat, 50% with cow and 40% with a donkey. Camel and cow has no resemblances. Goat and camels are away from donkey as having only 10% resemblance in top 5 preferred fodders. Also the main

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

preferences of goat and camel are woody plants instead of herbaceous species. The resemblance of sheep with cow and goat with camel in fodder preferences and also the woody fodder species preferred by goat and camel and herbaceous by sheep and cow, has been reported in other studies (Wilson et al. 1995; Huston, 1978; Grunwaldt et al. 1994; Khan, 1996) which support the present results.

4.4 Some other important aspects of fodder A total of 14 Species from 9 families have been reported as those fodders which makes the animal fatty. In order to understand the importance of each such fodder in local perspective, a comparison of overall use reports and frequency in the 1st three cited species was made (fig. 55).

Use Reports of fodder which make the animal fatty Frequency in 1st three cited species 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 55 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st three cited fodder species (which make the animal fatty)

Figure 55 indicates the authenticity of information obtained from the overall use reports because the overall use reports and frequency bars resemblance (in fig. 55) are the indications of similarity of information.

The fodders which are reported as produce more milk in animals, includes 13 species from 8 families. A comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st three cited species was made to understand the importance of each species (fig. 56).

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports of fodder which produce more milk Frequency in 1st three cited species 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Species

Fig. 56 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1stthree cited fodder species (which produce more milk)

There is some variation in figure 56 in regard of number of species, as 10 species are there (in frequency data) instead of 13 (as in use reports data) having the characteristic of producing more milk in animals. To see either there is some correlation between the above two types of fodder (i.e. Make the animal fatty & produce more milk) a comparative graph is plotted (Fig. 57).

Use Reports of fodder which make the animal fatty Use Reports of fodder which produce more milk 30 25 20 15

Values 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 57 Comparison of use reports of fodder species ‘produce more milk’ with ‘make the animal fatty’

There is a general impression that the fodder which makes the animal fatty & fodder which produce more milk will be similar but according to findings of this study, there are similarities and differences; however the first 5 species in both categories has some correlation with one another.

As the area is in semi‐arid zone so they have no fodder for their livestock at winter season. Due to this they store fodder for winter. Mostly perennial grasses with strong nodes and internodes are stored except two evergreen trees (Olea ferrugenia and Monotheca buxifolia) which are also stored for few days. The decrease in fodder for livestock in winter season in Pakistan has been reported in other

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

studies (Omer et al; 2006, Hussain and Durrani, 2009) so storage of fodder is usually made (Ahmad et al, 2013). A total of 16 species from 6 families (11 species from Poaceae) with 184 use reports are included in category of fodder which are stored for winter. A comparison of use reports and frequency in 1st three cited fodders (which are stored for winter) were made to understand the importance of each reported storable species (fig. 58).

Use Reports of fodder which are stored for winter Frequency in 1st three cited species 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 58 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1stthree cited fodder species (which are stored for winter)

Nine grasses and two trees are prominent as stored for winter.

The more milk inducing nature, availability throughout the year, richness in the area, storage capability and high nutrient potential to make the animal fatty, seems the main factors in fodder ranking during the present studies which are strongly supported by some other studies in semi‐arid zone in the nearby area (Bashah and F. Hussian, 2011).

4.5 Variations in knowledge of fodder species

4.5.1 Age wise knowledge variations The age groups with a difference of 5 years and 10 years have checked for variation in the knowledge of fodder species (Fig. 61). The knowledge of fodder is lowest at age 20‐25 while highest at 36‐40, because the 1st group is the starting point of learning about the surrounding vegetation while the 2st one is the ending of livestock rising in jungle and to take other responsibilities of the family. Similarly in the grouping of age with a difference of 10, the age group 31‐40 has the highest knowledge of fodder (as explained above) and lowest at 41‐50, as at this age the individuals are fully engaged in earning the money from other resources and has to fulfill the family/cultural/regional responsibilities, so get cut off from the livestock/fodder/vegetation. According to study of Badshah and Hussain, 2011 in the allied area of District tank, the informants of age group 60 and above were more knowledgeable.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Age Group with 5 years differences Age Group with 10 years differences 70 60 50 40 64 30 55 57 56 61 61 56

reports 51 51 51 20 47 46

Use 10 0 Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age group group group group group group group group group group group group 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Age Groups

Fig. 59 Age wise variations in knowledge of fodder species among different age groups

4.5.2 Village wise knowledge variation Three aspects seems playing important role in village wise knowledge variation i.e. (1) Dependency on livestock/fodder, (2) Size of the village/sample and (3) Surrounding vegetation/exposure to different vegetation zones (see table A, B, C and D).

1. The individual’s knowledge is more with the dependency on fodder/livestock as figure 56 shows that an average number of plants known to each informant, Zindawar village is at the top because they have more relation/dependence with/on the fodder (table B and C). 2. As the sample size is largest of Landi Kutherzai which is followed by Jatty Ghbaz, Payor Mela respectively while Zindawar and Kurachai villages have same size. The same sequence can be seen in the total plants known to each village (except Kurachai village), which means that sample size is directly proportional to total number of reported species from each village. 3. The sample size of Zindawar and Kurachai village is same but quite differences are shown by the figure 60 among them, the reason is the difference in density/diversity of vegetation among these villages. Similarly the sample size of Jatty Ghbaz village is larger than Payor Mela, but individual’s knowledge is vice versa due to exposure of the second village to the vegetation of zone 2 (migrate to zone 2 in summer) and lacking of such exposure by the 1st village as they do not migrate to zone 2 (see table A, B, C and D).

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Zindawar Jaty ghbaz Kurachai Landi kutherzai Payor mela

100 species

90 of 80 70 60 number

50 40

Average 30 20 10 0 Number of Plants Known to each Informant Number of Plants known to each Village

Fig. 60 Variation in number of fodder species known to each informant (of different villages) and number of fodder species known to each village

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 5

Fodder species Total Species Family Occurrence Habit Use and Characteristics UR Acacia modesta Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Considered as the best fodder tree, but as a deciduous tree its leaves 122 detached at winter but its fruits are persistent comparatively which are jerked by shepherds for livestock. Also the doe kids start its fodder eating from this species as it’s considered as sweet in taste Acer cappadocicum Aceraceae Zone 2 Tree Mild palatable but rarely available as fodder make it less important 8 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability and palatability only in young stages make it 4 unimportant Achyranthes bidentata Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Aerva javanica Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability and less palatable makes it unimportant 4 Allium corolinianum Alliaceae Zone 2 Herb Mild palatable and preferred by goats and sheep but its Use reports are 10 mainly due to producing bad smell in milk when eaten by the livestock Allium Spp Alliaceae Zone 2 Herb Mild palatable and preferred by goats and sheep but its Use reports are 9 mainly due to producing bad smell in milk when eaten by the livestock Alternanthera Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Mild palatability and rarely available as fodder makes it unimportant 6 paronychioides Amaranthus spinosus Amaranthaceae Zone 1 Herb Highly palatable but in young stages only, also not abundantly available 5 as fodder Amygdalus brahuica Rosaceae Zone 1 Tree Usually less palatable but Camel eats it with interest, but its excessive 11 eating especially its fruit produce ailments in animals Apluda mutica Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Important and common perennial fodder which is preferred by donkey 52 and cow and goat respectively. This grass is also stored for winter Aristida adscensionis Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Important fodder grass with high palatability but it’s less availability 10 reduces its popularity Artemisia scoparia Asteraceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 4 Bauhinia retusa Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Mild palatable but rarely available as fodder make it less important 8 Berberis calliobotrys Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub Has good fodder characteristics but is restricted only to the last part of 9 zone 2 where less no. of livestock has an excess which make it less important

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Bidens biternata Asteraceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Bothriochloa bladhii Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Important and common perennial fodder which is preferred by sheep, 53 cow and donkey respectively. It makes the animal fatty. This grass is also stored for winter Brachiaria ramosa Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant fodder 5 Bromus danthoniae Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Common perennial fodder grass 24 Buddleja crispa Buddlejaceae Zone 1 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, but become palatable for a short time during 12 autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Zone 1 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, get palatable only in autumn 6 Calotropis procera Asclepiadaceae Zone 1 Shrub Less availability and palatable only in dry conditions make it 2 unimportant Capparis decidua Capparaceae Zone 1 Shrub Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Caragana ambigua Fabaceae Zone 2 Shrub It has high palatability, but its spiny nature in the area makes it less 12 accessible, but goats like it. It also produces more milk on livestock Celtis caucasica Ulmaceae Zone 1 Tree It is among the best evergreen fodder trees, mostly browsed for 109 livestock in winter. It is now cultivated near the fields for fodder purposes. Chrysopogon gryllus Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Important fodder grass with high palatability but restricted to zone 2 12 reduces in popularity Cicer nuristanicum Fabaceae Zone 2 Herb Highly palatable and nutritious fodder but not abundantly available 8 Cirsium arvense Asteraceae Zone 1 & 2 Herb Less availability and spiny nature make it unimportant but camels eat it 4 with interest Clematis montana Ranunculaceae Zone 2 Climber Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Clematis orientalis Ranunculaceae Zone 2 Climber Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Convolvulus arvensis Convolvulaceae Zone 1 & 2 Climber Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Cornus macrophylla Cornaceae Zone 1 Tree Less availability and milder palatablity make it unimportant fodder 4 Cotoneaster buxifolius Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, but palatable at the start of spring and in 9 autumn Cotoneaster Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Its good palatability, growing near homes and browsing for livestock 27 microphyllus make it important fodder at zone 1 Cotoneaster minutus Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Its abundant availability at zone 2 make it important fodder 51

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Cotoneaster pruinosus Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Less palatability and availability and also its restriction to zone 2 make it 5 unimportant Cymbopogon Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Become palatable only in autumn when it gets drier. It is considered as 4 jwarancusa the famine times fodder Cymbopogon Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Grass with less palatability but its early sprouting at spring and longer 58 pospischilii availability at winter times make it important fodder, mostly considered as the fodder of famine seasons Cynoglossum Boraginaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 1 lanceolatum Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 3

