96232 Studia Iranica-Def.Ps

CHRISTINE VAN RUYMBEKE (UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE)

MURDER IN THE FOREST: CELEBRATING REWRITINGS AND MISREADINGS OF THE KALILA-DIMNA TALE OF THE LION AND THE HARE *

SUMMARY This paper considers rewritings and translations of a key-episode within the cycle of fables known as the Kalila-Dimna in several innovative ways. First, by considering the ways in which this episode has been rewritten throughout the centuries, the essay takes a stand radically opposed to the prevalent scholarship around the fables, which consists in rating WKHUHZULWLQJVIRUWKHLUIDLWKIXOQHVVWRWKHVRXUFHWH[W V 7KHSUHVHQWDSSURDFK³FHOHEUDWHV´ the misreadings and rewritings for the insights they give us into the mechanisms of the tale. Second, by analysing the episode as a weighty lesson in domestic politics, showing the fatal mistakes that can build up to regicide, the essay also aims at re-introducing an awareness of the contents of the fables as a very effective and unusual mirror for princes. Keywords: Kalila-Dimna; fables; Pancatantra; rewritings; misreadings; regicide; mirror for princes.

RÉSUMÉ Cet article propose un nouveau regard sur la question des ré-écritures et traductions G¶XQ épisode-clé du cycle des fables de Kalila et 'LPQD7RXWG¶DERUGVHSODoDQWjO¶RSSRVpGH O¶DSproche habituelle des fables, qui consiste à en apprécier les différentes versions pour leur ressemblance avec le texte-source, cet article, au contraire, « célèbre » les variantes introduites par les ré-écritures de la fable au cours des siècles. Ces variantes nous donnent des informations quant à la compréhension du contenu de la fable. Ensuite, cet article analyse la fable en tant que leçon de politique domestique, car elle indique les erreurs fatales qui peuvent mener au régicide. Cette analyse permettra de ré-introduire une compréhension des fables en tant que Miroir des Princes tout à fait inhabituel et efficace. Mots clés : Kalila-Dimna ; fables ; Pancatantra ; ré-écritures ; lectures ; régicide ; miroir des princes.

* Research for this paper, representing one aspect of my forthcoming monograph on AnYƗr-e Sohayli, started in 2007 during my sabbatical term as Fellow in Residence at the Columbia University Institute for Scholars, Reid Hall in Paris. I hereby would like to thank the Institute for their invaluable help and for giving their visiting scholars all possible assistance and encouragement, beautifully shielding them from worry or stress!

203 STUDIA IRANICA 41, 2012, pp. 203-254 204 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

³%RXQGOHVVLQWHPSHUDQFH In nature is a tyranny. It hath been The untimely emptying of the happy throne, $QGIDOORIPDQ\NLQJV´

Macbeth: iv.3, 67-68

The Kalila-Dimna cycle of fables presents one of the most prominent cases of re-writing, translation ² and misreading ² in the medieval world, transcending the (artificial) literary boundaries of the Muslim and Christian cultural areas. The success of the text in the medieval and pre-modern periods, especially in the Islamic cultural sphere, alerts us to the fact that this is one of the funGDPHQWDOWH[WVRIWKH³DQFLHQWZRUOG´7KHRULJLQRI this seminal book which is traditionally described as a Mirror for Princes1 is unclear and key-pieces of the puzzle are missing, though the question was passionately and hotly debated over long years. It is agreed that the text was put together in Pahlavi language at some point during the sixth century AD. This is the ante quem date for a prior version of this text, as is commonly argued by sanskritists. However, it is probably more correct to consider the cycle of fables²right from inception already ²as a work of composite origin, gathering several translations/rewritings/ excerpts from Sanskrit texts (a putative Ur-Pancatantra, an Ur-Tantrakhyayika supposed to date from the second century AD2 and the Mahabharata), several tales of Buddhist origin (jatakas) and several chapters composed directly by the sixth-century Persian author, reported to be a certain %RU]ǌ\D, physician at the intellectually dynamic court of its time, that of the Sassanid Khosrow AnushirYƗQ (r. 531-579 AD). This work appears almost immediately to have been translated by a Christian monk into Syriac, thus attesting to the fruitful crosspollination fostered at the Sassanian Court.3 In the first half of

1 See my forthcoming monograph on $QYƗU-e Sohayli. To the best of my knowledge, DIWHU 5LFKWHU¶V LQLWLDO PHQWLRQ DQG GH )RXFKpFRXU¶V EULHI LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ RI LWV FRQ- tents, this aspect of the fables has not been further convincingly argued in Western scholarship nor have the contents of the work further been analysed in this light (Richter 1932; Fouchécour 1986, pp. 414-420). In more recent studies of the phenomenon of advice literature, the text is not usually included amongst Mirror for Prin- ces. See Lambton 1971; Gruendler & Marlow 2004; Bosworth 2010, pp. 527-529. 2 Hertel 1909. The earliest surviving manuscript however, dates from the eleventh century AD. 3 It is interesting to remember that this court was a haven for both the Syrian scholars of Edessa (the School of Edessa was closed in the fifth century AD) and the Neo- Platonist philosophers (banished from Athens by Justinian in 529), who were wel- comed at the Academy of Gonde-6KƗSXULQ.KX]HVWDQ)RUWKHRULJLQRIWKH3DKODYL work, see de Blois 1990, p. 17. Perry 1965, p. xix, posits a Greek origin for some IDEOHV DV KH VLJQDOV WKDW ³PDQ\ IDEOHV RU IDEOH-motifs which make their first M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 205 the eighth century, the putative Pahlavi text was expanded and translated into Arabic by Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ (d. ca. 760), at the court of the Abbasid al- Manৢǌr (r. 754-775), and thence, into most known literary languages, amongst which are notable for our purpose, several prose and verse translations and re-writings in Classical Persian.4 Scholars have spent much time and effort (the enormous²but mostly repetitive²secondary literature is truly staggering) piecing together the story of the text and the pedigree of its translations and re-writings, with a view both to tracing the stemma of known versions in Eastern and Western languages and to reconstructing the SXWDWLYHORVW³RULJLQDO´6DQVNULWSyriac and Arabic texts. The actual contents of the fables on the other hand, remain under- VWXGLHGDQGFRQWLQXHWRFDXVHSX]]OHPHQW,QWUXWKWKHZRUN¶VLQFUHGLEOH success over the medieval and pre-modern periods baffles the present-day reader. Why would the Abbasids, for example, have been anxious to translate into Arabic these Pahlavi fables, with the same urgency as, say $ULVWRWOH¶VSKLORVRSKLFDOoeuvre? But also, the personality of the translators and rewriters of the attested versions of the fables is intriguing. Apart from professioQDO SRHWV VXFK DV 5XGDNL 4ƗQHµL -DOƗO DO-Din Rumi (or La Fontaine in seventeenth-century France), most other authors were themselves important state officers (even future rulers, as the Spanish Infant Alphonso the Wise (r. 1252-1284)) or were working closely with statesmen who had reached the highest echelons of the curriculum. There is a remarkable continuation in this phenomenon, as in seventeenth-century France, a Persian version of the text was translated by Gilbert Gaulmin, a member of the seraglio around the great statesmen Richelieu (d. 1642) and Seguier (d. 1672), the latter being the dedicatee of Le Livre des Lumières. The personality of the authors makes it thus permissible to consider the contents of the Kalila-Dimna of use to statesmen, just as those of the more UHFRJQLVHG 0LUURUV IRU 3ULQFHV VXFK DV IRU H[DPSOH 1H਌ƗP DO-0RON¶V (d. 1092) 6L\ƗU DO-PXOǌN :KHQ ZH FRQVLGHU WRGD\¶V GUDPDWLF GRZQ- grading of WKH UHDGHU¶V OHYHO²from medieval statesmen to present-day primary school², the conclusion presents itself that we must be misreading the text and the challenge to rediscover its true worth beckons!5

appearance in Greek or Near Eastern literature are found later in the Pancatantra and other Indian story-books, including the Buddhist Jatakas´7KLVDUJument is reversed by sanskritists! 4 For the story of the Arabic and Persian Kalila-Dimna cycle of fables, see for example, Brockelmann 1978, pp. 503-506; Riedel 2010, (accessed May 2011); de Blois 1990, and id. 2010, pp. 423-424. 5 ,UZLQ¶V ³7KH $UDELF %HDVW )DEOH´ (Irwin 1992, pp. 36-50) is an example of how secondary literature typically misunderstands the use of the fables at the courts. 206 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

Preceded by two or four introductory chapters,6 the different Arabic and Persian versions of the text consist of between eleven and fourteen chapters or books of variable length and fame, each shaped as a frame-story within which several levels of secondary tales may be embedded. The other versions of the text also vary in length and scope and range from Ramsay :RRG¶s version of the chapter on the Bull and the Lion only, to the five first chapters in the Pancatantra versions or to the ten chapters of John of &DSXD¶VYHUVLRQ$VLVWKHFDVHZLWK$HVRSLFIDEOHVLQWKH.DOLOD-Dimna cycle, the characters are often, but by no means exclusively, animals thinking and behaving as human types. Key-moments or key-thoughts in these frame-stories are developed in secondary tales, which sometimes also contain further embedded tales. The tales, in turn, have known a fame of their own, torn from their context and re-used within other narratives. The present essay considers one particular story: the Tale of the Lion and the Hare, which is one of the most successful stories of the cycle.7 Part of its popularity in the Persian cultural area is surely due to the version Rumi gave of it in the first Book of his Masnavi-H 0D¶QDYL. But I shall argue that it is also a key fable of this Mirror for Princes, as it presents a singular case recounting the setting-XS RI D +REEHVLDQ ³VRFLDO FRQWUDFW´ avant-la-lettre between subjects and prince, its subsequent breach by a desperate revolutionary, building up to regicide, which is the ultimate cata- strophe which a book of counsel for princes necessarily hopes to avoid! Monarchs were indeed in dire need of making provision against a violent end, as they were, on average, exposed to a risk of being murdered that was ³PXFK KLJKHU WKDQ WKH KRPLFLGH ULVN RI DQ\ RWKHU NQRZQ PDMRU VRFLDO JURXS´8 The constitutional legality of rebellion against a ruler was hotly

6 These introductory chapters have also focussed the interest of scholars. See, especially, de Blois 1990, for a discussion of their form and contents. 7 A way to gauge the popular success of these fables is to number the illustrations of the fables in manuscripts through the centuries and across geographical areas. The episode of the Lion and the Hare is represented at five different moments of the story which are amongst the most oft-recurring Kalila-Dimna illustrations: the beasts offer to provide the Lion with his daily sustenance; the Hare talks to the Lion; the Hare shows their joint reflection to the Lion; the Lion jumps into the well; the Lion drowns LQ WKH ZHOO 6HH 5DE\ DQG 2¶.DQH SS 86-92. I am very grateful to Frantz Grenet for making me aware of the late seventh-early eighth century AD wall paintings at Panjikent (Grenet, forthcoming), which also feature an illustration of the Tale of the Hare and the Lion (see Marshak 2002, p. 137, fig. 88). 8 Eisner 2011, p. 7KRXJK (LVQHU¶V VWXG\ GRHV QRW FRQVLGHU QRQ-European societies, there is no reason not to carry over his findings to the areas to which the present study relates. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 207

GHEDWHG DQG XSKHOG E\ 0X¶WD]LOLWHV 6KLLWHV DQG VRPH RWKHU PRYHPHQWV within Islam.9 I shall first deconstruct the episode and the characters as they appear in ZKDW ZH PD\ FRQVLGHU WKH ROGHVW VXUYLYLQJ YHUVLRQ WKH ³2OG 6\ULDF 9HUVLRQ´ DFFRUGLQJ WR WZR translations). The brevity of this text and its date seem a fitting starting point for this study. I will then consider the changes brought by a number of rewritings to the original fable, analysing how key-elements which I identified in the deconstruction of the Old Syriac Version, are kept, adapted, transformed or left out in these successive rewritings. I have chosen a cross-section of twenty-three versions of the episode amongst the wealth of existing rewritings and translations. These are first the Sanskrit Pancatantra text (according to five translations) and the Arabic Ibn al-0XTDIIDµWUDQVODWLRQ DFFRUGLQJWRIRXUWUDQVlations). The reason why several translations have been used for these two texts are set out below. The tale as presented by eight different classical Persian authors forms the bulk of this foray into re-writing issues. These are in chronological order: the surviving bayt by Rudaki, the twelth-century version by 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL WKDW E\ KLV FRQWHPSRUDU\ 0RতDPPDG DO- %RNKƗUL1H਌ƗPL *DQMDYL¶V bayt5XPL¶VXVHRIWKHWDOHLQKLVMasnavi-e PD¶QDvi WKH YHUVH SDVWLFKH PDGH E\ 5XPL¶V FRQWHPSRUDU\ 4ƗQHµL, the fifteenth century Timurid version by .ƗVKHILLn the $QYƗU-e Sohayli, its rewriting in the sixteenth-century Mughalµ(\ƗU-HGƗQHVK b\$EX¶O)DĪO, and finally an early twentieth-century versified version of the $QYƗU-e Sohayli by Khosrow-'DUƗ¶L.10 The Latin version by John of Capua (thriteenth century), as well DV 1RUWK¶V VL[WHHQWK-century English translation of the Fables of Bidpai or Morall Philosophie of Doni will widen the debate to early Christian Western versions stemming from the early medieval Hebrew translation. In the wake of the early-modern French interest for Orientalism, Gaulmin produced in the seventeenth century a French translation of the Persian AQYƗU-e Sohayli and Antoine Galland made one of its Ottoman Turkish version, the +XPƗ\XQ NƗPHK. Finally two twentieth-century versions, by Ramsay Wood in English and in Dutch by the Iranian-born Kader Abdolah, round off this attempt at illustrating the various aspects of translating, rewriting and misreading the fable.

9 G. van Gelder mentions this debate in his ³0LUURUIRUSULQFHVRUYL]RUIRUYL]LHUVWKH twelfth-century Arabic popular encyclopedia 0XIƯGDO-µXOǌP and its relationship with the anonymous Persian Bahr al-IDZƗµLG´ (Van Gelder 2001, p. 330). 10 It is probable that to these Persian versions which have been identified, one might add a number of unreferenced, unanalysed versions in as-yet unexplored manuscripts. 208 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

I. CELEBRATING MISREADING! My approach is opposed to the principles underlying the search for the ORVW 6DQVNULW 6\ULDF RU $UDELF ³RULJLQDO´ WH[WV *UHDW VFKRODUV VXFK DV Edgerton, Schulthess and Silvestre de Sacy have spent time and effort in collating different manuscripts and versions, erasing particularities, sometimes yielding to the temptation of straddling centuries and language areas, in order to re-create what they felt might have been the lost original work; their findings²useful as they might be in proposing an editio princeps²necessarily however, remain hypotheses. But more to the point KHUH WKH\ GLVUHJDUG HDFK UHZULWHU¶V RU WUDQVODWRU¶V ZLVK WR LQWHUSUHW RU change the work, the necessary incentive behind any writing endeavour. One gets the impression that these scholars have considered the versions, whether still in manuscript form or already printed, as the result of error, incompetence or dishonesty by the authors, translators or copyists whose failure in reproducing exactly the source text these scholars took upon themselves to redress! I here stay shy of such endeavours and bemoan the UHVXOWLQJ ORVV RI DZDUHQHVV DQG DSSUHFLDWLRQ RI WKH VXFFHVVLYH UHZULWHUV¶ DQG WUDQVODWRUV¶ HQJagement with their text. The present paper illustrates the phenomenon of rewriting and misreading, but it makes what I hope is good use of the particularities and idiosyncrasies of each version. By DQDO\VLQJWKLVPDSRIUHZULWLQJWKHDXWKRUV¶SHUFHSWLRQVof the meaning of WKH IDEOH LQ IDFW WKHLU PLVUHDGLQJV DQG PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV RI WKH IDEOHV¶ pXWDWLYH ³RULJLQDO´ SXUSRVH KHOS to understand this latter, while also showing the value of each new version and celebrating their originality. The close-reading and comparison of the versions and interpretations allows us to spot the structural weaknesses in the synopsis. These are the interesting knots, the passages where successive authors have tripped and differ because they have proposed their own interpretation and attempted to render the narration more harmonious, more likely, more sensational, more DJUHHDEOH PRUH KXPRURXV« 7KLV DQDO\VLV ZLOO TXHU\ KRZ ZH FDQ DQG how we are meant to, understand the narrative and its characters, by using the interpretation given to the episode by the successive rewriters, searching for its message whether it be political or moral, or both.

