In This Study, Marcello Mogetta Examines the Origins and Early Dissemina- Tion of Concrete Technology in Roman Republican Architecture

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-84568-7 — The Origins of Concrete Construction in Roman Architecture Marcello Mogetta Frontmatter More Information

THE ORIGINS OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

In this study, Marcello Mogetta examines the origins and early dissemina- tion of concrete technology in Roman Republican architecture. Framing the genesis of innovative building processes and techniques within the context of Rome’s early expansion, he traces technological change in monumental construction in long-established urban centers and new Roman colonial cites founded in the 2nd century BCE in central Italy. Mogetta weaves together excavation data from both public monuments and private domestic architecture that previously have been studied in isolation. Highlighting the organization of the building industry, he also explores the political motivations and cultural aspirations of patrons of monumental architecture, reconstructing how they negotiated economic and logistical constraints by drawing from both local traditions and long- distance networks. By incorporating the available scientiﬁc evidence into the development of concrete technology, Mogetta also demonstrates the contributions of anonymous builders and contractors, shining a light on their ability to exploit locally available resources.

marcello mogetta is a Mediterranean archaeologist whose research focuses on early Roman urbanism in Italy. He conducts primary ﬁeldwork at the sites of Gabii (Gabii Project) and Pompeii (Venus Pompeiana Project), for which he has received multiple grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Loeb Classical Library Foundation, the AIA, and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. He coordinates the CaLC-Rome Project, an international collaboration that applies 3D mod- eling and surface analysis to the life cycle of ceramic vessels from the Esquiline necropolis in Rome. He is the editor of Élite Burial Practices and Processes of Urbanization at Gabii (JRA Suppl. 108, 2020), and coeditor of A Mid-Republican House from Gabii (2016) and Domitian’s Rome and the Augustan Legacy (forthcoming).

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-84568-7 — The Origins of Concrete Construction in Roman Architecture Marcello Mogetta Frontmatter More Information

THE ORIGINS OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION IN ROMAN ARCHITECTURE

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN REPUBLICAN ITALY

MARCELLO MOGETTA University of Missouri, Columbia

University Printing House, Cambridge cb2 8bs, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, ny 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, vic 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108845687 doi: 10.1017/9781108990516 © Cambridge University Press 2021 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2021 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data names: Mogetta, Marcello, author. title: The origins of concrete construction in Roman architecture : technology and society in Republican Italy / Marcello Mogetta, University of Missouri, Columbia. description: Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2021. | Includes bibliographical references and index. identiﬁers: lccn 2021000600 (print) | lccn 2021000601 (ebook) | isbn 9781108845687 (hardback) | isbn 9781108964852 (paperback) | isbn 9781108990516 (ebook) subjects: lcsh: Building – Rome. | Concrete construction – Rome. | Architecture, Roman. | Architecture and society – Rome. classiﬁcation: lcc th16 .m64 2021 (print) | lcc th16 (ebook) | ddc 624.1/8340937–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000600 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021000601 isbn 978-1-108-84568-7 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from the von Bothmer Publication Fund of the Archaeological Institute of America.

CONTENTS

List of Plates page viii List of Figures ix List of Tables xii Acknowledgments xiii

1INTRODUCTION 1 Aims and Methods 1 Ground Rules: The Building Industry of Republican Rome and Italy 4 Basic Terms and Deﬁnitions: What Is Roman Concrete? 8 The Structura Caementorum in Republican Architecture: Techniques and Processes 13 Dating Concrete Construction: A New Typological Approach 21 The Structure of the Book 23

2 DECONSTRUCTING ROMAN CONCRETE 25 Roman Concrete and Roman Culture: Words and Things 25 Roman Concrete and Roman Imperialism: Modern Perceptions 28 Roman Concrete and Identity Construction: Ancient Representations 37 Conclusions 44

3 A NEW DATE FOR CONCRETE IN ROME 46 At the Roots of Roman Republican Architecture 46 The Local Environment: Sources of Building Materials in the Region of Rome 48 Dating Early Concrete Construction in Rome: The Problem of the Porticus Aemilia 52 Redating the Early Development of Concrete Construction in Rome: The Public Monuments 58 Archaeometric Evidence on the Early Development of Mortars in Public Building 76

vi CONTENTS

Redating the Early Development of Concrete Construction in Rome: The Houses 78 The Social and Cultural Context of the Technological Innovation 85 Conclusions 88