Debregeasia salicifolia Urticaceae Zone 1 Shrub Mildly palatable and rarely available as fodder makes it unimportant 6 fodder Dodonaea viscosa Sapindaceae Zone 1 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, but become palatable for a short time during 24 autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Echinochloa crus‐galli Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Has good fodder characteristics but Less availability make it 4 unimportant Ehretia obtusifolia Boraginaceae Zone 1 Shrub Its palatability, growing near homes and browsing for livestock make it 36 important fodder at zone 1 Elymus kuramensis Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Ephedra gerardiana Ephedraceae Zone 2 Shrub Less availability and palatability only in autumn make it unimportant 2 Erigeron multiradiatus Asteraceae Zone 2 Herb High palatability, producing more milk and making animal fatty, make it 17 important fodder at zone 2 Erioscripus comosus Cyperaceae Zone 1 Herb Mild palatable but rarely available as fodder make it unimportant 7 fodder Eulaliopsis binata Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Perennial fodder grass mostly stored for winter as do not get rotted 82 because of its tough nature. Mostly preferred by cow and donkey Euphorbia prolifera Euphorbiaceae Zone 2 Herb Less palatability and availability and also its restriction to zone 2 make it 5 unimportant Euphorbia prostata Euphorbiaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability make it unimportant 1 Festuca olgae Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability and its restriction to zone 2 make it unimportant 5 Ficus palmata Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Usually non‐palatable, but become palatable for a short time during 16

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autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Ficus virens Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Less availability make it unimportant 2 Fraxinus Oleaceae Zone 2 Tree High palatability and browsing for livestock, make it important fodder 16 xanthoxyloides of zone 2, but it’s less availability keep its use report medium Grewia tenax Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub It is also among the best fodder trees at zone 1, mostly browsed for 106 livestock in autumn because it is considered as the most palatable at spring and autumn. It is cultivated near the fields for fodder purposes. Grewia villosa Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub Good palatability, abundant availability and producing bad smell in milk 22 when leaves are young make it prominent fodder Hedera nepalensis Araliaceae Zone 2 Climber Less palatability, availability and its restriction to zone 2 make it 5 unimportant Heteropogon contortus Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Common perennial tough grass which is preferred by donkey and 34 stored for winter Isodon rugosus Lamiaceae Zone 1 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, but are palatable at the start of spring and 29 during autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Jasminum humile Oleaceae Zone 2 Shrub Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Lactuca dissecta Asteraceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Launaea procumbens Asteraceae Zone 1 Herb Has good fodder characteristics but Less availability make it 4 unimportant Leptochloa panicae Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Considered as the best fodder grass, which produce more milk and 197 make the animal fatty. Also it is stored for winter. Due to its extensive fodder uses, its population is considered as decreasing Lindelofia stylosa Boraginaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Litsea monopetala Lauraceae Zone 1 Tree Less availability and palatable only in autumn make it unimportant 3 Lonicera hypoleuca Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Its abundant availability at zone 2 make it important fodder 35 Lonicera Caprifoliaceae Zone 1 Shrub It has good fodder characteristics but less availability makes it less 10 quinquelocularis important fodder Malva salvestris Malvaceae Zone 1 & 2 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Maytenus royleanus Celastraceae Zone 1 Shrub Early sprouting in spring and browsing for livestock make it important 20 fodder

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Mentha longifolia Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Less available and palatable only in autumn make it unimportant, but 4 its Use reports are mainly due to producing good smell in milk when eaten by the livestock Momordica dioica Cucurbitaceae Zone 1 Climber Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Considered as the best evergreen fodder tree, but at the start of spring 121 and at 6th month it is considered as producing ailments in livestock. Its fruit is quite nutritious but become fatal if eaten fresh by an animal in large quantity. Seeds are dried and given in winter as considered warmer and nutritious. Locally it is considered as a doe becomes in heat due to eating of this fruit Nannorrhops ritchiana Arecaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rare availability and non‐palatability make it unimportant 1 Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Zone 1 Shrub It’s poisonous and non‐palatable but its flowers are only palatable part 1 Notholirion Liliaceae Zone 1 Herb Palatable and eaten well by animals but rarely available for fodder 11 thomsonianum purposes Octhochloa compressa Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Important fodder grass which is mostly preferred by sheep, cow and 104 donkey, also abundantly stored for winter Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Evergreen and drought resistant fodder tree which is mostly browsed at 112 winter for livestock when there is a severe scarcity of fodder. Also it is considered as better against ailments. Oxalis corniculata Oxalidaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Panicum antidotale Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Parthenocissus Vitaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 2 semicordata Peganum harmala Zygophyllaceae Zone 1 Herb Usually non‐palatable, but palatable at the start of spring and during 1 autumn when it became drier. Pennisetum flaccidum Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Perennial common fodder grass, stored for winter and also makes the 34 animal fatty Pennisetum orientale Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Considered as the best fodder grass at zone 2 which produce more milk 41 and make the animal fatty Periploca aphylla Asclepiadaceae Zone 1 Shrub Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Periploca hydaspidis Asclepiadaceae Zone 1 Climber Less availability makes it unimportant 2 Phlomis spectabilis Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability and palatable only in young stages make it unimportant 3

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Usually non‐palatable, but become palatable for a short time during 19 autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Usually non‐palatable, but become palatable for a short time during 10 autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Tree Usually less palatable but Camel eats it with interest, but rarely 11 available for fodder purposes Pistacia khanjak Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Tree Less availability and palatable only in autumn make it unimportant 4 Portulaca quadrafida Portulacaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 & 2 Shrub Less palatable but become more palatable at autumn, its availability at 24 both zones and also as it is now cultivated in home gardens which make it more citable. Pyracantha Spp Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Its abundant availability at zone 2 make it prominent fodder 22 Ribes alpestre Grossulariaceae Zone 2 Shrub Mild palatable shrub 6 Rosa brunonii Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Its palatability and growing near homes make it important fodder at 16 zone 2 Rottbhoelia exaltata Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Perennial common fodder grass which is mostly preferred by cow and 33 donkey and stored for winter Rubus fruticosus Rosaceae Zone 2 Herb It has good fodder characteristics especially in young stages but less 10 availability makes it less important fodder Rumex dentatus Polygonaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability and palatable only in young stages make it unimportant 2 Saccharum Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Its abundant availability, growing near homes, preferable by cow and 37 spontaneum donkey and its storage for winter make it important fodder at zone 1 Salvadora oleoides Salvadoraceae Zone 1 Shrub Less palatability and rarely available as fodder, make it unimportant 6 Salvia moocroftiana Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb High palatability and growing near homes make it important fodder at 17 zone 2 Salvia nubicola Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 3 Scaligeria aitchisonii Apiaceae Zone 2 Herb It has good palatability, producing good smell in milk when eaten by the 12 livestock make it important fodder Setaria verticillata Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Its storage in large quantity for winter make it important 16 Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability makes it unimportant 1 Solanum surattense Solanaceae Zone 1 Herb Less availability and spiny leaves make it unimportant 1

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Sophora mollis Fabaceae Zone 1 Shrub Usually non‐palatable, but palatable at the start of spring and during 10 autumn. Its Use Reports are basically in the response to a question which plants are palatable only in specific seasons Spiraea canescens Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Its palatability, growing near homes and browsing for livestock make it 29 important fodder at zone 1 Syringa emodi Oleaceae Zone 1 Shrub Good fodder but rarely available as fodder 9 Tecomella undulata Bignoniaceae Zone 1 Tree Mildly palatable and rarely available at fodder make it unimportant 7 Tetrapogon villosus Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Highly palatable grass and preferred by sheep but not abundantly 10 available Thymus linearis Lamiaceae Zone 2 Herb Less palatable but its Use reports are mainly due to producing good 26 smell in milk when eaten by the livestock Tragopogan gracilis Asteraceae Zone 2 Herb Important fodder grass which is considered as producing more milk on 10 livestock but not abundantly available Trigonella pubescens Fabaceae Zone 2 Herb Highly palatable, produce more milk and make the animal fatty but it’s 7 rare availability as fodder make it less citable Tulipa lehmanniana Liliaceae Zone 2 Herb High palatability, producing more milk, making animal fatty, early 21 sprouting in spring and producing good smell in milk when eaten by the livestock make it important fodder Viburnum cotinifolium Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Less palatable during spring but become more palatable at the start of 36 autumn. Also its abundant availability make it more important fodder Zanthoxylum armatum Rutaceae Zone 1 Shrub Mild palatable shrub but rarely available as fodder which make it less 9 citable Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree A good fodder tree which is browsed for animals, but not abundantly 14 available Ziziphus nummularia Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Shrub Less availability make it unimportant as compared to other palatable 4 trees Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Good fodder but rarely available as fodder 9 Total 2280

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

5. Timber and Construction species

5.1 Self‐used timber Pakistan is a forest poor country as having per capita of 0.5 ha forest against world average of 1.0 ha. Only 4.8% of overall land remain covered with forest, with an annual deforestation rate of more than 3% (FAO, 2004; Cronin and Pandya, 2009) among this a considerable part is used by the locals for self‐purposes (Kharwaland Rawat, 2009).

Timber was important in local perspectives during present studies as all the residential set up is made up of two things i.e. walls of stones and roofs of timber (Plate D). In present study a total of 42 species from 29 families were reported with 505 use reports (table 6) which were obtained from 44 informants. Among the 42 species, 23 species (55%) with 174 use reports were shrubs and 19 species (45%) with 331 use reports were of trees (Fig. 61). Regarding zone wise distribution, 31 species (74 %) with 201 use reports were from zone 1, 10 species (24%) with 299 use reports were from zone 2, while 1 species (2%) with 5 use report was present in both zone i.e. zone 1 & 2 (Fig. 63). The habit wise distribution among zones were as: 15 trees (36%) with 205 use reports and 16 shrubs (38%) with 99 use reports were from zone 1, 4 trees (10%) with 126 use reports and 6 shrubs (14%) with 75 use reports were from zone 2 while 1 shrub (2%) with 5 use report was reported from both zones.

Figure 61 represents the importance of each species in the form of use reports (9 species with single use report are not shown here).