I.1. The oldest version The text of the Old Syriac Version, called Qalilag w Damnag, was established amongst much excitement in the course of the nineteenth century by several German scholars on the basis of a unique, imperfect and incomplete sixteenth-century manuscript originally kept in a Syriac Orthodox monastery in Mardin. It contains a late copy of a text, missing one page at the beginning and a few lines at the end, presumed to have M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 209 been composed around 570 AD by an ecclesiastic named Bud (or Bod) Periodeutes,11 HVSHFLDOO\ HQWUXVWHG ZLWK ³ORRNLQJ DIWHU WKH &KULVWLDQV LQ 3HUVLDDQG,QGLD´7KLVWH[WKDVQRUHFRJQL]HGOLWHUDU\RIIVSULQJthough its sixteenth-century copy proves that its value was recognized. This manuscript lay forgotten till, in 1876, it was unearthed, edited and translated into German by G. Bickell with a lengthy scholarly introduction E\ 7KHRGRU %HQIH\ WKH ³Pancatantra speFLDOLVW´ and thus immediately coupling the two versions by the lost link of the Pahlavi version and FRQVLGHULQJ WKH 6DQVNULW DV WKH ³RULJLQDO ZRUN´ %LFNHOO¶V ZRUN PDGH ripples in the field of Indian, Persian and Arabic studies and was predic- tably praised and much criticized. In 1911, a corrected second edition and new²and surprisingly different²German translation based on different DQG ³EHWWHU´ WZHQWLHWK-century copies of this unique manuscript was prepared by Friedrich Schulthess. Nevertheless, in several cases in the present analysis, I KDYH D SUHIHUHQFH IRU %LFNHOO¶V XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH fable. In line with the prevailing scholarship which was geared towards the lost Ur-version, Schulthess criticizes the Pahlavi translator, the lost source for this Old Syriac Version, for committing mistranslations. Several, mainly poetical, passages in the Syriac text were incomprehensible and, when vetted against the later Pancatantra versions, could be explained as WKHUHVXOWRIWKHWUDQVODWRU¶VPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRf the Sanskrit verses. Thus, the German scholar argued that the Pahlavi author must have misunder- stood the original Sanskrit text which he paraphrased, and that he failed to do justice to the political sentences, calling upon notions of Indian law, mores and religion.12 It might be correct to say that one ought thus to be SUHSDUHGWRYLHZ6FKXOWKHVV¶VHGLWLRQDVD³QHZYHUVLRQ´, fruit of a biased endeavour²straddling centuries and cultural, religious and linguistic spheres²to re-create the lost spirit and letter of a lost and perhaps mythical 6DQVNULW³RULJLQDO´ZLWKLQWKH6\ULDFWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH3DKODYLWUDQVODWLRQ The ten chapters that compose it were traced to Pancatantra chapters, to Mahabharata passages and to a Tibetan source.13 Thus the Old Syriac Version was perhaps too hastily considered to be almost contemporary with its source, the sixth-century, no longer extant, Pahlavi text put together by Borzǌya for the Sassanid Khosrow Anushir- YƗn. This Old Syriac Version is considered particularly interesting as it is independent and much older than what must have been the (also lost) eighth-century Arabic translation and expanded version made by Ibn

11 J. S. Assemani dates him to ca. 570 (Assemani1725, pp. 219-220). F. de Blois notes WKDW ³$VVHPDQL¶V VRXUFH IRU WKLV LQIRUPDWLRQ KDV QHYHU EHHQ LGHQWLILHG´ (de Blois 1990, p. 2). 12 Schulthess 1911, II, pp. xii-xiii. 13 Bickel 1876, Table of Contents. 210 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 al-0XTDIIDµ, on which all other known versions and translations are based. Most sensationally, the Old Syriac Version does not contain the chapter of 'LPQD¶VWULDODQGFRQGHPQDWLRQZKLFKPD\WKXVEHFRQVLGHUHGDQDGGLWLRQ made by Ibn al-0XTDIIDµIDPRXVO\LIHUURQHRXVO\GHVFULEHGDV³VDWLVI\LQJ the feeling of justice outraged by the immoral teachings of this boRN´14 It is manifest that the Old Syriac Version is not concerned with either religion or morality, but rather with practical knowledge and in particular the pitfalls and dangers to which rulers and their advisors are exposed.15 The episode analyzed here occurs in the first Chapter or Book, the story featuring the jackals Kalila and Dimna. This frame-story is tagged in the 2OG6\ULDF9HUVLRQDV³DQH[DPSOHRIWZRIULHQGVDPRQJVWZKRPDOLDURU trickster creates dissatisfaction, turning their love and unity into hate and HQPLW\´16 This story operates as the frame for a number of embedded secondary stories²such as the episode under scrutiny here²which illustrate particular points in the discourse of the protagonists. Two jackals, Kalila and Dimna live on the fringes of the court of the King Lion. Dimna LVDPELWLRXVDQGKRSHVWRZRUPKLVZD\LQWRWKH.LQJ¶VHQWRXUDJHLQRUGHU to become his confidant. Kalila advises against this course of action and continues throughout the story to present Dimna with pieces of wise FRXQVHO 2QH GD\ QRWLFLQJ WKH .LQJ¶V IHDU RI VRPH XQLGHQWLILHG QRLVH Dimna, in the hope of ingratiating himself with the King, goes to investi- gate and returns in the company of the honest and kind Bull, the source of the bellows which frightened the King. By his own initiative, Dimna effectively is the agent of the friendship between the King and the Bull. 7KLV LV D FDSLWDO PLVWDNH LQ 'LPQD¶V JUDQG VFKHPH DV KLV DPELWLRQHG SRVLWLRQDWFRXUWLVORVWWRWKH%XOOZKREHFRPHVWKH.LQJ¶VDGYLVRU'LPQD now has only one aim: to get rid of the Bull. He discusses this matter at length with Kalila, who remarks that Dimna is handicapped by his physical weakness in order to get rid of the powerful Bull. Dimna replies that not everything is achieved by brutal force. He uses an embedded tale to explain that a weakling may achieve through tricks what a strong person is unable

14 Brockelmann 1972S+RZHYHUVHH*5LFKWHU¶VDQDO\VLVRIWKLVFKDSWHUZKLFK VKRZVWKDW'LPQD¶V7ULDOLVQRWD³PRUDOFRGD´WRWKHSUHYLRXVDVVDVVLQDWLRQRIWKH Bull. (Richter 1932). 6HHDOVRP\IRUWKFRPLQJHVVD\³7KHQRW-so-very moral story of 'LPQD¶V7ULDO´ 15 How close this doctrine was to Sanskrit DUWDĞDVWUD can only be guessed at. Scholars, to my mind too hastily, propose that this doctrine was similar to that found in Sanskrit texts, though the existing unique Old Syriac Version manuscript is much sparser and already at least twice removed from the putative original Sanskrit ancestor and its DUWDĞDVWUD contents. (Olivelle 2006, pp. 18-20; also de Blois 1990, p. 15 and 17). 16 This is in the version by Bickell 1876, p. 1 (my translation from German). Schulthess 1911, KDVRQO\³&KDSWHURIWKH%XOODQGWKH/LRQ´ M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 211 to do. This being agreed upon, the musings between Kalila and Dimna continue and it is now that the tale of the Lion and the Hare is told in order to hammer home the idea that force is not essential to overcome a powerful, beefy²and smart²enemy, if one identifies and plays upon FHUWDLQZHDNQHVVHVLQWKHODWWHU¶VFKDUDFWHU

I.2. We may deconstruct the episode in the following manner:17

A. The preceding dialogue between Kalila and Dimna, the promythium:18 Kalila: ³7KH%XOOLVQRWRQO\VWURQJEXWDOVRZLVH´ Dimna: ³7KRXJKKHLVLQWHOOLJHQWKHLVQRWPRUHLQWHOOLJHQWWKDQPH Also, he is only afraid of the Lion and despises me.19 There- fore, I will hurt him, like that Hare who, with his smallness DQGKLVWULFNVNLOOHGWKH/LRQ´ B. The Fable (the narrative): 1. Presentation of the situation and characters: ± A forest with plenty of grass and drink, marred by the presence of a lion-killer. Thus, deVSLWHWKHDEXQGDQFHWKHDQLPDOV¶OLIHLVSRLVRQHG because they are afraid of the Lion. ± They politely approach the Lion and put forward the idea that it is WLULQJ IRU KLP WR KXQW ³,I \RX ZRXOG DFW LQ VXFK D ZD\ WKDW WKH animals would be without fear of you, then, we will offer you an DQLPDOGDLO\´

17 This is based on the German 1911 translation by F. Schulthess (generally preferred by scholars), which in this fable differs very little from the older 1876 one by G. Bickell. However, there are passages²see footnotes 19, 20, 21, 22 below²where the differences are significant. I DPFRQYLQFHGWKDWLQWKHILUVWRIWKHVHFDVHV%LFNHO¶V translation is more appropriate. Schulthess 1911, p. ii, tr., pp. 22-23 and Bickell 1876, tr., p. 14. 18 I am adopting this designation from the tradition of Aesopic fables. Promythium is a statement of the application of the fable. Similarly, the epimythium is an explanation RUDUHSHWLWLRQRIWKH³WUXWK´LQWHQGHG%RWKSURP\WKLXPDQd epimythium channel the UHDGHU¶V XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI FRPSOH[ IDEOHV LQWR D VLQJOH GLUHFWLRQ QRW DOORZLQJ WKH IDEOH³WRVSHDNLWVRZQODQJXDJHGLUHFWWRWKHUHDGHUZKLFKZDVLWVZKROHYRFDWLRQ´ The tagging of a moral represents a similar opportunity for the authors to usurp the role of the readers (Blackham 1985, p. 8 and 11). 19 7KLV LV %LFNHO¶V version (Bickel 1876, p. 13) which I am tempted to prefer: it HPSKDVLVHVWKH%XOO¶VPLVWDNHLQGHVSLVLQJDOOWKHDQLPDOVEXWWKH/LRQ6FKXOWKHVV¶V version²the Bull is afraid of the Lion and is despised by the Lion (despicable in his eyes)² PHQWLRQV WKH /LRQ¶V GLVUHJDUG IRU WKH %XOO¶V SRWHQWLDO VWUHQJWK ZKLFK LV neither reflected in the frame-VWRU\ QRU LQ WKLV IDEOH %LFNHO¶V YHUVLRQ highlights a double weakness in the Bull: he is [already] afraid of the Lion and he disregards the SRWHQWLDOWKUHDWZKLFK'LPQDUHSUHVHQWV'LPQD¶VGHYLRXVQHVVZLOOPDNHXVHRIERWK these weaknesses and so does the Hare in the fable. 212 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

± The Lion agrees to the contract. The animals daily sacrifice to the Lion one of their own, chosen by fate. 7KH+DUH¶VUHEHOOLRQDQGWKHP\VWHULRXVSUHSDUDWLRQRIKLVWULFN ± When it is the Hare who draws WKHORWKHDVNVWKHRWKHUDQLPDOV³,I as I JR\RXGRQ¶WSXVKPHIRUZDUGRQWKHZD\DQGLI, may loiter a ELWWKHQ,¶OOPDNHVXUHWKDW\RXDOVRQRORQJHUQHHGWRIHDU´20 ± The other animals agree without asking details of what he has in mind, and the Hare goes forward at ease. ± 7KH /LRQ¶V PHDOWLPH LV SDVW DQJULO\ KH VWDUWV RII [towards the animals]. ± +HVHHVRQH+DUHDUULYLQJDQGDGGUHVVHVKLP³:KHQFHGR\RXFRPH DQGZKHUHDUH\RXJRLQJ"´ 7KHOLHDQGWKH/LRQ¶VJXOOLELOLW\DQGEUDYHU\ ± The Hare answers that the animals sent a hare and himself as escort. ³%XWDOLRQZKROLYHVQHDUE\WRRNWKDWKDUH´ ± ³I said: µThis hare is meant for the Lion,¶ but he mocked you and just ran away from you.´21 ± 7KH/LRQUHSOLHV³&RPH6KRZPHWKLVOLRQ´ 4. The trick with the mirror and the actual murder: ± 7KH+DUHVKRZVKLPDZHOOZLWKSXUHZDWHU³7KLVLVZKHUHKHLV´ ± They approach and both look into the well, and see their mirror- LPDJHLQWKHZDWHU³+HUHLVWKHOLRQDQGWKHUHWKHKDUHKHKDVWDNHQ´ ± When the Lion sees his mirror-image, he mistakes it for reality, growls in anger, jumps into the well to fight the other lion and drowns. 5. The return of the Hare to the other animals and their rejoicing: ± Not present in this version. C. The statement of the moral and how this slots into the frame-story leading to a statement of the epimythium by Kalila. Neither moral nor epimythium are present in this version. D. The continuation of the frame-story Kalila: ³,I \RX FDQ NLOO WKH %XOO ZLWKRXW JHWWLQJ WKH /LRn into WURXEOH GRQ¶W KHVLWDWH VWDUW DW RQFH.22 Because, as long as

20 Bickel (1876, p. 14) has a slightly different tranVODWLRQ ³,I \RX GR QRW FKDVH PH forward up the road, after I have left, but remain behind me for a little while, then I ZLOO PDQDJH P\ GHOLYHUDQFH DQG WKH GHDWK RI WKH OLRQ DQG IUHH \RX RI IHDU´ ,Q 6FKXOWKHVV¶V VSDUVH WUDQVODWLRQ DERYH S WKH Hare does not give any details of what he will achieve, in fact asking a lot of trust from the other animals. In ERWK 6FKXOWKHVV¶V DQG %LFNHO¶V YHUVLRQV DQG LQ PRVW RI WKH VXEVHTXHQW YHUVLRQV mentioned in the present paper), the Hare is careful not to explain to the animals what his plan really consists in. 21 %LFNHOODGGV S ³DQG,¶YHFRPHWRVKRZ \RXZKHUHKHLV´ M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 213

the Bull is alive, you will be disadvantaged by him, but be FDUHIXOWKDWWKLVGRHVQRWEULQJ\RXLQDQ\WURXEOH´ 6R'LPQDVWD\VDZD\IURPWKH.LQJ/LRQIRUDIHZGD\V«

I.3. Brief presentation of the subsequent versions (1) The Pancatantra text: Scholars have endeavoured to trace the tortuous past of the Indian version of the fables, postulating a lost Sanskrit Ur-Pancatantra text containing five books and a brief introduction by an unknown fourth- century Brahmin, this date being, as Olivelle (p. 21) reminds XV³RQO\DQ HGXFDWHGJXHVV´7KLVIRUD\LQWR³OLWHUDU\JHQHWLFV´KDVEHHQKRWO\GLVSXWHG DPRQJVWVDQVNULWRORJLVWVUHDFWLQJRQ7KHRGRUH%HQIH\¶VSUHVHQWDWLRQ of his reconstruction of the text, together with his long and learned tracing of its putative origins.23 It is important to be aware that, even more acutely than is the case with the Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ text, extant versions of the Panca- tantra date from much later and cannot be FRQVLGHUHG HYHQ ³UHDVRQDEO\ FORVH DSSUR[LPDWLRQ>V@´24 to this hypothetical original. Most current Pancatantra WUDQVODWLRQVLQWR:HVWHUQODQJXDJHVDUHEDVHGRQ(GJHUWRQ¶V 1924 edition of a re-constructed putative Ur-text. For the purpose of the present essay, I KDYHFRQVXOWHG5DMDQ¶V(QJOLVKWUDQVODWLRQRIWKH AD version by Purnabhadra which is based on the Tantrakhyayika text. I have also used the late nineteenth-century German translation by Fritze, based on the contemporary Pancatantra edition by Kilehorn and Buehler in the Bombay Sanskrit Series, (GJHUWRQ¶VUHFRQVWUXFWLRQEDVHGRQ+HUWHO¶V reconstruction and on every possible manuscript he could lay his hands on, 6RPDGHYD¶VHOHYHQWK-century versified version in the .DWKƗ6DULW6ƗJDUD, The Ocean of Stories, edited in 1936, as well as the modern translation by 2OLYHOOHEDVHGRQ(GJHUWRQ¶VUHFRQVWUXFWHGHGLWLRQ 25

(2) The Arabic Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ KaOƯOD wa Dimna Much attention has been given to the biography and opus of Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ, a converted Persian, living in eighth-century Baghdad, whose

22 Bickell (1876, p. 14 KDVDVLJQLILFDQWO\GLIIHUHQWYHUVLRQ³,I\RXFDQNLOOWKH%XOO without getting into trouble then this is no useless toil$VORQJDVWKH%XOOLVDOLYH«´ 23 I do not have the presumption to go to the truth of the matter and neither would such an exercise fall within the scope of this research. However, it is important to note that outside the circle of Sanskrit-VWXGLHV%HQIH\¶VOHDUQHGLQWURGXFWLRQWRWKH2OG6\ULDF Version has been unchallenged and adopted by those working on the Arabic and Persian versions and all subsequent translations and versions (see Benfey 1859). 24 Edgerton 1924, II, p. 6. 25 See Vishnu Sharma, pp. 69-76; Fritze 1884, pp. 81-88; Somadeva, V, pp. 49-50; Visnusharman, pp. 133-137; Edgerton 1924, II, pp. 296-298. 214 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 works in elegant Arabic consisting in translations from and compositions of Persian political texts have won him a place amongst the founders of the refined Arabic literary style. Studies have shown the political role he played during the reign of al-Manৢǌr, as RQH RI WKH PHQ RI WKH FDOLSK¶V uncles and main political rivals. His gruesome death has also been examined and sometimes put into doubt.26 As mentioned above, the original Arabic text by Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ based on the putative Pahlavi text in the 750s did not reach us. Existing versions of this text are divergent, and it is practically impossible to form an idea of what the original really was like.27 Other contemporary authors also wrote prose and versified Kalila-Dimna version in Arabic28. In order to do justice to the variety of Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ versions, I have used four translations from the Arabic: that by the Rev. Wyndham Knatchbull of 1819, based on 6LOYHVWUHGH6DF\¶VFROODWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWPDQXVFULSWVRIWKH%LEOLo- thèque Nationale of Paris; that in German by Philipp Wolff in 1837, also EDVHG RQ 6LOYHVWUH GH 6DF\¶V UHFHQVLRQ EXW VXUSULVLQJO\ different from .QDWFKEXOO¶VRQH; that in French by André Miquel in 1957, based on the Cairo 1941 edition by A]]Ɨm, itself based on a 1221 manuscript from Aya Sofia; and that in French by René Khawam, basing himself on a personal collation of all the above plus the Beirut 1904 edition by P. L. Cheikho, based on a 1338 Manuscript, plus .DOƯODZD'LPQD extracts present in a tenth-HOHYHQWK FHQWXU\ WH[W E\ 0Xতammad al-YamanƯ (0XGKƗKƗW DPVƗO NLWƗE.DOƯODZD'LPQDELPƗDVKEDKDKƗ PLQDVK¶ƗUDO-µ$UDE).29 Thus, the deconstruction of the episode puts into prominence the differences between these translations, which reflect the differences in the manuscripts, on which the translators superimpose their choices and interpretations. 30

26 See Sourdel 1954, and Khawam 1985, Introduction, esp. pp. 18-19. See also Kristó- Nagy 2012. 27 See %HQIH\¶V ,QWURGXction to the Old Syriac Version (Bickel 1876, p. xi), who remarks that the manuscripts of the Arabic versions of Kalila and Dimna differ significantly one from the other. Also Noeldeke 1905, p. 794; Arberry 1958, repr. 1994, p. 95; Miquel 1957, repr. 1980, Introduction, pp. viii-ix; de Blois 1990, p. 3. See for example the efforts to reconstruct what the original Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ version must have looked like, by Norman Brown 1922, pp. 215-250. See also Khawam 1985 and the other translators of the Arabic text. As is the case with the Pancatantra text, the question of the legitimacy²and the ultimate value²of such painstaking reconstructions of a (necessarily subjective and) putative Ur-text, is moot. 28 Ibn al-Nadim, II, pp. 715-716; also Somadeva 1936, Foreword by Denison Ross, pp. xxvi-xxix. 29 7KLVUHFRQVWUXFWLRQE\6LOYHVWUHGH6DF\LVDVZLWK(GJHUWRQ¶VPancatantra text, an artificial version which necessarily aims at erasing differences and interpretations. Knatchbull (tr.) 1819, pp. 116-118. Wolff (tr.) [1837] 1995, pp. 41-43. Miquel (tr.) [1957] 1980, pp. 72-74. Khawam (tr.) 1985, pp. 145-146. 30 See for example in his sparse Preface, how the Rev. Knatchbull is at pains to explain that his translation contains ³DFHUWDLQUDQJHDQGIUHHGRPRIH[SUHVVLRQZKHUHYHUWRR M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 215

