Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

School of Humanities

Language Education for Refugees and Migrants

Postgraduate Dissertation Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights

Efrosini Vizovitou

Supervisor: Theodora Zampaki

Patras, Greece, February 2019

Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Theses / Dissertations remain the intellectual property of students (“authors/creators”), but in the context of open access policy they grant to the HOU a non-exclusive license to use the right of reproduction, customisation, public lending, presentation to an audience and digital dissemination thereof internationally, in electronic form and by any means for teaching and research purposes, for no fee and throughout the duration of intellectual property rights. Free access to the full text for studying and reading does not in any way mean that the author/creator shall allocate his/her intellectual property rights, nor shall he/she allow the reproduction, republication, copy, storage, sale, commercial use, transmission, distribution, publication, execution, downloading, uploading, translating, modifying in any way, of any part or summary of the dissertation, without the explicit prior written consent of the author/creator. Creators retain all their moral and property rights.

ii Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Narrative Techniques in the Indian Tales Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights

Efrosini Vizovitou

Supervising Committee

Supervisor: Co-Supervisor:

Theodora Zampaki Georgios Damaskinidis

Hellenic Open University Hellenic Open University

Patras, Greece, February 2019

iii Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Acknowledgments

My sincere thank you goes to my thesis supervisor Prof. Theodora Zampaki, in whom I discerned a genuine spark for the Arabic culture and I matched it with mine in the Indian one. The meeting of the two civilizations and literature was the inspiration for the topic of my thesis and I hope the current paper to inspire the future research and readership alike.

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Abstract

Both the fables of Panchatantra and the tales of the Arabian Nights comprise the core of the oral tradition in the East and are the most popular works of storytelling. Panchatantra, dating back to the 3rd century B.C. and drawing upon the ancient Indian oral tradition, is compiled and translated in Middle Persian Pahlavi by Burzōy and then in Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa´ during the Abbasid period (750-1258). The Arabian Nights with origin in ancient Indian and Persian orality, is also traced as a compilation in the Sassanid and the Abbasid period as Alf layla wa-layla (Thousand and One Nights). Its translation in Europe, though, in the 18th century, brought a domino of translations and influenced the Arts globally. Both collections belong to the frame narrative technique.

In this research, there will be a delving into the importance of the frame narrative technique in the oral tradition of the East and an analysis of the narrative techniques of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights. Under this scope, it will be shown that both compilations belong to the same continuum of oral storytelling. In particular, there will be textual analysis of the Panchatantra Book 4 Loss of Grains and the Arabian Nights The Fisherman and the Ifrit from the Arabian Nights 3-9. Both extracts formulate concise and condensed examples, from which textual analysis can be facilitated and thus conclusions can be drawn to support the current paper. The narrative techniques of the frame narration will be explored in both collections, comprising embedded stories, suspensions, iterations, apophthegms and repeated motifs. In this way, light will be shed on the affiliations the Panchatantra and the Arabian nights have in relation to their narrative techniques.

Keywords

Panchatantra, the Arabian Nights, frame narrative, narrative techniques

v Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Περίληψη

Τόσο οι μύθοι της συλλογής, αποκαλούμενης Panchatantra όσο και οι ιστορίες της συλλογής Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες (Arabian Nights) αποτελούν τον πυρήνα της προφορικής παράδοσης στην Ανατολή και είναι τα πιο δημοφιλή έργα αφήγησης. Το Panchatantra, που χρονολογείται από τον 3ο αιώνα π.Χ. και αντλεί από την αρχαία Ινδική προφορική παράδοση, συλλέγεται και μεταφράζεται στη Μέση Περσική Pahlavi από τον Burzōy και στη συνέχεια στα αραβικά από τον Ibn al-Muqaffaˊ κατά την περίοδο των Αβασσιδών (750- 1258). Οι Αραβικές Νύχτες με προέλευση στην αρχαία Ινδική και Περσική προφορικότητα, επίσης εντοπίζονται ως μια συλλογή στην περίοδο των Σασσανιδών και Αβασσιδών ως Alf layla wa-layla (Χίλιες και μία νύχτες). Η μετάφρασή τους στην Ευρώπη, όμως, τον 18ο αιώνα, προκάλεσε ένα ντόμινο μεταφράσεων και επηρέασε τις Τέχνες παγκοσμίως. Και οι δύο συλλογές ανήκουν στην τεχνική αφηγηματικού πλαισίου.

Σε αυτή την εργασία, θα ασχοληθούμε με τη σημασία της τεχνικής πλαισίων αφήγησης στην προφορική παράδοση της Ανατολής και θα επιχειρήσουμε μία ανάλυση των αφηγηματικών τεχνικών της Panchatantra και της συλλογής Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες (Arabian Nights). Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο, θα δειχθεί ότι και οι δύο συλλογές ανήκουν στην ίδια συνέχεια της προφορικής αφήγησης. Συγκεκριμένα, θα υπάρξει ανάλυση κειμένων από το βιβλίο Panchatantra 4 Απώλεια των Σπόρων και Ο Ψαράς και το Τελώνιο από την συλλογή Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες 3-9. Και τα δύο αποσπάσματα διατυπώνουν συνοπτικά και συμπυκνωμένα παραδείγματα, από τα οποία διευκολύνεται η ανάλυση των κειμένων και έτσι μπορούν να εξαχθούν συμπεράσματα για τη στήριξη του παρούσας εργασίας. Οι αφηγηματικές τεχνικές της αφήγησης πλαισίου θα ερευνηθούν και στις δύο συλλογές, που περιλαμβάνουν ενσωματωμένες ιστορίες, παύσεις, επαναλήψεις, αποφθέγματα και επαναλαμβανόμενα μοτίβα. Με αυτό τον τρόπο, θα διαφωτιστούν οι σχέσεις που έχει η συλλογή Panchatantra και οι ιστορίες της συλλογής Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες (Arabian Nights) σε σχέση με τις αφηγηματικές τεχνικές τους.

Λέξεις-κλειδιά

Panchatantra, οι ιστορίες της συλλογής Χίλιες και Μία Νύχτες (Arabian Nights) , αφηγήσεις πλαισίων, αφηγηματικές τεχνικές

vi Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Table of Contents

Abstract ...... v

Περίληψη ...... vi

Table of Contents ...... vii

Introduction ...... 1

1. Panchatantra: The Indian Animal Fables ...... 3

2. The translation of Panchatantra in middle Persian (Pahlavi)

and its sociopolitical context ...... 7

3. The translation of Panchatantra in Arabic and its sociopolitical context ...... 9

4. The history of Arabian Nights compilation in oral and written tradition ...... 13

5. The importance of frame narrative tales in the oral tradition in the East ...... 19

6. Narrative techniques in Panchatantra and Arabian Nights ...... 22

7. Panchatantra, the Loss of Grains (Book 4) and the Fisherman and the Ifrit (Arabian Nights 3-9): A comparison of their narrative techniques ...... 31

7.1 Panchatantra, Loss of Grains (Book 4) - Structure ...... 32

7.2 The Fisherman and the Ifrit (Arabian Nights 3-9) Structure ...... 33

7.3 The narrators, frames and story line of the tales ...... 34

7.4 Suspensions, Iterations and Apophthegms ...... 39

Conclusion ...... 43

References ...... 45

vii Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Introduction

When Indian people mention their tradition and the fables that have shaped their mentality, as children's favorite storytelling, Panchatantra takes the first place. Similarly, the most popular collection of stories in the Arab world is the Arabian Nights. Both collections belong to the frame narrative stories of the oral tradition of the East and have contributed to the creation of a unifying collective consciousness of the Arab world (Allen, 2000; Danylova, 2014).