4AVIEWFROMTHESUBURBIUM 91 Roman Republican Villas and Technological Innovation: Previous Approaches 92 Agricultural Intensiﬁcation and the Supply of Lime 94 Building Techniques in the Volcanic Region: Villa Architecture in the Environs of Rome 101 Concrete Construction and Urban Development in the Limestone Region: Tibur 110 Building Techniques and Republican Villas in the Ager Tiburtinus 113 The Villa Architecture of the Ager Tiburtinus in Its Regional Setting 121 Conclusions 123

5 BUILDING SAMNITE POMPEII 125 Pre-Roman Pompeii and Roman Republican Architecture 125 Building Materials and the Architectural History of Pre-Roman Pompeii 127 Reframing the Limestone Period 131 The Origins of Cemented-Rubble Construction in Pompeian Houses: Materials and Processes 136 The Diffusion of Concrete Technology in Public Building 146 Technology and Socioeconomic Status: The Innovation of Concrete Construction in Pompeii 164 Pompeian Concrete Construction in Its Regional Context 167 Conclusions 179

6 COLONIAL NETWORKS 181 Roman Urbanism and Roman Expansion: Reorienting the Perspective 181 Background: The Making of Mid-Republican Colonies 183 The Urban Development of Mid-Republican Colonies: Norba and Fregellae 187 The Early Development of Concrete Construction at Cosa 195 Comparative Evidence from Roman Colonies (c. 200–150 BCE) 205 A Tale of Two Cities: Pozzolanic Mortars at Puteoli and Aquileia 218 Conclusions 228

CONTENTS vii

7CONCLUSION 232

Appendix: Catalog of Sites 244 Glossary 252 Bibliography and Abbreviations 260 Index 304

The color plate section will be found between pages xiv and 1.

PLATES

I.A Rome, Nuovo Mercato di Testaccio excavations. Workstation for the fabrication of reticulate facing pieces (mid 2nd cent. CE). View from the side. I.B Rome, Nuovo Mercato di Testaccio excavations. Workstation for the fabrication of reticulate facing pieces (mid 2nd cent. CE). View from the top. II Rome, Testaccio Building. Restored cross section of the complex. III.A Rome, Testaccio Building. View of the exterior side of the back wall of the complex. III.B Rome, Testaccio Building. Section of the opus incertum foundation exposed below one of the interior arches. IV.A Rome, east side of the Forum Romanum. Temple of Castor and Pollux (Phase IA). View of the cemented-rubble mass overlaying the original ashlar podium. IV.B Rome, east side of the Forum Romanum. Composite map of the Lacus Iuturnae and annexed features. V.A Gabii. Phase plans of the Area F Building excavated by the Gabii Project. V.B Gabii. Area F Building, upper terrace. View of the east side wall. VI.A Pompeii, Stabian Baths. View of the “earth mortar” fill below a wall in the eastern service tract. VI.B Pompeii. Republican Baths (VIII.5.28). View of the praefurnium showing the original structures and later modifications. VII.A Pompeii, area of the Sanctuary of Venus. Composite cross section of the stratigraphy excavated in 2017 below the east court and portico of the Roman temple. VII.B Pompeii, area of the Sanctuary of Venus. Composite photomodel of the wall and sidewalk delimiting the east side of the Samnite-era alley found below the east court and portico. VIII.A Aquileia. View of the southeast corner of the Republican fortifications. VIII.B Thin section of a mortar sample from the Republican fortifications of Aquileia analyzed with Polarized Light Microscopy (PLM) using Nicol prism and analyzer. VIII.C High-resolution PLM observation of the thin section shown in Plate VIII.B.

