Roman Architecture Roman of Classics at Dartmouth College, Where He Roman Architecture

Home , Architecture of Rome, Capitoline Temple, Cosa, Hadrumetum

BLACKWELL BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD A COMPANION TO the editors A COMPANION TO A COMPANION TO Roger B. Ulrich is Ralph Butterfield Professor roman Architecture roman of Classics at Dartmouth College, where he roman architecture

Y Ulrich and quenemoen e o m e n e u q d n a h c i r l U BY D E T I D E roman teaches Roman Archaeology and Latin and directs Dartmouth’s Rome Foreign Study roman Contributors to this volume: architecture Program in Italy. He is the author of The Roman Orator and the Sacred Stage: The Roman Templum E D I T E D B Y Roger B. Ulrich and Rostratum(1994) and Roman Woodworking James C. Anderson, jr., William Aylward, Jeffrey A. Becker, Caroline k. Quenemoen (2007). John R. Clarke, Penelope J.E. Davies, Hazel Dodge, James F.D. Frakes, Architecture Genevieve S. Gessert, Lynne C. Lancaster, Ray Laurence, O T N O I N A P M O C A Caroline K. Quenemoen is Professor in the Emanuel Mayer, Kathryn J. McDonnell, Inge Nielsen, Roman architecture is arguably the most Practice and Director of Fellowships and Caroline K. Quenemoen, Louise Revell, Ingrid D. Rowland, EDItED BY Roger b. Ulrich and enduring physical legacy of the classical world. Undergraduate Research at Rice University. John R. Senseney, Melanie Grunow Sobocinski, John W. Stamper, caroline k. quenemoen A Companion to Roman Architecture presents a She is the author of The House of Augustus and Tesse D. Stek, Rabun Taylor, Edmund V. Thomas, Roger B. Ulrich, selective overview of the critical issues and approaches that have transformed scholarly the Foundation of Empire (forthcoming) as well as Fikret K. Yegül, Mantha Zarmakoupi articles on the same subject. understanding of this rich field of study in

recent decades. This volume draws on new archaeological discoveries and theoretical ALSO AVAILABLE IN THIS SERIES: approaches in order to provide an updated historical understanding of Roman architecture.

Written by classical archaeologists and architectural historians who aim to understand Roman architecture as an integrated cultural practice, the Companion covers formal analysis, the design and construction process, the ancient and modern reception of Roman architecture and the dynamic interplay among aesthetics, social structure, politics, and geography in the production and use of Roman architecture. With cross-disciplinary sections covering technology, history, art, politics, and archaeology, this collection is an essential reference work for students and scholars of the ancient Roman world.

A Companion to Roman Architecture BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises approxi- mately twenty-five to forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

Ancient History Published A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Greek Rhetoric Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Edited by Ian Worthington Morstein-Marx A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by Ryan K. Balot Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Ovid A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Peter E. Knox Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Egbert Bakker Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Hellenistic Literature A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Horace A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Gregson Davis Edited by Liz James A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman A Companion to Ancient Egypt Worlds Edited by Alan B. Lloyd Edited by Beryl Rawson A Companion to Ancient Macedonia A Companion to Greek Mythology Edited by Joseph Roisman and Ian Worthington Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone A Companion to the Punic Wars A Companion to the Latin Language Edited by Dexter Hoyos Edited by James Clackson A Companion to Augustine A Companion to Tacitus Edited by Mark Vessey Edited by Victoria Emma Pagán A Companion to Marcus Aurelius A Companion to Women in the Ancient World Edited by Marcel van Ackeren Edited by Sharon L. James and Sheila Dillon A Companion to Ancient Greek Government A Companion to Sophocles Edited by Hans Beck Edited by Kirk Ormand A Companion to the Neronian Age A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Edited by Emma Buckley and Martin T. Dinter Near East Edited by Daniel Potts Literature And Culture A Companion to Roman Love Elegy Published Edited by Barbara K. Gold A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Greek Art Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography A Companion to Persius and Juvenal Edited by John Marincola Edited by Susanna Braund and Josiah Osgood A Companion to Catullus A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner Republic A Companion to Roman Religion Edited by Jane DeRose Evans Edited by Jörg Rüpke A Companion to Terence A Companion to Greek Religion Edited by Antony Augoustakis and Ariana Traill Edited by Daniel Ogden A Companion to Roman Architecture A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to Roman Architecture

Edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen This edition first published 2014 © 2014 Blackwell Publishing Ltd Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to Roman architecture / edited by Roger B. Ulrich and Caroline K. Quenemoen. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9964-3 (hardback) 1. Architecture, Roman. I. Ulrich, Roger Bradley, editor of compilation. II. Quenemoen, Caroline K., editor of compilation. NA310.C58 2013 720.37–dc23 2013025418 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover image: View of the Roman amphitheater at Pula (ancient Pola), Croatia, dating to the first century. Source: Ulrich Cover design by Workhaus Set in 11/13.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