Panchatantra is historically older than the Arabian Nights (3rd century B.C.) and belongs to the genre of animal fables and the 'Mirror of Princes', that is instructions (nitis) for the wise conduct in ancient India. Vishnu Sharma is believed to be the creator of the stories (Kulkarni, 2013). Gutas (1998) and Hagg (1986) talk about the translation movement in Bagdad in the Abbasid Dynasty in A.D.750 lasting for 300 years and bringing Greek and Indian texts into Arabic. Panchatantra was translated in middle-Persian Pahlavi by Borzya as Kalile ve Demne before A.D. 570, into Syriac by Buda Abdul around A.D.770 and into Arabic by Ibn- al-Muqaffaˊ around A.D.750 (Shah, 2011).

Arabian Nights, on the other hand, is a collection of tales of great diversity, incorporating tales from various origins, sources and genres and is lost in the oral tradition in ancient India. Hazar Afsan (A Thousand Tales) in the Sassanid period (A.D. 224-651) and Alf layla wa- layla(Thousand and One Nights) in the Abbasid period (A.D. 750-1258) have initiated a great wave of interest and translations. In 1703, we have the first European important translation of Antoine Galland in French, adding the 'orphan stories' of Aladdin and Ali Baba. As a result, Shahrazad, the Arabian Nights' narrator, who tells one tale each night, to save her life from cruel king Shahriyar, becomes an important character in literature (Marzolph, 2007). Sallis (1999) affirms that 'the Arabian Nights were traditionally read in particular ways and in Europe fostered an indulgence of the Exotic Other and various aspects of Orientalism (interest in the East)(p.2). The Arabian Nights have travelled all over the world since then, influencing Medieval literature and the Arts. Among these we have the 19th century Calcutta II translation, Burton's version in 1885-8 and Lyon's recent one in 2008. (Irwin, 2010).

Translations of both collections show their great impact on the global scene but also their intertextuality. Taylor (2011) refers to narrative units of Panchatantra or even sayings found

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in other Sanskrit sources and Panchatantra influencing other works, too, as a free movement of stories between the oral and literary tradition and the intertextual network. Ouyang (2003) talking about the Arabian Nights, says that 'older and newer tales seemed to have been incorporated into this infinitely expandable 'text' in the cross-cultural exchange between East and West during the age of European Empires, especially between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries' (p.5).

At this point, there will be a reference to the fact that the importance of frame narrative stories in the oral tradition in the East was vast. The use of narratives as a means of education was common in ancient India , as seen in Panchatantra (Kulkarni, 2013). Adhikari (2014), refers to the importance of the mother story as a platform for more than one narration as seen in the early Indian and Persian literature and forming the source of this genre in the East rather than in European context. Irwin (1995), explains that the frame tale as part of the oral tradition bridges the gap between traditional and literary narrative. Also, the frame helped the storytellers in the oral tradition remember the stories and narrate them, as a mnemonic device and it also helped the audience keep their attention in long narrative sessions (Irwin, 1995; Ong, 2002).

Under this scope, what is most notable is that both collection of tales Panchatantra and Arabian Nights belong to the frame narrative technique and there is a basic narrator with the aim of teaching. As seen in this collection, Vishnu Sharma is a teacher narrator as Shahrazad in the Arabian Nights. The umbrella stories and narrator roles are equivalent (Naithani, 2007). Both stories employ the frame story within which more stories are narrated. According to Allen (2003), the frame story of the Arabian Nights performs a number of functions and becomes a narrative of story-telling (p.174). Sallis (1999) affirms that 'the frame can be seen as an exploration of ideas on a theme of infidelity and betrayal, its effects and a final resolution' (p.88).

Narrative techniques in both collections include more features of the frame story narrative, such as suspensions, iterations and apophthegms. Muller (2006), refers to the Arabian Nights' 'formulas of narrative technique' introducing, concluding or linking the stories and 'decorative formulas' including rhyming phrases or prose throughout the stories. In addition, Van

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Leeuwen (2014) points out on the element of interruption and repetitiveness in the Arabian Nights. Finally, there are motifs of narration that are repeated and promote the storyline.

The current research analyzes the narrative techniques of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, as there is scarce bibliography comparing the narrative techniques of both collections. There is, also, little literature concerning the use of frame story narrative as an evidence of resonance of Panchatantra to the Arabian Nights. Thus, this research will provide more evidence to that direction. Even when relevant research refers to the narrative techniques, few examples of stories are taken from the original texts. The aim of this research is to analyze adequate tales from both collections in detail. In particular, there will be a comparison between Book 5 Loss of Grains by Panchatantra and the cycle of tales The Fisherman and the Ifrit from the Arabian Nights 3-9. Lastly, there are numerous translations of the Arabian Nights with a recent addition of Penguin editions of 2008 with Lyons translation, on which the textual analysis of the Arabian Nights 3-9 will be based. As Fudge (2016) states, Lyon's translation is more faithful to the original and its Arabic spirit. The examples drawn for this research, therefore, will be tales from Lyon's translation, not much researched yet. Panchatantra tales will be drawn from Penguin editions too, that of 2007 edition, translated by Chandra Rajan.

The current research involves literature review, collection of data, thematic analysis of texts and comparison to draw conclusions. The method which will be employed in this work is critical analysis of texts, which is consistent with the purpose of the research. This methodology is used in textual studies when we compare literary texts.

1. Panchatantra: The Indian Animal Fables

According to the definition given in Literary Devices (2018), the word fable is derived from the Latin word fibula meaning 'a story' and the derivative of fari meaning 'to speak'. 'Fable is a literary device that can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide

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moral lesson at the end. In literature, it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces, of nature, and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end'.

Blackham (2013) defines a fable as a narrative fiction taking place in the past and as an imagined action and metaphor, which is used to portray the truth. He explains that the fable is nurtured in specific cultural, political or even philosophical conditions, when opinions or a message must be passed through a fable to the people's mind in a legitimate way. He also explains that there must always be a reason in a fable justifying itself: in this case the reason is the message embodied in the fable.

Clayton (2008) highlights the response of human being when reading fables, as they have the reason to reflect upon them and learn from the lessons of the fables. Although people can see they have the same characteristics of the animal protagonists in fables leading them in specific actions, people can take the moral and change their future actions and environment.

Literary Devices (2018) declare that 'Aesop is probably the most notable author of famous examples of fable. Aesopian fables put emphasis on the social communications of human beings, and hence the morals he draws deal with realities of life' (in definition of fable, retrieved on 26 January 2019). Aesop the storyteller, who is believed to have lived in Greece between B.C. 620 and B.C. 524 created the Aesop's fables, part of the oral tradition and of various sources (Wikipedia, retrieved on 26 January 2019).