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 reports 15

Use 10 5 0 Spp

tenax

retusa

viscosa dilatata

minutus palmata buxifolia modesta

undulata

chinensis salicifolia brahuica

caucasica

oxyphylla granatum

armatum

canescens hypoleuca

royleanus papyracea

ferrugenia obtusifolia

gerardiana

mauritiana

wallichiana wallichiana

cotinifolium monopetala macrophylla

microphyllus

Grewia

Ficus cappadocicum

Celtis Pyracantha Olea xanthoxyloides Bauhinia Acacia

Quercus Pinus Punica Pinus Pistacia Buxus Dodonaea Ziziphus Spiraea Ehretia Litsea Daphne Lonicera Ziziphus Acer Tecomella Cornus Monotheca Amygdalus Maytenus Cotoneaster Debregeasia Viburnum Zanthoxylum Fraxinus Cotoneaster Species

Fig. 61 Timber wood species with use reports

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

% species % Use Reports

66 55 45 34

Shrubs Trees

Fig. 62 Number of shrubs and trees (timber) species with use reports

Trees mostly have high use reports than shrubs in the category of timber. The numbers of shrub species are more than tree in figure 62 which indicates that the general vegetation of the area is shrubby (having more diversity in shrubs than trees) which is the characteristics of semi‐arid mountainous areas.

% species % Use Reports 75 60

40 25

Zone 2Zone 1 Occurrence

Fig. 63 Zone wise distribution of timber species with use reports

The number of reported species are 3 times more from zone 1 as compared to zone 2, but regarding use reports, zone two species has more use reports in comparison of its number of species than zone 2, which shows the more attachment of informants with zone 1, so they reported more species from this zone because they spend more time at foothills (zone 1) which make the surrounding timber species more citable. Such explanation for more citation of wild plants in near vicinity has been explained by Weckerle et al. (2006) as due to cultural values and accessibility. But quality wise, zone 2 has more potential and also the vegetation is denser and dominated by prominent timber yielding Pinus species. It also gets obvious when the people respond to the question why they are migrating to zone 2 in summer, telling one reason as to get nearer to timber cutting area. Also, its prevailing local belief that mountain area (zone 2) has more spiritual potential than foothills (zone 1) which influence the local perceptions to give more weight (quality wise) to zone 2 species. Weckerle et al. (2006) while dealing with ritual species in the Hengduan Mountains Southwest Chin, explain the local’s perception about the availability of best quality of ritual species in high mountains, as due to strong affiliation of mountains with god.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

5.1.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency As more important species are cited first in freelisting, so a comparison is made between overall use reports and frequency of species in 1st ten cited species, to get about the important enough timber species of the area.

Lonicera hypoleuca Cotoneaster minutus Viburnum cotinifolium Use Reports (Zone 1) Pyracantha Spp Daphne papyracea Cotoneaster microphyllus Frequency in the 1st ten Ehretia obtusifolia cited Species (Zone 1) Species Maytenus royleanus Grewia tenax Use Reports (Zone 2)

Shrubs Debregeasia salicifolia Zanthoxylum armatum Frequency in the 1st ten Spiraea canescens cited Species (Zone 2) Buxus wallichiana Dodonaea viscosa 0 1020304050 Comparative UR & Frequency

Fig. 64 Zone wise comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st ten cited shrub (timber) species

Acer cappadocicum Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Pinus wallichiana Pinus gerardiana Ziziphus oxyphylla Use Reports (Zone 1) Tecomella undulata Bauhinia retusa Litsea monopetala Frequency in the 1st ten Ziziphus mauritiana cited species (Zone 1) Species Cornus macrophylla Quercus dilatata Use Reports (Zone 2) Trees Ficus palmata Pistacia chinensis Amygdalus brahuica Frequency in the 1st ten cited species (Zone ) Celtis caucasica Acacia modesta Monotheca buxifolia Olea ferrugenia 0 20406080100 Comparative UR & Frequency

Fig. 65 Zone wise comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st ten cited tree (timber) species

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Generally trees show less variation in use reports and frequency comparison than shrubs which is the indication of trees superiority in timber perspectives. Similarly there are more number of species (shrubs & trees) from zone 1 but having less use reports per species, also have quite variations in its comparison of use reports and frequency as compared to zone 2 which is the indication of superiority of timber from zone 2.

Five tree species, three from zone 1 (i.e. Olea ferrugrnia, Monotheca buxifolia and Acacia modesta) and two from zone 2 (i.e. Pinus wallichiana and P. gerardiana) are among the best timber species in the area, as having more use reports and stability in comparison of use reports and frequency (figure 64). Among shrubs the three species (i.e. Pyracantha spp, Cotoneaster minutus and Vibernum cotinifolium) which shows less variation are from zone 2 (figure 65).

5.1.2 Use ratio The above all data were obtained through freelisting exercise which is basically the knowledge of informants but not exactly what is going on the ground. So, to know what is practicable within villages and to get about the species exploitation ratio, a short list of species with consumption ratio among them was obtained. The informants were restricted to respond to question that “if they have to use 10 plants as a timber, what will be the mostly used species and in what ratio they will be used”. This question was asked separately for foothills villages (zone 1) and migratory villages (zone 2). The data is shown in figure 66 for foothills villages (i.e. Zone 1) and in figure 67 for migratory villages (i.e. Zone 2).

6 5.7

5 Olea ferrugenia 4 ratio

Monotheca Buxifolia Acacia modesta 3 2.2 Dodonaea viscosa 2 Spiraea canescens 1.4 Amygdalus brahuica Consumption 1 0.43 0.22 0.05 0 1 Foot hills villages Species

Fig. 66 Consumption ratio among major timber species at zone 1 (i.e. foothills villages)

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

6 Pinus wallichiana 5.6 5 Pinus gerardiana

4 Lonicera hypoleuca ratio

3 Vibernum cotonifolium

Pyracantha Spp 2

Consumption 1.3 1 0.9 Cotoneaster minutus 1 0.73 0.3 Fraxinus xanthoxyloides 0 1 Acer cappadocicum Migratory villages Species

Fig. 67 Consumption ratio among major timber species at zone 2 (i.e. migratory villages)

Olea ferrugenia at foothills (zone 1) and Pinus wallichiana at migratory villages (zone 2) were the most frequently used timber species for self‐purposes in the area. According to elders, the populations of these species are decreasing with tremendous speed. The main reason of Olea ferrugenia is its slow growth rate then consumption rate and as Pinus wallichiana is growing fast but its self‐timber consumption accompanied by commercial cutting put its population in danger.

5.1.3 Differences in choices of timber among different villages Among the five villages of study site, only two are migrating to zone 2 in summer, so to check either this migration has some influence on their preferences of timber, a comparison is made among the informants of all five villages about the 1st ten cited species (that how their species choices are distributed among both zones).

Payor Mela Landi Kutherzai Zindawar Jatty Ghbazh Kurachai

70 60 50 reports 40 Use

30 % 20 10 0 Zone 1Zone 2 Occurrence

Fig. 68 Village wise differences in choices of 1st ten cited timber species

Figure 68 clearly shows the influence of migration of the choices of informants. As Payor Mela and Landi Kutherzai villages are migrating to zone 2 so they have cited comparatively more timber species from

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

zone 2 and less from zone 1 (as compared to other non‐migrating villages) and its vice versa for the Jatty Ghbaz and Kurachai villages‐ as they are not migrating to zone 2. But still there are more choices from zone 1 by the informants of the migrating villages as well, as apparently it should be more from zone 2 due to good quality and more diversity of timber species in zone 2. The reason is that, within the two migrating villages (i.e. Payor Mela and Landi Kutherzai) a major part of families are migrating to zone 2 but not all the residents, so by considering collectively the number of days they stay are comparatively more in zone 1, whose influence can be seen in their choices of timber ‐which is a bit more choices from zones 1. Another explainable feature in figure 68 is the highest choices of timber from zone 2 by the Zindawar village. It is possibly due to two reasons i.e. as they are living in the spot which has relatively some elements of zone 2 vegetation (see table D) and secondly their more dependency on commercial timber as a source of income make them more knowledgeable about timber from both zones (see table B), so that is why they have more choices of timber from zone 2 (which has better quality and diversity of timber).

5.1.4 Age wise variations in knowledge of timber species Age wise variation in the knowledge of timber with informants groups (based on differences of 5 years and 10 years) were checked to get about the variations.

No. of species known (5 years age difference) Use Reports (10 years age difference)

15 14 14 14 11 13 12 12 11 8 10 10 8 10

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Above 60 Age groups

Fig. 69 Age wise knowledge variations among informants (in number of citations of timber species)

Figure 69 shows highest information with the informants of age group 25 (based on five year differences), while in age group based on ten years differences; the informants of age 41‐50 are more knowledgeable. Most probably it is due to the reason that at the age of 25 the youngsters has to go to different areas and vegetation zones for different purposes so they have seen more timber plants which are in their active memories, while at the age of 41‐51 the person has more responsibilities in which construction of house or new rooms are at the priority level, so they have more knowledge about the timber. The higher knowledge about timber with age group 41 or above has been reported by Poderso et al, 2012.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

5.2 Commercial timber Forests timbers are the only income source for poor mountainous people in many areas of Pakistan that are why very heavy extraction is going on in the local forest reserves (Shaheen et al. 2011); Abdulrahaman et al. 2006). Annual production of timber in 1990 was 2.67 million m3 (Sheikh, 1990) and between 1996 and 2000, an average of 34.1 million m3 woods was annually produced and imports 532000 m3 industrial woods to fulfill the national demands (Anonymous, 2002).

Distribution of forest types in Pakistan

Forest type Area (1,000 ha) % of total Coniferous forests 1,870 43 Scrub forests (dry subtropical broad leaved and tropical thorn forests) 1,683 39 Irrigated plantations 200 4 Riverine forests 290 7 Coastal mangroves 283 6 Others (linear plantations mazri, etc.) 40 1 Total 4,366 100 Source: FAO/RAPA, 19117

Commercial timber is one of the important sources among the overall sources of income in the area (Plate E). An average of 21% life expenses is fulfilled through timber cutting and sells (see table B). A total of 15 species from 12 families with 106 use reports obtained from 23 informants, made the commercial timber category in present study (table 6). Eight species (53%) with 45 (42%) use reports were from zone 1 and seven species (47%) with 61 (58%) use reports were from zone 2. Regarding habit, six species (40%) with 13 (12%) use reports were shrubs and 9 species (60%) with 93 (88%) use reports are trees. Figure 70 shows these details.