1 2014 Contents

List of Illustrations viii Contributors xiii Maps/General Images xviii

Introduction 1 1. Italic Architecture of the Earlier First Millennium BCE 6 Jeffrey A. Becker 2. Rome and Her Neighbors: Greek Building Practices in Republican Rome 27 Penelope J.E. Davies 3. Creating Imperial Architecture 45 Inge Nielsen 4. Columns and Concrete: Architecture from Nero to Hadrian 63 Caroline K. Quenemoen 5. The Severan Period 82 Edmund V. Thomas 6. The Architecture of Tetrarchy 106 Emanuel Mayer 7. Architect and Patron 127 James C. Anderson, jr. 8. Plans, Measurement Systems, and Surveying: The Roman Technology of Pre-Building 140 John R. Senseney vi Contents

9. Materials and Techniques 157 Lynne C. Lancaster and Roger B. Ulrich 10. Labor Force and Execution 193 Rabun Taylor 11. Urban Sanctuaries: The Early Republic to Augustus 207 John W. Stamper 12. Monumental Architecture of Non-Urban Cult Places in Roman Italy 228 Tesse D. Stek 13. Fora 248 James F.D. Frakes 14. Funerary Cult and Architecture 264 Kathryn J. McDonnell 15. Building for an Audience: The Architecture of Roman Spectacle 281 Hazel Dodge 16. Roman Imperial Baths and Thermae 299 Fikret K. Yegül 17. Courtyard Architecture in the Insulae of Ostia Antica 324 Roger B. Ulrich 18. Domus/Single Family House 342 John R. Clarke 19. Private Villas: Italy and the Provinces 363 Mantha Zarmakoupi 20. Romanization 381 Louise Revell 21. Streets and Facades 399 Ray Laurence 22. Vitruvius and his Influence 412 Ingrid D. Rowland 23. Ideological Applications: Roman Architecture and Fascist Romanità 426 Genevieve S. Gessert Contents vii

24. Visualizing Architecture Then and Now: Mimesis and the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 446 Melanie Grunow Sobocinski 25. Conservation 462 William Aylward

Glossary 480 References 501 Index 565 List of Illustrations

Maps and Models Map 1 Map of the Roman Empire xviii Map 2 Provinces of the Roman Empire xx Map 3 Map of Italy xxi Map 4 Schematic Plan of Rome showing the location of major monuments xxii

Model 1 Model of the Capitoline Hill and the Roman Forum xxiii Model 2 Model of the Campus Martius xxiii

Figures 1.1 Reconstruction of an Iron Age hut 8 1.2 Iron Age hut urns 10 1.3 Drawing of the scene from the Verucchio throne 11 1.4 Archaic rural architecture in central Italy 15 1.5 Plan of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 23 2.1 Scale comparison of temple plans, with interaxials 30 2.2 Plan of the navalia, Rome 36 3.1 Plan of the Forum Romanum and the Forum Iulium 48 3.2 Plan of the Palatine with the House of Augustus 52 3.3 Plan of the House of Augustus according to Carettoni 53 3.4 Plan of the House of Augustus in the last phase according to Iacopi and Tedone 54 4.1 View of the Octagonal Room, Domus Aurea 72 4.2 Axonometric drawing of the Octagonal Room, Domus Aurea 73 4.3 Section of Great Hall, Trajan’s Markets 73 List of Illustrations ix

4.4 View of the Facade of the Great Hemicycle, Trajan’s Markets 76 4.5 Perspective drawing of the street view of the Great Hemicycle in antiquity 77 4.6 Interior detail of the Pantheon 79 5.1 The Arch of Septimius Severus, Forum Romanum 87 5.2 The Propylaea at Baalbek 89 5.3 The “Round Temple” at Ostia 90 5.4 The quadrifrons arch at Lepcis Magna 94 5.5 The Severan basilica at Lepcis Magna 96 5.6 Nymphaeum at Perge 100 5.7 Nymphaeum at Umm Qais (Gadara) 101 6.1 Thessaloniki, palace buildings on the Dimitrios Gounari Street 113 6.2 Split, reconstruction of the sea wall 118 6.3 Split, reconstruction of the mausoleum and the main residential wing 118 6.4 Gamzigrad 121 6.5 Gamzigrad, reconstruction of the main residential wing 122 8.1 Blueprints and geometric underpinnings at the Didymaion 145 8.2 Circular and radial designs 149 8.3 Sanctuary of Juno, Gabii, ca. 160 BCE 150 8.4 Sighting instruments for ancient surveying 155 9.1 Framing materials in wood 161 9.2 Masonry styles from pre-Roman and Roman Italy 163 9.3 Spanning horizontal spaces 164 9.4 Common forms of wall facing for opus caementicium 166 9.5 Spanning spaces with wood 167 9.6 Foundation methods 177 9.7 Analytical drawing of bath and wall construction 179 9.8 Brick vaults 183 11.1 Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, Rome, ca. 525–509 BCE; axonometric view of alternate reconstruction 210 11.2 Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, Rome, plan of alternate reconstruction 213 11.3 Porticus Metelli (Octaviae), Rome, 187–131 BCE 215 11.4 Forum of Julius Caesar, Rome, plan 220 11.5 Roman temples, plans at the same scale 226 12.1 Reconstruction of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor near Tivoli 234 12.2 Reconstruction of the north elevation of the sanctuary of Hercules Victor near Tivoli 235 x List of Illustrations