Panchatantra is one of the most famous collection of animal fables with Indian origin that has travelled globally with its innumerous translations, it has influenced the tales literature scene and educated its varied readership, children and adults alike. It is part of the Indian folktale treasury with the intention of instructing its audience, such as the Jataka Tales, part of the earliest Buddhist literature, with the Buddha character trying to solve the problems arising. Other examples of the Indian tales include the Vetala stories, with a yogi narrating frame stories to the king Vikramaditya. In addition, in India there are Akbar and Birbal moral tales, where the wise minister, poet and author Birbal narrates his stories to the mogul emperor Akbar. Finally, there are the legendary Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, narrating

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the adventures of god Rama and the fates of Kaurava and Pandava princes during the Kuruksetra War .

Nadwi (2013), referring to the origin of Panchatantra, he mentions the Buddhist Jataka tales attributed to Budha himself before his death in B.C. 400 and part of the oral Indian tradition. Both collections have many stories in common and belonging to earlier oral folk treasury, as mentioned before.

Claus and Corom (1991) trace the origin of Panchatantra in Kashmir as early as the 4th century B.C. and affirm that this collection of tales drew extensively from local oral sources. The five didactic books were written down, translated and rewritten in many Indian languages, forming the base for other popular collection of tales such as the Hidopadesha and the Brihatkatha. In the literature concerning the origin of Panchatantra, there must be reference to the great epic of Mahabharata, too, finally formed around the 4th century B.C., but with earlier origins, which seems to have influenced Panchatantra in content (Falk as cited in Artola, 1980).

Kulkarni (2013), refers to the content of Panchatantra. It is said to be composed in its current form in the period of B.C. 300-500 and it consists of 72 stories. Its name is formed by the word 'Pancha' meaning five and the word 'Tantra' which is technique or strategy (Kulkarni, 2013). Thus, Panchatantra was aiming to teach the five strategies of Politics, Administration and Nitis ( codes of wise conduct) as will be explained further.

Kulkarni (2013) further explains that the five strategies and the Sanskrit titles of the five chapters of the collection are:

- Mitra-bheda: The Separation of Friends. The first is the longest book, showing how friendships can split up for the benefit of oneself. The main characters are two animals, the Lion and the bull.

-Mitra-labha or Mitra-samprapti: The Gaining of Friends. In the second book we have the value of collaboration and the basic characters are some animal friends. The main characters are the dove, the crow, the mouse, the tortoise and the deer.

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-Kakolukiyam: Of Crows and Owls. In this book the focus lies in a kingdom and its king and the strategies to defeat the enemy. The main storyline has to do with the war and peace.

-Labdhapranasam: Loss of Gains. The fourth book instills the wisdom of being satisfied with what we have. The main characters are the monkey and the crocodile.

-Apariksitakarakam: Ill-Considered Actions/Rash Deeds. The final book deals with the experiences and wisdom of a Brahmin. So, what we have here is the Brahman and the mongoose.

We can see the basic storyline of Panchatantra taking place in ancient India in the kingdom of ' Mahilaropya' (the Maiden's Delight). Amarshakti the king was always worried about his three sons, who showed no interest in studies and lacked the wisdom needed as successors to his throne. So, the prime minister suggested the wise teacher Vishnu Sharma to the king, as a well educated Brahmin, to educate the king's sons. Vishnu Sharma accepted the challenge and made the three princes Knowledgeable within six months. Panchatantra is the stories narrated by the teacher aiming to instill the princes with the codes of wise conduct, as part of the ancient Indian tradition using narrative for a six-month education (Kulkarni, 2013).

Adhikari (2014), supports that Panchatantra is a genuine nitishastra (collection of morals). Nitis comprise the basic wisdom for social beings and also as the only means for the absolute source for happiness in this world. Nitis also help a Hindu for the world after this, as they believe in reincarnation. Kulkarni (2013), explains that the Vedic education system in India, based on the old scriptures of Hindu Dharma, was oral and sutras was a popular form of this tradition. As a result the sutra form is used in Panchatantra, which is part of this oral narrative tradition. Sutra is a Sanskrit word meaning 'a rope or thread holding things together' and here is a metaphor used as a rule or formula. As a result, Panchatantra is a series of instructive formulas that act as a manual for daily life. The short form of the sutra helped the narrators and students memorize the stories following them. In this way, Vishnu Sharma made his instruction more interesting for the princes and people to follow. For example, the sutra in the first tantra says: 'A king wishing long life should never keep foolish servants'. The story that is narrated explains the sutra. Also, the fourth tantra begins with the sutra:

He overcomes all problems

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Who does not lose his cool

Even in the face of adversity

Like the monkey in the water.

So, the monkey story follows.

(Kulkarni, 2013).

Taylor (2011), explains that the truth and popularity of Panchatantra lies in its very brahminical nature and context, as a katha (narrative) literature, alongside Indian epics and puranas. The Sanskrit language and the Brahmin narrator (Vishnu Sharma in Panchatantra) are highly appraised in Hinduism and make the text noteworthy. The sutra form (aphorisms, part of the Indian scriptures) and application of animal wisdom on people make Panchatantra a universal corpus of fables.

Panchatantra became so popular that there are 200-250 versions in 50-60 languages. Through an Iranian initial translation, it travelled all over the world, influencing works of literature distant in location and time (Shah, 2011). Verma and Manna (2018) refer to the intertextuality of Panchatantra which is characteristic more to oral narratives, like Panchatantra and not the written ones. According to that, the various fables like the Panchatantra or the Jatakas, circulated in the oral tradition, overlap as texts and the intertextual elements exist between the two texts but also between the various versions of the Panchatantra itself.

2. The translation of Panchatantra in middle Persian Pahlavi and its sociopolitical context

Having underlined the importance and content of Panchatantra, it is essential to follow the route of its translations in the Arabic world, because both Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights belong to the same oral tradition of the East. Thus, the continuity of the tradition of

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narration can be shown and adequate comparison between the two collection of stories can highlight it..

Mehawesh (2014) explains that translation is a way of communication and interaction, especially among different cultures, facilitating understanding of these communities' ideas and beliefs. It acts as a bridge between civilizations.

Gutas (1998) and Bahri (2011) give us a detailed overview of the Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Bagdad. The Sassanid Era of Persia (224-651) was the period which created a big translation movement, translating from Greek, Indian and other sources, in order to promote the letters and revive the Iranian cultural influence in other countries. Gutas (1998) explains that Pahlavi, the middle Persian language of the Sassanids, acted as an intermediate step towards translations into Arabic in the Abbasid Era and influenced the whole body of Arabic literature and culture.

The translation of Panchatantra from Sanskrit into the Middle Persian language (Pahlavi) in the Sassanid reign of Khosru (531-579), was undertaken in the 6th century (around A.D. 570) by the notable physician Burzōy. When Burzōy translated the Indian animal fables, he also included other stories of varied sources, such as the Mahabharata epic and other Hindu and Buddhist texts (Mazid, 2009).'The Sasanian original is lost, but we do have a Syriac translation made directly from the Middle Persian, most probably in the sixth century, and by confronting it with the Arabic version we can form a fairly precise picture of the contents of their common source. This, like the Syriac translation, evidently contained ten frame-stories (each with a number of inserted sub-stories, and sometimes even sub-sub-stories). The first five (The lion and the ox', 'The ring-dove and her companions', 'The owls and the crows', 'The ape and the tortoise', 'The ascetic and the weasel') are a translation of the five chapters of the Palicatantra, the most celebrated story-book in Sanskrit. The next three (The mouse and the cat', 'The king and the bird', 'The lion and the jackal') are taken from the twelfth book of the Mahabharata, the Indian national epic. One (The king and his eight dreams') is derived from a lost Buddhist Sanskrit source (the story survives in Tibetan, Pali and Chinese Buddhist versions), while the last chapter (,The king of the mice and his ministers') was apparently written by Burzōy himself” (De Blois, 1998, p. 423).