% species % Use Reports 88

58 60 53 47 42 40

12

Zone 1Zone 2 Shrubs Trees Occurrence & Habit

Fig. 70 Habit and zone wise distribution of commercial timber species with use reports

In order to understand the importance of each species, a comparison was made between use reports from overall data and frequency of species in the 1st three cited commercial timber species.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports Frequency in 1st three cited species 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 71 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st three cited commercial timber species

Figure 71 indicates that basically the three species are contributing well in commercial timber i.e. Pinus wallichiana, Pinus gerardiana and Olea ferruginea. These species are brought to the main market to sell. The other species mentioned in this category are basically sold within the villages for self‐usage but has no proper contribution in overall income (personal observations).

5.2.1 Economic potential A specific number of people from each village are involved in timber cutting for sell (overall 21% of life expenses comes from this sector‐ table B). Figure 72 shows the number of people involved in commercial timber cutting from each village, the number of families in each village and per annum earning by each involved person from commercial timber.

No. of People Involved Village Size Earning per annum (in thousands PKR) 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Payor mela Zindawar Landi Kutherzai Jatty Ghbaz Kurachai Villages

Fig. 72 Villages size, number of people involved &their annual income from commercial timber species

1. Figure 72 shows more earning by the residents of Payor Mela and large number of people involved in commercial timber cutting from Landi Kutherzai village. The reason is their migration to higher altitude i.e. zone 2 in summer, where timber cutting is considered as one of main

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

income source. But there is a difference between the earnings of two migrating villages i.e. Landi Kutherzai has less income than Payor Mela village. The reasons are the less dependency of Landi Kutherzai village on commercial timber cutting and involvement of more people in this sector (see table B) where some people get good earning while others get fair earning from it (which are combined to show an average in figure 72), so the overall income of the people of the Landi Kutherzai village seems lower than Payor Mela. 2. The people of Kurachai village are also earning less from commercial timber as compared to others (as shown in figure 71). The reasons are that they do not migrate to zone 2 that are why they earn less but such earning contributes more to their total income as have small families (i.e. number of Individuals per family) than others (table A). 3. Jatty Ghbaz village earn well from commercial timber (fig. 72) but as they have large family size (see table A) and they also have other sources of income like livestock and work in foreign countries which contribute 55% and 52% respectively in their income (see table B), which as a whole make commercial timber contributions less important in their total income as compared to other villages. 4. Zindawar village has more dependency on commercial timber as they have less other income sources, but figure 72 shows less earning for this village. So probably this amount may contribute well to their total income as they have less per month expenditure than others (see table A).

5.2.2 Price ratio In order to know about the price ratio of the 1st five important commercial timbers, we collected the response from each informant about the price ratio among them by fixing the price of Pinus gerardiana average size timber wood as 100 PKR (because P. gerardiana is considered as most favorable commercial timber), the results are shown in figure 72.

130

100 Olea ferrugenia ratio Pinus gerardiana 60 Pinus wallichiana Price 36 28 Acacia modesta Monotheca buxifolia

1 Species

Fig. 73 Comparative price ratio among the five most cited commercial timber species

Figure 73 shows the highest price ratio of Olea ferruginea, but its slow growth rate and unavailability of its timber on large scale and some cultural and local restriction on its cutting for commercial sell make it on 3rd position from its timber earning perspective. Also its main consumption in the market is to make

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the handle of agricultural tools etc. while the Pinus gerardiana and P. wallichiana has more versatile market consumption due to their large and smooth wood for making tools, furniture, doors and windows etc. The low price of Acacia modesta and Monotheca buxifolia is mentioned by locals due to its wood susceptibility for termite attack and less versatile usage.

5.2.3 Degrees of agreement among different villages Figure 74 shows the degree of agreement among informants of all villages for commercial timber species. 100% agreement exists only for three timber species i.e. Pinus wallichiana, Pinus gerardiana and Olea ferruginea. 80% and 60% agreement exists for two species each and 40% for four species only. The last three species i.e. Zanthoxylum armatum (reported by Jatty Ghbaz village), Buxus wallichiana and Ziziphus mauritiana (reported by Landi Kutherzai village) are indicated as commercial timber species only by one village informants among all the five. Personal observations in the field and detailed interviews also revealed that this degree of agreement among informants of different villages for commercial timber species is exactly in accordance with the cutting pressure on these species.

Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor mela Zindawar Jatty Ghbazh

Zanthoxylum armatum Ziziphus mauritiana Buxus wallichiana Lonicera hypoleuca Dodonaea viscosa Cornus macrophylla Viburnum cotinifolium Acer cappadocicum

Species Monotheca buxifolia Pyracantha Spp Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Acacia modesta Olea ferrugenia Pinus wallichiana Pinus gerardiana 0 102030405060708090100

Degree of agreement among the villages

Fig. 74 Degrees of agreement among informants of different villages for commercial timber species

5.2.4 Age wise knowledge variations Age is an important variable in ethnobotanical studies. It not only shows the knowledge differences but also the change in trend of indigenous uses. For example, figure 75 shows the average number of species by different age groups. Two types of informant groups are shown i.e. on the basis of 5 years difference and on the basis of 10 years difference. The age grouping with 5 years difference shows the maximum number of species known to age 35 and 60. The reason of more species reported by age group 35 is the direct involvement of people of age 30‐40 in timber cutting (as timber cutting is

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locally considered as the business of people with this age) and the reason for age group 60 as more knowledgeable is that when these 60 age people were at the age of 30‐40, the business of commercial timber cutting was at the peak at that time in this area. Now it’s getting decreases due to unavailability of sufficient good timber which are preferred in the market and awareness is also growing among the locals about the destructiveness of timber cutting which results a ban on such activities in some localities. Similarly maximum average numbers of species are reported by informants of age 30‐40 and 51‐60 (among the age grouping based on 10 years difference) which support our above explanation.

No. of Species Known (with 5 years difference) No. of Species Known (with 10 years difference)

6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 30‐40 41‐50 51‐60 avove 60

Age Groups

Fig. 75 Age wise variations among informants in number of timber species citation

5.3 Construction These are those species which are placed above timber to seal the roof. It is more proper to say that construction species are those which are used to cover the roof. Mostly secondary and tertiary branches in the form of sticks are used for such purpose while a few herbs are sometimes also used above these secondary and tertiary branches for complete cementing of roof.

A total of 24 species from 14 families with 150 use reports obtained from 23 informants, make the category of construction (table 6). These species were habit wise distributed as; 3 herbs with 4 use reports, 13 shrubs with 84 use reports and 8 trees with 62 use reports. Zone wise distribution was as; zones 1 were having 14 species with 84 use reports while zone 2 was having 10 species with 66 use reports. Olea ferruginea, Dodonea viscosa and Monotheca buxifolia were the top species (with more use reports) while Rosaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Oleaceae were the top families respectively in regard of use reports.

Zone and habit wise distribution of each construction species with use reports are shown in figure 76 and 77 respectively.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Zone 1 Zone 2 25 20 15 Reports 10

Use 5 0

Species

Fig. 76 Zone wise distribution of species (used in construction) with use reports

Shrub Tree 25 20 15 Reports 10

Use 5 0

Species

Fig. 77 Habit wise distribution of species (used in construction) with use reports

Figure 76 indicates that zone 1 species used in construction are more preferred than zone 2. The reason is the majorities of informants are non‐migrating (i.e. not familiar with zone 2 species) and also foothills houses (zone 1) are considered as permanent houses by the locals as compared to migratory villages houses (zone 2). Figure 77 shows more diversity of shrubs usage than trees because shrubs are mostly used for this purpose, but use reports per species of trees are higher than shrubs, because of availability of more construction material (wood sticks) in tree species.

5.3.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency A comparison is made between overall use reports and frequency in the 1st five cited species to understand of each species used in construction. To make such comparison more elaborative, it is separately made on the basis of zones and habit, as shown in figure 78 and 79.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports (Zone 1) Frequency in 1st five cited species (Zone 1) 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 78 Zone wise comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st five cited species

Use reports (Shrubs) Frequency in 1st five cited species (Shrubs) 25 20 15 10 5 0

Species

Fig. 79 Habit wise comparison of over‐all use reports and frequency in 1st five cited species

Figure 78 shows zone wise comparison which is more interesting because the species of zone 2 shows more instability (having differences in use reports and frequency) as compared to zone 1. The reason is, as some informants (who are migrating to zone 2 in summer) are aware about the construction species of zone 2 so they cited zone 2 species in their freelist and vice versa with the other informants. Figure 79 shows that trees have less differences in use reports and frequency bars as compared to shrubs (but some shrubs like Dodonea viscosa and Buxus wallichiana are more stable, because these are exclusively used at foothill villages). The reason is the availability of tree species in a wider range of area while shrubs species and its density changes more in the surrounding of different villages which made this difference.

5.3.2 Degrees of agreement among villages Figure 80 shows the wide range of usage of each construction species which depends on informant’s knowledge and surrounding flora of each village. The species which shows 100%

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

agreements (Olea ferrugenia, Vibernum cotinifolim, Pinus wallichiana, Pyracantha spp and Buxus wallichiana) i.e. cited by informants from all villages, are the extensively used species for construction purpose. The decrease in degree of agreement for any species among informants of different villages is directly proportional to intensity and diversity of use of that species and this correlation is in accordance to field observations.

Jaty Ghbazh Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar Kurachai 100 80 60 40 agreement 20 of

0 Degree

Species

Fig. 80 Degrees of agreement among informants of different villages (for species used in construction)

5.3.3 Age wise variations in knowledge Figure 81 shows that the people of age group 30 has highest knowledge, because during the construction of a room roofs when timber are placed on it then youngsters are bound to cut and carry in bundles such straight wood (which are used in construction i.e. covering roof) from a nearby locality. Also the age group 30‐40 (among the age groups with 10 years difference) has high knowledge because such laborious work of construction, cutting and carrying is considered the responsibility of people within this age in the area.