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FIGURES

1.1 Map of the Italian peninsula showing the location of the sites analyzed in this study with relation to volcanic geology and sources of timber. 9 1.2 Construction process of brick-faced concrete masonry as represented in a wall painting from the Tomb of Trebius Justus on the Via Latina in Rome. 16 2.1 Distribution map of opus reticulatum in peninsular Italy. 36 2.2 Schematic comparison between site 11 on the Via Gabina and features described in Cato’s De agricultura. 41 3.1A–B Geology of the site of Rome. 50 3.2 Distribution of Pozzolane Rosse and other pyroclastic deposits in the southeast suburbium of Rome. 51 3.3 The conventional sequence of evolution of opus incertum wall-facing styles in Rome (2nd cent. BCE). 59 3.4 Schematic map of Rome showing the location of the main public monuments and domestic buildings discussed in Chapter 3. 60 3.5 Schematic map of the Forum Romanum showing the location of the main public monuments discussed in Chapter 3. 61 3.6 Rome, Palatine. Composite state plan of the sanctuary of Magna Mater showing the architectural remains of Phase II, c. 100 BCE. 62 3.7 Rome, Palatine. Variants of opus incertum and opus quasi reticulatum wall-facings from Phase II of the sanctuary of Magna Mater. 65 3.8 Rome, Campus Martius. Composite plan of the southeast corner of the Porticus Metelli/Octaviae. 67 3.9 Rome, east slope of the Palatine. Simpliﬁed plan of the vaulted substructures (Temple of Fortuna Respiciens?). 69 3.10 Rome, east slope of the Palatine. Detail of vaulting technique. 70 3.11 Rome, east side of the Forum Romanum. Restored plan of Phase IA of the Temple of Castor and Pollux. 73 3.12 Rome, east side of the Forum Romanum. Simpliﬁed map showing the location of concrete features associated with the Lacus Iuturnae. 76 3.13 Rome, north slope of the Palatine. Map of the city block excavated by A. Carandini, showing the hypothesized property divisions. 80 3.14 Rome, house on northeast slope of the Palatine (Area I). Detail of opus incertum party wall on top of a cemented-rubble foundation. 85

x LIST OF FIGURES

4.1 Distribution of travertine and other limestone resources in the region of Rome, showing the location of known limekilns. 96 4.2 Schematic plan of villa site near Lucus Feroniae with associated limekilns. 99 4.3 Schematic map showing the distribution of ashlar rural residences in the suburbium of Rome, 5th–2nd centuries BCE. 102 4.4 Map showing the distribution of polygonal masonry platforms and monumental villas in the countryside of Tibur. 115 4.5 Classification of concrete wall-facing styles documented in the Tiburtine villas. 117 4.6 Schematic composite plan of the so-called Villa di Cassio near Tibur. 119 5.1 Schematic geology of the Somma-Vesuvius and Campi Phlegraeai districts. 130 5.2 Pompeii. Spatial distribution of variants of the limestone-framework technique. 132 5.3 Examples of limestone-framework masonry types. 133 5.4 Pompeii. Schematic map showing the location of the main public monuments and domestic buildings discussed in Chapter 5. 139 5.5 Pompeii. Schematic plan of the Casa del Fauno, Phase 1 (c. 175–150 BCE or shortly after), with location of preexisting features. 141 5.6 Pompeii, Casa del Fauno. Archival photo showing cemented-rubble foundations under the later floor of Room 42, northeast of the south peristyle. 142 5.7 Pompeii, Stabian Baths. Schematic plan of the original phase of the complex, c. 125 BCE. 148 5.8 Pompeii. Schematic state plan of the forum showing the spatial relationship of the main public monuments discussed in Chapter 5 to the forum portico and square. 150 5.9 Pompeii. Schematic plan of the Sanctuary of Apollo, post-130–120 BCE. 151 5.10 Pompeii. Temple of Jupiter (Capitolium). Sectional plans of the first monumental temple. 156 5.11 Pompeii. Schematic map showing the location of Samnite-era remains in the area later occupied by the Sanctuary of Venus. 160 5.12 Schematic map of Cumae. 171 5.13 Cumae. Terme Centrali, c. 150 BCE (?). Cross-section and elevation drawing of Rooms A (apodyterium?) and D. 172 5.14 Teanum. Schematic plan of the terraced sanctuary at the Masseria Loreto site (Juno Pupluna?). 176 5.15 Teanum, Masseria Loreto site. View of the concrete foundations of the podium and cella of the Temple of Juno Pupluna (south edge of Terrace III). 178 6.1 Schematic plan of Norba. 189 6.2 Schematic plan of Fregellae. 191

LIST OF FIGURES xi

6.3 Fregellae. Domus 7, Phase 1 (3rd cent. BCE). Example of mortared-rubble foundation supporting a tile socle and pressed earth superstructure. 192 6.4 Fregellae. Domus 7, Phase 2 (early 2nd cent. BCE). Bottom section of a party wall built with modular brick elements laid on clay mortar. 193 6.5 State plan of Cosa. 196 6.6 Reconstruction of the forum of Cosa, c. 180 BCE. 198 6.7 Cosa, Comitium Curia. Archival photo of SE Room. Level I. SW wall. 201 6.8 Schematic map of Potentia. 210 6.9 Graviscae. Archival photo showing the remains of the Roman settlement, post-181 BCE. 214 6.10 Schematic map of Luna. 215 6.11 Luna. Simpliﬁed plan of the original phase of the “Grande Tempio” (2nd cent. BCE). 216 6.12 Luna, Grande Tempio. Archival photo of the mortared-rubble grid of the podium. 217 6.13 Puteoli. Schematic map of the original layout of the colony on the Rione Terra. 220 6.14 Puteoli, Rione Terra. Detail of the vaulting technique of the “Criptoportici.” 222 6.15 Schematic plan of Aquileia. 224 6.16 Aquileia. Southeast corner of the Republican fortiﬁcations. Restored cross section. 225