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The story of how Burzōy found and translated Panchatantra is like a tale itself. Nadwi (2013), gives us a narration of Burzōy's travel to India, according to which he was searching for a herb that gives life to the dead. Burzōy never found such herb but an Indian sage told him that the herb is science and the dead are people without knowledge, so he should educate his people through the invaluable stories of Indian wisdom of Panchatantra. So, Burzōy brought the Indian fables to his king and translated them as Karirak ud Damanak or Kalila wa-Dimna, which are the names of the two protagonist jackals. Shah (2011) also refers to Burzōy's travels, where he found out that the elixir of life was actually a book, that of Panchatantra tales.

3. The translation of Panchatantra in Arabic and its sociopolitical context

The Abbasid dynasty of Caliphs who reigned in the Islamic Empire from A.D. 750 until the Mongol expansion in A.D. 1258 gave a great propulsion to the translation movement, too. The second Caliph al-Mansūr (754-775) moved the capital to Bagdad and promoted translations from other languages into Arabic (Gutas, 1998; Mehawesh, 2014 ).

It is important to stress here that the Abbasid caliphate came to power with a revolution against the policies of exclusion of Umayyads (661-750), the first Islamic dynasty. Ethnic Arabs and non-Arab Muslims were not treated on equal terms with the rest of the population. So, the Abbasid cosmopolitan ideology gave a more universal interpretation of 'the Word of God' and nurtured the sociopolitical circumstances for the creation of the Golden Era of Translations, opening to other languages and cultures (Shamma, 2009).

Gutas (1998) also, refers to the early Caliphate and especially to al-Mansūr who acted as a conciliatory agent among the various rivals participating in the Abbasid revolution and unified the citizens of the new state both politically and ideologically. But mostly, al-Mansūr tried to make the new state legitimate to the 'Persian' faction, left from the Sassanid period.

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That included Arab tribes being homogenized in Persian territory, Persianized Arabs and Arameans, Persians converted to Islam and Zoroastrian Persians. Under this scope, it was natural to promote the Persian ideology too, so as to empower the new empire and rule as descendants of both the Prophet and dynasties of Iran and Iraq. The Translation Movement was to that end.

Hagg (2014), refers to expert schools of translators in Bagdad, recruiting mainly Syrian Nestorians and intellectual priests and physicians, who collaborated with Arab scholars. Gutas (1998) also highlights the importance of the Abbasids moving the capital to Bagdad, in the middle of the Zoroastrian, Persian-speaking population and the Pahlavi translations, which had helped continue the Achaemenid empire.

Concerning the content of the translations in the Abbasid Era, Hagg (2014) refers to utility being the criterion for selecting what to translate, with subjects from medicine, alchemy, astrology, linguistics, philosophy and theology. Gutas (1988) refers to the main fields in the centre of the Abbasid imperial ideology and need for translation. Firstly astrology was very important and we have the translation of a five-part book of astrology, called The Book of Nativities (Kitāb al-Mawālid) by Abū Mashar (A.D. 787-886) and the Zoroastrian history of the book of sciences by Abu-Sahl ibn-Nawbaht (ca. A.D. 770-809). Secondly, there is the need for professional education, especially that of secretaries for the administration, as seen in Ibn Qutayba's (d.A.D.889) Education of the Secretaries (Adab al-kātib). Mathematical sciences and agricultural works are translated. Another need for translation is Alchemy and the Economy and finally works on scientific research and theoretical knowledge.

The 'House of Wisdom' (bayt al-ḥikma) in Bagdad was a big library that nurtured the translation movement. Gutas (1988) gives a comprehensive outline of the history of the 'Houses of Wisdom'. They existed in the Sassanid period as royal libraries or connected to administration and they stored books and poetry. In the early Abbasid period, the 'House of Wisdom' in Bagdad was a library, part of the administration, according to the Sasanian model and promoted Sasanian culture. As a result, they mainly translated Persian books of history and culture.

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Figure (Gutas, 1998, p.18).

In this context, we have a cornerstone translation of Kalila wa-Dimna into Arabic by Ibn al- Muqaffaˊ (720-757) around A.D. 750. The stories in Kalila wa-Dimna are embedded in a dialogue between an Indian king and the 'philosopher' B.y.d.n.' (later corrupted to Bidpai) and are a book of political science to instruct the court. Each chapter forms a story, which is supposed to have been related at the request of a king of India by his philosopher Bidpai, in order to enforce some particular moral or rule of conduct. The story, simple in itself, generally includes a number of parenthetical stories, conversations and stories. Kalila wa- Dimna starts with the story of The Lion and the Ox, Dimna's Defense and twelve stories with animal characters mainly and humans. It concludes with Barzoy the Teacher chapter. The last words of Barzōy are indicative: 'By divine help is ended the book of Kalila wa-Dimna, and the discourse of Barzōy. Let the reader pray for everyone who participates in it. Amen' (Bidpai, 1885).

Shamma (2009), gives us an account of Muqaffaˊ's life and translation activities. He came from a rich Iranian noble family with power. The Caliph al-Mansūr supported him in translating from Pahlavi to revive and preserve the literature and tradition of the Sassanid Empire. So, in Muqaffaˊ's Kalila wa Dimna, we can see the Sassanid imperial ideology, political astrology and principles of royal administration. Mazid (2009) talks about Ibn al- Muqaffaˊ as the most controversial figure in Arab and Muslim literature, leading a turbulent

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but short life. He was executed on the orders of the Caliph al-Mansūr himself for trying to import Zoroastrian beliefs into Islam.

Al-Mahrooqi & Denman (2016) reviewing the Arab identity and literature in translation, highlight the fact that Adab or ''belles lettres'' in Arabic literature aimed at educating the government officials in the language, attitude, administration and history and the translation of Kalila wa Dimna containing wisdom for rulers helped to that direction. Kilpatrick (1998) explains the wide meaning of adab meaning 'good breeding', 'manners', 'culture', 'refinement' and 'belles lettres' according to context. In the passage of time, adab was enriched with proverbs, poetry, the new ethic of the Koran, wisdom literature and the Hellenistic and other foreign elements. Later music and history subjects were added and adab books excel in form and content, representing the Arab 'literature', 'humanities' and the 'arts'. Ibn al-Muqaffaˊ's Kalila wa Dimna discussing the good manners of the court, is one of the first instances of the genre Mirror of Princes (Kilpatrick, 1998). This genre goes back to Kalila wa Dimna's Indian original of Panchatantra fables. Thus, both collections like the adab of the Arabic Literature, instruct good manners: Panchatantra in ancient Indian courts and Kalila wa Dimna in Islam. Nadwi (2013), explains that Muqaffaˊ's Kalila wa Dimna, after Burzōy's lost translation, played a key role as the older surviving text that influenced world literature. It became the model to Arabic works and it was considered 'the first masterpiece of Arabic literary prose'. In addition, Simpson (2005) refers to the artistic development of Kalila wa-Dimna in the history of Islamic manuscript studies, as there is a long tradition of illustrated manuscripts of the tales from the fourteenth to the seventeenth century.