No. of Species Known (with 5 years difference) No. of Species Known (with 10 years difference)

8 8 7 7 8 known 6 6 6 6 5 4 species

of

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group 30Group 35Group 40Group 45Group 50Group 55Group 60 Group Group Group Group Number 30‐40 41‐50 51‐60 Above 60 Age Groups

Fig. 81 Age wise variations in citation of species (used for construction) among informants

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

o p

Plate D: Typical houses structure in the area (o) Walls are made up of stones and (p) Roofs are made up of timber

q r

s t

Plate E: Mostly used commercial timber (q) Pinus Pinus gerardiana species (r) Pinus wallichiana species (s) and (t) timber of pinus species

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Table 6

Timber and construction species

) ) ) R R R

(U (U (U

Occurr‐ r r

Species Family Habit Characteristics and use UR

es i ence Used be be ‐ f Sel Tim Commercial Tim Construction spec Total Acacia modesta Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Good timber and also has potential for commercial purposes 37 8 4 49 but on local scale only, rarely used as construction materials Acer cappadocicum Aceraceae Zone 2 Tree Moderately used as timber especially in the houses leaving 13 2 1 16 near zone 2 Amygdalus brahuica Rosaceae Zone 1 Tree It has beautiful wood but less durability and less availability 11 1 12 make it less important Bauhinia retusa Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Rare availability makes it less important timber 4 4 Berberis calliobotrys Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub May be used as timber but not practicable 1 1 Buddleja crispa Buddlejaceae Zone 1 Shrub Its wood breaks suddenly which make it not practicable 1 1 Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Zone 1 Shrub Considered as good timber for self‐usage and as construction 14 1 10 25 wood because termites etc. do not attack on it, due to this ability its use as construction is increasing. Such use of it is comparatively new Capparis decidua Capparaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rare availability makes it un‐practicable 1 1 Celtis caucasica Ulmaceae Zone 1 Tree Used as timber only in temporary cottages due to less 19 19 durability Cornus macrophylla Cornaceae Zone 1 Tree Sometimes used as timber, also has some commercial 7 3 10 potential but is rarely available Cotoneaster Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub May be used as construction wood but not practicable 1 1 1 buxifolius Cotoneaster Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Occasionally used as timber and construction wood because 4 4 8 microphyllus it has less quantity of wood Cotoneaster minutus Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Good timber for self‐usage and has moderately been used 18 7 25 for construction purposes. Its abundant availability makes it important Daphne papyracea Thymelaeaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available as timber 2 2

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Debregeasia Urticaceae Zone 1 Shrub Sometimes used as timber but not abundantly available 8 8 salicifolia Dodonaea viscosa Sapindaceae Zone 1 Shrub Good timber for self‐usage. Used for commercial purposes 17 3 15 35 with in villages. Because of its ability as not getting attacked by termite make it favorable for construction purposes Ehretia obtusifolia Boraginaceae Zone 1 Shrub Sometimes used as timber, rarely used as construction 6 3 9 wood. Not abundantly available Elymus caninus Poaceae Zone 2 Herb Its unpalatably and abundant availability in zone 2 divert 2 2 local’s to put it on roofs above timber Eulaliopsis binata Poaceae Zone 1 Herb Due to its strong nodes and internodes and not getting spoil 1 1 for comparatively longer time make it usable to put it on roofs above timber Ficus palmata Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Sometimes used as timber because of its less availability and 8 8 non‐durability Ficus virens Moraceae Zone 1 Tree It’s rare availability make it unimportant 1 1 Fraxinus Oleaceae Zone 2 Tree Considered as best timber for self‐usage and has commercial 25 5 2 32 xanthoxyloides potential as well but it is not abundantly available. Rarely used for construction purposes (i.e. roof covering) Grewia tenax Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub Used as timber in temporary cottages as it is not durable 7 7 Grewia villosa Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub May be used as timber but not practicable 1 1 Jasminum humile Oleaceae Zone 2 Shrub Less available and has less wood in it 1 1 Litsea monopetala Lauraceae Zone 1 Tree Considered as good timber but it’s very rarely availability 5 5 make it unfit to be used as timber Lonicera hypoleuca Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Considered as good timber so often used as timber and for 11 2 12 25 construction purposes but it is restricted to zone 2 only Lonicera Caprifoliaceae Zone 1 Shrub Can used as timber but not practicable due to its rare 1 1 quinquelocularis availability Maytenus royleanus Celastraceae Zone 1 Shrub Sometimes used as timber but its spiny and unsmooth wood 6 1 7 is not considered as favorable Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Timber is not so good but abundant available make it very 39 10 15 64 important. Some times its main trunk is locally sold to use as pillar for roof. Also used for construction (roof covering) Nerium oleander Apocynaceae Zone 1 Shrub May be used as construction wood but not practicable 1 1 Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Mostly used and considered as best timber for self‐usage 44 18 23 85

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due to its extra ordinary durability. Similarly extensively used for construction due to its durability and not getting attacked by termites etc. Its commercial use is not abundant due to local restrictions on its commercial sale Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Most Important timber for commercial purposes and for 44 23 4 71 self‐usage. Due to the high price of its seeds, its commercial cutting is banned now Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Most Important and abundantly used timber for self‐usage 44 23 12 79 as well as for commercial purposes. The ban of P. gerardiana timber increased the cutting pressure of this plant Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Tree Considered good timber but Its rare availability decreases its 9 9 importance Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 & 2 Shrub Sometimes used as timber but not abundantly available 5 5 Pyracantha Spp Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Important timber for self‐usage and has medium use as 25 4 11 40 construction wood, sometime used for commercial purposes. Its timber quality is good but its abundant availability makes it more important Quercus dilatata Fagaceae Zone 1 Tree Sometimes used as timber but rarely available 8 8 Saccharum ravennae Poaceae Zone 1 Herb May be used for construction purpose but not practicable 1 1 Salvadora oleoides Salvadoraceae Zone 1 Shrub Rare availability made it un‐practicable 1 1 Spiraea canescens Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Moderately used as timber because of having less wood 12 3 15 Tecomella undulata Bignoniaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely used as timber due to rare availability 4 4 Viburnum Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Good timber and construction wood, its abundant 19 2 14 35 cotinifolium availability made it important Zanthoxylum Rutaceae Zone 1 Shrub Moderately used as timber but not abundantly available 12 1 2 15 armatum Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Sometimes used as timber but not abundantly available 7 7 Ziziphus nummularia Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Shrub May be used as timber but it’s rare availability made it un‐ 1 1 practicable Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely used as timber because of its less abundant 3 3 availability

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6. Fuel Wood Species Fuel wood is the prime energy source in developing world (Jan et al. 2011). Approximately 90% energy for heating and cooking is derived from trees (WWF IUCN, 2004, Kirubi et al. 2001). According to FAO, (2002) in Pakistan, 90% and 60% household use fuel wood energy in rural and urban areas respectively. In 1990 the annual fuel wood consumption in Pakistan was 22.4 million m3 and was estimated for the year 2000 as 30 million m3 (Sheikh, 1990) while according to UNDP, (1993) the estimated consumption was 31.38 billion Kg for the year 1990‐1991.

The area has harsh winters and no alternative energy sources, so in winter a large amount of woods is consumed to warm up their rooms and to cook their meals throughout the year. A total of 41 species from 29 families with 563 use reports obtained from 44 informants, compose the category of fuel wood species (table 7). Regarding habit, 18 (44%) are tree species with 324 (58%) use reports and 23 (56%) shrub species with 239 (42%) use reports which indicate the importance of trees than shrubs (Fig. 82). Similarly zone wise distribution of trees and shrubs with use report was as: 30 species (75%) with 394 (70%) use reports are from zone 1 while 11 (25%) species with 169 (30%) use reports are from zone 2. Figure 82 shows these details.

No. of Species Use Reports No. of Species in Zone 1 UR of Zone 1 Species No. of Species in Zone 2 UR of Zone 2 Species 70

60 80

50 60 values 40 values

30 40

Percentage 20

Percentage 20 10

0 0 Trees Shrubs Trees Shrubs Habit Habit

Fig. 82 Habit and zone wise distribution and variations among fuel wood species with use reports (%)

Figure 82 shows that the trees of zone 2 have more use reports per species as compared to zone 1. The reasons are the abundant and easy availability of trees dry woods which are left from commercially exploited timber trees at zone 2 and also few trees of zone 2 are well known to all informants (either migrating to zone 2 or not) so they included those specific trees in their freelist. Shrubs of zone 1 seems more important as compared to zone 2 because for general cooking purposes shrubby woods are preferred as are easy in cutting, bringing and using but most of the shrubs of zone 2 are not known to non‐migrating informants (61%) so they did not mention those shrub species.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

6.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency In order to understand the actual importance of each species, a comparison is made between overall use reports and frequency in first ten cited species of trees and shrubs of both zones separately, which are shown in figure 83 and 84.

Use Reports of Zone 1 Frequency in 1st ten cited species of Zone 1 Use Reports of Zone 2 Frequency in 1st ten cited species of Zone 2 90 80 70 60 values 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage 0

Trees

Fig. 83 Zone wise comparison of use reports and frequency in 1st ten cited fuel wood (trees) species

Figure 83 shows that three tree species at foothills villages (zone 1) which are Acacia modesta, Monotheca buxifolia and Olea ferrugenia and two tree species at migratory villages (zone 2) which are Pinus wallichiana and P. gerardiana are mainly used as fuel wood. The contribution of remaining tree species seems very low. The field observation and detailed interview support this statement more for foothills villages and less for migratory villages.

Use Reports of Zone 1 Frequency in 1st ten cited species of Zone 1 Use Reports of Zone 2 Frequency in 1st ten cited species of Zone 2 45 40 35 30 25 values 20 15 10 5 0 Percentage

Shrubs

Fig. 84 Zone wise comparison of use reports and frequency in 1st ten cited fuel wood (shrubs) species

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Figure 84 indicates that two shrubs i.e. Pyracantha Spp and Cotoneater minutus at migratory villages (zone 2) and four shrub species i.e. Dodonea viscosa, Maytenus royleanus, Spiraea canescens and Cotoneaster microphyllus at foothills villages (zone 1) are prominent in fuel perspectives. Here the field observation and detailed interview data do not support this statement.

6.2 Actual consumption The above use reports actually indicate the knowledge of individuals from fuel perspectives and its comparison with frequency make some picture of what’s going on the ground but is not much clear. So to understand what is the actual or most prominent species used as fuel wood and what is the ratio among species which extensively used for fuel purposes, a separate data was collected in response of a question that “If you have consumed 10 plants as fuel wood, which different species and in what proportion they were used”.