(3) 5XGDNL¶VORVWmasnavi The masnavi by the Samanid poet Rudaki (d. ca. 940) is systematically mentioned both in the medieval Persian sources and in contemporary scholarshi, and its loss bemoaned. Only a handful of detached verses have survived, cited as rhetorical examples or for the use of specific vocabulary in the Loghat-e fors, the mid-eleventh-century Anthology of Asadi ৫usi. I have XVHG+RUQ¶VHGLWLRQRIWKHWH[WEDVHGRQDPDQXVFULSWLQWKH Vatican, as well as F. 5REDEH 6DOLPL¶V HGLWLRQ RI WKH PDQXVFULSW LQ WKH Malek Library in Tehran, and E. 'HQLVRQ 5RVV¶V YHUVLRQ ZKLFK LV EDVHG ERWKRQ+RUQ¶VHGLWLRQDQGRQWKHPanuscript belonging to the India Office in London. Denison Ross gives a detailed discussion of the surviving bayts IURP5XGDNL¶VORVWmasnavi in ramal metre.31 The same author thinks from the study of the surviving verses that ³Rudaki followed the Arabic original (by Ibn al-Muqaffaµ IDLUO\FORVHO\´2QHRIWKHLGHQWLILHGYHUVHVUHODWHVWR the fable of the Lion and the Hare:

ζϴ̡ϩΪϐϔϟ΍΍έεϮ̳ήΧϦϳ΍Ϊϣ΁ϭ ζϳϮΧ̵ΎΟί΍ΖδΟϭΩέϭ΁ϡΰϏήϴη

The Lion was enraged and made a plunge; while the Hare gained his object [i.e. his escape].32

I GR QRW DJUHH ZLWK 'HQLVRQ 5RVV¶V DXWRPDWLF LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI WKH +DUH¶V ³REMHFW´ DV EHLQJ ³KLV HVFDSH´ , ZRXOG UDWKHU WKLQN WKH +DUH¶V ³REMHFW´ZDVWKH/LRQ¶VGHPLVH'HQLVRQ5RVVZLVKHVWRVKRZKRZFORVH 5XGDNL¶VYHUVHLVWRWKHSDVVDJHLQWKHIbn al-0XTDIIDµ Arabic version he XVHV³7KH/LRQSXWGRZQWKH+DUHDQGPDGHDVSULQJWRDWWDFNKLP>LH WKH OLRQ UHIOHFWHG LQ WKH ZHOO@ DQG WKH +DUH HVFDSHG´ ,Q WKH OLJKW RI WKH close analysis below, I would rather conclude that this passage shows that 5XGDNL¶VWH[WLVTXLWe different from that of Ibn al-Muqaffaµ! Asadi uses the verse to illustrate the use of ghuzm, for which he gives the synonym haybat.33 :H GR QRW NQRZ ZKDW 5XGDNL¶V RZQ VRXUFH PLJKW KDYH EHHQ (there existed a contemporary prose version in Persian made by the father

close an imitation would have been in some passages offensive to the modern ear, in RWKHUVGLVSOHDVLQJDQGXQVDWLVIDFWRU\«VWLOOLWKDVEHHQP\HQGHDYRXUWRPDNHWKH features of resemblance between the original and the translation sufficiently striking QRW WR EH DFFXVHG RI KDYLQJ IRUJRWWHQ WKH GXWLHV RI D WUDQVODWRU´ Knatchbull (tr.) 1819, Preface, pp. viii-ix. 31 Horn 1897, esp. Introduction pp. 18-22; Robabe-Salimi 1979; Somadeva 1936, Denison Ross, Foreword, pp. xiii-xix. F. de Blois mentions that he has managed to place about 50 extant Rudaki verses within the Kalila-Dimna stories (de Blois 2004, p. 192). 32 Quoted and translated by Denison Ross (Somadeva 1936, p. xix). 33 Horn 1897, p. 93, f. 56 s.v. ghuzm. 216 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

RI WKH KLVWRULDQ %DO¶DPL ZKLFK KDV QRW UHDFKHG XV HLWKHU :H DUH DOVR unaware of any later poet or author who specifically claims that he has EDVHGKLVQHZYHUVLRQRQ5XGDNL¶Vmasnavi.

(4) Abu ¶O-0DµDOL1D܈UROOƗK0RQVKL¶VKalila o Demna We know very little about 1DৢUoOOƗK Monshi apart from what he himself discloses in the introduction and postscript to his sole surviving work, the acclaimed Persian translation of the Kalila-Dimna text. He first worked in thHFKDQFHOOHU\RIWKH*KD]QDYLGV%DKUƗP6KƗKDQG.KRVURZ 6KƗKEXW LWLV GXULQJWKHUHLJQRIWKHODWWHU¶VVXFFHVVRU.KRVURZ0DOHN (r. 1160-1191), that he occupied a forefront post as counsellor, until he became the victim of court intrigue and was imprisoned. He apparently died in prison in the early 1150s. His Persian prose translation of the Kalila-Dimna dates from 1144 AD and is written for his first Ghaznavid SDWURQ%DKUƗP6KƗK (r. 1117-1157). It earned wide acclaim for the style of its ornate prose interspersed with numerous Arabic and some Persian verses quoted from famous poets. There is little difficulty in establishing his text, as numerous manuscripts survive, the oldest dating from 1156, GXULQJ WKH DXWKRU¶V OLIHWLPH , have used the Tehran 1977 edition by MojtabƗ Minovi34 which is based on 12 different manuscripts, including the RQH 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL EDVHG KLPVHOI RQ ,EQ DO-0XTDIIDµ¶V YHUVLRQ DQGKHZDVDZDUHRI5XGDNL¶VSRHP+LVZRUNLQWXUQLVWKHDFNQRZOHGJHG VRXUFHIRUWKHUHZULWLQJVE\.ƗVKHILDQGE\.Dder Abdolah.

%RNKƗUL¶V'ƗVWƗQKƗ-\H%LGSƗ\ 0RতDPPDG DO-%RNKƗUL ZDV DQ H[DFW FRQWHPSRUDU\ WR 1DৢUROOƗK Monshi. Again, very little is known about this author. He dedicated his 'ƗVWƗQKƗ-\H %LGSƗ\ to Sayf al-'LQ *KƗ]L ZKR ruled Mosul in the late 1140s. There is only one known manuscript of his work, dated 1149 and kept in the TopkapÕ Saray (Ms Pers. Y. Yazmalar 777). It contains eleven chapters plus the story of Borzǌya. The text first came to light in 1961 and ZDV ODWHU HGLWHG E\ .KƗQOƗUL DQG 5RZVKDQ LQ 1359sh./1981.35 %RNKƗUL VHHPVWREHDOVREDVLQJKLPVHOIRQ³DQ´,EQDO-0XTDIIDµWH[W KHLQFOXGHV the FKDSWHU RQ 'LPQD¶V WULDO 1R NQRZQ RIIVSULQJ RI WKLV YHUVLRQ DUH known.

34 1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKL HGVK SS-88. 35 %RNKƗUL HGVK SS 93-95. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 217

(6) 1HܲƗPL¶VSDUDSKUDVH The fable is also mentioned in the collection of forty aphorisms taken from the Kalila-'LPQDWKDWDSSHDUDWWKHHQGRI1H਌ƗPL¶V G V Khosrow o Shirin masnavi and which are meant to teach royal wisdom to misguided King Khosrow. In this catalogue, the one bayt-long references to the Kalila-Dimna fables present no obvious relation to each other, nor do they add to the development of the narrative of the story of Khosrow and Shirin. I have used the edition by Dastgerdi based on a vast number of manuscripts. The bayt related to the fable of the Lion and the Hare is interesting for Ne਌ƗPL¶VSRLQWVKRZVWKDWKLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHIDEOH¶V lesson departs from the usual explanations for the story. As I have discus- sed elsewhere, it is impossible to know on which version of the fables 1H਌ƗPL KDV EDVHG KLV SDVWLFKH WKRXJK LW VHHPV PRVW Srobable that it is QHLWKHU WKH YHUVLRQ RI 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL QRU WKDW RI %RNKƗUL ,Q IDFW D VKRUW FRPSDUDWLYH VWXG\ RI WKH YRFDEXODU\ XVHG E\ 1H਌ƗPL VKRZV VRPH similarities with the few surviving verses by Rudaki.36

(7) 5XPL¶VYHUVLRQ Several passages in RXPL¶V G 1273) Masnavi-e mD¶QDYLuse characters and plots borrowed from the Kalila-Dimna stories. In this particular case, 5XPL¶V VWRU\ WKRXJK QRW VXFFHVVIXO VWUXFWXUDOO\ SUHVHQWV D VRSKLVWLFDWHG example of rewriting. Leaving out the mystical musings which interrupt the narration of the fable and mostly do not cohere with the action in the tale, and piecing together the bayts which specifically refer to the Tale of the Hare and the Lion, one produces a complete and coherent, versified version of the tale.37 I KDYH XVHG 1LFKROVRQ¶V edition based on five manuscripts, four of which were written about 70 years after 5XPL¶VGHDWK Rumi is unabashed in his intention to oppose the received way in which the fable is read; he claims that he will make manifest the meaning hitherto hidden by the original author, though it is obvious that this is a rhetorical manipulation. Tracing the version Rumi might have had in hand or in mind when he rewrites the episode is a vexing conundrum. Here too, the accepted hypothesis is that the slightly older Persian version E\1DৢUROOƗK Monshi FRXOG KDYH EHHQ 5XPL¶V XQLGHQWLILHG VRXUFH.38 But this is only

36 van Ruymbeke 2011. 37 Rumi (ed./tr. 1923-1926), bb. 900-1372, pp. 56-85. 38 Following Nicholson (Rumi 1937, Book 1, b. 899, p. ZKRFDOOVLW³1DVUROODK¶V SDUDSKUDVH´ (he also mentions the Indian version and the Arabic work in Silvestre de 6DF\¶VDQG&KHLNKR¶VHGLWLRQV 7KLVLVDOVRZKDW%DGL¶DO-=DPƗQ)RUX]ƗQIDUK\SR- thesizes in his work 0D¶DNKH]-e qe܈Ɨ܈ va tamsilat-e Masnavi (Tehran 1954), in the partial list he has compiled of possible sources for the stories from Book 1, cited in Lewis 2000, p. 289. 218 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 conjectural and in fact he might have relied on his memory, he might have referred to an Arabic version, or he might have consulted another Persian version. Careful lexicographical and structural analyses fail to bring specific similarities to light with any of the four possible identified Persian YHUVLRQV 5XGDNL¶V 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V %RNKƗUL¶V RU 4ƗQHµL¶V DQG WKH question remains unresolved. 39

(8) 4ƗQHµL¶VSDVWLFKH Kalila o Demna This poetical version was composed in the motaqareb metre at Konya E\ $তPDG E 0DতPXG DO-৫XVL 4ƗQHµL D FRQWHPSRUDU\ RI 5XPL & Rieu VXUPLVHVWKDWWKHZRUNZDVILQLVKHGGXULQJ5XPL¶VOLIHWLPHZKRP4ƗQHµL seems to have known and admired. I have consulted the apparently unique manuscript, which is in the British Library.40 We are not told by Rieu on ZKLFK FULWHULD WKH 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL KHUHGLW\ LV LQIHUUHG 7KLV LV DOVR followed by Denison Ross, who is neYHUWKHOHVV³OHWWRVXVSHFWWKDW>4ƗQHµL] has derived his details from other sources´41 but does not consider the K\SRWKHVLVWKDWKHPLJKWKDYHORRNHGDW5XGDNL¶VSRHP 4ƗQHµL gives us a pastiche of the tale. The simplified story is told by a narrator, with inclusion of short bursts of humorous dialogue. Their every- day-like banality produces the distancing with the tragedy which is being enacted. The rhyme uses stock words, the comparisons and expressions are there for comic effect. This comic purpose is not recognised by Dennison Ross who considers 4ƗQHµL¶VVW\OHRID³UDUHVLPSOLFLW\DQGKLVPHWKRGRI WUHDWPHQWLVRQWKHVLGHRIGLVFXUVLYHQHVV´42 4ƗQHµL¶VVRXUFHLVXQNQRZQ, though Dennison Ross has identified certain elements which are also found in the Indian versions, but neither in the Old Syriac nor in the Arabic ones, and we do not know whether this version has influenced any further author.

RVD\Q9ƗµHĪ.ƗVKHIL¶V$QYƗU-e Sohayliۉ (9) 9ƗµHĪ.ƗVKHIL G 1504-5), who was a prominent figure at the Timurid FRXUWRI+HUDWKDVEHHQGHVFULEHGDVD³ODte medieval Persian preacher and SRO\PDWK´ 0RUH WKDQ D SRSXODULVHU KH KDV EHHQ D NH\-figure in the preservation and transmission of the state of the art of knowledge in a wide

39 van Ruymbeke IRUWKFRPLQJ 7KHORVVRI5XGDNL¶VSRHPLVSDUWLFXODUO\UHJUHWWDEOH LQYLHZRIWKHIDFWWKDW5XGDNLLVDUHFRJQL]HGVRXUFHRI5XPL¶V6HH/HZLV 2000, p. 313. 40 4ƗQHµL, Kalila o Demna, British Library, Persian manuscript Add 7766; 108 ff. The story of the Lion and the Bull is found on f. 17v. Rieu 1895, II, p. 582. An edition exists, by M. A. Todua (Tehran 1358sh./1979), which I have not been able to use. E. G. Browne (1920, p. 111) follows Rieu. 41 Somadeva 1936, p. xxii. 42 Denison Ross 1927. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 219 variety of fields in late medieval Iran.43 It is at the end of his career that he tackled simultaneously the redaction of a work on Morality ($NKOƗT-e VHQL) and a rewriting of the Kalila-Dimna fables ($QYƗU-e Sohayli), theۊ0R .(HNPDW-H µDPDOL (practical knowledgeۊ latter dealing with what he calls This latter work has enjoyed incredible fame till it was the butt of harsh criticism on grounds of style and lost all its appeal for modern Persian Literary studies.44 The virtually unstudied contents of the composition VKRZ ZLWK ZKDW JXVWR .ƗVKHIL HQJDJHG ZLWK WKH IDEOHV +LV UHIHUHQFH LV 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V WH[W ZKLFK KH DGPLUHV EXW ILQGV REVFXUH LQ PDny passages and marred by the amount of Arabic expressions and quotations it contains. His wish was to make the work more accessible and attractive, to rescue it from the oblivion that threatened it at the time. I argue elsewhere WKDWKLV³ERPEDVWLFDQGIORULG´VW\OHZDVLQLWVHOIDQHFHVVDU\FKDOOHQJHLQ linguistic refinement for young princes and not at all a faute de goût as has been too hastily considered. Although KƗVKHILUHWDLQVPRVWRIWKHVWUXFWXUDO elements in the text of his predecessor, he is at pains to erase the focus on morality which blurs the usefulness of the lessons the fables propose. He has also replaced the introductory chapters containing Borzǌya¶V Vtory, with a frame-story of his own. The work contains 14 chapters. Manuscripts of this work are numerous. There are also several editions, of which I have used one.45 .ƗVKHIL¶V ZRUN LV WKH DYRZHG VRXUFH IRU Abu ¶O-)DĪO¶V µ(\ƗU-H GƗQHVK, as well as the Ottoman-Turkish +RPƗ\XQ 1ƗPHK, the French translation by Gaulmin and that by Galland and Khosrow-'DUD¶L¶Vmasnavi.

(10) Abu ¶O-)DĪO¶Vµ(\ƗU-HGƗQHVK 7KH ZRUN ZDV ZULWWHQ LQ E\ $NEDU¶V historian and trusted counsellor, Abu ¶O)DĪOµ$OOƗPL -1602). Abu ¶O)DĪO was murdered in his fifty-first year in 1602 by the order of the crown prince Salim (future -DKƗQJLU +HUH is another of our authors who dies a violent death, due no doubt to his involvement with the supreme power! Again, this important figure shows so much interest in the Kalila-Dimna fables that he takes the time to write his own version of it. In the regrettably simplistic approach which is unfortunately the norm in the general discussions on the Kalila- Dimna rewritings, he is famously said to KDYH³VLPSOLILHGDQGLQWHJUDWHG´ the text of the $QYƗU-e Sohayli ZKLFK ³HYLGHQWO\ DSSHDUHG XQEHDUDEO\ ERPEDVWLF´ WR WKH VRYHUHLJQ.46 This misinterpretation is found in the few

43 Subtelny 2003, p. 463. 44 van Ruymbeke 2003, pp. 571-588. 45 .ƗVKHIL HGVK SS 110-112. 46 Rypka 1968, p. 313. 220 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 scant descriptions of the µ(\ƗU-HGƗQHVK(The Touchstone/Right Measure of Knowledge): it reduces the re-writing of the $QYƗU-e Sohayli by the Mughal statesman to an improbable question of taste and style and ignores the fact that the $QYƗU-e Sohayli remained popular in Moghul India. I have argued elsewhere that on the contrary, this re-writing is part of a policy to open up this piece of very sophisticated literature to a larger multilingual readership in India, who had a limited grasp of elaborate Persian. This integration policy is also apparent in the fact that Abu ¶O-)DĪOKDVUHWXUQHGWR1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V LQWURGXFWRU\ FKDSWHUV Vtressing the Indian origin of the Kalila- Dimna. The µ(\ƗU-HGƗQHVK has not been well studied and, as far as I know, no editions of the text exist. I have used a lithograph made in India, and have also consulted a manuscript kept in the Cambridge University Library.47 The work was translated into Kashmiri, but does not seem to have had much of an afterlife nor impact on the Kalila-Dimna chain of rewritings.