In addition, the scholars Shamsuddin, Don, Rahman & Kaur (2013), affirm that Panchatantra influenced animal fabulists in both the Eastern and Western literatures, especially the books written in Persian such as ' A Thousand and One Nights' in the overlapping stories and the method of questioning.

Concerning Greek translations, Simeon Seth translated Kalilah wa Dimnan in Greek, with the name Stefanit and Ihnilat in 1080, during the Byzantium (330-1453). This version was later translated into Church Slavonic in a Mount Athos monastery, most probably on the 13th century. Stefanit and Ihnilat are the protagonists in the Greek and East Slavic translations (Danylova, 2014).

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Another Greek translation was made by Demetrios Galanos, the 'Athenian' and the first Greek Indologist (1760-1833). Moving to India at the age of twenty-six, as a tutor to the Greek residents, he was a fervent translator of the most important religious, philosophical and literary Indian texts. His manuscripts in twenty volumes are preserved in the National Library in Athens. In the sixth volume, Galanos translated Panchatantra in Greek in 1851 as Hitopadesa or Pancatantra (Vassiliades, 2000).

4. The history of Arabian Nights compilation in oral and written tradition

The Arabian Nights collection of stories is a real phenomenon in the history of literature and in constant focus in literary study, translation and research. The reason for such wide, global appeal is multifaceted, but mainly lies in its enchanting storyline, the inventive narrator Shahrazad and its audience grabbing storytelling technique of frames. It is placed in the continuum of narration with the fables of Aesop, the Buddhist Jataka tales, Abdullah ibn al- Mukaffa's Kalila wa Demna, the Persian Alf Layla and Boccaccio's The Decameron, Arthurian legends and Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, just to mention a few (Khan, 2013).

Marzolph (2007) characterizes the Arabian Nights as an 'omnium gatherum', as it is a collection of diverse narrative material of different sources and genres and with the most dexterous way it incorporates them into a unified body. Sallis (1999) talks about the 'the fluid concept of identity' of the Arabian Nights, as we can find signs of many authors and people from an oral, nomadic pre-Islamic world to a refined one of the culture centers, with numerous translations and different reader-text relationships (p.1). Irwin (1995) adds that 'elasticity in composition and reception negates any notion of completeness in the frame tale' (p.34). Yet, a lot of compilers, writers and translators of the Arabian Nights strived to make it 1001 stories, like the title indicates. Arabists nowadays agree that we should not take the title in its literal sense and it merely means a big number and the addition of one more to the thousand, makes it infinite (Irwin, 1995; Habegger-Conti, 2011). Pellat (2011) affirms that the Arabian Nights can at least be categorized according to main subject matter: wonderful

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tales, romances, love stories, tales of thieves and robbers, seamen, Arab legends, parables, didactic stories and humorous ones.

The Arabian Nights' written translated compilations are numerous but we can trace them in the oral tradition of the past. Pinault (1998) explains that many other cultures also contributed to the formation of the various Arabic texts known collectively as Alf layla wa-layla: Indian, Persian, Baghdadi, and Cairene. Each 'stratum' corresponds to a deposit of stories reflecting the influence on the Arabian Nights of a given society and geographical locale during a particular historical period. Khan (2013) adds that the Arabian Nights were part of the oral tradition at first and narrated by hakawatis, Arab coffeehouse storytellers and street entertainers. We have the initiation of the first person in narration and each time narration starts with the phrase 'Once upon a time...' attracting the audiences in a compelling way and the stories were shaped by word of mouth from one generation to the next.

The Arabian Nights, as we will further explain thoroughly, is a collection of stories with many additions each time there was a translation initiative. Yet, the main body of the stories in the Arabic collection Alf layla wa-layla ('The Thousand and One Nights') can be found in ancient India. These Sanskrit tales were translated into Persian before the 9th century as Hazar Afsana ('The Thousand Tales'), with the addition of some more stories. By the 9th century, there is also the Arabic version Kitab Hadidth Alf Layla ('The Book of the Tale of One Thousand Nights') (Irwin,2010; Marzolph,2007). Pinault (1998) affirms that Medieval authors acknowledged Persian story compilations, Hazar Afsana ('The Thousand Tales'), in particular, as the immediate source of the Arabian Nights. So, we see that this boost of translation also took place during the Abbasid Caliphate in Bagdad in the 9th century as Panchatantra's translations. It should be noted that throughout the medieval and early modem eras the Alf layla was never a static or fixed collection, but continued to grow until the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries (Pinault, 1998).

It is interesting to site the story of collection of stories for Alf layla (A Thousand Nights) by the Abbasid government official and secretary al-Jahshiyari on the 10th century in the classical book of Pinault (1992) on storytelling techniques in the Arabian Nights. Al- Jahshiyari started collecting stories for a book with a thousand stories, one for each night, but

14 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights. before his death, he hardly gathered four hundred and eighty stories. He called storytellers and they told him all the oral repertoire of tales they knew from the Arabs, Persians, Greeks and other peoples. He also, included the stories he liked from books of tales and fables. So, we see the combination of both oral performances and written sources, such as Sanskrit

Indian texts as mentioned before, for the creation of the early manuscripts on which the Arabian Nights are based. Pinault (1998) affirms that The tales comprising the Alf layla were originally oral evening-entertainments and were meant to be recited and listened to; their performance dimension is reflected in the very manuscripts used to record various versions of the tales. For storytellers who could afford them, texts incorporating some or all of the Alf layla adventures served as reference material and sources of narrative inspiration. In addition, Pinault (1998) talking about the reception of Alf layla in the educated circles of the Arab society, she mentions that until recently Alf layla was considered 'too disputable to be a worthy model for imitation or literary inspiration' (p.75). That was because of colloquial vulgarities, ornamental saj (verses) and the use of the oldest Arabic language fusha. In the twentieth century, though, the admiration of the Western critics for the Arabian Nights made the Arab authors appreciate their own narrative heritage.

In this light, what is fundamental for the history of the Arabian Nights, is when they are translated for European readers. Naithani (2007) talks about the 'textualization' of Asian folkloric works into European languages during the past five centuries. The Arabian Nights have also been translated in various versions in Europe, based on different manuscripts. Despite the fact that these versions are Western constructs, their folkloric identity is still there. These so-called 'constructs' have acquired an identity that has its own authenticity, received by a difference audience at a given time and have been across national borders. So it has become a kind of folklore that is transnational (p.120-121). The Arabian Nights, whose title refers to a specific geographical context and readership, have acquired transnational contexts, either regional, national, linguistic or religious. (Naithani,2007).

Ouyang (2005) refers to the importance of the European translations in the formation of the text of the Arabian Nights we have in our days. The first translator is Antoine Galland (1646- 1715), who firstly found a three-volume manuscript of The Voyages of Sinbad from the fourteenth or fifteenth century and started translating it. The first publications came from

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1704 until 1717. A cascade of translations of Galland's translation followed in Europe, especially in English, finding more manuscripts of the Nights meanwhile. Ouyang refers to at least twenty-two surviving Arabic manuscripts of the Arabian Nights originating from Egypt or Syria, whose authenticity is doubted and thus, there is skepticism about a few eighteenth and nineteenth century prints of the Nights, such as Calcutta I (1814-1828), Breslau or Habicht (1824-1839), Bulaq (1835) and Calcutta II (1839-1842).