Acacia modesta Olea ferrugenia P. wallichiana Pyracantha Spp Monotheca buxifolia Others P. gerardiana Cotoneaster minutus Vibernum cotonifolium Lonicera hypoleuca 4.5 4 ratio ratio

2.9

2 2

1111 Consumption 0.6 Consumption

1 1 Fuel Wood Species at Foot Hills Villages Fuel wood Species at Migratory villages

Fig. 85 Consumption ratios among mostly used fuel wood species at foothills (zone 1) and at migratory villages (zone 2)

Figure 85 shows the mostly used actual ratio among fuel wood species both at foothills villages (zone 1) and at migratory villages (zone 2) but there is a controversy among the figure 85 with figure 83 and figure 84. Figure 83 shows that two tree species are mostly used as fuel wood in zone 2 which is against figure 85 which shows more consumption of shrubs as fuel wood in zone 2. Similarly figure 84 shows more dependence on a wide range of shrub species at zone 1 and vice versa which is controversial with figure 85 details for foothills villages (i.e. zone 1).

The explanation for the above controversy is that as the data on fuel consumption is taken from all informants without taking care of either the informant is migrating or not. Secondly the non‐migratory informants also go to zone 2 in summer for commercial timber cutting but to a higher altitude where the vegetation is dominated by Pinus gerardiana and P. wallichiana while the migratory villages occur at some lower altitude where only Pinus wallichiana is the dominant tree accompanied by different shrubs, so by getting the fuel wood consumption ratio at migratory villages, it was restricted to that specific altitude where Pinus wallichiana is accompanied by the different shrubs. Some other families from

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

southern side of these hills migrate to the top up of these hills (which is dominated by both Pinus species) so by combining the consumption as a whole at zone 2 the figure 83 information are correct but only the ratio at migratory villages which are included in present study the information are incorrect. Regarding fuel consumption ratio at foothills villages, the main woods used during winter are obtained from the 3 main tree species which are indicated in figure 83 but informants included the shrubs which are only used for meals cooking and some other ordinary uses (as shown in figure 84) which basically has very less ratio in overall annual fuel wood consumption at foothill villages. Another important discussable matter is that the traditional knowledge is complex in nature, so different methodologies have to be used for complete and real exploration.

6.3 Degrees of agreement/disagreement among villages Figure 86 and 87 shows the degree of agreement among all the informants of different villages. The differences are either due to their knowledge (awareness about both zones) or difference in surrounding vegetation, as the abundance of one species decrease the importance of its alternative species. This graph can help in understating the usage diversity of trees and shrubs species in the area.

Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 100 90 80 70 60 50 40

agreement 30 20 of 10 0 Degree

Species

Fig. 86 Fuel wood species with 100% agreement and disagreement among different villages

The species with 100% agreement among all villages means that such species are present in the surrounding of each village so they are used as fuel wood (even some of these are not often used) throughout the area while the species which are unique to each village are present very rarely or we may sat that such species are not the integrated part of the flora of this area at least in fuel wood perspective.

Figure 87 shows the fuel wood species with various degrees of agreement among all the villages from 80%‐ 40%. This percentage agreement is not only showing their degree of use diversity but also their abundance in the area. For example Spiraea canescense has 80% agreement (i.e. cited by informants from 4 villages out of 5), Ehretia obtusifolia has 60% agreement (i.e. cited by informants from 3 villages out of 5) and Zizyphus oxyphyllahas 40% agreement (i.e. cited by informants from 2 villages out of 5), it

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

means that these species are not only used in the same descending order as fuel wood but also has the same abundance or flexibility of habitat in the area.

Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 agreement 20 of

10 0 Degree

Species

Fig. 87 various degrees of agreement among informants of different villages for fuel wood species

6.4 Age wise knowledge differences in fuel wood species Figure 88 shows age wise difference in the knowledge of informants. The people of age group of 45 (among the age groups based on 5 years difference) and 41‐50 (among the age groups based on 10 years difference) has more knowledge about fuel wood because at this age an individual has more responsibilities which include taking care of his family by making the rooms warm enough in winter, so they knows better about fuel wood at this age.

No. of Species known (with 10 years difference) No. of Species known (with 5 years difference)

18 14 14 13 12 13 13 13 12 13 11 11 10 11

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 above 60 Age Groups

Fig. 88 Age wise variations in number of fuel wood species citation among informants

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Table 7

Fuel wood species

Occurr‐ Species Family Habit Description ence URs Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Catch the fire soon, a resin containing part produces more smoke, 44 make the meal bitter due to its pungent smoke, abundantly available and most extensively used at migratory villages Acacia modesta Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Burns for longer time, more heat value, make the meal testy, coal is 43 reusable and abundantly available and most extensively used at foothill villages Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Zone 1 Tree Produce more smoke and sparking but its abundant availability make it 43 among the important fuel wood species at foothill villages Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Tree Catch the fire soon, has more light, resin containing part produces 43 more smoke which makes the meal bitter, abundantly available and is among the most important fuel wood species at foothill villages Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Zone 2 Tree Catch the fire soon, a resin containing parts produces more smoke, 43 make the meal bitter due to its pungent smoke, abundantly available and is among the important fuel wood species at higher altitude Pyracantha Spp Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Abundantly and easily available so abundantly used 25 Cotoneaster minutus Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Abundantly and easily available so abundantly used 24 Dodonaea viscosa Sapindaceae Zone 1 Shrub Abundantly available, easy in cutting and bringing 21 Maytenus royleanus Celastraceae Zone 1 Shrub Mostly branches are browsed for livestock which on drying used as 20 fuel Spiraea canescens Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Having good fire characteristics, make the meal testy 20 Cotoneaster microphyllus Rosaceae Zone 1 Shrub Having good fire characteristics 19 Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Zone 1 Shrub Abundantly available, producing pungent smoke 18 Celtis caucasica Ulmaceae Zone 1 Tree Branches are browsed for livestock which on drying used as fuel 18 Grewia tenax Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub Branches are browsed for livestock which on drying used as fuel 15 Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 15 Ficus palmata Moraceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 13 Buddleja crispa Buddlejaceae Zone 1 Shrub Produce more and pungent smoke, rarely used 12 Ehretia obtusifolia Boraginaceae Zone 1 Shrub Mostly branches are browsed for livestock which upon drying are used 12

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

as fuel Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 & 2 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 11 Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Oleaceae Zone 2 Tree Mostly branches are browsed for livestock which on drying used as 10 fuel Debregeasia salicifolia Urticaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 9 Ziziphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Mostly branches are browsed for livestock which upon drying are used 9 as fuel Acer cappadocicum Aceraceae Zone 2 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 8 Amygdalus brahuica Rosaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 8 Zanthoxylum armatum Rutaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 7 Quercus dilatata Fagaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used but has good fire characteristics 6 Grewia villosa Tiliaceae Zone 1 Shrub Mostly branches are browsed for livestock which on drying used as 5 fuel Litsea monopetala Lauraceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 5 Lonicera hypoleuca Caprifoliaceae Zone 2 Shrub Abundantly available and has good fire characteristics 5 Rosa brunonii Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Due to its spiny nature, it’s difficult to cut and bring, also has low heat 5 value Tecomella undulata Bignoniaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 5 Ziziphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 5 Bauhinia retusa Fabaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 4 Berberis calliobotrys Berberidaceae Zone 2 Shrub Available but are rarely used because Pinus gerardiana and P. 3 wallichiana at that places are more abundant and easily available Capparis decidua Capparaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 2 Cornus macrophylla Cornaceae Zone 1 Tree Rarely available and are rarely used 2 Daphne papyracea Thymelaeaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used as having pungent smoke 2 Cotoneaster pruinosus Rosaceae Zone 2 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 1 Jasminum humile Oleaceae Zone 2 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 1 Salvadora oleoides Salvadoraceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 1 Ziziphus nummularia Rhamnaceae Zone 1 Shrub Rarely available and are rarely used 1 Total 563

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

7. Goods/Leather Water Carrier making Species The species used in preparing the leather water carrier from the skin of a goat (Plate F) is a small category in the present study (here called Goods/Leather water carrier making species) but was important enough to preserve this diminishing knowledge as this leather water carrier is now getting replaced by market utensils. The skin of goat is processed in a specific way by putting the plant parts in it to make a leather container in which water is carried to home from streams; locally this is called “GODAI”. Also the dairy products from milk are obtained by shaking the yogurt after putting it in this leather container with a bit modification, locally called “GHARAK”. The differences in these are that as the 1st one (GODAI) is made from goat skin and the second one (GHARAK) from sheep skin. Another difference in preparing it is, in sheep skin at first the ash of wood is filled for a few days while in goat skin the plant parts are directly used.

This cultural usage of preparing leather water carrier is finishing due to introduction of some rubber water carrier and some other utensils from market. The migrating families are using it yet but the non‐ migrating families have replaced it but the second type (i.e. “GHARAK” made from sheep skin for processing milk to obtain dairy products) is yet practicable. Also, this is considered as a women’s job so women were having more knowledge and skills in its preparation but due to specific cultural restriction, interviews from women were avoided and relied only on interviews from male.

A total of 8 species from 7 families with 213 use reports obtained from 44 informants, make this ethnobotanical category (table 8).

Table 8

Goods/Leather water carrier making species Species Family Occurrence Part Used Habit URs Pistacia chinensis Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Leaves Tree 44 Ephedra gerardiana Ephedraceae Zone 2 Tertiary branches Shrub 43 Acer cappadocicum Aceraceae Zone 2 Leaves Tree 42 Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Zone 1 Leaves, green stem’s bark Tree 40 Punica granatum Punicaceae Zone 1 & 2 Fruit exocarp Shrub 32 Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Zone 1 Leaves Shrub 10 Pistacia khanjak Anacardiaceae Zone 1 Leaves Tree 1 Viscum cruciatum Loranthaceae Zone 1 Leaves Climber 1 Total 213

7.1 Comparison of use reports and frequency In order to understand the important species within this category, a comparison was made between overall use reports and frequency of 1st three cited species (Fig. 89).

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Use Reports Frequency in 1st 3 cited species 40 30 20 10 0

Species

Fig. 89 Comparison of overall use reports and frequency in 1st three cited species (used in preparing a leather water carrier)

Figure 89 shows that the last two species (i.e. Pistacia khanjak and Viscum cruciatum) may just have this usage capability but rarely used. In remaining, the trees are very important than shrubs.