12.3 Plan of the sanctuary of Pietrabbondante 239 12.4 Plan of the sanctuary of S. Giovanni in Galdo, Colle Rimontato 241 12.5 Plan of the sanctuary of Serra Lustrante d’Armento 243 12.6 Plan of the sanctuary of Rossano di Vaglio 245 13.1 The forum of Ostia 257 13.2 The forum of Nîmes 259 13.3 The forum of Dougga 261 14.1 Isola Sacra: plan of the necropolis 265 14.2 Isola Sacra: area view showing typical tomb types 269 14.3 Tomb 29, Isola Sacra. The facade of Tomb 29 created in the second phase of the tomb 273 14.4 Tomb 94, Isola Sacra. Exterior view and plan 276 14.5 Tomb 99, Isola Sacra 277 14.6 Tomb 83, Isola Sacra 278 15.1 Comparative plans of Roman entertainment buildings based on (a) the theater at Orange, (b) the Colosseum, (c) the Stadium of Domitian, and (d) the Circus Maximus 283 15.2 View of the Amphitheater, Corinth 286 15.3 View of the Amphitheater, Pergamum 288 15.4 Colosseum, Rome. View of the arena showing the substructures 293 15.5 Circus, Lepcis Magna, second century CE 294 16.1 North Baths, East Baths, and West Baths, Cemenelum, plan 304 16.2 Thermae of Caracalla, Rome. Plan of the bath block 306 16.3 Frigidarium of the Hadrianic Baths, Lepcis Magna. Restored perspective 308 16.4 Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis 318 16.5 Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis. Restored axonometric study of the structural system 319 16.6 Marble Court, Imperial Bath-Gymnasium, Sardis. Restored perspective 320 17.1 Reconstruction of the street facade of the Caseggiato di Diana, Ostia 327 17.2 Axial view and plan of the Caseggiato dei Triclini, Ostia 329 17.3 The arcaded courtyard in the House of the Muses, Ostia 330 17.4 Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, Ostia 332 17.5 Plan of the House of the Trident, Delos, with column placement restored 337 18.1 The patrician domus of the third century BCE reconstructed in plan and axonometric view 345 18.2 Pompeii, House of the Menander (I, 10, 1), plan 351 List of Illustrations xi

18.3 Ostia, House of the Muses (III, IX, 22), plan with mosaics indicated 354 18.4 Pompeii, House of Sallust (VI, 2, 4), drawing of First-Style scheme of south wall of atrium 357 18.5 Rome, House of the Griffins, cubiculum II, drawing of perspective scheme 359 18.6 Torre Annunziata, Villa of Oplontis, triclinium 14, west wall 360 19.1 Villa at Settefinestre (Etruria), plan 367 19.2 Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum), bird’s eye view of digital reconstruction 371 19.3 Villa Oplontis A (Torre Annunziata), plan 373 19.4 Villa at Nennig (Rhineland), plan 376 19.5 Villa at Piazza Armerina (Sicily), plan 378 20.1 Plan of house 12, Druten 388 20.2 Plan of the forum, Wroxeter 390 20.3 Plan of the Casa de los Pájaros, Italica 395 20.4 Plan of the Maison au Dauphin, Vaison-la-Romaine, second century CE 397 21.1 Pompeii, street intersection 400 21.2 Italica (Spain), the extension of the grid of streets under Hadrian 401 21.3 Pompeii, House of the Ceii. plaster creates the image of a facade made out of stone 405 23.1 Marcello Piacentini, Administration building of the Città Universitaria in Rome with the statue of Minerva by Arturo Martini (1932–1935) 431 23.2 Section drawing of the Velia between the Villa Rivaldi and the Basilica of Maxentius (1932) 435 23.3 Antonio Muñoz and Cesare Valle, retaining wall for the Villa Rivaldi on the Via dell’Impero (1932) 439 23.4 Giuseppe Terragni, Luigi Vietti et al., Project A for the Palazzo del Littorio on the Via dell’Impero (1934) 442 24.1 Panel relief of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing. Detail of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 176–180 CE) 450 24.2 As of Domitian. Reverse, sacrifice at a temple during the Ludi Saeculares (88 CE) 451 24.3 Denarius of Volteius. Reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 78 BCE) 452 24.4 Denarius of Petillius Capitolinus. Obverse, eagle with thunderbolt; reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 43 BCE) 452 xii List of Illustrations