Khan (2013) explains that Galland's translation was not so close to the original, getting the spirit of the text, rather than its exact meaning but it suited the literary taste of the French people of his times. Sallis (1999) refers to Galland's translation as ' a beautiful and very modified appropriation of the text' (p.3). Irwin (2010) also, referring to Galland's French translation of the Arabian Nights, reminds us of its elite recipients of that time, such as the ladies at the court of Versailles, so he polished his text, by removing anything that seemed barbaric to his taste from the Arabic manuscript. Galland wanted to educate his readers with the moral messages of the Arabian Nights and initiate them in the magic realm of the Orient.

In the next centuries, we have four more notable translators of the Arabian Nights in English: Edward William Lane (1801-76), John Pane (1882-4), Richard Burton (1885-8) and Malcolm and Ursula Lyons (2008). Lane, being a Victorian scholar, produced a 'cleaner' text with no 'vulgarities'' and omitted the most important feature of the Arabian Nights, the story-within- story structure (Ouyang, 2005). Sallis (1999) highlights the shift of the audience's tastes from the exotic, so the scholars were more interested in travel, knowledge and progress and this was reflected in Lane's translation. It was more direct and edited to purity, with the aim to provide information to a more refined public and not entertain the people in general. Pane, on the other hand, did not exclude the sex scenes from the text, but his translation was so much literate ,using archaic English, that was hard to read (Irwin,2010). Burton kept the story- within-story structure of the work, but 'exaggerated the exotic and erotic' (Ouyang, 2005; Sallis, 1999). So it seems that the character, era and education of each translator determined his decision making in the translation of the work. Lastly, Lyon's translation is the newest and it will be the basis for the comparative study in this research and will be further discussed here.

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In order to measure the great impact the Arabian Nights had on Western literature in the last centuries, we need to give some examples. Irwin (2010) refers to William Beckford's Vathek (1782), Dickens's The Old Curiosity Shop (1841) and the French novelist Stendhal and his work Souvenirs d' egotisme (1832). We can also mention Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) and his works The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade and Al Aaraaf and Israfel. American writers influenced by the Arabian Nights are Washington Irving (1783-1859),

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), Herman Melville (1819-1891), Mark Twain (1835-1910) and Ernest Hemingway (1898-1961). Other European writers that used the Arabian Nights are Schiller, Goethe, Brecht, Proust, Jorge Luis Borges and Naguib Mahfouz.

Of course, other artists also were influenced like illustrators to the published works, composers and directors. The most exploited of the tales seem are 'Ali Baba and the forty thieves,' 'Aladdin and his lamp,' and 'Sindbad'. At the beginning of the 20th century in silent movies we have Georges Méliès films La Lanterne magique (1903) and Le palais des Mille et une Nuits (1905)(Pellat, 2011). We have the Thief of Bagdad film (1924) and Walt Disney animated cartoon Aladdin that produced a whole industry of merchandise around it (Khan,2013). The second Hollywood film called 'Arabian Nights' in 2000, is more close to the spirit of the Arabian Nights than the other films based on them in the past, as it keeps the elements of fantasy, but at the same time it shows the diversity of the stories and storytelling technique along with the cultures they represent (Ouyang,2003).

The importance of the Arabian Nights is also stressed by the fact that the general assembly of UNESCO voted to include them in its highlighted events of 2004-5. In addition, international meetings and major symposia were held all over the world and a large exhibition in the Museum of Ethnography in Osaka, in Japan in 2004 (Murzolph,2007).

Having seen this great impact of the Arabian Nights globally, we can see most of its charm on the story line and its narrator and of course its narrative techniques. Firstly, an outline of the Arabian Nights should be given. The story and first frame story begins with the King Shahriyar, his brother Shah Zaman and the narrator Shahrazad, the vizier's daughter. Shahriyar discovers his wife's betrayal and executes her. In order to avoid further betrayals, Shahriyar takes only virgins to his bed every night and kills them in the next morning. Shahrazad trying to save the kingdom from this plight, offers herself to the king for the night.

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Her father narrates her the story ' The Donkey and the Bull' but to no avail. Shahrazad, spends the night with the King narrating him a story but leaves it unfinished with the dawn. With this trickery her execution is postponed by Shahriyar until the story is finished, but Shahrazad begins a new one with the same pace of narration. Days and nights alternate and the power of storytelling is still there, linking life and death (Irwin, 2010).

Shahrazad is talking for her life for one thousand and one nights and a lot of her stories tell of somebody trying to save one's life, such as 'The Fisherman and the Ifrit' or the story of 'The King Yunan and the Duban the Sage'. Other cycles of stories talk about betrayal and revenge, others of jinns and magic and also of travels. There are also the 'orphan stories' of 'The Story of Aladdin or the Magic Lamp' and 'The Story of Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves' , which are really famous but with no Arabic original. In the Nights we also have the story collection of Panchatantra's medieval Arab version of Kalila wa Dimna with the animal protagonists trying to instruct with their stories of wisdom. Animals, like Shahrazad, fight for their lives and need useful friendships. So, after so much time and so many narrations, the King's heart is softened, getting the wisdom of the story tellers and we have his alteration and Shahrazad's survival (Irwin, 2010).

Apart from the content of the Arabian Nights and the clever narrator, the narrative techniques are very important, that build up all this information and wisdom and can be gradually grasped by the King, attracting both his and the audience's full concentration. It is evident that only by grace of the content, the Arabian Nights would not be a world masterpiece. Ouyang (2005), narrows down the Arabian Nights narrative techniques to the frame-within- frame, the arabesque or repetition and the 'marvelous'. The 'marvelous' being inherent to the content of the stories and the arabesque or repetition part of the frame-within-frame technique, it is very important at this point to have a look at the history of the frame narrative technique and its importance in oral tradition in the East, as well as its main characteristics as are seen in various works. The focus will be on Indian oral tradition, in which Panchatantra belongs and it is one of the main elements that links this work to the later Arabian Nights under focus.

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5. The importance of frame narrative tales in oral tradition in the East

Narrative and storytelling both oral and written, accompany human beings from birth to old age and throughout the history of humanity, as educators, entertainers, pacifiers and best friends. Ramanujan (1990) explains that folklore items, such as proverbs, riddles, stories, tunes, motifs and dances, are independent in cultural exchange and every time they are told, they travel crossing linguistic boundaries and without populations moving.

Adhikari (2014) explains that literature was initially oral and the passage from orality to literacy created various literary genres, but the most important one for that shift is narrative. It is closer to the oral tradition and creating a story line means keeping track of the flowing time and people's cultures and habits.

Fludernik (2009) explains that 'the significance of narrative in human culture can be seen from the fact that written cultures seek their origins in myths which they then record for posterity. In an explanatory process rather like that of individual autobiographical narratives, historians then begin to inscribe the achievements of their forefathers and the progress of their nation down to the present in the cultural memory in the form of histories or stories' (p.1). Fludernik (2009) also mentions that 'the narrative is derived from ‘narrate’ and that narration is a very widespread activity. Narrative is therefore closely bound up with the speech act of narrating and hence also with the figure of a narrator (p.2).