7.2 Village wise degrees of agreement Figure 90 shows that there is full agreement among villages for the 1st five mainly used species, while the sixth one i.e. Buxus wallichiana is not mentioned by the only Kurachai villages. The last two species (with a single use report) are restricted to single village each.

Jaty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 100 80 60 40 20 agreement

of 0

Degree

Species

Fig. 90 Degrees of agreement among informants of different villages for species used in preparing a leather water carrier

7.3 Age wise differences in knowledge As mentioned earlier that this use category is not as strong as it was, also its knowledge is mostly restricted to women. As it were mostly used some 20‐30 years earlier, so the people, who were young at that time, have this knowledge more than today young’s.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

No. of Species Known (With 10 years difference) No. of Species Known (With 5 years difference)

6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 3

Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Age Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 20‐30 31‐40 41‐50 51‐60 above 60

Age Groups

Fig. 91 Age wise variations among informants in number of species citation (used in preparing a leather water carrier)

u v

Plate F: Typical houses structure in the area (u) Goat skin prepared to bring water from streams and (v) Sheep skin prepared for shaking yogurt to separate butter from it

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

8. Ten Most Important Plants This is the category of any ten important plant species (wild) in the area according to the views of informants. These include characteristics like extensively used as timber (for self‐usage or commercial purposes), wild food plants (self‐usage or commercial), medicinal, ethnoveterinary, fodder, ornamental, unique species of area or having any other specialty, present either at zone 1 or zone 2. This category was helpful in comparing it with the overall use reports obtained for all categories.

A total of 49 species were cited by 46 informants in the category of 10 most important plants of the area. Among these, 13 species were herbs, 20 shrubs and 16 tress while 28 species with 228 frequency were from zone 1 and remaining 21 species with 182 frequency were from zone 2 (table 9).

By comparing the overall use reports of all categories and frequency of species in the category of 10 most important plants of the area (the values were converted to percentage for comparison), the top 5 species has 100% agreement, top 10 species have 90% agreement while the top 20 species has 75% agreement, which is the indication that the categories elaborated separately during present studies are locally important enough.

Figure 92 shows the percentage of species with frequency in each habit and zone, which indicates that trees are most important habit followed by shrubs and then herbs while zone 1 is more important than zone 2. Such findings are in accordance with most of the individual categories which show the same pattern and sequence of importance both habit wise and zone wise. The reasons are the multicontextual uses of trees made them more citable. Getting more useful species near human settlement (i.e. zone 1 in present studies) has been reported by other researchers as well (Weckerle et al. 2006; Salick et al. 1999). The habit wise detail of each species is shown in figure 94 while zone wise each species detail is shown in figure 95.

% species % frequency 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Trees Shrubs Herbs Zone 1Zone 2 Habit and Occurrence

Fig. 92 Habit and zone wise distribution of ten most important species (of the area) with frequency

Regarding habit wise distribution of species in each zone (as shown in figure 93), herbs of zone 2 are more important than zone 1. The reason is, as zone 2 has more herbaceous diversity because of more annual rainfall and less grazing pressure than zone 1 and according to some quantitative studies (Salick et al.1999, 2004) there is positive correlation between species richness and the number of useful species.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

There was more diversity of important trees in zone 1 as compared to zone 2 but few trees of zone 2 were well known for their contribution in the routine life which made per species use reports of zone 2 trees higher than zone 1. The diversity of important shrubs were more in zone 2 but use report per species of zone 1 shrubs is higher because non‐migrating informants mostly cite only shrubs of zone 1 while the migrating informants cited shrubs of both zones which brought the shrubs of zone 2 to the main list (i.e. number of zone 2 shrubs are higher) but couldn’t provide weight to them (i.e. use reports per species is less) because the number of migrating informants were less than the non‐migrating ones.

Trees Shrubs Herbs 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 % of species % frequency % of species % frequency Zone 1Zone 2

Fig. 93 Zone and habit wise distribution of ten important plant (of the area) with frequency

Herb Shrub Tree 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15

Frequency 10 5 0 Spp Spp

tenax

binata

viscosa

palmata minutus buxifolia

modesta

salicifolia

caucasica oxyphylla esculanta granatum

fruitcosus

aitchisonii integrema

ferrugenia

Allium

gerardiana gerardiana

mauritiana

wallichiana canescencs

tuberculata

cotinifolium

macrophylla stocksianum

microphyllus

Grewia

Ficus cappadocicum

Celtis Pyracantha Olea xanthoxyloides Acacia

Rubus Pinus Dodonea Punica Pinus Eulaliopsis quinquelocaularis Spirea

Pistacia Zizyphus Acer Ephedra Cornus Zizyphus Marchella Scaligeria Monotheca Debregesia Cotoneaster Caralluma Vibernum Teucrium Fraxinus Cotoneaster Lanicera Species

Fig. 94 Habit wise frequency of different species among ten important plant species (of the area)

Figure 94 shows that 5 tree species are important enough in the area in descending order i.e. Pinus gerardiana, Olea ferrugenia, Monotheca buxifolia, Acacia modesta and P. wallichiana respectively.

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

These trees show the highest use reports in majority of the individual ethnobotanical categories in the same sequence that is why they are considered as the top five species by the informants of the area. Regarding shrubs, 4 species have a very prominent frequency in descending order as Cotoneaster minutus, Vibernum cotinifolium, Punica granatum and C. microphyllus respectively. The same sequence can be obtained by combining the use reports of all the individual ethnobotanical categories for these species. Among herbs the three most important species are Marchella esculanta, Caralluma tuberculata and Allium spp. (In the figure 94 Marchella esculanta‐ a fungus has been placed with herbs for convenience). Marchella esculanta is one of the important commercial food species in the area while Caralluma tuberculata was used as wild vegetable for self‐usage and also marketed as well. Allium spp is an important and extensively used wild salad of zone 2 which according to locals has medicinal properties as well. (The importance of all these species‐ mentioned in the above paragraph, has been reported in individual ethnobotanical categories in detail).

Frequency of Zone 1 Species Frequency of Zone 2 Species 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Spp Spp

tenax

binata

viscosa

minutus palmata Fraxinus… Lanicera… buxifolia

modesta

salicifolia

oxyphylla caucasica esculanta granatum

fruitcosus

aitchisonii

integrema ferrugenia

Allium

gerardiana gerardiana

mauritiana

wallichiana canescencs

tuberculata

cotinifolium

Cotoneaster… macrophylla stocksianum

Grevea Ficus cappadocicum

Celtis Pyracantha Olea Acacia Rubus Pinus Dodonea Punica Pinus Eulaliopsis Spirea Pistacia Zizyphus Acer Ephedra Cornus Zizyphus Marchella Scaligeria Monotheca Debregesia Cotoneaster Caralluma Vibernum Species Teucrium

Fig. 95 Zone wise frequency of different species among the category of ten important plant (of the area)

Figure 95 shows zone wise distribution of species, having the highest frequency for all those species which are explained in the context of figure 94 and are in accordance with the important plants (i.e. having more use reports) in individual ethnobotanical categories.

8.1 Comparison of frequency and ranking Frequency is the number of citations of species by informants while ranking is the specific accumulative position of species within the list of 10 most important plants, cited by informants. Such comparison brings the actual status of each species within the area. Figure 96 shows that some of the species with high frequency (the 1st five species in the figure 96) are actually more important than their frequency range because these are not only most cited but also has an initial position in the list which is the indication of its primary importance. Some of the species like Cotoneaster microphyllus, Vibernum cotonifolium and Cotoneaster minutus has higher frequency but within the list of top 10 important

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species of the area, they are not important enough (i.e. having low rank) while some of the species which are not mostly cited by informants but whenever they are cited, they got proper position within the list of 10 important plants, that is why they have the same size bar of frequency and ranking in the graph like Punica granatum, Grewia tenax and Ziziphus oxyphylla.

% Ranking Score % Frequency 18 16 and 14 12 10 8 6 Frequency

4

of 2

Ranking 0 Comparison

Top 20 Species

Fig. 96 Comparison of frequency and ranking of top 20 species in the category of 10 important plants

8.2 Village wise degrees of agreement Figure 97 indicates 13 species with a 100 degree agreement among all villages. Among these, the Allium spp which is restricted to zone 2 and has not high frequency of citation but is broadly used in the area. Figure 98 shows 13 species with varies degree of agreements among villages as some of those species are important for some villages and vice versa while figure 99 shows those species which are important only for a specific village. Such findings are the indications of use diversity of different species.

Jatty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 100% 90% 80% among

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% agreement 10% villages of

0% degree

100

Species

Fig. 97 Species with 100 degree agreement among different villages in ten important plants category

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Jatty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 100 80 60 agreement

40 of

villages 20

0 degree

among Various

Fig. 98 Species with various degrees of agreement among villages in ten important plants category

Jatty Ghbazh Kurachai Landi Kutherzai Payor Mela Zindawar 20 village

15 each

of 10

5 Species 0 Unique

Species

Fig. 99 Unique species of each village in category of ten important plants (of the area)

These species shown in figure 97, 98 and 99 has nearly the same importance or degree of agreement among informants of all villages, in individual ethnobotanical categories as well.