24.5 Denarius of Petillius Capitolinus. Reverse, Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus (circa 43 BCE) 453 24.6 Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 458 25.1 Temple of Vesta. Denarius of Q. Cassius Longinus, consul in 55 BCE 467 25.2 Neues Museum, Berlin. Staircase Hall, presumably a short time after the bombing of November 23/24, 1943 474 25.3 Neues Museum, Berlin. Staircase Hall, 2009 475

G1 Roman column capitals 484 Contributors

James C. Anderson, jr. is Josiah teaching appointments at the Meigs Distinguished Teaching University of North Carolina at Professor of Classics at the University Chapel Hill, The College of William of Georgia. He is the author of The & Mary, Boston University, McMaster Historical Topography of the Imperial University, and the Artemis A.W. and Fora (1984), Roman Brickstamps: Martha Sharp Joukowsky Institute The Thomas Ashby Collection (1991), for Archaeology and the Ancient Roman Architecture and Society World at Brown University. He is (1997), and Roman Architecture in co-editor of Roman Republican Provence (2013). Villas: Architecture, Context, and Ideology (2012). William Aylward is Professor of Classics at the University of John R. Clarke is Annie Laurie Wisconsin-Madison. His research Howard Regents Professor at the interests include ancient Greek and University of Texas at Austin. He is Roman architecture and technology; author of seven books, most recently cities and sanctuaries of Asia Minor, Looking at Laughter: Humor, Power, Troy and the Trojan War, and and Transgression in Roman Visual Zeugma on the Euphrates. He has Culture, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250 (2007) participated in the annual campaign and Roman Life: 100 B.C. to A.D. 200 to Troy since 1996 with the (2007). He directs the Oplontis Universities of Tübingen and Project (www.oplontisproject.org), a Cincinnati. multidisciplinary study of Villa A (“of Poppaea”) at Torre Annunziata, Italy. Jeffrey A. Becker is a Mediterranean archaeologist whose research focuses Penelope J.E. Davies is an Associate primarily on the archaeology of first Professor in the Department of Art millennium BCE Italy. He has held and Art History at the University of xiv Contributors

Texas at Austin. Her work focuses Hood College. She is the director of primarily on public monuments of the Domus del Tempio Rotondo Rome and their propagandistic project, an excavation of a late antique functions. Author of Death and the house near the forum of Ostia Antica. Emperor: Roman Imperial Funerary She is currently developing two Monuments from Augustus to Marcus book projects, Excavating Empire: Aurelius(2000) and co-author of Archaeology and Exhibition Culture Janson’s History of Art, Seventh under Mussolini and a currently- Edition, she is currently working on a untitled volume on the history and book on the architecture and politics archaeology of Ostia with Margaret of Republican Rome, to be published Laird. by Cambridge University Press. Lynne C. Lancaster is a Professor in Hazel Dodge is Louis Claude Purser the Department of Classics and World Associate Professor in the Department Religions at Ohio University. She of Classics at Trinity College Dublin. specializes in ancient Roman con- Her particular research interests are struction and has published a book, the architecture of ancient spectacle, Concrete Vaulted Construction in and the employment and symbolism Imperial Rome: Innovations in of decorative stones in ancient Context (2005) and numerous arti- architecture. She is the author of cles on monuments in Rome includ- Spectacle in the Roman World (2010); ing the Colosseum, Trajan’s Column joint author, with Peter Connolly, of and Markets, and the Pantheon. She The Ancient City (1998); and editor, is currently working on a book enti- with Jon Coulston, of Ancient Rome. tled, Innovative Vaulted Construction The Archaeology of the Eternal City in the Roman Imperial Provinces, 1st- (2000). She has also published widely 4th c. AD. on building materials and techniques in Roman architecture. Ray Laurence is Professor of Roman History and Archaeology at the James F.D. Frakes is Associate University of Kent (UK). He is the Professor of Art History at the author of Roman Pompeii: Space and University of North Carolina at Society (2nd ed., 2007) and The Roads Charlotte. He is the author of of Roman Italy: Mobility and Cultural Framing Public Life: The Portico in Change (1999); as well as co-author Roman Gaul (2008) and is currently of The City in the Roman West (2011) working on a book project titled and co-editor of Rome, Ostia, Imagined Empire: Roman Visual Pompeii: Movement and Space (2011). Culture in the Severan Age. Emanuel Mayer is an Assistant Genevieve S. Gessert is Associate Professor of Classics at the University Professor of Art and Archaeology at of Chicago. He is the author of Contributors xv