(11) Khosrow-'DUƗ¶L¶V ShekaristƗn48 The twentieth-century author, Amir Khosrow-'DUƗ¶L, known as Khosrow, is a descendant RI )DWত-µ$OL 6KƗK 4ƗMƗU U 1797-1834). His versified version of the $QYƗU-e Sohayli was completed in 1363h.q./1944 and counts 10,230 bayts in hazaj metre. I have used the second edition of this masnavi, which follows the plan of the AnvƗU-e Sohayli and its fourteen chapters. The story of the Hare and the Lion fills 46 bayts (bb. 2136 to 2182). Khosrow DarƗ¶L¶V VW\OH LV SXUSRVHIXOO\ FODVVLFDO LQ flavour, but introduces numerous enjambements and a fair number of unusual words, which need a glossary. His version is sparse and does not WDNHRYHUWKHLPDJHVDQGPHWDSKRUVIURP.ƗVKHIL¶V$QYƗU.

(12) -RKDQQLVGH&DSXD¶V Directorium Vitae Humanae49 This Latin version which is based on an older Hebrew version (perhaps dating to the first half of the twelfth century AD), was composed by the converted Jew John of Capua some time between 1263 and 1278. We NQRZ QRWKLQJ IXUWKHU DERXW KLP EXW WKDW KH DOVR WUDQVODWHG ,EQ =XKU¶V Tafsir and the Dietetics of Maimonides. This was the first version of Kalila-Dimna to appear in print when it was published in 1483 in Italy and

47 The µ(\Ɨr-e dƗnesh is not even mentioned in R.0 (DWRQ¶V DUWLFOH ³$EX¶O-)DĪO µ$OOƗPL´LQEncyclopaedia Iranica online (accessed 13th May 2011). I would like to thank Dr Kazuyo Sakaki (Sapporo, Japan) who very kindly provided me with the digitised version of the lithographed version of the Maulana Azad Library in the Aligarh Muslim University, pp. 70-72. 48 Khosrow-DarƗ¶L(ed. 1383sh.), pp. 95-96. 49 Johannis de Capua (ed. 1887), pp. 60-62. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 221 was dedicated to Cardinal Mattheus Rubens Ursinus (in office 1263- 1305).50 In his introduction to his translation, John of Capua explains that his wish was to render this liber parabolarum antiquorum sapientum nationum mundi, which had first been translated in Indian, then in Persian, then in Arabic and finally in Hebrew, also accessible in Latin, as the book LV ³GHOHFWDEOH DQG IXOO RI SUHFLRXV VHUPRQV´51 His nineteenth-century editor, J. DerHQERXUJ ZU\O\ MXGJHV KLP WR EH ³XQ PpGLRFUH KpEUDwVDQW HW GpWHVWDEOHODWLQLVWH´!52 This work counts a prologue, a first chapter on the story of Borzǌya, followed by eight chapters of fables. The book was very influential in pre- Renaissance and Renaissance Western Europe and was further translated into German for Eberhard of Wurtenberg (1445-1496) and in Spanish (Exemplarios contra los enganos et peligros del mundo).53

(13) 1RUWK¶VWUDQVODWLRQRIThe Morall Philosophie of Doni54 Sir Thomas North (d. 1604) translated parts of The Morall Philosophie of Doni into English in 1569 or 1570. This is based on the Italian version by his contemporary Doni (d. 1574), a Florentine, who wrote La Moral Filosophia in 1552 in Venice. Doni based himself on the Spanish Exempla- rios EDVHGRQ-RKQRI&DSXD¶V/DWLQWUDQVODWLRQ 1RUWKZDVDOVRIDPRXV DVWKH(QJOLVKWUDQVODWRURI*XHYDUD¶VLibro aureo, a Spanish adaptation of 0DUFXV $XUHOLXV¶V Meditations, and especially as the translator of 3OXWDUFK¶VLives. He has only used the first part of La Moral Filosophia, which contains the introductory chapters and the tale of Kalila and Dimna, LQFOXGLQJ 'LPQD¶V WULDO 7KH UHVW RI 'RQL¶V ZRUN WKH Trattati diversi di Sendebar indiano ³ZKLFKFRQWDLQVDIDUUDJRRI2ULHQWDOWDOHVFXOOHGIURP all quarters, which produce the same bewildering effect as most of the 2ULHQWDOFROOHFWLRQV´55 LVQRWSUHVHQWLQ1RUWK¶VYHUVLRQ The names of the jackals of the frame-story have changed (Moyle for Dimna, and Asse for Kalila), but, more interestingly, in the particular tale we are analysing in this essay, a Fox has taken the place of the Hare. This seems to indicate that the author has reduced the ambiguous action and character of the Hare to that of a clever trickster represented emblema- WLFDOO\E\WKH)R[+HLVFDOOHG³YLFLRXVDQGZLFNHG´E\WKHQDUUDWRUDQG will thus not play the role of an admirable hero.

50 Derenbourg 1881, Avant-propos, p. viii. 51 Johannis de Capua (1887), 4. 52 Johannis de Capua (1887), Avant-Propos by J. Derenbourg, xvi. 53 Obermaier 2004. 54 North (tr.) 1888, pp. 123-127. 55 North (tr.) 1888, Introduction by J. Jacobs, p. lvii. 222 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

(14) *DXOPLQ¶VLe Livre des Lumières56 Gilbert Gaulmin (d. LVNQRZQDV³RQHRIWKHJUHDWVHYHQWHHQWK- FHQWXU\ 2ULHQWDOLVWV´ +H VWDUWHG KLV FDUHHU DV D ODZ\HU LQ WKH SURYLQFLDO town of Moulins, was counsellor to the Cardinal of Richelieu, made a rapid ascension in the curriculum to the SRVWRI³0DvWUHGHVUHTXrWHV´+HDOVR was a poet of some note in Latin, earned some fame for his fluency in a wide range of languages such as Latin, Hebrew, Sclavonian, Arabic, Greek, Italian, Spanish, Turkish, Persian, and Armenian. He is also famous for having made a gift of his Oriental manuscripts library to Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1633-1654); this collection subsequently travelled back to France and enriched the Bibliothèque Royale. He was known in the circle of Parisian Orientalists and was noted for his De Vita Mosis. Le Livre des Lumières ou la Conduite des Rois composé par le sage Pilpay is ascribed to him, though signed by David Sahid of Esfahan, who was a historical figure in Paris at the time and might conceivable have helped him produce this translation.57 It is dedicated to Chancellier Seguier, one of the most prominent political figures at the French Court of Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643) and Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715). Le Livre des Lumières presents itself as a translation RI .ƗVKHIL¶V $QYƗU-e Sohayli, although Antoine Galland in his Preface to the translation of the +RPƗ\XQ1ƗPHK VHHEHORZ DVVHUWVWKDW*DXOPLQ¶VZRUNLVLQIDFW EDVHG RQ 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V WH[W58 As far as the particular fable of our analysis is concerned, it is manifest WKDW*DXOPLQ¶VVRXUFHLV.ƗVKHIL¶VWH[W QRW1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKL¶V0RUHWKDQDOLWHUDOWUDQVODWLRQWKLVLVDUHZULWLQJ DV QXPHURXV RI .ƗVKHIL¶V details and images are not kept in the sparser French text. This latter is the source for a number of fables in /D)RQWDLQH¶V famous versified collection of fables.59

(15) *DOODQG¶VSRVWKXPRXV Contes et Fables Indiennes60 Antoine Galland was appointed French ambassador in Istanbul to the court of Mehmet IV (r. 1648-1687) between 1670 and 1675, during which time he learned Ottoman Turkish, Persian and Arabic. He returned to Turkey in 1678 and again from 1679 to 1688. He collected manuscripts and

56 Gaulmin (tr.) 1644. I have only used the First volume, which stops with the Chapter iv, the story of the Owls and the Crows. Our fable is found on pp. 99-103. 57 Secret 1970, esp. p. 35 and 42. 58 Galland 1778, Première partie, p. xxxiv: ³Il employe Aboulmaali Nasrallah 0RKDPPDG$OKDPLGFHTXLPpULWHG¶rWUHUHPDUTXpSDUFHTXHF¶HVWFHWWHWUDGXFWLRQ qui a été rendue en notre langue sous OHWLWUHGH&RQGXLWHGHV5RLV«´ 59 La Fontaine (ed. 1678), II. 60 Galland 1724, pp. 380-390. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 223

DUWDQGEHFDPH³$QWLTXDLUH´RIWKH)UHQFKNLQJ+HLVIDPRXVDVWKHDXWKRU of the first French version of the Thousand and One Nights (1704-1717). ,Q*DOODQG¶V French translation of the HomƗ\XQ1ƗPHK, based on &KHOHEL¶V2WWRPDQ-Turkish translation of .ƗVKHIL¶V$QYƗU-e Sohayli, was published posthumously (it was completed by Denis Dominique Cardonne). In this Preface, Galand protests that his translation is a reflection of the Turkish text, the only retractions are some stylistically difficult passages that would mar the French text. The Fable of the Lion and the +DUH LV LQGHHG YHU\ FORVH WR .ƗVKHIL¶V YHUVLRQ ZLWK KRZever some additions, such as the chitchat of the Hare while he leads the Lion to the well. Some of the references introduced also indicate that other Kalila- Dimna versions were influential.

(16) 5DPVD\:RRG¶VKalila and Dimna61 Ramsay Wood is a contemporary British author, a founding member of WKH &ROOHJH RI 6WRU\WHOOHUV +LV ³UHWHOOLQJ´ RI WKH FKDSWHU RI WKH 6WRU\ RI Dimna, the Lion and the Bull is in fact a new synthesis of existing versions across centuries, languages and cultural eras as he has used eight versions DQGWUDQVODWLRQVRIWKHZRUNZKLFKKHVWXGLHG³XQWLODWHPSODWHEHJDQWR HPHUJH´HQDEOLQJKLPWRZULWH³WKHWUXHVWVWRU\IRUDPRGHUQDXGLHQFH´62 +HKDVQRWDGGHGWKHFKDSWHURQ'LPQD¶VWULDOWKXVFRQVLGHULQJRQO\ZKDW the pre-Arabic veUVLRQ DQG WKH ,QGLDQ YHUVLRQV RIIHUHG 5DPVD\ :RRG¶V composite and imaginative retelling successfully tackles the main structural knots in the story. Added details make his version lively and humorous and WKHGLDORJXHVDUHSURPLQHQWJLYLQJDQ³XSGDWHG´DQd entertaining flavour. Explicit references to the Mirror for Princes aspect have mostly disappeared.

(17) .DGHU$EGRODK¶VDe Koe63 Kader Abdolah is a contemporary Dutch author, of Iranian origin. As does Ramsay Wood, Abdolah chooses to call his 2002 version of the Kalila-'LPQDD³KHUYHUWHOOLQJ´+LVVRXUFHLV1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKL¶VYHUVLRQ which he claims impossible to translate, as the result in Dutch would have been both unreadable and unpleasant. He has severely excised his source WH[WDQGDVGRHV.ƗVKHIL, admits that the constant use of Arabic made it a

61 Wood 2008, pp. 115-120. 62 (GJHUWRQ¶V Sanskrit Pancatantra, .QDWFKEXOO¶V Arabic .DOƯOD wa Dimna:ROODVWRQ¶V Anwar-i-Suhayli, Keith-)DOFRQHU¶s Syriac Kalila wa Dimna $\\DU¶V Panchatantra and Hitopadesa Stories:DUQH¶VHGLWLRQRIWKH$QRQ\PRXV The Fables of Pilpay, -RKQVRQ¶V Hitopadesa DQG ILQDOO\ 1RUWK¶V The Morall Philsophie of Doni. Wood 2008, pp. 296-297. 63 Abdolah [2002] 2007, pp. 47-49. 224 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 hard labour to read and understand. In his introductory presentation of the story of Borzǌya KH GRHV QRW VWUHVV WKH ³0LUURU IRU 3ULQFHV´ SROLWLFDO import of the text, but rather describes it as a compendiXPRI³DOO,QGLDQ life-H[SHULHQFHV´ +H DOVR GLVFXVVHV KRZ 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V ERRN KDV several layers of meaning and understanding comes slowly after several readings. In line with the prevailing scholarship around the Kalila-Dimna, Abdolah concludes that although almost no sentence of his work is a WUDQVODWLRQRIWKHROGHU3HUVLDQYHUVLRQ\HWLIWKLVIDOOVVKRUWRI1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V YHUVLRQ LW PLJKW KRZHYHU EH FORVH WR ZKDW WKH ,QGLDQ RULJLQDO must have been.64 The sparse version keeps indeed close to NaৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL¶V WH[W H[FHSW IRU WKH FKRLFH QRW WR XVH WKH UR\DO GHVLJQDWLRQDV GRHV 1DৢUROOƗK Monshi whenever the Hare politely talks to the Lion, thus robbing the Dutch story of any political content.

II. ANALYSIS OF THE KEY-ELEMENTS OF THE FABLE IN THE TWENTY-FOUR VERSIONS The fable remains stable in appearance throughout the different versions. However, several elements of the synopsis vary. The close analysis of these, by putting into prominence the precise key-details which change its possible meaning, allows the actual purport and depth of the fable to come to the fore. Some of the meaningful variations relate to the general understanding of the fable; others to structural weaknesses of the plot, which open up the scope for transformation and interpretation. Less pregnant variants concern problems of verisimilitude, amplifications, stylistic or cosmetic embellishments, perhaps introduced for greater dramatic effect, but not altering the overall meaning of the fable. For example, the geographical situation of the forest²which in some versions has become a meadow²is sometimes mentioned and differs in most cases. A more sophisticated problem of verisimilitude, not impacting on the structure of the story however, is whether or not the Hare is led to the /LRQ¶V DERGH E\ D IHOORZ EHDVW 0RVW DXWKRUV KDYH QR JXDUGLDQ DQLPDO accompanying the sacrificial Hare, thus the Old Syriac Version, the five 6DQVNULW YHUVLRQV 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL .ƗVKHIL $EX¶O-)DĪO 5XPL 4ƗQHµL Doni, Gaulmin, Galland, Khosrow-'DUƗ¶L%Xt others have noticed that in RUGHU IRU WKH +DUH¶V H[SODQDWLRQ WR WKH /LRQ H[SODLQLQJ WKDW KH ZDV accompanying the sacrificial animal) to sound plausible, such a guard should be the norm. They thus add a mention of the habitual guard, in the

64 Abdolah [2002] 2007, pp. 7-13. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 225

+DUH¶VSOHDWo the beasts. Thus%RNKƗUL¶V Hare pleads with the beasts to let him go alone to the sacrifice, without a movakkal (p. 94):

ΎϬϨΗϡϭήΑήΗήϳΩΎΗΪϴϫΩϥΎϣίϭΪϴϨ̰ϣϞ̯Ϯϣβ̨̯ϴϫϦϣήΑ

'RQ¶WDSSRLQWDQ\RQHDVJXDUGLDQDQGJLYH>PH@WLPHWRVHWRXWODWH DQGDORQH«

All four Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ versions, John of Capua and Wood have a JXDUG DFFRPSDQ\LQJ WKH +DUH WR WKH /LRQ¶V DERGH 7KLV DQLPDO LV QRW mentioned further and what happens to it is left to imagination. This is tackled only in the Arabic versions by Wolff and Khawam, who indicate that the guard (presumably out of security) drops away, leaving the Hare to approach the Lion alone. A further example of these insignificant but entertaining variations in the synopsis is the manner in which the Hare actually approaches the IXULRXVO\KXQJU\/LRQ7KHQRUPLVWKH+DUH¶VVORZVRIWWLPLGDQGREVH- TXLRXVDSSURDFK7KLVDJUHHVZLWKWKHJHQHUDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKH+DUH¶V SORWKHRXJKWWRGHOD\DVPXFKDVSRVVLEOHVRWKDWWKH/LRQ¶VILHU\KXQJHU and volatile temper dim his faculW\ RI GRXEWLQJ WKH +DUH¶V WDOH KH PXVW DOVRVKRZUHVSHFWDVKHLVSOD\LQJWKHUROHRIWKHVXEMHFWV¶EDIIOHGHQYR\ who has failed to bring the arranged prey to his king. But Rumi for example, engages with this fact, as he specifically mentions that the HaUH¶V DSSURDFKLV³EROGXQDIUDLGDQGVHOI-confident´ The Hare also looks angry, and fierce and sour. Rumi explains the psychological reason behind his FKDQJH ³EHFDXVH E\ FRPLQJ LQ D EURNHQ PDQQHU VXVSLFLRQ ZRXOG EH (excited), while by boldness every douEWZRXOGEHZLSHGDZD\´ bb. 1151- 1152):

ϭέεήΗϭΰϴΗϭΪϨΗϭϦϴ̴ϤθΧ ϭ΍ΥΎΘδ̳ϭΖθϫΩ̶ΑΩϭΩ̶ϣ ΩϮΑΖΒϳέήϫϊϓΩ̵ήϴϟΩίϭ ΩϮΑΖϤϬΗϥΪϣ΁ϪΘδ̰ηΰ̯

4ƗQHµL¶V+DUH-in-shining-armour rushes to the Lion, and materialises in IURQWRIKLP³>VXGGHQ@DVVPRNH´ (f. 27v):

ΩϭΩΪϨϧΎϣήϴηήΑΪϣΎϴΑ ΩϭίΖθ̯ϥ΍ϭέϭϦϳ΍ΪϨΘϔ̴Α

Doni also has the Hare (/Fox) hasten rather than loiter en route. Thus, these versions lose the subtle play on tKH /LRQ¶V KXQJHU DQG LPSDWLHQFH which reflects the gradation present in the brainstorming between Kalila and Dimna about the latWHU¶VFKDQFHVWRGHIHDWWKH%XOOE\FUHDWLQJDVWDWH of weakened intellectual sharpness on which he will play. A final amusing element with which authors struggle is whether it is essential for the Lion to clasp the Hare in his arms when he looks down 226 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 into WKHZHOODQGVHHVERWKKLVDQGWKHSUH\¶VPLUURULPDJHDQGKRZLWLVLQ this case, that the furious Lion has the forethought to put the Hare down before jumping in. This is a problem of verisimilitude, though it has no structural impact on the significance of the fable. The Sanskrit versions do QRWPHQWLRQWKH+DUH¶VUHIOHFWLRQVLGHE\VLGHZLWKWKDWRIWKH/LRQ,QWKH 2OG 6\ULDF 5XPL¶V %RNKƗUL¶V -RKQ RI &DSXD¶V DQG .DGHU $EGRODK¶V versions the Hare and the Lion gaze together into the well, side by side, but not clasping HDFKRWKHU5XPL¶VIXUWKHUUHPDUNWKDWDVKHMXPSVLQWRWKH well, the Lion lets go of the hysterical Hare, is another proof of this DXWKRU¶VFULWLFDOHQJDJHPHQWZLWKZKDWKHLGHQWLILHVDVDVWUXFWXUDOZHDN- ness for the purpose of his rewriting (b. 1307):

ΪϴϬΟϪ̩έΪϧ΍ϭΖη΍ά̴Α΍έϭήϣ ΪϳΩΏ΁έΩ΍έζϳϮΧϢμΧϪ̴ϧϮ̩

When he saw the image of his foe within the water, he let go of him and jumped into the well.

