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The Toughness of Imperial Roman Concrete

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The Toughness of Imperial Roman Concrete Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures - Recent Advances in Fracture Mechanics of Concrete - B. H. Oh, et al.(eds) ⓒ 2010 Korea Concrete Institute, Seoul, ISBN 978-89-5708-180-8 The toughness of imperial roman concrete P. Brune & R. Perucchio University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA A.R. Ingraffea Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA M.D. Jackson Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, USA ABSTRACT: The concrete composites used to realize the monumental structures of Imperial Rome are re- markable engineering materials. While the endurance of intact constructions such as the Pantheon evinces the concretes’ durability, such durability mostly serves to preserve the mechanical properties, which are responsi- ble both for the monuments’ original creation and continued survival. Despite their prominent role in the en- gineering achievements of the empire, these mechanical properties – particularly in tension and fracture – have not been comprehensively assessed. We first review the mechanical properties obtained through various experimental programs conducted on both authentic ancient composite core samples and their components, summarizing the major findings and outlining the remaining gaps in knowledge. We then qualitatively discuss the fracture of Roman concrete within the context of our own testing program, which will test both re- fabricated and authentic materials, with the aim of characterizing the fracture behavior that has contributed to the preservation of a significant component of engineering heritage. 1 INTRODUCTION fragmented brick and volcanic rock coarse aggregate of decimeter-scale dimensions bonded by a poz- Between 60-160CE, Imperial Roman engineers zolanic mortar, based on altered volcanic ash ini- honed their usage of concrete to create spanned mo- tially mixed with hydrated lime. The mortar has a numental structures with designs that would violate relatively low compressive strength as compared present-day Civil Engineering building safety codes with Portland cement mortars. The published me- (ACI 318-08 2008). And yet a surprising number of chanical testing data is sparse, and provides only these buildings are still extant today, some in excel- scattered compressive strength values that are not lent states of preservation and covered by their orig- accompanied by full load-displacement curves. Va- inal unreinforced concrete vaults. Scholarly investi- riability in mortar and coarse aggregate composi- gations tend to emphasize the architectural tions further reduces the applicability of these re- significance of the monuments instead of exploring sults, particularly as they pertain to fracture of the the structural considerations invoked by the creation concretes and the buildings realized therein. All told, and survival of these daring constructions. Those describing the fracture behavior of these highly het- rare studies that analyze structural behavior have erogeneous composites with widely varying con- been constrained by limited knowledge of the me- stituents presents remarkable challenges. However, chanical behaviors of the constituent concretes. In- its characterization is vital to accurately assessing deed, not a single analysis has incorporated the frac- the safety of surviving structures, and understanding ture mechanics of Roman concrete as a quasi-brittle their extraordinary durability in response to a com- material. Such analyses are critical for both preserv- bination of differential settling on weakly consoli- ing deteriorating structures and understanding the dated bedrock and seismic ground motions over their endurance of those still intact, as well as studying nearly 2000-year life spans. the ancient design conventions responsible for their We begin with an exploration of published and conception and construction. unpublished mechanical test data for both the con- Fracture mechanics has not previously been ap- glomeratic concretes and their assorted constituents. plied to Roman concretes, mainly because little is Examination of results for authentic historic speci- known of their physical behavior as cementitious mens, modern laboratory-fabricated re-productions, composites. The conglomeratic fabric contains and raw geologic materials provides initial insights into the potential application of modern concrete The structural Jfabric= −D (ofh,T Roman)∇h concretes can be (1) explicitly accounts for the evolution of hydration fracture mechanics to describe the fracture behavior described on several length scales. On the structural reaction and SF content. This sorption isotherm of the ancient cementitious composites. From this scale, the material Theoccupies