Rome is where the Emperor is: State provinces. She is author of Roman Monuments in the Decentralized Imperialism and Local Identities Roman Empire (2002; in German) (2009) and is currently working on a and The Ancient Middle Classes: book on identity in the western prov- Urban Life and Aesthetics in the inces. She has published papers on Roman Empire (2012). In his the architecture of Roman Britain, work, Mayer focuses on aspects of and gender and the family. architecture and society. Ingrid D. Rowland lives in Rome, Kathryn J. McDonnell is an where she teaches at the University of Assistant Professor in the Department Notre Dame School of Architecture of Classics at the University of and writes for The New York Review California, Los Angeles.Her research of Books and The New Republic. Her focuses on the social dynamics of books include The Culture of the High Roman tombs, and she is working on Renaissance (1998), The Scarith of a monograph on the necropoleis of Scornello: A Tale of Renaissance Pompeii, Isola Sacra, and Aquileia. Forgery (2004), and Giordano Bruno, Philosopher/Heretic (2008). In 1999, Inge Nielsen is Professor of Classical she and Thomas Howe published an Archaeology at the University of annotated, illustrated translation of Hamburg. She is the author of Vitruvius, Vitruvius: Ten Books on Thermae et Balnea (1991, 2nd ed. Architecture. 1993), Hellenistic Palaces (1994, 2nd ed. 1999), Cultic Theatres and Ritual John R. Senseney is Assistant Drama, 2002, and a contributor to Professor of the History of Ancient Der Neue Pauly (1996–2003). Architecture in the School of Architecture at the University of Caroline K. Quenemoen is Professor Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. He is in the Practice and Director of the author of The Art of Building in Fellowships and Undergraduate the Classical World: Vision, Research at Rice University. She is Craftsmanship, and Linear Perspective the author of The House of Augustus in Greek and Roman Architecture and the Foundation of Empire (forth- (2011). coming) as well as articles on the same subject. Melanie Grunow Sobocinski, Ph.D. is an independent scholar. In addition Louise Revell is Lecturer in Roman to a dissertation and two previous arti- Archaeology at the University of cles on ancient architectural images, Southampton. She specializes in the her publications include Detroit and public buildings of Roman Britain Rome: Building on the Past (2005). and the Iberian peninsula, and the She has taught art history at the question of identity in the western University of Michigan–Dearborn. xvi Contributors

John W. Stamper, Professor and projects on the urban histories of Associate Dean in the School of Naples and Rome. His academic Architecture at the University of Notre interests include ancient Greek and Dame, is an architect and architectural Roman urbanism, architecture, historian who teaches architectural material culture, social history, and history and fifth-year design studios. religion. He served as Director of the School’s Rome Studies Program from 1990 to Edmund V. Thomas is Lecturer in 1999. In 2005 he published The Ancient Visual and Material Culture Architecture of Roman Temples: The at Durham University. His main Republic to the Middle Empire. research interest is in classical architecture and its relation to social Tesse D. Stek is Assistant Professor and cultural ideas. He is the author of in Classical and Mediterranean Monumentality and the Roman Archaeology at the Faculty of Empire: Architecture in the Antonine Archaeology of Leiden University. Age (2007). He is the author of Cult Places and Cultural Change in Republican Italy Roger B. Ulrich holds the Ralph (2009) and directs archaeological Butterfield Professorship in the excavations at the temple of S. Classics Department at Dartmouth Giovanni in Galdo, Colle Rimontato, College. His research focus has been as well as field surveys in the territory on Roman architecture and ancient of the ancient colony of Aesernia, technology. He is the author of The both in Molise, ancient Samnium. He Roman Orator and the Sacred Stage: would like to thank Brasenose The Roman Templum Rostratum College, where he worked on this (1994), Roman Woodworking (2007), chapter as Golding Junior Research and is currently working on a book Fellow, and the Netherlands that examines ancient depictions of Organization for Scientific Research Greek and Roman technologies. (NWO). Fikret K. Yegül is an architect and Rabun Taylor is Associate Professor professor of architectural history at of Classics at the University of the University of California, Santa Texas at Austin. His publications Barbara. A scholar of Roman include Public Needs and Private architecture, he has been a member Pleasures: Water Distribution, the of the Harvard Sardis Excavations in Tiber River, and the Urban Turkey and the Ohio State University Development of Ancient Rome (2000); Isthmia Excavations in Greece. Roman Builders: A Study in Specializing on baths and bathing Architectural Process (2003); and The culture of antiquity, Yegül is the Moral Mirror of Roman Art (2008). author of articles and books on He is currently working on book Roman architecture, notably Baths Contributors xvii and Bathing in Classical Antiquity Luxury on the Bay of Naples (2013). (1992), which received the Alice D. She has also developed a VR digital Hitchcock Award from the Society of model of the Villa of the Papyri that Architectural Historians in 1994. His systematizes and visualizes data from most recent book is Bathing in the past and ongoing archaeological Roman World (2010). He is working fieldwork and edited a volume on the on a book on Roman architecture Villa: The Villa of the Papyri at and urbanism. Herculaneum: Archaeology, Reception, and Digital Reconstruction (2010). Mantha Zarmakoupi is a Humboldt She is presently working on book Research Fellow at the University of projects on the idea of landscape in Cologne (Institute of Archaeology). Roman luxury villas and on the urban She is the author of Designing for growth of late Hellenistic Delos. S CALEDONIAN N