Table 9

Ten most important plants Species Family Habit Occurrence Frequency Acacia modesta Fabaceae Tree Zone 1 41 Acer cappadocicum Aceraceae Tree Zone 2 4 Allium corolinianum Alliaceae Herb Zone 2 1 Allium Spp Alliaceae Herb Zone 2 12 Bauhinia retusa Fabaceae Tree Zone 1 1

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Chapter 3 Results and Discussion

Berberis jaeschkeana Berberidaceae Shrub Zone 2 1 Buxus wallichiana Buxaceae Shrub Zone 2 1 Caraluma tuberculata Asclepiadaceae Herb Zone 1 15 Celtis caucasica Ulmaceae Tree Zone 1 7 Cornus macrophylla Cornaceae Tree Zone 1 3 Cotoneaster microphyllus Rosaceae Shrub Zone 1 27 Cotoneaster minutus Rosaceae Shrub Zone 2 17 Debregesia salicifolia Urticaceae Shrub Zone 1 4 Delbergia sissoo Fabaceae Tree Zone 1 1 Dodonea viscosa Sapindaceae Shrub Zone 1 7 Ehretia obtusifolia Boraginaceae Shrub Zone 1 1 Ephedra gerardiana Ephedraceae Shrub Zone 2 2 Eulaliopsis binata Poaceae Herb Zone 1 4 Ficus palmata Moraceae Tree Zone 1 19 Fraxinus xanthoxyloides Oleaceae Tree Zone 2 4 Grevea tenax Tiliaceae Shrub Zone 1 8 Grewia villosa Tiliaceae Shrub Zone 1 1 Gymnosporea royleana Poaceae Shrub Zone 1 1 Lanicera quinquelocaularis Lauraceae Shrub Zone 2 3 Leptochloa panicea Caprifoliaceae Herb Zone 2 2 Litsea monopetala Caprifoliaceae Tree Zone 1 1 Lonicera hypoleuca Malvaceae Shrub Zone 1 1 Malva neglecta Celastraceae Herb Zone 1 1 Monotheca buxifolia Sapotaceae Herb Zone 2 44 Morchella esculenta Morchellaceae Tree Zone 1 18 Olea ferruginea Oleaceae Tree Zone 1 46 Peganum harmalla Zygophyllaceae Herb Zone 1 1 Pinus gerardiana Pinaceae Tree Zone 2 46 Pinus wallichiana Pinaceae Tree Zone 2 37 Pistacia integrima Anacardiaceae Tree Zone 1 5 Punica granatum Punicaceae Shrub Zone 1 18 Rhamnus persica Rosaceae Shrub Zone 2 2 Ribes alpestre Grossulariaceae Shrub Zone 2 1 Rosa brunonii Rosaceae Shrub Zone 2 1 Rubus ulmifolius Rosaceae Herb Zone 2 3 Scaligeria aitchisonii Apiaceae Herb Zone 2 6 Spirea canescencs Rosaceae Shrub Zone 1 3 Teucrium stocksianum Lamiaceae Herb Zone 1 4 Thymus linearis Lamiaceae Herb Zone 2 1 Valeriana jatamansii Valerianaceae Herb Zone 2 1 Vibernum cotonifolium Caprifoliaceae Shrub Zone 2 21 Zanthoxylum armatum Rutaceae Shrub Zone 1 1 Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae Tree Zone 1 2 Zizyphus oxyphylla Rhamnaceae Tree Zone 1 9

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Conclusion During the present studies, both phenomena i.e. the tragedy of commons (Hardin, 1968) and the benefits of commons (Berkes et al., 1989) were co‐existed. Similarly the traditional health care system was not totally based on medicinal plants, but it was the combination of medicinal plants, religious healing system and allopathic medications and this was concluded from medicinal preparation based on a single plant (i.e. unawareness about complex medicinal remedies), its use for simple ailments (in most cases) and the absence of any herbalist in the area. One another important finding of the present study was that, the wild food species or non‐wood forest products' role as an income source, can be increased if used sustainably and marketed properly. Data analysis revealed that the plant species used in multiple ethnobotanical categories were locally considered more important than species used extensively for single ethnobotanical category. Similarly medicinal plant used for more different diseases or a single medicinal plant whose different parts were used or having different mode of preparation and route of application, were having more citation and vice versa. Also, more useful species are collected near human settlements irrespective of diversity of species but diversity of species is helpful in selection of best species for specific use. Factors influencing botanical knowledge in the area (in descending order) were: Age, exposure to a wide range of flora (migration to zone 2), sources of income and surrounding vegetation of the village. Also, to explore the traditional botanical knowledge of a community, multiple ethnobotanical methodologies are needed. Field observations make it clear that the dominant criterion for selection of timber wood species was the quality of timber, for fuel wood species it was the available wood quantity and for fodder species, it was high palatability and availability throughout the year. Similarly it became obvious that pastoral communities depends more on wild fruits and less of wild vegetables and also that fodder species freelisting is the best source to determine the variations among individual’s knowledge, in pastoral communities.

Recommendations Future research in the area should to be based on resource managements and conservation issues, livelihood improvement and sustainable environment utilization. Knowledge evaluation of pastoralist regarding environmental change and poverty alleviation would be interesting and potential economic role of wild food resources through better managements will also be appreciable.

Acknowledgments I am gratifying the tribal communities of Thakht‐e‐Sulaiman for their cooperation, hospitality and sharing their knowledge‐ this work would never have been possible without their partnership. This work was financially supported by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan (by providing Indigenous scholarship and International Research Support and Initiative Program fellowship). I would like to thank the Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich‐ Switzerland, for providing opportunity to analyze and compile my field data in a supportive and friendly environment.

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Appendix I Questionnaire Name Age Marital status Village name Education Cast and sub‐cast Major sources of The number of individuals How many animals you income in your house have in your home How many Are you migrating in Your Family/month languages you know summer, if yes then where expenditure

Medicinal plants  What are the common human diseases of your area?  How many medicinal plants do you know, freely tell their names?  Which are the common livestock diseases of your area?  How many veterinary medicinal plants do you know, freely tell their names?  How it is used?

Wild food species  Which wild fruit species do you know, freely tell their names?  Which wild edibles (vegetables & salad) you know, freely tell their names?  The leaves of which plants are used as tea?

Commercial wild food species  Which commercial food species are collected and sold in your area, freely tell their names?  How many people of your village are involved in Pinus gerardianaseeds collection for sell?  What is per Kg Price of Pinus gerardiana seeds?  How much money a single person earns from Pinus gerardiana seed collection and sells, during good, medium and bad year?  How many people of your village are involved in Acacia modesta Gums collection for sell?  How much money a single person earns from Gums collection and sells per season, during good, medium and bad year?  What is per Kg Price of Acacia modesta Gum?  How many people of your village are involved in Monotheca buxifolia fruits collection for sell?  How much money a single person earns from Monotheca buxifolia fruit collection and sells per season, during good, medium and bed year?  What is per Kg Price of Monotheca buxifolia fruits?  How many people of your village are involved in Olea ferrugenia fruits collection for sell?  How much money a single person earns from Olea ferrugenia fruit collection and sells per season, during good, medium and bad year?  What is per Kg Price of Olea ferrugenia fruit?  How many people of your village are involved in Morchella esculenta collection for sell?  How much a single person earns from Morchella esculenta sell in good, medium and bad years (in regard of production of this fungus)?  How many people of your village are involved in Caralluma tuberculata collection for sell?  How much a single person earns from the Caralluma tuberculata sell in good, medium and bad years?

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(Note: Good, Medium and Bad years are related to production. For example, in some years the fruits are produced in good quantity, in some years medium amount of fruits are produced while in some years, fruits are produced in less amount)

Fodder species  Which fodder species do you know, freely tell their names?  Which plant species when eaten by animals, make them fatty?  Which plant species when eaten by the animals, produce more milk?  Which plant species when eaten by animals, produce good smell in milk?  Which plant species when eaten by animals, produce bad smell in milk?  Which plant species are not eaten by the cattle at one season but are eaten at other season?  Which fodder species are stored for winter?  Which plant species are preferably eaten by the below specific animals?  Goat: ______ Sheep: ______ Cow: ______ Donkey: ______ Camel: ______

Timber wood  How many timbers wood species do you know, freely tell their names?  Which different plants are used in construction(to place above timber to cover roofs), freely tell their names?  Which timbers are mostly sold?  How many people of your village are involved in timber cutting for sell?  How much a single person earns through time sell per year?  If you have used 10 plants as timber at foothill villages, then which ones and in what ratio they will be?  If you have used 10 plants as timber at migratory villages, then which ones and in what ratio they will be?  If 1000 is the price of Pinus gerardiana average timber then what will be the price of same timber if it is of… Olea ferrugenia= Pinus wallichiana = Acacia modesta= Monotheca buxifolia=

Fuel wood  How many fuel wood species do you know, freely tell their names?  If you have used 10 plants as fuel at foothill villages, then which ones and in what ratio they will be?  If you have used 10 plants as fuel at migratory villages, then which ones and in what ratio they will be?

Miscellaneous questions  Which plants are used for “GODAI” and“GHARAK”(leather water carrier, which is made from the skin of goat and sheep) preparation, freely tell their names?  Tell me the names of 10 most important plants of your area?  Why some families are migrating in summer to higher altitudeand what are the benefits?  Why some families are not migrating in summer to higher altitude?

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Appendix II

Medicinal sub‐categories based on symptoms and organ affected Medicinal sub‐ Medicinal sub‐ Symptoms category Symptoms category Applied on Blisters Dermatological For body coolness Multisystem For small external wound Dermatological For sun shock Multisystem To dry the external wounds Dermatological For sun stroke Multisystem Its milk is applied on Papillae Dermatological For coolness Multisystem Its milk is applied on blisters Dermatological Reduces the duration of Typhoid Multisystem Its fresh young shoots paste is made and applied on pustules Dermatological For influenza Multisystem Used against “Voice Infection” Its powdered is used for (which means that some spreading in joints of kids for peoples voices has infectious pustule and blisters Dermatological effect) Ritual Applied on skin after spine get inserted in the skin Dermatological For Unusual disease Ritual For Skin allergy Dermatological Disease due to effect of ghosts Ritual Used for stomach Gastrointestinal For insects in the teeth Dentistry For stomach gasses Gastrointestinal For teeth bleeding Dentistry For abdominal pain Gastrointestinal For teeth diseases Dentistry For dysentery Gastrointestinal Used against high temperature Fever For diarrhea Gastrointestinal Used for Malaria Fever For stomach problems Gastrointestinal Given to women after childbirth Tonic For stomach pain Gastrointestinal For general body fitness Tonic For abdominal worms Gastrointestinal Used for flattened body Obesity For anti‐constipation Gastrointestinal Used against Obesity Obesity Used against strains Skeleto‐muscular For eye troubles Ophthalmological For large internal wounds Skeleto‐muscular For eye irritations Ophthalmological For internal wounds Skeleto‐muscular For cough Respiratory For internal injuries Skeleto‐muscular Better for cough Respiratory Used against Sprains Skeleto‐muscular Low blood pressure Blood system Used for Hepatitis Liver Used against spermatorrhoea Male diseases

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