TABLES

2.1 Current interpretations of the origins and diffusion of concrete construction in Rome and Italy. All dates BCE. page 32 3.1 Republican houses on the north slopes of the Palatine. Composition and distribution of cemented-rubble foundations within the different property plots. 81 3.2 Republican houses on the north slopes of the Palatine. Mortar types associated with the earliest cemented-rubble foundations. 82 4.1 Distribution of building techniques in Late Republican villa architecture from the suburbium of Rome. 103 4.2 Distribution of building techniques in Late Republican villa architecture from the ager Tiburtinus. 116 5.1 Stones used as building materials in Pre-Roman Pompeii. 129

xii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book began to take shape from dissertation research completed at the University of Michigan between 2010 and 2013. Several people and institutions have enabled me to develop the project in the intervening years. The ground- work was laid during a postdoctoral fellowship I held at the Kelsey Museum of Archaeology in 2013–14, in the context of the Architectural Revolutions from the Roman Empire to the Digital Age initiative, an interdisciplinary collaboration spearheaded by Chris Ratté, Nic Terrenato, and Steven Mankouche. Most of the thinking for my article A New Date for Concrete in Rome, which appeared in the Journal of Roman Studies in 2015, and whose content is reproduced with revisions and integrations in Chapter 3 under the same title, occurred then. Further research on the domestic architecture of Pompeii was facilitated by a research fellowship carried out at the Freie Universität Berlin in 2014–15, kindly hosted by Monika Trümper and the Institut für Klassische Archäologie. The results, originally published as “The Early Development of Concrete in the Domestic Architecture of Pre-Roman Pompeii” in the Journal of Roman Archaeology in 2016, have been incorporated in Chapter 5. The opportunity for an in-depth study of the evidence from Cosa was prompted by my participation in the international workshop Size Matters – Understanding Monumentality across Ancient Civilizations, organized by the Exzellenzcluster Topoi in Berlin in 2017. The relevant chapter from the published proceedings, titled Monumentality, Technological Innovation, and Identity Construction in Roman Republican Architecture: The Remaking of Cosa, post-197 BCE, forms the core of Chapter 6. Access to the marvelous collections of the Classics Library at the University of Cincinnati when I was Tytus Visiting Scholar in Fall 2018 allowed me to gather additional data for Chapters 1, 4, and 6 and provided the needed quiet time to bring everything together. I thank Steven Ellis for making that happen. Many others have given valuable assistance and research contributions to parts of the book, knowingly or not: Ilaria Battiloro, Seth Bernard, Jacopo Bonetto, Francesco Maria Cifarelli, Alessandro D’Alessio, Penelope Davies, Andrea De Giorgi, Janet DeLaine, Hélène Dessales, Dan Diffendale, John Dobbins, Lisa Fentress, Mikho Flohr, Anna Gallone, Elaine Gazda, Marco Giglio, Ivo van der Graaff, John Humphrey, Marie Jackson, Lynne Lancaster,

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xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sue Langdon, Paolo Lupino, Fabrizio Marra, Dominik Maschek, Marden Nichols, Jeremia Pelgrom, Fabrizio Pesando, Eric Poehler, Caterina Previato, Marcus Rautman, Jamie Sewell, Tesse Stek, Martin Tombrägel, Mario Torelli, as well as two anonymous reviewers for the press. Any errors, of course, are mine. The manuscript was written mostly at the University of Missouri, Columbia during 2019–20 thanks to the support of the College of Arts & Science Research Leave Program. Several graduate students have shared their feedback over the course of the project, especially Matt Harder and Stephen Czujko, who also helped me with the ﬁnal illustration and copyediting program. Funding for it was provided by the von Bothmer Publication Fund of the Archaeological Institute of America. I am grateful to Beatrice Rehl for guiding me through the various stages of the process, and to Gráinne and the kids for everything else. I dedicate the book to the memory of my grandfather, Salvatore Lupino (1913–93), and to his own achievements with concrete construction.