I HIBERNIA Yo rk

R F ms RANKSE SAXONS B Vi stu Rh in la GERMAN e LW r BELGIC Xanten Elbe R. LS

Wese Cologne A Se I L A Mainz i A Trier E L ne Paris M I U G UP M ARCOMANN VANDA D U A ATLANTIC N E R N ADI Loire N . N QU S AGRI S I OCEAN I ATE S Strasbourg UM A DEC CI DELI Vienna VIN NORICUM Windisch Carnumtum A N I IA us N Lyon A n PANNONIA ES A RAETIA UPR. R Ae G IT Pettua LWR. S G UG .

Vienne ZY Q P T Milan Aquileia Sa Dr a L Verona ave T v A A ro e Po I

n A O AD n

e Rhône C Mursa NENSIS . Cremona Sissek O R Do B I L uro Ebro R Sirmium A Arles A Ravenna N M Rimini M UPR. N Fano I T A A Salonae r Ancona T ANIA SP Tarragona T Tagus R I Corsica Tibe A A LUSI ROME L B Guadal Y A quivir CITERIO E Sardinia T Balearics I C A Tangier

MA Cherchel URE Salé Hippo CARTHAGE TINGIT TANIA Sicily Constantine B Volubilis ANIA Sétif YZ M Lambaesis A E A IDI A D s MAURETANIA CAESARIENSIS M CI l a U Hadrumetum I t N U T A Tebessa M E MAURI F R R nor Syrtis A Mi N R E A N

I Leptis Magna TRIPOLIT C ANI M A A ajor Sy rtis

0 500 km

Map 1 Map of the Roman Empire. Volga Ural

D on

Dn SARMA iep TIANS er

H S T CARPI Bu O D g C n ie A G s te r US S P I BOSPHOR A DACIA C a u c a s N COLCHI u Sarmizegetusa Chersonese I B s S E R I A E S

PONTUS EUXINUS A M Danube O E S I A Marcianopolis Naissus Artaxata Serdica LWR. A PAPHLA- E I THR L A N Philippopolis GONIA NI E AC A PONTUS ITT E M E Byzantium L M Adrianople Chalcedonicomedia R N A MACEDONIA Ancyra AR BYTHYNI A Thessalonica Nicaea I Amida Tigranocerta A I S A C EPIR IA O AD LAT D M GA Caesarea A ENE IABE L P P G E Nisibis US YC C A A N S O Edessa S E Smyrna PISID AO MM S IA ISA NI R Carrhae O Hatra A URIA A Tarsus CO Issos HO SIAN AE Ephesus Aphrodisias EN R H A E Dura- P Athenae PA M P H Y L I A SYRIA-CO AC LICI ANTIOCH Europos O PE CI LYCIA Laodicea ELE T CTESIPHON A Tig ICIA ri Cyprus A Emesa s Rhodes N Seleucia M Crete Palmyra I Babylon A

SYRI Heliopolis E up PHOE Damascus hrates Tyre E N S E A Caesarea I Bostra T S Gerasa E L Jerusalem Cyrene A A ALEXANDRIA P CYRENAICA Petra ABI

E AR G Y P

Nile RED SEA

BLEMMYES Syene

Map 1 (Continued). Map 2 Provinces of the Roman Empire. I L L Y R I A ISTRI

INSUBRES A MI Ticinus Transpadani TU Vercellae VIA POS NETI C I S A L P I N E VE G A Cremona U L )

Po IA

Placentia IA NN L

A L V I IA A P IA Genua EMILI O V A P TrebiaVI

A A

A I U Boii RE V IA LIA UR Ariminum LIG Luca Faesulae Pisa Arno Senones Metaurus R. ETR UMBRIA D P A