The authors who have described how the Lion clasps the Hare necessarily ought to mention, as do Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ LQ0LTXHO¶VYHUVLRQRQO\ 1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKLDQG.ƗVKHILKRZWKHIXULRXV/LRQKDVWKHIRUHWKRXJKWto put down the Hare before jumping into the well.

.ƗVKHIL(p. 112): ΪϨ̰ϓ΍ϩΎ̩έΩ΍έΩϮΧϭΖη΍ά̴Α΍έϭ΍

4ƗQHµL¶VHQGHDULQJO\PDQLSXODWLYH+DUHSUHWHQGVWREHVRDIUDLGWKDWKH requests the Lion hold him by the paw, which the Lion then lets go off as KHMXPSVLQWRWKHZHOO%XWVRPHDV*DXOPLQ$EX¶O-)DĪODQG.KRVURZ- 'DUƗ¶L IRUJHW WKDW WKH /LRQ RXJKW WR SXW GRZQ the Hare he clasps before jumping into the well. Ramsay Wood engages with the problem imagina- WLYHO\WKH+DUHVFXWWOHVEHWZHHQWKH/LRQ¶VIRUHSDZVDQGIODWWHQVKLPVHOI WRWKHJURXQGDVWKH/LRQMXPSV*DOODQGKDVWKH+DUHMXPSRQWKH/LRQ¶V back to gaze into the well, jumping off just in the nick of time while the Lion furiously splashes into the well. The above are points with which the authors have toiled in order to give their tale more verisimilitude or psychological depth, and in the course of this, they have sometimes contributed to slightly blur WKHWDOH¶VSRLQW2WKHU variations, however, relate to the actual meaning and real point of the tale and need going into in more detail.

M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 227

III. CLOSE ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS

III.1. The preceding dialogue Within the frame-story, the preceding dialogue between Kalila and Dimna serves as epimythium, explaining what the fable is meant to illustrate. The authors hesitate between a political understanding of the trick and a moral reading of the relation between Dimna and the Bull. It is interesting that, contrary to the received ideas that Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ introduced the moral element in the work and condemned Dimna, in the case of this fable, he does not (except in Khawam¶VWUDQVODWLRQ VKRZDZDUHQHVs of WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR WUDQVIRUP 'LPQD¶V SROLWLFDO SODQ LQWR D EUHDFK RI WKH duties of friendship and gratitude. In the Old Syriac Version, the Bull, physically strong and intelligent, despises puny Dimna and is not on his guard against mischief from that quarter. He concentrates instead on the menace coming from the Lion- .LQJ ZKLFK ZLOO PDNH KLP UHDG\ WR EHOLHI 'LPQD¶V UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ WKDW indeed he must fear the king. Thus, this refers to a capital miscalculation of the situation by the Bull. In the deconstruction of this version, I have underlined the significance of the variation between the two German WUDQVODWLRQV 6FKXOWKHVV¶VWUDQVODWLRQRIWKHODWWHUSDUW ³KHLVGHVSLVHGE\ WKH/LRQ´UDWKHUWKDQ³KHRQO\IHDUVWKH/LRQ´ WKRXJKSRWHQWLDOO\LQWHUHV- ting when it comes to pitching the Bull against the Lion, does not refer to WKHGLVFXVVLRQDWKDQG6RPHYHUVLRQV 9LVKQX6KDUPD¶V6DQVNULWYHUVLRQ three Arabic versions and Kader Abdolah) keep to the first part of this assessment: the Bull is excessively self-assured and blind to danger coming IURP D SXQ\ SHUVRQ .ƗVKHIL IROORZHG E\ $EX¶O-)DĪO *DXOPLQ DQG *DOODQGVOLJKWO\DPHQGVWKLVDQGPDNHVWKH%XOO¶VIHHOLQJVOHVVFDOFXODWLQJ and political: he is so dazzled by his own grandeur that he has not a clue that anyone might wish him harm.

.ƗVKHIL S

ϭΪϨ̰ϓ΍Ϣϧ΍ϮΗέΩ̵Ύ̡ί΍ΖϠϔϐΑ΍έϭ΍ϞϓΎϏϦϣ̶ϨϤηΩί΍ϭΖγ΍έϭήϐϣΩϮΨΑϭΎ̳Ύϣ΍ Ϊϣ΁ήΗήϴ̵̳ΎΟΪϴϧΎθ̶̳ΘγϭΩϦϴϤ̯ί΍̵έΪϏϢϬγϥϮ̩

But the Bull is conceited with himself and is not on his guard against my hostility and through this imprudence I can throw him off his feet, and the arrow of treachery which is discharged from the ambush of IULHQGVKLSUHDFKHVGHHSHU«

228 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

7KHUHLVEXWRQHVWHSIURPWKHUHWR)ULW]H¶VWUDQVODWLRQIURPWKH6DQVNULW which amounts to a political condemnation of the Bull as being too stupid to come into power. Other versions introduce a moral element, switching from the cold political reality of how one lives to the morality of how one is taught one ought to live (paraphrasing Machiavelli): the Bull likes and trusts Dimna and the latter will use this trust in order to stab the Bull in the back when KHOHDVWH[SHFWVLW,WIROORZVWKDW'LPQD¶VILHQGLVKXQGHUKDQGWULFNLVQR longer a political move: it shows a lack of moral conscience. Thus, 1DৢURO- OƗK0RQVKL¶VDQG'RQL¶V versions. Some authors (John of Capua, Wood) H[SDQGRQWKLVH[SODLQLQJWKDWWKH%XOOKDVSXWKLPVHOILQ'LPQD¶VKDQGV ever since Dimna introduced him at court. Beyond the moral issue here, this also refers to political clientèle and how dangerous it is to unconditionally trust those who have done one a good turn once. Thus also, the Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ version by Khawam proposes that the Bull owns Dimna gratitude and that Dimna will use this in order to defeat him. Khosrow- DarƗ¶L¶V 'LPQD VD\V KH ZLOO SUHFLSLWDWH WKH %XOO LQWR WKH GXVW XVLQJ KLV friendship (b. 2137):

ήγ̶ΘγϭΩΎΑϢϨ̰ϓ΍ζ̯ΎΧϪΑ έΪϧ΍ΖϠϔϏέΩϢϴϤδΧί΍ΖδϫϮ̩

III.2. The identification of the hero: Thrilling Escape from Death or Murder Most Foul? The whole purpose of story-telling is to show characters develop: this might be in a positive manner, as in the Overcoming-the-Monster plot. Here, the hero has to overcome both his fear and a terrifying monster. His ultimate victory makes him a better, stronger man. The characters might also develop in a darkly negative manner, as in the Tragedy plot, where the hero meets with increasing despair which can only lead him to final destruction. In the present case, despite our instinctive superficial understanding of the narrative as a typical David and Goliath story, the succes- VLYHYHUVLRQVVKLIWEHWZHHQWKH/LRQDQGWKH+DUHDVWKHVWRU\¶VYLOODLQDQG hero, though neither of these representations is totally conclusive. This is one of the literary hallmarks of a fable: attempts at reducing the tale to a single focus are tantamount to misinterpretation. In the present case, none RI WKH DFWRUV LV D UHDO ³FKDUDFWHU´ LQ WKH QDUUDWLRQ QRQH XQGHUJRHV education or change in the course of the story. It is the preceding dialogue between Kalila and Dimna that colours our perception of the characters, with the Hare (representing Dimna) as the hero and the Lion (representing the Bull) as the villain whom one must get rid of. However, remarkably, we are mostly given no indication on the M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 229 psychology of the possible Hare-hero within the story itself. In contrast, VRPHRIWKH/LRQ¶VIHHOLQJVDQGWKRXJKWVDUHH[SUHVVHGEXWWKLVLVRQO\DQ indication that the point of the story lies in the manipulation of these feelings by the Hare and perhaps shoZLQJXVDVZHOOWKDWWKH/LRQ¶VSRLQW of view is the one that matters. Fundamentally however, the Lion remains true to his nature as a gullible tyrant, who rules through brutal force and FRXUDJH EXW ZKR EHOLHYHV XQFULWLFDOO\ WKH DQLPDOV¶ ZRUGV DQG KRSHV Wo become a loved ruler. The beasts of the forest are an anonymous community, only described as feeling and expressing fear of the tyrant, as capable of proposing a contract and as a body the revolutionary Hare must compose with. Wood is the exception, as he individualises the animals and identifies them every time they speak, with no other purpose, it appears, than lending his story more liveliness. 6HYHUDOYHUVLRQVWHOOWKHVWRU\IURPWKH/LRQ¶VSRLQWRIYLew, showing the Hare as a fiend, and might thus adopt the Lion as their hero. Thus, the Arabic versions. In BokhƗUL¶VUHWHOOLQJWKH/LRQLVQRWHYHQGHVFULEHGDV KDUDVVLQJWKHEHDVWVXQQHFHVVDULO\$EX¶O-)DĪO also does not indicate there LVDQ\WKLQJDEQRUPDOLQWKH/LRQ¶VDWWLWXGHKHJRHVKXQWLQJ³IURPWLPHWR WLPH´DQGWKXVHPELWWHUVWKHEHDVWV¶life (p. 70):

̶ϧΎ̳Ϊϧίζϴϋϭ̵ΩϮϤϧϥΎ̳έΎ̪ϴΑϥ΍ήΑ̵ϭέϩΎ̳ϩΎ̳ΩϮΑ̵ϮΧΪϨΗ̵ήϴη̶̰ϳΩΰϧϥ΍έΩϭ ̵Ϊϴϧ΍Ωή̳ΦϠΗϥΎθϳ΍ήΑ

And in the neighbourhood, there was an obstinate lion who was from time to time showing his face to these hapless ones, embittering for WKHPOLIH¶VSOHDVXUHV.

Doni (who has changed the Hare into a Fox) has the narrator indicating WKDWWKLVLVD³YLFLRXVDQGZLFNHG´FKDUDFWHUZKLOHKLV/LRQLV³EUDYHDQG ILHUFH´ 2WKHUV RQ WKH FRQWUDU\ GHVFULEH WKH /LRQ DV DEORRGWKLUVW\OLRQ- killer. John of Capua, 4ƗQHµL, Abdolah and Wood introduce him thus as the villain. In the Sanskrit Purnabhadra version, the Lion is dim-witted and power-drunk and maniacally slaughtering, making it permissible, even law- fully advisable to get rid of him. The other Sanskrit versions play this down somewhat. Gaulmin presents the Lion as wild and continually massacring WKHEHDVWVZKLOHWKH+DUHLV³ZLVH´7KHVHYHUVLRQVWKHQSUHVHQWWKH+DUH DVWKHKHUR7KXV*DOODQGDGPLUHVKLV+DUHIRUDFWLQJ³ZLWKPXFKLQWHOOL- JHQFH´ 4ƗQHµL¶V +DUH LV ZLVH KH KDV D VKLQLQJ KHDUW DQG D OLYHO\ EUDLQ acting according to the workings of good and wisdom:

Ζη΍ΩέΎ̯ήΑ̮ϴϧΩήΧωΎΘϣ Ζη΍Ωέ΍ΪϴΑΰϐϣϭϦηϭέϝΩ

He had a shining heart and a lively brain; he was using (the goods of) wisdom. 230 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

Finally, some versions shift within the story between the presentation RID³QLFH´/LRQDQGWKHEXR\DQWUHMRLFLQJDWKLVGHDWK7KLVLVespecially UHPDUNDEOHLQ5XPL¶V expanded version. The Lion at first is presented as a sage, later in the story, he becomes the personification of lust, which the Sufi must subdue and eradicate.65 Khosrow-DarƗ¶L NHHSV WKH /LRQ DV DQ RSSUHVVRU EXW VKLIWV EHWZHHQ SUHVHQWLQJ WKH +DUH DV ³GXSOLFLWRXV DQG PDOLFLRXV´EXWDOVRDV³ROGDQGZLVH ZHOO-LQIRUPHG ´ He thus considers that the two latter qualities do not necessarily imply morality, but may be used to doubtfully moral and malicious ends. As to .ƗVKHILKHLVXQKDSS\ZLWKERWKWKH/LRQDQGWKH+DUH7KHODWWHULVXVLQJ treachery against a young lion who is not on the alert. But the Lion in turn is fierce and cruel and shows his ill-omened visage to the beasts. Reading implies interpretation by the audience who try to achieve a critical understanding of a text. The fable is embedded in a dialogue and is put forward explicitly to illustrate that Dimna, like the Hare, though of puny stature, will be able to overcome the enormous Bull by using his intelli- JHQFHDQGWKHLGHQWLILHGZHDNQHVVHVLQKHUHQWLQWKH%XOO¶VQDWXUH7KLVDQG the fact that the Hare is pro-active, while the Lion is mostly re-active and even passive, encourages us to identify with the personality and aims of the Hare. Our immediate response at the death of the Lion is to experience the UHOLHIZKLFKLVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWKHDXGLHQFH¶VUHDFWLRQto the denouement of a typical Overcoming-the-Monster SORW 7KLV ³WKULOOLQJ HVFDSH IURP GHDWK´H[SHULHnced by the hero, is reflected in an exhilarating moment of liberation for the audience. %RRNHU¶V GHVFription of the essence of this Overcoming-the-Monster plot66 is oddly reminiscent of the fable with the Hare as hero:

Both we and the hero are made aware of the existence of some super- KXPDQHPERGLPHQWRIHYLOSRZHU7KLVPRQVWHU>«@LVDOZD\VGHDGO\ threatening destruction to those who cross its path or fall into its FOXWFKHV2IWHQLWLVWKUHDWHQLQJDQHQWLUHFRPPXQLW\RUNLQJGRP>«@ So powerful is the presence of this figure, so great the sense of threat which emanates from it, that the only thing which matters to us as we follow the story is that it should be killed and its dark power overthrown. Eventually, the hero PXVWFRQIURQWWKHPRQVWHU>«@ usually in or near its lair >«@ 7KHKHURPDNHVD³WKULOOLQJHVFDSHIURPGHDWK´

65 This problem has not escaped commentators. R. Nicholson (Rumi 1937, pp. 75-76), proposes the interpretation that the Lion sometimes represents the spirit and sometimes the carnal soul, but concludes that he personall\ILQGVWKDWWKH/LRQ³WKRXJKKH FDQSUHDFKDGPLUDEOHGRFWULQHZKHQLWVXLWVKLVSXUSRVHSOD\VWKHYLOODLQ¶VSDUWDOO WKURXJKWKHVWRU\´YDQ5X\PEHNH IRUWKFRPLQJ 66 Booker 2009, especially pp. 21-50. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 231

and the monster is slain. «[The hero] has liberated the world [«] from the shadow of this threat to its survival. And in honour of his achie- vement, he may well go on to become soPHNLQGRIUXOHURUNLQJ´

We never question why the Hare is pitched in a battle (of wits) to the GHDWKDJDLQVWWKH/LRQ«DQGZKHther this is moral or rightful? However, a major hitch with the identification of the Hare as a typical hero of the Overcoming-the-Monster plot occurs when considering that this typical KHUR RXJKW WR EH ³DFWLQJ VHOIOHVVO\ DQG LQ VRPH KLJKHU FDXVH LQ D ZD\ whicK VKRZV KLP VWDQGLQJ DW WKH RSSRVLWH SROH WR WKH PRQVWHU¶V egocentricity.67 This is not quite so in our present plot: the main lever to the revolt of the Hare is that his own life is threatened. We assume that his action is selfless, a struggle not just on his own behalf, but to save all the other animals, to free the community. Even though this is part of his arguments to the beasts, in fact he has not stepped forward earlier on, for example heroically proposing that he should be sent instead of some other innocent animal. As we shall see, there is also further disregard for the other DQLPDOV¶ZHOIDUHLQWKH+DUH¶VSOHDWRWhe animals. It is intriguing that, although it is not stated, we do subconsciously fill in what appears to be a missing detail at the end of the story: it seems obvious that now that the Lion-tyrant is slain, the clever Hare will become the leader of the community of the forest animals. However, there is no mention that the Hare takes over the leadership. It seems that the Hare ambitioned nothing but to save his own life. He was not preparing a coup. The disappearance of the Lion-tyrant leaves a void, and the animals will easily fall prey to the next predator in line. The story does not address this DQGWKXVIDOOVVKRUWRIWKHUHDO³KDSS\HQGLQJ´ZKHUHDFRPPXQLW\ILQGVD new, intelligent and selfless leader after the murder of the villain. Read from this angle (the Hare as the hero), the character of the Lion DJUHHV ZLWK %RRNHU¶V LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI WKH PRQVWHU ZKR WHQGV WR EH ³RI FRXUVH KLJKO\ DODUPLQJ LQ LWV DSSHDUDQFH DQG EHKDYLRXU >«@ PRUWDOO\ GDQJHURXV´ +H DSpears in his first active role, as Predator, wandering menacingly through the world, looking for victims, spreading fear and GHVWUXFWLRQDQGFDVWLQJDVKDGRZRQWKHDQLPDOV¶SDUDGLVLDFDOIRUHVW$VWKH story develops, the Lion-monster enters in a second, more passive role, where he acts as Holdfast LQ'RQL¶VYHUVLRQKHJXDUGVWKHRQO\ZDWHUSRLQW in the forest, though Doni rather present the Lion as brave and fierce, not as a horrible monster). He sits in or near his lair, broody, suspicious, passively waiting for the animals to deliver the daily meal. Finally, as this latter role

