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CALH'ORI:\IIA S'l'ATE UNIVERSITY 1 NORI'HIUDGE 'l'IIE HIS'l'ORY 0'"' CONCRB1'E FROH ROI-.!AN 'I'JJ,!E.S H TO 'l'HE EIGH'l.'BEl\!TH CEl\'l'URY A t·.hesis EUbn:Lt.t:ed L:1 ra:r:i:·.J..al sat:i.sfacti..on of the :t··f~(Jnix·enlC~!·~:.s fer t.£~·2 d.E:g~~c;e of X1la.st.er oE A.rt.s i~1 1\Tt hy Jum:>. 1979 The 'l'hes:i.s of Janet Irene Atkinson is approved: -;.=:----~-~r-------:.--r---:::_-.--.-~- -- -~ ~-'r. Rpqer [,_t,Jul_~.o •" Dr. Jean-LtlC Bordeaux. ---------~~·---· Dr. Donald S. Strong, Chairman -~~-----· California State University, Northrid<Jc ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank my Father from whom I heard my first stories regarding concrete construction; Dr. Strong for his tireless patience; Charlotte Oyer, Librarian, loTho was able to locate many rare references; and Linda Hartman for t.yping this paper. iii TABLE OF' CONTENTS Page J~IST OF' ILLUSTRATIONS • v GLOSSARY viii ABSTRAC'r xvii INTRODUCTION . •. .. " . 1 Chapter I. THE :LEGl~CY OF' ROME 9 II. THE \1\JA:'NING OF' CONCRETE AECHITECTURE 46 III. THE REVIVAL OF CONCRE'rE IN EUROPEAN AECHITEC'lUHI~ 83 136 BIBLIOGRhPHY 146 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Map . • . 6 .2. Specimen of Mortars from Egypt:, Greece, Italy and Cyprus, 18 65 . • . ~ • • • • 13 3. Map of Italy 18 4. "Example of Poured Concrete 24 5. Use of Iron in Antiquity 27 6. ~l'emple of Castor 30 7. 'I'emple of 117 B.C. 31 8. Trajan' s Market .. 9. The Sanctuary of Fortune at Palestr.Ln21, 35 .10. 'l'he Pantheon Showing the Arch Construction 38 11. '!'he Baths of Caracal1a 40 12. 'i'he Baths of Diocletian, Rome, 298-305 A.D. 41 1.3. 'I'he Basilica of Constantine . 4.2 14. Late Pagan Architecture in Rome, 'l'emple of !4inerva Medica, Lie in ian Gardens, Fourth Century A.D. • . • • . ... 52 15. The E>:t.erior ~vall of t.he Imperial Basilica ~rrier, 310 A.D. .•. • • "'! 0 • 55 16. Mausoleum of Galla P1acidia, Ravenna, 440 A.D. 57 17. Ravenna, San Vitale, 526--547 A.D·. 59 .18. Ccnst.anU.nople, St. Sophia, 532-537 A.D. 61 l Q -~· .... Medieval 'l'ic11ber Structures: Winchester Czt:hsdx:al, 1093 A.D. 67 List of Illustrations (continued) F.igure Page 20. Vio1let-le-Duc 1 s Drawing of the Fill in the Lo'V'Jer Portion of the Vaul tin9 Conoid, Amien's Cathedral (Notre Dame, 1220-·1270) • • 68 21. Scaffolding for a Stone Building (about 1460) 70 22. Ogmore Castle Showing Lime Kiln, Court House and :tvloat 72 81 23. Cellular "Crystalline'' Vaults . ~ . .. 24. Proposals for the Cross Section of Milan Cathedral 86 25, Francesco di Giorgio, Elevation of an Ideal Church 87 26. Leonardo 1 s Diagram of How to Dete:r.-mine t.he Breaking Strength of an Arch . • . 91 27. Galileo Galilei's Drawings 93 28. B:r:unelleschi 1 s Dome of s. Maria del Fiore 97 .29 •. Stress Configurations for Brunelleschi's Dome 99 30. The Donie of St. Pet.er' s, Rome . 101 31. Plans for St. Peter's . • . 103 32. The Catenary Chain for a Dome of Uniforr·l Weig"!l.t and for the Dome of St. :Pe:t.er' s . 1.06 33. The Fa.rallelogram of Forces from Memorie· istor iche della Gran CUpola del Tempio Vatic.:mo by Giovanni Poleni, Padua, 1748 107 34. Reinforcement in St. Genevieve, Paris llO 35. Dome of the Pantheon, Paris .. 111 36. Emile Gauthey's Testing Machine 112 37, Rondelet's Testing Machine 113 .38.. Machine for 'I'esting Small Tension Specimens, from Phys:Lca.e experimentales ei: geomet.ricae dissertationes :!Jy Petrus van t:tJ.usschenbroek, 1729 115 vi List of Illustrations (continued) Figure Page 39. John Smeaton, Civil Engineer . 