I L Lake C M

UR ArretiumV

Trasimene E

I A A INIA N T IA C M I A

A U LA CORSICA S F M S

I A IA V V IA C Telamon L O Adriatic Sea D Ti I A b e Cosa r S ERIA VIA VAL AMNIUM

Rome V APULIA Ostia IA L V A TI IA NA AP Cannae PIA CapuaBeneventum Canusium V Naples Nola IA Apollonia Venusia AP CAMP PIA ANIA Tarentum Brundisium Grumentum SARDINIA Polla LUCANI A

IA Tyrrhenian A Thurii NNIA

Sea (?) M U

I Croton

R B Messana Panormus Ionian Rhegium Sea

SICILY

Agrigentum Carthage Syracuse

0 300 km

Map 3 Map of Italy. Map 4 Schematic Plan of Rome showing the location of major monuments. Model 1 Model of the Capitoline Hill and the Roman Forum. Source: Model of Rome, Roman Forum between Capitoline and Colosseum. Fototeca Unione neg. no. 11763 (F).

Model 2 Model of the Campus Martius. Source: Museo della Civiltà Romana / E. Richter, Roma.

Introduction

The architecture of Rome’s great Empire has long captured our imagination. The Romans themselves were enamored with their built environment. Ancient authors were just as likely to celebrate the grandeur and beauty of ancient buildings as they were to decry their excess, Nero’s Domus Aurea being a notable example of the latter. Within Roman literature the emphasis on space – from Ovid’s fascination with the lascivious activity sheltered within Augustan porticoes to Statius’s awe at the soaring heights of the imperial palace – more broadly demonstrates a keen desire to explore its symbolic import. Since antiquity, the ruins of Rome’s storied past have appealed to a broad spectrum of society, at once inspiring emulation and, like the slave who accompanied the emperor in his triumph, reminding viewers of the transience of human accomplishment. Roman architecture has provided the formal templates for reimagining western architecture over the past 500 years, yielding architec tural treatises ranging from Leon Battista Alberti’s Ten Books of Architecture to Robert Venturi’s Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture and monumental realizations from Palladio’s Villa Capra (“La Rotonda”) to James Stirling’s Neue Staatsgalerie. Its iconic structures have fueled a thriving economy in entertainment and tourism that once drew the aristocratic gentry and now caters to a global consumer market. Yet, for all its glory, Roman architecture also stands as a sober testament to a fallen empire and as such has become the conceptual space for contemplating time, mortality, and hubris in a range of media, from the writings of Edward Gibbon and Marguerite Yourcenar to the films of Federico Fellini and the poetry of John Keats.