67 Booker 2009, p. 33. 232 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

LVFKDOOHQJHGE\WKH+DUH¶VWUXPSHG-up story, the Lion-monster enters its WKLUGUROHDV$YHQJHU³+HODVKHVRXWYLFLRXVO\VWLUULQJIURPKLVODLUEHQW RQSXUVXLWDQGUHYHQJH´68 The above analysis stands when we take the point of view of the beasts of the forest (as for example does Wood) and specifically of the Hare-hero in an exhilarating tale of revolt by a heroic individual against the forces of darkness. But intriguingly, some authors have inverted the roles, allowing us to trans-focalise. What happens if we consider that the hero is the Lion? In that case, it is a tale which goes tragically wrong: the horrible regicide of a plucky, but gullible ruler who meets a violent premature death as he falls victim to a low trick played by one revolutionary amongst his subjects. We now are dealing with a typical Tragedy plot. In this case, we recognise %RRNHU¶V ILYH VWDJHV WKURXJK ZKLFK WKH W\SLFDO SDWWHUQ RI WKH WUDJHG\ unfolds:69 During the Anticipation Stage, the hero is in some way incomplete or unfulfilled and his thoughts are turned towards the future in hope of some unusual gratification. Some object of desire or course of action presents itself, and his energies have found a focus. (The Lion is tired of hunting ceaselessly and yearns for an easy life: in our tale, this stage is not expressed but implied by the proposal of the beasts of the forest.) In the Dream Stage, he becomes in some way committed to his course of action and for a while things go almost improbably well for the hero. He is ZLQQLQJWKHJUDWLILFDWLRQKHKDGGUHDPHGRIDQGVHHPVWREH³JHWWLQJDZD\ ZLWKLW´ 7KH/LRQPDNHVWKHSDFWZLWKWKHEHDVWVDQGFDQQRZHQMR\KLV laziness.) He then reaches the Frustration Stage, when things begin to go wrong. The hero cannot find a point of rest. He begins to experience a VHQVHRIIUXVWUDWLRQ$³VKDGRZILJXUH´PD\DSSHDUDWWKLVSRLQWVHHPLQJ in some obscure way to threaten him. (The beasts fail to provide a prey in WLPHWKH+DUHLVWKLV³6KDGRZILJXUH´ZKRVHVWRU\ ZLOOVKDWWHUWKHKHUR¶V world.) During the Nightmare Stage, things are now slipping seriously out RIWKHKHUR¶VFRQWURO+HKDVDPRXQWLQJVHQVHRIWKUHDWDQGGHVSDLU)RUFHV of opposition and fate are closing in on him. (The Hare explains the danger of tKH LPSRVWRU OLRQ ZKR WKUHDWHQV WKH KHUR¶V YHU\ OLYHOLKRRG DQG OLIH Finally, in the Destruction or Death-Wish Stage, either by the forces he has aroused against himself, or by some final act of violence which precipitates his own death, the hero is destroyed. (The Lion rushes to fight this impostor, hastily and courageously embarking on his own Overcoming-the- 0RQVWHU VWRU\ QRW FKHFNLQJ RQ WKH +DUH¶V VWRU\ DQG DFFLGHQWDOO\ kills himself, which is tantamount to murder by the Hare.)

68 Booker 2009, pp. 31-32. 69 Ibid., p. 156. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 233

In an attempt to explaiQDQGH[FXVHWKH/LRQ¶VVKRUWFRPLQJV.ƗVKHIL describes KLPDV\RXQJLWLVVWLOO³DFXE´ S

Ϊϣ΁ήΛΆϣωϮϧϪ̪ΑήϴηέΩεϮ̳ήΧϥ΁έΪϏϪ̵̯΍ϩΪϴϨθϧ

Did you not hear how the treachery of that hare afflicted the lion cub?

This reminds us that monarchs who start their reign at a young age stand a higher risk of being murdered.70 In this reading of the tale as a tragedy, the Mirror-for-Princes warning comes to the fore in all its stark colours. While in the Hare-as-hero reading the only fact the story teaches is already stated in the promythium: the encouragement to craftily put to use WKHDGYHUVDU\¶VZHDNQHVVHV

III.3. The contract The contract between the beasts and the Lion remains unchanged, though the arguments put forward by the beasts vary slightly. Again, these variants need our attention, in consideration of the significance of this contract, which is the first fundamental mistake the Lion-tyrant makes in the story. It is that which will ultimately bring disaster to the tragic hero (the moment of )DXVWVLJQLQJWKHSDFWZLWKWKHGHYLOLQ%RRNHU¶VZRUGV $SULQFH¶VDOWHUQDWLYHWRYLROHQFHLVGHSHQGHQFHRQWKHORYHDQGGHYRWLRQ of his subjects.71 In our case, the Lion cannot expect this from the beasts, as his only relation with them is that of predator to prey. Interestingly, the pact proposed by the beasts is a forerunner of a social contract. In the Leviathan Hobbes for example describes the binding pact which free men establish, in order to escape slaughter. With this pact, they gain security in return for subjecting to an absolute Prince, who may, however, be arbitrary and tyrannical. The beginning of the fable shows us the beasts of the forest in a state which is reminiscent of life in paradise before the Fall (contrary to +REEHV¶VJORRP\SLFWXUH RIPDQDV³VROLWDU\SRRUQDVW\EUXWLVK´ :KHQ WKH/LRQ¶VEUXWDOLW\PDUVWKLVLG\OOLFSLFWXUHWKHEHDVWVWKHQVWHSLQWRWKH schema identified by Hobbes, they leave their apolitical status, federate in order to face the tyrant to whom they propose to enter into the social contract. The beasts propose to the Lion a pact which they present as a ³ZLQ-ZLQ´VLWXDWLRQ7KH\PDQLSXODWHWKH/LRQE\WHPSWLQJKLPZLWKWKH (unrealistic) promise that his passivity will be rewarded with daily preys. But from the tyUDQW¶VSRLQWRIYLHZLWLVEDVHGRQDQDJUHHPHQWZLWKKLV subjects, which will in fact free the latter from their constant fear and complete submission and which will rob the former of his status as tyrant,

70 Eisner 2011, p. 566. 71 Rebhorn 1988, p. 116. 234 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 who relies on violence for his security and livelihood. This contract is also an unnatural and imprudent treaty, resting as it does on the unlikelihood that the beasts will continue to freely accept to daily sacrifice one of theirs. This will abide only as long as the beasts remember their fear. But this lazy life-style will simultaneously result in the loss by the tyrant of his physical SRWHQWLDO WR KXQW ZKLFK ZLOO XOWLPDWHO\ OHDG WR WKH ORVV RI KLV VXEMHFWV¶ respect and will also weaken his reputation amongst other predators. In 'RQL¶V YHUVLRQ WKLV SUoblem is evacuated: the Lion agrees to the pact EHFDXVH RWKHUZLVH WKH DQLPDOV¶ XOWLPDWXP LV WKDW WKH\ ZLOO QR ORQJHU approach the only waterpoint by which he holds guard. Thus they will all perish of thirst, while he will ultimately perish of hunger! Similarly, 6RPDGHYD¶V EHDVWV FRQIURQW WKH W\UDQW ZLWK D PDQLSXODWLYH TXHVWLRQ presenting his attitude as a short-WHUP VXLFLGH ³:K\ E\ NLOOLQJ XV DOO DW RQFHGR\RXUXLQ\RXULQWHUHVWV"´72 But for both sides this apparent win-win covenant is in fact a true pact with the devil! From the point of view of the animals, this may appear as a positive step, but in reality, they submit willingly to the tyrant in a binding covenant, and although they may gain an apparent sense of security, the danger of the hunt has been replaced by the psychological torture of the daily heart-wrench and stressful voluntary designation of one of theirs to DFWDVVDFULILFH6RPHDXWKRUVKDYHHQJDJHGZLWKWKLVLQ)ULW]H¶VWH[WWKH sacrificed animals are either old, or those who are grieving for the previous loss of a near and dear one! Wood adds a cruel additional step in the lottery for the daily sacrificial animal: they will be chosen amongst a few ones designated by their own families first. The beasts address the dangerous Lion according to the rules when the nameless mass of subjects approaches someone with authority: they first make obeisance and then propose their scheme, outlining the advantages for the ruler before mentioning their real mobile, which is the peace they will derive from it. The Lion is addressed as King in three Sanskrit versions (not in Somadeva), in all the Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ versions, in KƗVKHIL $EX¶O-)DĪO .KRVURZ-'DUƗ¶L DQG DOVR LQ *DOODQG¶V WUDQVODWLRQ *DXOPLQ takes the argument a step further and alludes to the duties of the monarch: the Lion, being the king, ought not to mistreat his subjects thus. Thus also the Sanskrit Purnabhadra version stating that the ceaseless slaughtering of the beasts is unlawful. By changing this, the beasts propose to save their PRQDUFKDQGWKHPVHOYHV%XWWKLVEUHDFKLQWKHPRQDUFK¶VODZIXODWWLWXGH LV DOVR H[SODLQLQJ WKH +DUH¶V ODFN RI VFUXSOHV LQ EUHDNLQg the pact and assassinating his king! In contrast, the Lion is not addressed as King in the versions of NaৢUROOƗK Monshi, %RNKƗUL 4ƗQHµL, John of Capua, Doni,

72 Somadeva 1936, p. 49. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 235

Ramsay Wood, and Kader AbdolDK:KHWKHUWKH/LRQ¶VSRVLWLRQLVWKDWRI lawful king of the forest, or that of tyrant wielding terror, unconfirmed by regal recognition, is naturally crucial in our understDQGLQJ RI WKH +DUH¶V rebellion. Thus it is interesting that all these latter versions also present the Hare as the hero (see above). In most of the versions, the Lion does not discuss and immediately agrees to the proposed deal. A notable exception is Rumi¶V/LRQLQDORQJ discussion with the beasts, he emerges as a positive, pious, rather pleasant character, basing himself on common sense and religious arguments advo- cating action. So much so, that his sudden acceptance of the deal comes as both a surprisHDQGDQDQWLFOLPD[,Q:RRG¶VYHUVLRQWKH/LRQGHPDQGVD proof that the animals will keep to their part of the bargain and is told that he can always revert to his previous tyrannical mode should the beasts disappoint him (but of course, this might prove difficult after a while, when the Lion will have become fat and out of practice!). The Sanskrit version by Fritze also has the Lion threaten to exterminate all the animals if they do not live by the contract.

III.4. 7KH+DUH¶VSOHDWRKLVIHOORZEHDVWV 7KH+DUH¶VSOHDLVDQRWKHUVLJQLILFDQWVWUXFWXUDOHOHPHQWZLWKZKLFKWKH authors have struggled, and inevitably adapted to their understanding of the VWRU\,QWKH2OG6\ULDF9HUVLRQWKHUHLVGLVUHJDUGIRUWKHRWKHUDQLPDOV¶ ZHOIDUH LQ WKH +DUH¶V SOHD +e includes a vague promise of liberation of fear, in order to obtain from them what is essential to the completion of his plot, which he does not disclose. Indeed, he puts the whole community in deadly danger should, as is well likely, his mysterious master-plan fail. 6LPLODUO\ 1DৢUROOƗK 0RQVKL %RNKƗUL .ƗVKHIL $EX¶O-)DĪO .KRVURZ- 'DUƗ¶L DQG $EGRODK have the Hare asking the beasts to show a little forbearance in dispatching him so that he can deliver them from the oppression of the tyrant.

1DৢUROOƗK0Rnshi (p. 86) ϢϧΎϫέίΎΑέ΍ϮΧϥϮΧέΎΒΟϦϳ΍έϮΟί΍΍έΎϤηϦϣΪϴϨ̶̯ϔϗϮΗϦϣϥΩΎΘγήϓέΩή̳΍

If you delay in sending me, I will free you of the tyranny of this blood- WKLUVW\RSSUHVVRU«

%RNKƗUL (pp. 94-95): ΎϬϨΗϡϭήΑήΗήϳΩΎΗΪϴϫΩϥΎϣίϭΪϴϨ̰ϣϞ̯Ϯϣ̨ϴϫϦϣήΑΖγ΍΍ήϣΖΑϮϧϪ̯ίϭήϣ΍ ϡήΑζϴ̡ϡ΍ϩΪϴϟΎ̴γϪ̪ϧ΁Ϫ̯ΩϮΑ

236 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

Today when it is my turn, do not put any guardian on me, and give [me] the time to go later and alone. It might be that I achieve what I DPSODQQLQJ«

.ƗVKHIL S. 111) ϢϧΎϫέίΎΑέΎΒΟϦϳ΍έϮΟί΍έΎϤηΪϴϨ̶̯ΘΤϣΎδϣϦϣΎΑϥΩΎΘγήϓέΩή̳΍Ζϔ̳΍ήϧ΍έΎϳ

He said to his companions: If, in sending me off, you connive with me, ,ZLOOOLEHUDWH\RXRIWKHW\UDQQ\RIWKLVRSSUHVVRU«

$EX¶O-)DĪO S ϢϧΎϫέίΎΑέ΍ϮΨϧϮΧϢΘγί΍΍έΎϤηΪϴϨ̯ήϴΧΎΗ̭ΪϧΎΑϥΩΎΘγήϓέΩ΍ήϤ̯Ζϔ̳εϮ̳ήΧ

The hare said: if you show a little procrastination in sending me, I will liberate you of the oppression of the bloodthirsty one.

Khosrow-'DUƗ¶L (bb. 2151-2): ϩΪϨΑϡ΍ΰϋ΍έΩϝΎϤϫ΍ΪϴϨ̯ ϩΪϨδ̡ί΍Ϊϳέ΍ΩΖϔ̳ϥ΍έΎϳϪΑ ϩ΍έήγί΍έΎΧϥϮ̩έϭΩϥΎΘϤϨ̯ ϩ΍ήϤ̳έΎΒΟϦϳ΍Ϧϣ̵ήϴΑΪΗϪΑ

He said to his companions, please if you will, delay a little the decision about your slave; Thanks to my action, I will free you of this perverse oppressor, like a thorn from the road.

*DXOPLQ¶VWUDQVODWLRQVOLJKWly changes this: the Hare rather openly, if vaguely, asks his companions to help him in his unexplained plan, confi- dently promising to deliver them from the tyrant. And LQ$EX¶O-)DĪO¶VYHU- sionWKHDQLPDOVDJUHHEHFDXVHWKH\WUXVWLQWKH+DUH¶VNQRZOHGJH (p. 71):

ΪϧΩή̯ϝϮΒϗ΍έϭ΍ϦΨγΎΑΪϨΘη΍ΩΩΎϤΘϋ΍ϭ΍ζϧ΍ΩήΑϥϮ̩

$VWKH\WUXVWHGKLVZLVGRPWKH\DJUHHGZLWKKLP«

The Hare thus breaks the covenant between the beasts and their tyrant. In doing so, the Hare reveals himself as a typical trickster or confidence PDQ $Q HJRFHQWULF LQGLYLGXDO ³ZKR SRVVHVVHV LPPHQVH WDOHQW HQHUJ\ FRXUDJH DQG FUHDWLYLW\«ZKR KDV QR UHVSHFW IRU FRQYHQWLRQV DQG SURSUL- HWLHVOLWWOHFRQFHUQVIRUWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVWZKHQLWGLIIHUVIURPKLVRZQ´73 Indeed, as we saw above, he did not step forward with his brilliant plot earlier on, when his comrades were one by one sent to certain death.

73 Rebhorn 1988, p. 15. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 237

Doni has engaged with this: despite the fact that the Fox/Hare is SUHVHQWHG DV D VFRXQGUHO KH PHQWLRQV KLV GHVLUH WR UHYHQJH WKH /LRQ¶V earlier victims as well as to save his skin. This transforms the eventual murder of the Lion into a sacred rite and the Hare into an avenger, close to the ideal of the Overcoming-the-Monster hero. 4ƗQHµL has transformed the state of things: when the Hare draws the lot, everyone grieves: their brave, wise shining hero will be sacrificed! The hero then coolly asks whether he KDVWKHLUSHUPLVVLRQWRUREWKH/LRQRIKLVOLIH¶VEUHDWK KRZHYHUKHGRHV QRWGLVFORVHKLVSODQ 7KHDQLPDOVUHSO\WKDW³WKLVLVILWWLQJ´ I 170):

ήϳΩϪϧϡέ΁ήΑϭ΍ϦΗί΍έΎϣΩ ήϴη̮ϳΩΰϧΪϴΘγήϓή̳΍ήϣ

If you send me to the lion, I will quickly take the breath away from his ERG\«

In the Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ DQG LQ :RRG¶V YHUVLRQV WKH +DUH UHPDLQV secretive, but either genuinely or manipulatively, shows his awareness of the risk involved for the beasts. He asks the beasts to grant him something ³ZKLFKZLOOQRWKDUPWKHP´ The Hare does not share his plan with his comrades, thus not giving them the opportunity to agree or disagree to the risk involved. This is the typical secretive attitude of conjurors preparing a political coup. This is DOVRZKDW5XPL¶V+DUHLQVLVWVXSRQKHPDNHVDVFHQHDQGILQDOO\FDUULHV WKHIULJKWHQHGDQLPDOV¶JUXGJLQJSHUPLVVLRQWRDFWNHHSLQJWKHSODQVHFUHW despite their probing (bb. 997- 1001):

έϮΟΪϨ̩ήΧ΂̯εϮ̳ήΧΩί̲ϧΎΑ έϭΩϪΑήϏΎγϦϳ΍Ϊϣ΁εϮ̳ήΧϪΑϥϮ̩ ΎϓϭϭΪϬϋέΩϢϳΩή̯΍ΪϓϥΎΟ ΎϣϩΎ̳ϦϳΪϨ̩Ϫ̯εΪϨΘϔ̳ϡϮϗ ΩϭίΩϭίϭέϭέήϴηΪΠϧήϧΎΗ ΩϮϨϋ̵΍Ύϣ̶ϣΎϧΪΑϮΠϣϮΗ ΪϴϬΟϥϭήϴΑϼΑί΍ϡή̰ϣϪΑΎΗ ΪϴϫΩΖϠϬϣ΍ήϣϥ΍έΎϳ̵΍Ζϔ̳ ϥΎΘϧ΍ΪϧίήϓΙ΍ήϴϣϦϳ΍ΪϧΎϣ ϥΎΘϧΎΟϡή̰ϣϪΑΪΑΎϳϥΎϣ΍ΎΗ ΖδΗ̭΍έΩ΍έΩ̨ϧ΁έ΁ϥΎϴϣέΩ Ζδ̩εϮ̳ήΧ̵Ύ̯ΪϨΘϔ̳ϥ΁ί΍ΪόΑ ϥΪϴθϳΪϧ΍Ϫ̶̯ϳ΍έϮ̳ίΎΑ ϥΪϴ̪ϴ̡έΩϮΗ̵ήϴηΎΑϪ̵̯΁ ΪϫΩ̵έΎϳ΍έϞϘϋήϣΎϬϠϘϋ ΪϫΩ̵έΎϴθϫϭ̭΍έΩ΍ΕέϮθϣ ΖϔΟϕΎρϪ̶̳Ϭ̳Ϊϳ΁ϕΎρΖϔΟ Ζϔ̳ίΎΑΪϳΎθϧ̵ί΍έήϫΖϔ̳ ϪϨϳ΁ΎϣΎΑΩϭίΩΩή̳ϩήϴΗ ϪϨϳ΁ΎΑ̶ϧίϡΩή̳Ύϔλί΍ ωΎηϦϳΪϨΛϻ΍ίϭΎΟήγϞ̯ ω΍ΩϮϟ΁ϭΩ̶̰ϳΎΑ̶΋Ϯ̴Αέϭ