A special focus is given in literature about the difficulties of the narrator in oral literature. Reddy (2017) believes that the epics and other genres are complex types of storytelling in interchange with the world outside and within the narrative world, constantly recreated and reconstructed every time the story is told. El-Shammy (1990) refers to the narrator of the oral text, who tries to reproduce the story learnt a priori, with the techniques of 'recall' or remembering' and other mental activities. The narrator may be successful or not in reproducing the story, without the aids a reader of the book can have. In this light, frame narratives are of ultimate importance in the act of narration, as they aid the narrator's mnemonic performance.

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According to Oxford dictionary reference (2018), a frame narrative is 'a story in which another story is enclosed or embedded as 'a tale within a tale', or which contains several such stories'. In Encyclopedia Britannica (2018), a 'frame story' or 'frame tale' is 'a unifying story within which one or more tales are related. The frame is marked with the opening and closing of a single story. 'In the cyclical frame story, some frames are externally imposed and only loosely bind the diversified stories, such as 'The Thousand and One Nights' and the 'Jatakas'. Other frames are an integral part of the frames such as Boccaccio's 'The Decameron' and Chaucer's the 'Canterbury Tales'.

Narratologist Fludernik (2009) gives us the position of the frames in frame narratives, either at the beginning or end, or in both these places in a narrative. Additionally, frame narratives can be interpolated in the text at any point. Fludernik talking about multiple framing adds that 'When characters themselves tell stories, the narrative level to which they belong also constitutes a frame. Thus frames and the stories contained in them are recurring elements that may nest inside each other , like the proverbial Chinese boxes, or Russian dolls' (p.28-29).

Irwin (1995) explains that the frame tale is not merely a collection of stories, but the main frame tale of oral events that has an impact on the stories it entails and the frame narrator acts also as the narrator of the embedded stories. Thus, the frame tale is a type of narrative that is the context of other stories and the narration of these stories is its main goal. It certainly cannot stand independently, as it would be really weak deprived from references of interpretation from its interpolated stories. Irwin mentions other terms used for 'frame tales' like 'novellae', 'boxing tales' or 'stories within stories' (p.28).

Adhikari (2014) adds that the smaller stories in a mother story contribute to highlighting, commenting and explaining the latter. So, after the introduction of the frame story, a whole universe is built and used as a platform for more stories with the sole purpose of coming back to the mother story with final conclusions. In addition, Atieh (2011) referring to the frame theory, he stresses the distinction between the frame and the enframed stories, as that of conventionality and non-conventionality accordingly. He explains that 'the frame around the picture separates the real, the typical and outer world from the imaginative and artistic world' (p.201).

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The tradition of frame stories is very old and Leeuwen (2005) affirms their origins in Persian and Sanskrit works, when the frame narrative technique was common in collection of stories, such as the Panchatantra, the Kathasaritsagara, the Sindbadnama and the Hazar Afsana. As some of these works were translated quite early in the Arabic language, we can trace the roots of the frame narrative in the very beginning of the Arab literary works such as Kalila wa Dimna and the adab collections. Part of these works consist of tales to instruct the princes with clear Persian roots.

Muller (2006) enumerates the basic features in the oral tradition of this kind of fables and tales. Firstly, the author is anonymous but we have clues of the author's and performers' identity. In addition, we have no fixed text, as the performers improvise each time they tell the stories, giving their personal view of the story and thus there is no original version by an author too. Another important aspect is the presence of formulas and specific themes in the stories that help the performers remember them, as we will explain in the sequence. In these themes we have the heroic aspect too, deriving of historic events, but it is given in such a poetic and fictional character that it is reformed. Lastly, the composition of the audience is from a middle class status mainly from the towns or villages and are not educated.

It is very important, at this point to stress the importance of the frame narrative technique in the East, as it helps the storytellers remember the text easier and also have the freedom to improvise. Irwin (1995) refers to the oral composers and how much the frame helped them to keep the attention of the audience, especially when narration took a lot of days or nights. Also, the frame helped them in the continuity of the context, by joining the stories every day and acted as a mnemonic device, to help the narrator remember the interpolated stories.

Muller (2006) explains that the Arabian Nights in the way they are formed, show a lot of elements of orality, especially when it comes to the use of formulas and thematic units. He distinguishes between two kinds of formulas, the 'formulas of narrative technique' at the beginning or end of the stories and the 'decorative formulas' all over the stories. The former refer to formulas regarding the beginning/end of the nights and the stories narrated, while the latter refer to decorative techniques, such as the needle/evening formulas and the formulaic descriptions of a garden or young man.

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Ong (2002)referring to the oral culture, affirms that due to absence of any text, what the narrators can 'recall', depend on the presence of mnemonic patterns. These include a rhythm, repetitions, expressions, specific recurrent themes, proverbs and other mnemonic forms. Frames in a narrative help the narrator organize his thoughts and remember the storyline and its content.

In this research, we will have a detailed analysis of these formulas and narrative techniques in both the Indian tales of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

6. Narrative techniques in Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights

Both collections of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights have drawn global attention because of their dynamic and dramaturgically functional narrative techniques, engulfing a potent content and surviving through the ages. This study intents to give a comparative perspective of the two collections in this respect and see them in a continuum of oral tradition of the peoples and its narrative techniques.

Firstly, we have to affirm that the Panchatantra is a collection of fables, that is didactic animal stories, while the Arabian Nights seem ' tales meant for an adult listener and explore dark recesses of human psychology' (Naithani, 2007, p.125). Now let us examine the type of texts in relation to the narrator and the rest of the characters in the story. Irwin (1995) refers to the student/teacher tale as a subdivision of the frame tales, didactic in tone and the role of the teacher/narrator is to tell stories and make his student wise. The student is usually a prince, so this kind of tale belongs to the advice book genre or 'Mirror of Princes'. The other tales are mostly entertaining with more varied narrators and thematic units. According to this, the Panchatantra fables belong to the former category, that of the student/teacher tale. The narrator and allegedly the 'author' of the tales is Vishnu Sharma, a knowledgeable guru, who is appointed by the king to chasten his three sons and princes for the throne, through the narration of animal fables.

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Verma and Manna (2018) referring to the issue of authorship of Panchatantra, state that the author of the collection was not mentioned for a long time, as the tales belong to the oral tradition and what was important was not an author to the tales but their very movement. Since many of the fables are taken from other collections, such as the Jatakas, the Mahabharata, the Vedas and the Upanishads, the 'individuality' of an author is not valid. The Jatakas are said to be created by Buddha himself and he is an individual author, but in Panchatantra, due to the diversity of origins of the fables, Vishnu Sharma cannot be the author/creator of the text, but he is attributed so, so the fables gain in authenticity.

Naithani (2007) states that there are no concrete answers as to the identity and time Vishnu Sharma lived. Rajan (1993) explains that ancient Sanskrit text are problematic in authorship and dates, especially when they belong to the oral tradition. So, the author of the Panchatantra is an unknown but very sophisticated story teller, without excluding a multiple authorship. The narrator can even be fictitious. Under this scope, we have to accept all possible options, as anonymity is usual in Indian art in the past.