The ubiquity of Roman architecture and the scale and sheer human effort represented by its enduring physical traces account for its longstanding fascination. Growing from its prehistoric and republican roots, Roman building spread throughout the Italic peninsula and made its mark across a sprawling empire spanning modern-day Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The extant structures have preserved a full spectrum of spaces that accommodated every aspect of Roman life – public to private, secular to sacred, high to low. Whether highlights on a bus tour or overgrown ruins known only to the specialist, their forms are equally important in manifesting complex negotiations between the historically contingent categories of Romans and non-Romans, free and servile, Rome and her environs, and the past and present. While Roman architecture was the self-conscious product of particular historical moments, critical to its development throughout history was interaction among diverse cultures of the Italic peninsula and the broader Mediterranean world. During the earliest phases of this process, Latin tribes were receptive to ideas learned from their non-Latin neighbors; they drew upon their own ingenuity and the natural resources around them, discovering the properties of materials and developing along the way principles of form and spatial organization that would ultimately become deeply rooted traditions for their descendents, those peoples who were to become “Romans.” New structural and decorative forms were soon introduced by colonists arriv- ing in Italy from Greece, and eventually direct contact with the Greek cities of the eastern Mediterranean through trade and warfare exposed the growing city of Rome to new materials and design principles that were adapted and absorbed to the prescripts of more ancient Italic traditions. Over time, the physical structure of these buildings, the spaces they enclosed, and the views they framed, succeeded in accommodating and imparting a sense of what it was to be “Roman,” an identity always subject to experience, time, and place. Familial hierarchies, civic administration, ritual and sacrifice, leisure, entertainment, simple routines of movement throughout the day, and finally death itself were accommodated, regulated, and codified through the built environment. From an early stage, the development of Roman architecture and the forms that it took were shaped by its association with the socio-political authority of individuals and communities. The Roman patron seemed to understand intui- tively the power of the built environment to proclaim superiority over his competitors, and to enforce social hierarchies that favored the status quo. By the dawn of the imperial period, architecture in Rome declared the city’s far- reaching authority, through its display of imported marble and colored stones, looted sculpture and other valuables seized from conquered lands that adorned its surfaces and interiors, and enslaved labor that made building on a grand scale possible. At the same time, the design, construction, and decoration of Introduction 3 provincial architecture addressed the oft-conflicting demands of imperial, regional, and local identities. Just as local potentates curried favor with the Capital through construction projects designed to echo through design, materials, and eponymous dedication the signature buildings of Rome, they raised buildings that responded to the needs of their local context and identity. Today Roman architecture is a rich field of study, its interests and debates enlivened and largely reframed by the intensive scholarly inquiry of the past 20 years. New archaeological discoveries, both in Rome and in the provinces, have significantly expanded the corpus of Roman architecture, and technological advances have provided new tools for the recovery of archaeological data and for the examination and analysis of ancient spaces, from isolated buildings to entire city plans. As a result, scholars have been able to reassess traditional historical accounts and broaden our understanding of historically neglected or elusive periods, lesser-known sites in provincial set- tings, and canonical building types. While formalism continues to play an important role in Roman architectural studies both in comprehensive treatments and more focused works (i.e., on single building types), the past 20 years reveal a desire to understand form as one factor in a complex nexus of Rome’s cultural production and reception. Rather than treat architecture as an image of static monumentality, scholars have increasingly drawn attention to the dynamics of its form, from the numerous studies on the design and construction process made possible by new technologies to those exam- ining ancient and modern reception of these spaces. In the process, the longstanding structural and monumental definition of Roman architecture has yielded to a more expansive understanding that highlights the interplay of space and ornament, especially in domestic architecture, the role of landscape within and beyond Rome’s built environments, the interaction among inscriptions, facades, and streets, and the importance of ephemeral materials and temporary structures. The desire to understand Roman architecture as an integrated cultural practice, encompassing a range of factors from design to reception, has resulted in interdisciplinary approaches that examine the dynamic interplay among aesthetics, social structure, politics, and geography in the production and use of Roman architecture. In particular, scholars have highlighted the relation among design, artifacts, and social ritual in the Roman house, patronage and design, the gaze and social control, the permeability of public and private aesthetics, the social dimensions of the urban environment, and the role of architecture in negotiating provincial identity. Even Vitruvius, whose classifi- cation system has long underpinned the modern historiographic narrative, has been the subject of contextualized readings that draw attention to the political and philosophical significance of his text. 4 Introduction

Despite the wealth of new work, the most recent comprehensive treatments of Roman architecture for English speakers, ranging from handbooks to more encyclopedic studies, appeared primarily in a roughly 20-year period from 1960 through the early 1980s. These include the works of Frank Brown, Mortimer Wheeler, Axel Boëthius, John Bryan Ward-Perkins, Frank Sear, and William MacDonald. Although the chronological and geographic scope of these reviews vary, and the depth of treatment is necessarily limited, they share a formalist approach to Roman architecture and urban planning organized according to chronological and typological narratives. The most influential among them has been Etruscan and Roman Architecture, a collaboration between Boëthius and Ward-Perkins first published in 1970 and still in print (now in two volumes). The single most comprehensive treatment of the subject ever undertaken, this book examines the chronological development of Roman architecture in Rome and Italy from the Etruscans through Late Antiquity and offers the first serious overview of Roman provincial architecture in any language. Of course, if we were to include important books on the topic of Roman architecture in other languages, this list would be greatly expanded. Some of these, such as Jean-Pierre Adam’s La construction romaine: Matériaux et techniques, have been translated into English; others, such as the influential overviews written by Pierre Gros or, for the city of Rome specifically, Filippo Coarelli, remain in their original languages. Rather than attempt an encyclopedic review of Roman architecture, this volume highlights new discoveries and approaches by updating the longstanding historiographic attention to periodization and typology and by addressing the dynamic processes of architectural creation and reception. The volume begins with a six-chapter overview of Roman architectural design from the Iron Age to the early fourth century. Divided according to the traditional periodization of the field, the chapters examine distinctive architectural design features within a specific historical context while identifying continuities among them. Chapters 7–10 consider the underlying processes of Roman building – planning, construction techniques, the supply of building materials, and organization of the labor force – in order to shed light on the social, economic, and logistical negotiations and choices that shaped the final works. The overview of design and process sets the stage for a more focused study of canonical building types and spaces (both urban and rural, public and private) that structured and reflected the social practices of the Roman world. Each of the chapters 11–20 draws attention to the origin and development of a given typology within changing geographical, political, and social contexts. The volume closes with five chapters that selectively address the reception of Roman architecture from antiquity to the present day, reflecting on ancient representations and contemporary archaeological practices as dynamic media continually reassessing the relationships between the past, present, and future.