When this cup (of death) came round to the hare, the hare cried out ³:K\KRZORQJ DUHZHWRHQGXUH WKLVLQMXVWLFH"´ The cRPSDQ\ RIEHDVWV VDLGWRKLP³$OOWKLVWLPHZHKDYHVDFULILFHG our lives in troth and loyalty. 238 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012

Do not seek to give us a bad name, O rebellious one! Lest the lion be DJJULHYHGJRJR4XLFNTXLFN´ ³2IULHQGV´VDLGKH³JUDQWPHDUHVSLWHWKDWE\P\cunning ye may escape from calamity, That by my cunning your lives may be saved and this (safety) remain DVDKHULWDJHWR\RXUFKLOGUHQ´« « $IWHUZDUGVWKH\VDLG³2QLPEOH+DUHFRPPXQLFDWHZKDWLVLQWK\ apprehension. O thou who hast grappled with a lion, declare the plan which thou hast thought of. Counsel gives perception and understanding: the mind is helped by RWKHU PLQGV« « +HVDLG³2QHRXJKWQRWWRVD\IRUWKHYHU\VHFUHWVRPHWLPHVWKH even number turns out to be odd, and sometimes the odd number to be even. If from guilelessness you breath words to a mirror, the mirror at once EHFRPHVGLPWRXV« And if you tell only one or two farewell to your secret: every secret WKDWJRHVEH\RQGWKHWZDLQLVSXEOLVKHGDEURDG«

*DOODQG¶VYHUVLRQLVWRWDOO\RSposed, as the Hare bravely tells the beasts that he will not be less resigned than his comrades who have preceded him in this sacrifice. He asks to postpone for a few moments; his plan might deliver them of the insolence of the tyrant. The animals wish him luck. It is only John of Capua and Ramsay Wood who have the Hare expanding slightly, explaining that he hopes to make the Lion hungry by arriving late, EXWOHDYLQJWKHUHVWRIWKHSODQXQWROGEXWSURPLVLQJWRIUHHWKHPDOO³RQFH and for all from the tyranQ\ RI WKLV EXOO\´ ,Q WKH 6DQVNULW YHUVLRQV WKH Hare does not even plea for delay. He simply ponders on the way and it seems that it is only his thoughtfulness that causes a slLJKWGHOD\,Q)ULW]H¶V version, he gets his master idea by chance as he passes a well on the way and sees his reflection in it. By leaving out the factor of lateness, these versions miss out on how the clever trickster also prepares the best possible circumstances for the smooth reception of his manipulative discourse.

III.5. The first meeting and dialogue between the Hare and the Lion When the Hare finally reaches him, the Lion is beside himself with hunger but also especially with foreboding because he is convinced that the beasts have broken their part of the bargain. In retaliation he has been M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 239 toiling with the idea of also breaking his side of the covenant and setting out to slaughter the beasts. But so serious is this matter that in most of the versions the tyrant is not yet reconciled with this idea. Not so in the Sanskrit versLRQV H[FHSWLQ6RPDGHYD¶VWH[W ZKHUHWKH/LRQKDVDOUHDG\ decided to kill all the animals the next morning. The apparition of the Hare brings powerful relief! The beasts have not broken the covenant! And this spurs the Lion into making his second fundamental mistake in the story: he allows the Hare to speak. The fact that, despite his fury and hunger, he addresses the Hare, giving him the opportunity to spin his tale, shows that he is no longer a threatening tyrant, and also that he already relies on the animals to the extent that he treats them as equal interlocutors. Rather than as a furious tyrant, he acts as a king showing fairness and obligingly giving his subject a hearing. It is interesting that all versions have kept this point, although the contents of the /LRQ¶V DGGUHVV WR WKH +DUH DUH PHDQLQJOHVV DQG YDU\ IURP YHUVLRQ WR version, without gaining in relevance. This shows that the fundamental element is the opening the Lion gives to the Hare to spin the tale, not his actual words. Making use of this opening, the Hare is now going to show himself a master-manipulator. He has cunningly assessed the Lion, in his role and duties as typical tyrant or ruler. This now calls for finesse: a psychological DQG UKHWRULFDO PDQLSXODWLRQ RI WKH /LRQ¶V PRRG Foming hot on the first shock of relief experienced when the Lion understands that the beasts have not reneged on the contract and that he will not have to quench a revolu- tion. An interesting difference between the versions is whether the Hare speaks obsequiously or boldly. Already in the Old Syriac Version, the Hare addresses the Lion without making obeisance. So much has the Lion lost his touch that he does not even punish this breach of etiquette. But, perhaps, he has no longer a sense of being a frightening tyrant. This is also the case in the versions of BokhƗUL 'RQL :RRG DQG $EGRODK 2WKHU authors however correct this: in the Fritze Sanskrit version or in Khosrow- 'DUƗ¶LWKH+DUHLVREVHTXLRXVJLYLQJWKH/LRQDVHQVHRIFRPIRUWDOLWWOH while longer... But, whatever his attitude, the Hare is capturing the /LRQ¶V goodwill, he presents himself as a trustworthy friend, who had the courage to stand up verbally against the threatening impostor and who hastened to bring the Lion au fait of this danger. Thus, the Hare is achieving this status of trusted advisor which Dimna in the frame-story has identified as one of his particular strengths that will enable him to stab the Bull in the back. %XWDOVRWKH/LRQ¶VIHHOLQJVDUHH[DFHUEDWHGE\KXQJHUDQGWKXVKHLV almost certain to want immediate relief of this exacerbation. This is what the Hare is going to offer him in the character of the trumped-up impostor 240 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 lion. This new figure is threatening the Lion on two planes: the impostor kidnaps the dinner and advertises his intention to become the new tyrant of the territory. Most authors have the Hare present this impostor as a real WKUHDWLQRUGHUWRFKDOOHQJHDQGZKLSXSWKH/LRQ¶VFRXUDJHVRPHDGGWKH feeling that the Lion owes it to his subjects who are now threatened. At the RSSRVLWH HQG RI WKH VSHFWUXP 5DPVD\ :RRG¶s Hare first downplays the WKUHDW SUHVHQWLQJ WKLV LPSRVWRU DV ³UDWKHU XQSUHSRVVHVVLQJ´ 6RPDGHYD¶V Lion is so incensed by hunger and the simple mention of an impostor that no further speech is necessary.

III.6. 7KHLPSRVWRU¶VVSHHFK The imagined impostor¶VVSHHFKFDOFXODWHGWRSXVKWKH/LRQRYHUWKH edge of fury, is equally significant and the successive authors have all engaged with it. So significant that, in fact, Doni does not need to mention WKH/LRQ¶VKXQJHU+LV KXPLOLDWLRQDWWKH+DUH¶VUHSRUWRI WKHLPSRVWRU¶V JORDWLQJDQGGRXEWWKDWKHLVVWLOODEOHWRILJKWLWRXWZLWK³WRRWKDQGFODZ´ is enough to whip him into action. In this version, the Hare voices the FRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHW\UDQW¶VPLVWDNHLQDFFHSWLQJWKHEHDVWV¶FRQWUDFWWKH passivity induced by accepting this contract has robbed the subjects of all respect for their king and opens the door to equally unimpressed impostors. A totally different take on this contract is given in Ne਌ƗPL¶s paraphrase:

εϮ̳ήΧΩή̯έ΍ϮΧΎΑέήϴηΎΑϪ̯ εϮϴϨΑΪϨ̡Ϧϳ΍Ϧ̰ϣ̵έ΍ϮΧΎΑέ

'RQ¶WSUDFWLFHXVXU\/LVWHQWRWKLVDGYLFHDERXWZKDWWKHKDUHGLGWR the lion-usurer!74

The covenant has turned the tyrant into a ULEƗ-khuƗU D³XVXUHU´ZLWK the Islamic condemnation of this activity weighing on his shoulders, rather WKDQDSROLWLFDOLPSOLFDWLRQIRUKLVUR\DOSHUVRQ7KH/LRQ¶VEHOLHIWKDWKLV earlier subjection of the beasts can now generate an income in the form of daily preys without the least exertion, is ignoring one of the main lessons in OHDGHUVKLSWKDWRQHPXVWFRQVWDQWO\EHRQRQH¶VJXDUGDQGWKDWWKHVXEMHFWV will rebel if they are not kept either by a rod of iron, or by all-encompas- sing love for the ruler. ,QWKH6DQVNULWYHUVLRQVWKHLPSRVWRU¶VVSHech rings DV D GDUH D WULDO RI VWUHQJWK WKH PRVW IHDUOHVV EHFRPHV NLQJ .ƗVKHIL¶V Lion is humiliated in his sense of honour and demands to be shown the impostor in order to wrest from him the justice WKH+DUH¶VKHDUWUHTXLUHV thus bringing in the notion of medieval suzerain and liege (p. 112):

74 1H਌ƗPL HGVK ,Khosrow o Shirin, chapter 92, b. 7. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 241

ϢϧΎΘδΑϭ΍ί΍ϮΗϝΩΩ΍ΩΎΗ̶΋ΎϤϧϦϤΑ΍έϭ΍Ϫ̶̯ϧ΍ϮΗεϮ̳ήΧ̵΁Ζϔ̳β̡

+HVDLG³2+DUHFDQ\RXVKRZKLPWR PH"6RWKDW, wrestle from KLPWKHMXVWLFH\RXUKHDUW>UHTXLUHV@´

,Q:RRG¶VYHUVLRQWKHUHSRUWHGLPSRVWRU¶VGLVGDLQH[SUHVVHGWRZDUGV the Lion concerns the actual crux of the story, namely that the Lion sits about all day waiting for his food to be delivered to him, while in truth, the SUH\EHORQJVWRWKHKXQWHU:RRG¶V+DUHQRZURXQGVRIIKLVPDQLSXODtion by suddenly remarking that it might be dangerous to tackle the lion impostor (so also the Sanskrit versions). This dares the Lion, smarting from rightful humiliation, to rush to the list. 7KXV WKH /LRQ¶V WKLUG PLVWDNH RFFXUV ZKHQ KH JXOOLEO\ DFFHSWV the words of the Hare without checking on them and hurries off to confront his foe. He never stops to reflect that the Hare is desperate and has nothing to lose. However, from another point of view, in rushing to confront the impostor, the Lion shows he is LQIDFWDWUXHKHUR³VKDULQJZLWK$FKLOOHV and Aeneas, Orlando and Ruggiero, one « interrelated set of qualities defined by such words as daring, boldness, resolution and courage. Willing to risk everything, including his life, to obtain his ends, he disdains petty, self-SURWHFWLQJ PHDVXUHV´75 Also, it has become a topos in Medieval Persian Mirror for Princes to state how important it is to smother a danger when still in infancy, rather than wait for it to grow stronger and impossible to eradicate. This admonition is also present in the Purnabhadra Sanskrit version.

III.7. Facing the impostor For the second time, the Lion does not pause to ponder. As soon as he sees a lion reflected in the mirror of the well, he jumps to attack. This is the passage to whiFK5XGDNL¶VVXUYLYLQJYHUVHUHODWHV,QWKLVFDVHKLVKDVWHLV clearly a mistake. But his mistake is not on the political level or on the plane of the courage which is necessary in a ruler. The mistake here is on the level of epistemology. Indeed, there is a sudden shift in the level of political interest and we experience an unsatisfactory feeling of anticlimax ZKHQ ZHUHDFKWKHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHVWXSLGLW\EULQJLQJDERXW WKH/LRQ¶V death. Whereas other significant elements in the story can²and must²be interpreted in the light of a political game of manipulation and errors (or of ethics), the trick with the mirror does not yield information of a similar SXUSRUW7KH/LRQ¶VJXOOLEOHEHOLHILQWKH+DUHSUHFLSLWDWLQJKLVGHDWKERLOV

75 Rebhorn 1988, p. 145. 242 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 down to a grotesque farce. But the trick with the mirror offers a host of other interesting interpretations which depart from the level of political codes. References to mirrors go back to mythology, contain philosophical and epistemological possibilities and are difficult to trace. In the present case several simultaneous interpretations propose themselves to our attention, which do not annul one another, and some of which at least must have been in the minds of the successive authors. The mirror is and has been linked to (self)knowledge and false appearance from Antiquity onwards and thinkers such as Plato were most probably developing thoughts and conclusions about mirror images that were not only their own but were widespread at the time. The scene reminds one of the story of Narcissus associated with that of the Nymph Echo76 and it is indeed no surprise that in the Sanskrit versions except that of Somadeva and LQ:RRG¶VYHUVLRQ, the well not only reflects the image of the Lion (and the Hare) but also sends back the echo of his gURZOWKLVODWWHUEHLQJZKDWFOLQFKHVWKH/LRQ¶VFHUWDLQW\WKDWKLVLPSRVWRU resides in the well. The Lion thus jumps and drowns.

BokhƗUi (p. 95): ϞόΘϔϣεϮ̳ήΧϥ΁ϭΖγ΍ϭ΍ΕέϮλϪ̯Ζδϧ΍Ω Ϫϧ ΪϳΩΏ΍έΩ΍έεϮ̳ήΧϭ̵ήϴη ΪΘϓ΍ϩΎ̩έΩϭΩή̯ΕέϮλ̲Ϩϫ΁

He saw a lion and the Hare within the water. He did not know that it was his reflection and that the Hare was invented. He growled at the reflection and fell in the well.

In this narcissic interpretation, the attraction operated by the mirror- image, the jealousy the Lion feels for his twin within the water is too powerful to resist, he jumps in the hope of either uniting with it or of destroyLQJ LW %\ DGGLQJ WKDW WKH HFKR DQVZHUV WKH /LRQ¶V JURZO WKHVH DXWKRUVUHIHUWRWKHP\WKRORJ\EXWDUHDOVRH[SODLQLQJWKH/LRQ¶VMXPSDW face value, the echo serves to convince him. The sheer unlikelihood of the Lion identifying his reflection as the image of his foe is never mentioned; it is left unsaid that he must indeed be abysmally gullible to fall for such a crude trick! This leads us towards Platonism. Tricked by the mirror, the Lion believes his sight rather than use his intelligence which would enable him to decode the mirror-image. No real knowledge can ever be derived from sheer sensual perception, as the only real knowledge relates to concepts which our senses can neither explain nor perceive.77 The Lion

76 Ovide, Les Métamorphoses (ed. 1966), III, 98-103. 77 For example, Platon, Oeuvres Complètes, VIII/2. Théétète, texte établi et traduit par A. Diès, Paris, 1924, Notice ; pp. 130-1 et édition 151e-187b; van Ruymbeke 2008. M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 243 who acts on the testimony of his eyes and ears alone displays his lack of knowledge and philosophical wisdom. This fact places him in the category of the sorry monarchs which Plato earmarks as unfit to rule in the fifth Book of the Republic (V 473d). His is a startling statement reminiscent of the fable under scrutiny: there will be no end to suffering for cities and people as long as their rulers will not be real philosophers, as long as political power and philosophy are not united and as long as those who have the inclination to pursue one to the exclusion of the other will not be stopped by force. This is exactly the way in which the Purnabhadra Sanskrit version condemns the dim-witted Lion! 7KHUHLVDWKLUGZD\RILQWHUSUHWLQJWKHOLRQ¶VMXPSLQWRWKHZHOOZKLFK LVLQSDUWSURSRVHGE\5XPL¶VXse of the fable. When he gazes at himself in the mirror-like surface of the well, the Lion, seeing his true self in all its grizzly colours, may well suddenly decide to repent and change, thus symbolically jumping at his own image in order to destroy it. Or, totally devastated by the recognition of the vile image of his true self, he might decide to suicide and thus knowingly jumps to his death. This makes away with the gullible Lion of the letter of the text and suddenly gives his character deep relief. In this case, the Hare, who is at the origin of the /LRQ¶V SHUFHSWLRQ RI KLV YLOH VHOI DQG RI KLV GHVLUH WR HLWKHU FKDQJH RU GLVDSSHDUZRXOGEHDPHVVHQJHURIWKHSXUHVRXOUDWKHUWKDQWKH/LRQ¶V nemesis (bb. 1308-1310):

ΩϮΑϩΪϨϳ΁εήγέΩζϤϠυ̮ϧ΁ί ΩϮΑϥΪϨ̯Ϯ̶̯Ϭ̩έΪϧ΍ΩΎΘϓέΩ ϥΎϤϟΎϋϪϠϤΟΪϨΘϔ̳ϦϴϨ̩Ϧϳ΍ ϥΎϤϟΎυϢϠυΖθ̳ϢϠψϣϩΎ̩ ήΘΑ΍έήΘΑΖγΩϮϣήϓϝΪϋ ήΘϟϮϫΎΑζϬ̩ήΘϤϟΎυ̭ήϫ

He fell into the well which he had dug, because his iniquity was coming back on his own head. The iniquity of evil-doers became (for them) a dark well: so have said all the wise. The more iniquitous one is, the more frightful is his well: (Divine) -XVWLFHKDVRUGDLQHGZRUVH SXQLVKPHQW IRUZRUVH VLQ «

Two variations further deserve a special mention. They illustrate a case of misunderstanding of the relevance of description in the source text and a case of the problematic consequences of unnecessary embellishment. In the ILUVWLQVWDQFH*DXOPLQPLVVHVWKHSRLQWRIWKHZDWHU¶VPLUURU-like surface. He only translates from .ƗVKHIL¶VOHQJWK\GHVFULSWLRQWKHIDFWWKDWRQHVHHV a pin lying at the bottom of the well, thus the excerpt pertaining to the clarity and purity of the water (which is secondary to the action), not the 244 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 crucial point that the water reflects images like a mirror. The second YDULDWLRQLVIRXQGLQ'RQL¶VYHUVLRQ7KHVWRU\LVORFDWHGLQ$UDELD3HWUHD DQG WKH WDOH RSHQV ZLWK WKH GHVFULSWLRQ RI D ³PDUYHOORXV GURXJKW´ 7KLV stresses the importance of the only existing well, by which the Lion is ambushed. But the sudden mention of a second well²in which the impostor is lurking and in which the Lion will see his mirror-image²is then rather problematic. The author is obliged to indicate that here, water must be hauled out with a pail, and that the animals are thus incapable of using this latter well to quench their thirst!