proportionality large volumes coefficient – the D(h,T) is called reads 3 review, we formulate several hypotheses about the Great Hall encompassesmoisture anpermeability excess of and 3000m it is a ofnonlinear function fracture mechanisms of the concretes. We include a concrete – as a heterogeneousof the relative composite humidity hcontinuum. and temperature T (Bažant ⎡ ⎤ preliminary description of our proposed testing On the meso level, a pozzolanic mortar bonds deci- ⎢ 1 ⎥ & Najjar 1972). The moisture mass balance requires w ()()h,α ,α = G α ,α 1 − + program, which will employ a novel experimental meter-sized coarsethat aggregates the variation (caementa in time). of Various the water mass per unit e c s 1 c s ⎢ ∞ ⎥ ⎢ 10(g α − α )h ⎥ configuration to measure the fracture properties of materials were usedvolume as caementa of concrete, with (water builders content often w ) be equal to the ⎣ e 1 c c ⎦ (4) laboratory-reproductions of an Imperial pozzolanic vertically gradingdivergence the aggregates of the by moisture mass density flux J to mortar, before culminating in the fracture testing of reduce the self-weight of upper sections of struc- ⎡ 10(g α ∞ − α )h ⎤ K ()α ,α ⎢e 1 c c − 1⎥ a significant volume of authentic ancient core sam- tures, especially in vaults.∂w 1 c s ⎢ ⎥ ples from the Great Hall of the Markets of Trajan − = ∇ • J (2) ⎣ ⎦ ∂t (c.110CE). where the first term (gel isotherm) represents the The water content w can be expressed as the sum physically bound (adsorbed) water and the second of the evaporable water w (capillary water, water e term (capillary isotherm) represents the capillary 2 DESCRIPTION OF ROMAN CONCRETES vapor, and adsorbed water) and the non-evaporable water. This expression is valid only for low content (chemically bound) water w (Mills 1966, n of SF. The coefficient G represents the amount of The meaningful discussion of Roman concretes is Pantazopoulo & Mills 1995). It is reasonable to 1 water per unit volume held in the gel pores at 100% necessarily intertwined with the structures it real- assume that the evaporable water is a function of relative humidity, and it can be expressed (Norling ized. Accordingly, to provide context for a review of relative humidity, h, degree of hydration, α , and c Mjornell 1997) as the mechanical properties of ancient concretes, we degree of silica fume reaction, α , i.e. w =w (h,α ,α ) s e e c s first examine the Great Hall in terms of its concretes = age-dependent sorption/desorption isotherm to view Imperial Roman monumental concretes c s (Norling Mjonell 1997). Under this assumption and G ()α ,α = k α c + k α s (5) through the lens of an exemplary structure. The by substituting Equation 1 into Equation 2 one 1 c s vg c vg s Great Hall is an appropriate choice because, through obtains the generosity of those charged with its care, we c s where k vg and k vg are material parameters. From the have been able to meaningfully study the mechanical ∂w ∂w ∂w maximum amount of water per unit volume that can behavior and material composition of its structure in e ∂h e e Figure 2. Computational− solid model+ ∇ • ( ofD the∇h )Great= Hall,α& show-+ α& + w& (3) fill all pores (both capillary pores and gel pores), one unprecedented depth (Jackson et al. 2009, Brune & ∂h ∂t h ∂α c ∂α s n ing the three structural-scale materials. c s can calculate K1 as one obtains Perucchio, in prep.). When approaching the Great Hall, one sees main- The wall and vault concretes of the Great Hall ⎡ ⎛ ∞ ⎞ ⎤ where ∂we/∂h is the slope of the sorption/desorption 10⎜ g α −α ⎟h ly the brick facing that clads the concrete nucleus of ⎢ ⎝ 1 c c ⎠ ⎥ (Fig. 2) feature atisotherm least two (also distinct called aggregate moisture mix- capacity). The w − 0.188α s + 0.22α s − G ⎢1− e ⎥ standard Imperial Age wall construction (Fig. 1). tures (Jackson et al. 2009). The caementa of the wall 0 c s 1⎢ ⎥ governing equation (Equation 3) must be completed ⎣ ⎦ (6) The considerable dimensions of monumental build- K ()α ,α = concrete include byfragmented appropriate bricks boundary (~1600kg/cu.m) and initial conditions. 1 c s ⎛ ∞ ⎞ ings, combined with the tenacious bond between 10⎜ g α −α ⎟h and two tuffs: the Thecompact relation and betweenrelatively the durable amount of evaporable ⎝ 1 c c ⎠ core and cladding, consign the facing to curing and e −1 Tufo Lionato (~1700kg/cu.m)water and relative and thehumidity porous is and called ‘‘adsorption weather protection functions while ensuring that the weakly durable isotherm”Tufo Giallo if measureddella Via withTiberina incr easing relativity The material parameters kc and ks and g can conglomeratic core acts as a structural skeleton. Al- vg vg 1 (~1500kg/cu.m). humidityThe lighter and vau ‘‘desorptionlt concrete isotherm”contains in the opposite be calibrated by fitting experimental data relevant to though hidden from view, the concretes at
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