129 40. Edystone Lighthouse 131 vii GLOSSlL~Y Aggregate lonse; s.t.ones, pebbles, gravel or sand of various sizes. Agrimensorial RP.....fers to Roman land surveying. It is mentioned in Villard De Hnn~•ecourt ,. s notel:ook. Air Mortar Li:t<e mortar which hardens from ahsor.ption of carl:onic acid from t~ air. It is not hydraulic. Alumina Arnphorae Jar or vase characterized by oval or egg shape·, usually made from c.1rry. lh~gillaceous Lime Hyil:t:au1ic lime from Holland 1 al:x.Nl.mdingc ir:t clay. Asphalt A bituminous substance. I·t is SlliiXJth, hard:, brittle 1 black or brO':\'!lT:ish black, and is a resinous 1tli1'rJ.C'ral consisting of different. h}'tirocarbons.. A. con,position con-­ sisting of~ b±t.umen pitch and sand or R\anufactured from nat.ural hi'h:mrinous lime stone. Batten St:>fips of wood used for attaching {nad&Iing}.. acroc,s oi.:.her pieces. U:'>et:f for stiffening. Bending (moment.) The moment: tending to bend a beam. 'l'he moments of re si st.ance. Bitlillten Sf.;~imenta:ry rock, sue h as shale 1 sax;ilstone or limestone t:bat is na.ihilrally impregnated with bitumen. Cc11:cposed o'f' hydrocarbons. vii5k Brick-relieving Arch An arch used for structural purpose of concentrating and directing the weight of t.hrust, and/or to con­ tain the concrete core when it dried out. It may have been used to facilitate construction as well. Buttress A mass of masonry or brick~urk projecting from or built against a wall to give additional stress. Caementa, Caernentum Broken stones, aggregate. Calcinate To reduce to a powder by heat. Calcium Carbonate A compound CAC02 which occurs in limesi:one, marble and aragonite. Also found in plant ashes, bones and in many shells. Calx Small stones, or the process of making lime itself. Cas·t Concrete Concret:e poured into a mould. AlEC• :ref.er s to poured concrete. Catenary The shape assumed by a perfectly flexible inextensible infinitely fine c.ord in equilibrium under given forces. Exemplified by a chain or be<wy cord hanging freely between t\,u points of support:. First suggested by Galileo as the proper cu:tve for an arch of ecruilibrium. Cellular Pertaining to cell-like, having the top and bottom of a large l:ox beam divided into cells or com­ partments. Cement Fossiliferous, clayey limest.one that contains alu..mina, silica, and lizii!e. Centering A s.t.ruct.ure on which a masonry arch or vault is built.. Removed when mortar has set. ix Chaff Tl1e. glumes. or husks of grains and grasses separated from seed by thrashing. Straw or hay cut up finely. Chalk 1\brd comes from the Latin, calx. Means a soft limestone of earthy texture and is of marine origin. May be pure white to gray limestone and consists almost wholly of calcite. Clamp, Cramp A metal device that holds, binds masonry together, usuaLly at the corners. Clay Pure clay io:: a hydrated alumina silicate, technically knov.;n as kaolin, and is pure white. J:t is produced by the weaJchcring of fe:u:=:­ spars, a group of minc'ral sub­ stances, consisting of the sili­ cates of alumina, potash, soda, and lime. Common clays are formed by the weathering of igneous rocks, shales and clayey limestones. Jren oxide is present in most clays and small quantities of lime, magnesia, and alkal i.e s. Clinker Stony material fused together. Compression External stress applied uniformly to an object. Concre·te Cement mixed with coarse or fine agg.regate, e.g., pebbles, crushed stone, brick. Sand and wa·ter in SIJecific proport.ions are added to form a thick mass. Eggs Substances such as molasses, resin, eggs, and Y-'RX, were used in con­ crete·-l.ike mixt.ure s, due in part to their ability to coagulate. Elas·ticity The property of a body with the ability to escape original shape. Co-efficient elasticity is the ratio of internal stress to the strain giving rise to it. Feeble Refers to limestone