III.8. The ensuing political void Despite his morally dubious role in the demise of the Lion-hero and despite his shameless betrayal and deceit of his ruler and of the covenant, the readers warm towards the Hare for having liberated the beasts from the tyrannical yoke of the monster. This comes because the scoundrel is presented as taking on a contest of wits against another dangerous sharper. We would like him to take over tKHSROLWLFDOUXOHRYHUWKHEHDVWV¶FRPPX- nity, but none of the versions propose this! The puzzling ensuing political YRLG DIWHU WKH /LRQ¶V GHPLVH UREV WKH ZKROH HSLVRGH RI D ³QRUPDO´ teleology. The story peters out, the community is left in a political void, an open invitation to the next tyrant who will certainly pop up. But this alerts us that the point of the fable is not to show us a hero overcoming a monster and protecting his community ever after, neither to present a tragic ruler being assassinated by a devious revolutionary who then usurps the throne. The lack of teleology²neither happy nor tragic²shows that the crux of the fable lies in the play between the two main characters, in the game of manipulation and in the errors of the ruling tyrant who is overthrown by a much weaker opponent. The Old Syriac Version does not even mention the return of the Hare. Most other versions add as a (pointless) coda a sober vignette painting the return of the Hare and his explanation to the beasts that they are all safe now, for which he is duly thanked. But in some others however (the Sanskrit versions, Rumi, 4ƗQHµL $EX¶O-)DĪO WKH DQLPDOV rejoice, embrace and congratulate the Hare and each other.

$EX¶O-)DĪO(p. 72): Ζηά̳ήγί΍΍έέϮϧΎΟϥΎ̳έΰΑϭΪϣ΁ϪΘθ̳ίΎΑΖϣϼδΑεϮ̳ήΧ ΪϧΩέϭ΁ΎΠΑ̵΁΍ή̰ηϭΪϧΩή̯ΎϬϳΩΎη̱έΰΑϭΩέϮΧΩή̯ϡΎϋϦθΟϭΩ΍Ω̶ϫΎ̳΁

The Hare returned safe and sound and brought the nobles amongst the animals abreast of what had happened. They organised a lovely feast and big rejoicings and thanks [to the Hare].

M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 245

Some authors even have them all break into a merry and cheeky little song about it being true that no-RQHHQMR\VDQ\RQHHOVH¶VGHDWKEXWQRWKLQJ is sweeter than to survive the enemy!

1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKL (p. 88):

ϭΪϧΩϮϤϧ̶ϧϻϮΟΖΣ΍έϭϦϣ΍έ΍ΰϏήϣέΩϭΪϨΘθ̳έ΍Ϯγ̶̴ϧΎϣΩΎηΐ̯ήϣήΑϪϤϫ ΪϨΘΧΎγΩέϭ΍έΖϴΑϦϳ΍

ΕΎϤϤϠϟϦϫέϞ̰ϟΎϓϪΑΖϤη΍ௌϭ Γ΍Ϊόϟ΍ΕϮϣ̵ήΗϥ΃ΓΎϴΤϟ΍ΐϴρϦϣϦ̰ϟ

All shouted out of happiness, and remained in the safe and quiet meadow, chanting this bayt $UDELF ³%\*RGKLV XQKDSSLQHVVKDs not rejoiced me. No-one rejoices at death. But to see the destruction of WKHHQHP\LVZKDWPDNHVOLIHSOHDVXUDEOH´78

III.9. Back to the frame story We then step from the embedded fable, back to the frame story. The concluding dialogue between Kalila and Dimna gives interesting pointers on how to deal with the fable for the purpose of the Mirror for Princes. With characteristic down-to-earth economy, in the Old Syriac Version, Kalila simply voices a warning not to tackle the Bull if there is any chance that Dimna will get into trouble. Otherwise, he should not hesitate as the Bull will continue to be troublesome. The Sanskrit Purnabhadra version is more specific and warns against a weak person wishing to practise deceit on a powerful one. Somadeva turns thLVDURXQGDQGFRQFOXGHVWKDW³ZLVGRP is the supreme power, not strength, since by virtue of it a hare killed a OLRQ´ 'RQL VKRZV WKDW .DOLOD DGYLVHV VHFUHF\ DQG KDV QR LQNOLQJ WKDW 'LPQD¶VSODQLQYROYHVWKHNLOOLQJRIWKH%XOODVKHVDQFWLPRQLRXVO\ZDUQV that harming the Bull, who is kind and honest, would be a very wicked thing. Dimna thereupon, in true villain fashion, gleefully confirms that he will give free rein to his wickedness. Wood also has Dimna talk as a true YLOODLQZKLOH.DOLOD¶VRQO\FRQFHUQ is not to harm a good soul such as the Bull. Other versions tackle the moral condemnation of regicide. This is the consequence of the natural inclination towards identifying the King Lion of the frame story, and the tyrant Lion in the fable. It is important to remem- EHUWKDWLQ'LPQD¶VPLQGWKH/LRQRIWKHIDEOHVWDQGVDVDPHWDSKRUIRUWKH Bull, while the Hare plays the role of Dimna. The mistaken assimilation of the two lions causes some authors to feel the need for Kalila to voice a

78 Nasrollah Monshi ed. 1996, p. 38. My translation into English. 246 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 condemnation of regicide, thus of killing the Lion of the frame-story. Ibn al-0XTDIIDµ-RKQRI&DSXD1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKLDQG$EX¶O-)DĪODOOFRQFOXGH that if Dimna also needs to hurt his lord, he should reflect, for this is a wicked thing to do.

1DৢUROOƗK0RQVKL (p. 88): ΪϨ̰ϧέΎϴΘΧ΍ϡϭΪΨϣΞϧέζϳϮΧζϳΎγ΁̵΍ήΑΪϨϣΩήΧ̨ϴϫϪ̩

No wise man would for his own satisfaction bring about the pain of his master.

%RNKƗUL¶VUHPDUNLQWURGXFHVWKHGDQJHURIFRQGHPQDWLRQE\VRFLHW\LI the King gets hurt, society will call them perfidious (p. 95):

ϩΪηΎϧϞλΎΣϩΪϳΎϓ̨ϴϫϭΪΘϓ΍ΎϣήΑ̵έ΍ΪϏϡΎϧϩΎ̴ϧ΁Ϫ̯Ϧ̯ΰϴϫή̡

Be careful that then the name of traitor would befall upon us and no explanation would help!

By a simple HPSKDVLV .ƗVKHIL VHHPV WR OHDYH PRUDOLW\ DVLGH LQ KLV warning against the dangers of regicide simply in order to achieve personal comfort. This is transformed by Gaulmin into the royalist advice that no VHQVLEOHSHUVRQRXJKWWROHWRQH¶V3ULQFHVXIIHUIRUWKHVDNHRIRQH¶VRZQ FRPIRUWDQGSULYDWHLQWHUHVW$VIRU*DOODQG UHPDUNDEO\FORVHWR%RNKƗUL¶V text), the whole universe would simply execrate Dimna if his benefactor came to the slightest trouble because of him.

IV. FINAL REMARKS The present paper has focused on one particular fable in order to demonstrate how the successive rewriters and translators have engaged with its original message. The fable analysed here is one of the best known of the cycle. The string of authors respected the contents of the story, but they have altered significant details. This essay however is not a venture into studying the pedigree of the successive versions. The fact that authors have often worked with more than one source text would render such an enterprise even more doubtful! It is my contention that the variations we have found within the fable do not follow a clear evolution growing from author to rewriter, but are rather depeQGHQW RQ WKH VXFFHVVLYH DXWKRUV¶ individual attempts to reconcile the fable with their varied understandings of this key moment in the Kalila-Dimna text. I have also tried to analyse the Mirror-for-3ULQFHV¶ contents of this key- fable in the cycle. This tale of a regicide is fraught with interest both for the princes and for the would-be revolutionaries! ³6XFKDVVDVVLQDWLRQVZKLFK M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 247 result from the resolve of implacable enemies, cannot be guarded against by rulers, because anyone who does not fear death himself can kill a UXOHU´79 As has been amply demonstrated in the above analysis, this is exactly the quandary in which the Lion has put himself. The monarch or aspiring monarch who reads the fable will not fail to be struck by this primary lesson and its catastrophic results, played out by the animals. But victimising the Lion is forgetting about his violent and criminal behaviour. Even though, in his contacts with the beasts and with the Hare, the Lion acts ethically, absolutely as a just ruler. Interestingly, this is in fact what brings about his sorry end. The fable shows that for a tyrant, the door of just and royal ethics is closed! The focus of interest in the fable may also be the manipulation expertly wielded by the Hare. In fact the lesson is plural, the points of view are opposed, open to doubt, and this is one of the hallmarks of the fable as a literary genre: it shows what the general means in practice and in this way it brings to notice a matter that demands attentions and leaves it to reflection in the light of what has been shown.80 Because of its ambiguous character and of the multi-layered decoding effort it demands, the fable and its lessons will probably stick better in the minds than the one-dimensional characters (legitimate and rogue rulers) and plots made up of series of HSLVRGHV³HDFKKDPPHULQJKRPHWKHVDPHEDVLFPHVVDJHZLWKDJURZLQJ LQWHQVLW\´ ZKLFK IRUP WKH QRUP RI WKH PHGLHYDO 0LUURU IRU 3ULQFHV narratives.81 And what conclusions must we come to as regard this covenant with the beasts? Its acceptance by the Lion is the crucial mistake leading to his ultimate murder. This highlights the inadvisability for a tyrant to enter into a social pact with his subjects (that which is presented by Hobbes as a first step towards civilisation), which will be binding to both parties and prevent the monarch from using coercing or retaliatory measures against his new subjects, and which might be flawed as is the case here, at the inset by politically unadvisable and psychologically unacceptable clauses. Against these negative lessons, the constructive teaching of the fable must certainly be the manipulative technique displayed by the Hare and also, though in a lesser degree, by the beasts when they approach the Lion. The Hare also manipulates the beasts, hiding the true purport of his plan and how this

79 Machiavelli, Chap. XIX ³+RZ&RQWHPSWDQG+DWUHGVKRXOGEHDYRLGHG´SS 69-70. 80 Blackham 1985, pp. 175-177. It is intriguing that in the introduction to the Old 6\ULDF9HUVLRQ%HQIH\GRHVQ¶WFDOOWKHFROOHFWLRQ³IDEOHV´EXWUDWKHUErzaehlungen in welchen Thiere die Rolle von Menschen spielen ³VWRULHV UHODWLRQVQDUUDWLRQV tales) in which animalV SOD\ WKH UROHV RI KXPDQV´ Bickell 1876, Th. Benfey, Einleitung, p. vi. 81 Simidchieva 2004, pp. 97-123. 248 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 could backfire on the beasts, also guarding this plan against possible royal LQIRUPDQWVZLWKLQWKHEHDVWV¶FRPPXQLW\ Although the political contents of the fable are evident for all readers to perceive, the Kalila-Dimna text is nevertheless very different from the works usually understood as Mirror for Princes! The ethical aspect of royalty, the religious investiture of the rulers is not what the fables deal with. The fable analysed here shows the results of a string of ill-advised actions for the ruler. More particularly, as mentioned above, in the case of WKHW\UDQWZKRFDQQRWUHO\RQKLVVXEMHFWV¶ORYHDQGIDLWKIXOQHVVRQO\RQ their fear, it is a mistake to enter into a pact and also to switch from tyranny to the attitude of a just and generous ruler. Traditional mirrors will rather show success stories and how ethics have brought rulers to the pinnacle of JORU\7KH\FHQWUH³RQWKHVXOWDQGLYLQHO\HQGRZHGZLWKMXVWLFHDQGNQRZ- OHGJH´ LGHQWLI\LQJ KLV UHJLPH ³ZLWK MXVWLFH ZKLFKLV VHHQDVWKHKDUPR- QLRXVRUGHULQJRIVRFLHW\>«@7KHZULWHUVRIPLUURUVHPSKDVLVHGDERYHDOO justice. Their works were intended to edify and they pointed society to an ideal ± the ideal, it is true, pUHGRPLQDQWO\RIWKHRIILFLDOFODVVHV>«@,QD society in which power was arbitrary and flattery the common practice, short of armed rebellion, negative protest was often all that was open to the VXEMHFW´82 Very different thus is the voice of the Kalila-Dimna! This is a work emphatically meant to help those with an appetite for power; it is not presenting an ideal, rather it shows the mistakes to avoid and the strategy to the top. From the point of view of rewriting, I have taken issue against state- ments VXFKDVWKHIROORZLQJ³7KHRULJLQDOPancatantra turns out to have been a finer work, artistically, than any of its descendants. This statement holds good, as a general proposition, of the relationship between the original and at least the older existing vHUVLRQV«:KHQWKH\GHSDUWIURP the original, they almost always make it worse. There are exceptions, but WKH\ DUHQRW QXPHURXV´83 We have learned not to unconditionally accept originality and authorship as the highest achievements and not to judge the rewriting by subordinating it to the original.84 It is striking to note that in the long history of the text, most rewriters and translators of the Kalila- Dimna cycle have been at pains to protest of their faithfulness towards their source, even when the close-analysis has shown them to depart signify- cantly of their older reference. Indeed this attitude is so ingrained that the contemporary Kader Abdolah still protests, and for him, in the case of this fable, it is indeed true! Rather than checking on faithfulness by putting side

82 Lambton 1971, pp. 419-420. 83 Edgerton (ed./tr.) 1924, p. 10. 84 Benjamin 1923 (1992). M U R D E R I N T H E F O R E S T 249 by side this string of rewritings and translations, I have looked at the other side of the coin of rewriting. I have hoped to show how more fruitful is an analysis of the engagement of the authors with the narrative rather than an attempt at rating²especially artistically²their versions, especially when WKLVYHWWLQJZRXOGKDYHWREHGRQHDJDLQVWDORVW³RULJLQDO´carefully but I contend, subjectively, reconstructed. The engagement of the authors spotlights the knots in the narrative and the ambiguity of the characters, these passages where the fable rebels against simplifying the characters into hero and villain. By analysing these moments where authors differ from one another, the richness and depth of the fable, its political message, appear in all their deceptive simplicity and the numerous didactic messages can be better decoded. Although the general idea has remained surprisingly stable, the authors have tripped over the problem of the different viewpoints in the fable. It is no good to assert that such-and-such author based himself on this or that source. The treatment of the key-elements in the fable shows that there is no clear genealogy of variations. Authors jump to new readings or back to already used details, according to their individual understanding and agenda, they do not remain slavishly respectful of their sources. But overall, in the case of this fable, their efforts strive towards transforming it into a simple Overcoming-the-Monster success story. The transformation is often performed by transparent touches, additions, details. But sometimes WKHGHVFULSWLRQVGLDORJXHVDQGWKHFKDUDFWHUV¶DFWLRQVDUHGHHSO\DOWHUHGDV in 4ƗQHµL¶V SDVWLFKH DQG WKRXJK LQ D PRUH VXEWOH PDQQHU LQ :RRG¶V FRQWHPSRUDU\YHUVLRQ5XPL¶VP\VWLFDOUHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVWUHVVHVWKHDPEL- guity of the Lion, uses the Hare as the successful Sufi and in consequence presents a remarkably incoherent characterisation! The Western medieval versions keep the ambiguity of the fable and the political depth of the narrative. The pre-modern French versions also try to retain the Mirror-for- Princes spirit of the fable. Their interpretation goes in the direction of reconciling the prevailing concept of royalty of divine right with the stark elements of the fable. The Sanskrit versions stress elements of artasastra which are absent from the Old Syriac Version. The conclusions I reach regarding the tale analysed might with due care be broadened validly to the successive rewritings of the whole collection of fables. The fact that the tale chosen for analysis here is one of the best known might conceivably have stopped successive authors from unleashing their wild re-ZULWHU¶V freedom, as they might have done with lesser known fables. A dimension of the re-writing which has not been approached in the present essay is whether current political situations and characters are alluded to in the different versions. I have also left aside questions of 250 CH. V A N R U Y M B E K E StIr 41, 2012 literary style and fashion which might have encouraged some authors to change passages in the fable, particularly I would argue, within the dialo- gues and the descriptions, which were not key-elements of the analysis. It is also interesting that, despite the received interpretation that Dimna is a fiend who deserves to be put on trial and condemned, this fable, which DQQRXQFHV'LPQD¶VFRXUVHRIDFWLRQDJDLQVWWKH%XOOLQVWLQFWLYHO\HQOLVWV our sympathy with the Hare. But if the Hare stands for Dimna, while the Lion-tyrant stands for the Bull Shanzaba, and that the fiend Dimna is condemned for his lack of morality and that the Bull is pitied for falling a YLFWLP WR WKH LPPRUDO YLOODLQ¶V VFKHPLQJ ZK\ VKRXOG LW EH WKH +DUH 'LPQD¶V FRXQWHUSDUW LQ WKH IDEOH ZKR ZLQV WKH SXEOLF¶V IDYRXUV" 7KLV should alert us to the fact that the moral condemnation of the latter and the PRUDOUHMRLFLQJRIWKHYLFWRU\RIWKHIRUPHUDUHDUHGXFWLRQRIWKHIDEOHV¶ wide compass. Through the centuries authors have tended towards erasing the ambiguity in the fable, and one might wonder why it is that the scales have been tipped in favour of the Hare. Does it necessarily go hand in hand with the moralisation of the fables?

Christine VAN RUYMBEKE Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge, Sidgwick Avenue, Cambridge CB3 9DA. United Kingdom

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