containing little hydraulicity. Ferro-Concrete Reinforced concrete. Flint Chalcedony, usually black, pulver­ ized quartz. Formacean Ancient pise construction. Graphic Statics Branch of statics, in which magni­ tJ.lde, direction and position of :forces are represented by straight lines and unknown quantii:ies found by mechanical measurement. Grit Sand, gravel, rough hard particles, especially sand. Grout A thin mortar used to fill chinks or cracks. G:y-psum A hydrated sulfate of calcium, occurring naturally in sedi1nentary rocks and used for making plaster of paris and in treating soilo Haunches Either of the parts of an arch at: U1e sides of the crown between the crown and the springings. Hoop Stresses, Hoop Tension 'rhe circumferential tension in a shell or in any thin concentric el eNent of a thick-vva ll.ed solid of .revolution subjected to pressure .. Hydraulic Refers to substances which harden under water and are hence imper­ vious to it. Hydraulic L:Lmes C'.onstituted almost excJ G;;ivel.y of silica and calcium carlxmate. C.ontains less clay than cement mixtures" rr'hey set more slowly and attain less hardness than cements. xi Laconicum Laconicus, or sweating room in the mth.. Lava Fluid rock ejected from a volcano ar~ classified as basaltic. Lime Calcium Oxide. Specifically quick­ lime and hydraulic lime. The term is used: loo·sely for calcium hydroxide and incorrectly for calcium carbonate. Limestone Ci?<1cium carlxmate, yielding lime wlrem burned . Maltha An:y of var:ious cements, some bi:Lcrminous, others resembling IROJcta:rr. A. black-vissid substance r~tween petroleum and asphalt. Marl EaTt:hy deposits consisting chiefly o.f clay with calcium carlxmate in varying, proportions.
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  • Heat-Insulating Gypsum Based Plaster Compositions

    Heat-Insulating Gypsum Based Plaster Compositions

    Lyashenko, T.; Kersh, V.; Kolesnikov, A. Heat-insulating gypsum based plaster compositions 1. Introduction When developing lightened heat-insulating materials on the base of calcium sulphate (increasingly important in construction) the possibilities to introduce various lightweight aggregates and the limits of their content have been studied [1, 2]. The purpose of this particular study has been to develop the compositions for interior plaster coverings, with fine perlite as basic filler. It is known that entering of perlite grains (of low thermal conductivity) in gypsum matrix can significantly improve heat and sound insulation properties of the composite, with not only its density being lowered, but, unfortunately, its strength as well. To strengthen the composite a part of perlite could be replaced with cenospheres. These hollow alumina-silica microspheres (formed as a part of fly ash) are known [3-6] as efficient filler due to their form, waterproofness, low density and thermal conductivity. The preliminary experiments showed that certain dosages of metakaolin, plasticiser and latex could improve gypsum matrix, structure and properties of the composite. 2. Preliminary trials To determine the upper limit of the content of heat-insulating component the method of electro-thermal analogy was used in preliminary model experiments. The method helps to establish the proportions in "conductor − insulator" systems, at which the electrical conductivity changes abruptly; percolation conductivity jump takes place (or percolation resistance jump at certain content of insulator). The conductive media was modelled with carbon powder, lightweight filler particles served as the insulator. The estimated value of percolation threshold for perlite grains (and for cenospheres as well), near 80 volume percents (Fig.