The authorship of the core of the Arabian Nights and the first Arabic story collection Alf layla wa-layla, on the other hand, seems to be lost sometime in ancient India (Irwin, 2010). The Arabian Nights have one narrator Shahrazad, who tells stories to entertain the cruel king and she changes him until the end of her vast volume of narration. Irwin (1995) suggests that the student/teacher category can include immoral tales and the entertaining ones important open or hidden messages, as the Arabian Nights here. Naithani (2007) affirms that both Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights have to do with the education of would-be princes and the narrators are teachers, who teach their students into wisdom. Vishnu Sharma uses five stratagems as the title of the collection suggests (Pancha+tantra) and the teaching lasts six months, while Shahrazad used '1001' nights.

Concerning basic characteristics of the narrators in Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, Naithani (2007) asserts that both teachers are very knowledgeable and assertive. Shahrazad has confidence in her tales and Vishnu Sharma has great confidence in the result of his teachings, too and boasts about it. Although, the Panchatantra teacher is a Brahmin and teaching is his job, trying to save his honor as a good teacher, Shahrazad is a volunteer and her teaching is not overt, as she is trying to save her life, through the metamorphosis of the

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cruel king. The gender, the age and the status difference of the narrators stand in the fact that Vishnu Sharma is an old man of a very important religious status, while, Shahrazad is a beautiful young woman and the vizier's daughter, part of the king's court. Of course, both narrators come to a successful end, achieving their goal: Vishnu Sharma by teaching the experience needed to the princes and Shahrazad by erasing all painful experience and knowledge of the king.

The teacher narrators in both the Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, are the narrators of the basic umbrella frame of the narratives. When it comes to the embedded stories, the narrators in Panchatantra are mainly animals: In Book One we have two jackals, the lion and the bull. In Book Two we have the crow, the mouse, the turtle and the deer. In Book Three crows and owls narrate. In Book Four the monkey and the crocodile exchange stories and in Book Five the narrators are a merchant and a monk. The talking animal narrators in Panchatantra are an allegory with human attributes. Their characteristics seem to be easily identifiable and they are more effective to reproduce the rules of a culture (Ghazoul, 2013). Kulkarni (2013) states that the names of the animals express either their physical appearance or psychological trait, like the monkey narrator of Book Four called Raktamukh. In Sanskrit it means red faced (rakta=blood, red and mukh=face) and in India red-faced monkeys abound. Naithani (2007) further explains that in Panchatantra not only animals resemble human beings, but even humans possess animal features, like 'The Princes are like serpents'. Each character personifies a different principle, so we have the creation of ideal types.

In the Arabian Nights the narrators of the embedded tales are of great diversity and the animals that are used in narration are incarnations of human beings, but not conveying any allegory as in Panchatantra. There is a veil and second layer to what we see, but there is no social message like in fables, just a state of mind or psychological one (Ghazoul, 2013). Naithani (2007) stresses the narrative's use of the magic charm, like that of jinnis, in aid to the human beings and a variety of opposing characters like 'king or beggar, master or slave, man or woman, virtuous or vile, realistic or magical, thief or saint' (p.126).

Having seen the narrators of the frame stories and of the embedded stories in both collections, the study proceeds with the actual structure of the frame narrative technique. Ghazoul (2013) explains that both collections use the frame narrative technique with the tales within a

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framework story. Nonetheless, the function of the storytelling in the first collection is to teach 'the art of practical life', while in the second to save one's life. As a result, the frame story in Panchatantra is simple and straightforward and the narrator goes to the background, so the moral of the fable emerges. On the other hand, Shahrazad is as much attractive as her narration, as her plight is seen every night the king saves her life anew.

Irwin (1995) also, comments on the character of the framing structures, ranging from tight to a loose one. That means, that the tighter the frame, the better control over the embedded stories and more unified. This is the case of the Panchatantra, whose fables' very nature of moral attribution makes the frame tighter. The entertaining nature of the Arabian Nights, then, makes the framework looser and contains more variety. Shahrazad has to choose any theme, as long as it is capable of attracting the king's interest and postponing her death. Irwin (1995) stresses that the flexibility of the frame tale permits the inclusion of many themes, styles, different times and places, linguistic and cultural contexts. As a result, 'the popularity and longevity of a particular frame tale would then be dependent to a large extent upon the flexibility and adaptability' (p.34).

Another aspect of the basic frame tale in the oral tradition is that it helped keep the audience's attention, when the narration took some days or nights, keeping the continuity of text at the same time. Also, the frame story was often so much integrated in the minds of the audience, that the narrator did not need to repeat it, but go to the beginning of the embedded story right away. Alternatively, the narrator could start his narration from any embedded story in his repertoire, with the frame functioning as a mnemonic device (Irwin, 1995).

Van Leeuwen (2014) stresses the relationship of the frame with the stories, which add meaning to what is mentioned in the frame with varied viewpoints and vice versa the frame gives the angle from which tales should be read. It is an endless dialogue between them that is the basis for decoding of meaning.

Srivastava (2014) talking about diegesis (narration) and sequencing in Panchatantra, signifies that the text is three-layered, so the middle layer which comprises of the frame stories of each of the five books, acts as both extra-diegetic to the smaller stories and hypodiegetic to the main story:

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-The king named Immortal Power and his three sons Rich-Power, Endless-Power and Fierce- Power (Extra-diegetic and main story)

- The five frames of the five Books of Panchatantra: The Separation of Friends, The Gaining of Friends, Of Crows and Owls, Loss of Gains and Rash Deeds ( hypodiegetic to the main story above and extra-diegetic to their embedded stories below, so forming the middle layer)

- The embedded stories in the five Books mentioned above (hypodiegetic to the frames of the middle layer, forming the lower layer)

Also, the sequence is that the one story runs into another like a chain:

'Why meddle, my dear fellow?' said Cheek. 'There is a saying:

Death pursues the meddling flunkey:

Note the wedge-extracting monkey'.

'How was that?' asked Victor. And Cheek told the story of

THE WEDGE PULLING MONKEY

There was a city in a certain region. In a grove nearby,...' (Srivastava, 2014, p.233)

Irwin (1995), on the other hand, gives an example from the 'Hunchback Tale' of the Arabian Nights, where we have as many as five contexts depth of narration. The audience hears the story from the barber about his brother; the barber tells the tale to the caliph; then we have the narration to the king; Shehrazad's story to Shahriyar; and the last layer is the audience's reception of the tale. The frame tale is in linear order, but then the interpolated stories reiterate the storyline and there is cyclical movement of repetition within the same outer frame.

At this point, having highlighted the importance of the frame story and also the less or more complex nexus of the embedded stories of the two collections of the current study, we can proceed to more details of their structure. In particular, we will establish the importance of repetition in both collections.

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Irwin (1995) states that structural repetitions or reiterations are inherent to wisdom books and 'the Mirror of Princes'. They are quite standard and controlled, as these tales are guidelines for the right conduct and one must quickly find the tale with the advice he wants to seek.

Haring (2007) talks about the most evident framing narrative technique, that of the opening or closing formula. In Panchatantra, we have a standard opening and closing of the frame of each of the five books with the use of locutions. Ghazoul (2013) refers to utterances, mottos and proverbs being used to start a frame or to end it, with the purpose of stressing the moral of the fable. The example I will give comes from the frame story of the second book known as the Winning of Friends. It starts and ends with the same verses:

Lacking resources, destitute of wealth, wise men possessed of knowledge and insight, are quick to accomplish their desired aims, as the crow and mole, the deer and tortoise did.

Translation (Rajan, 1993, p.193)

'The verse serves to underline and to eloquently articulate the maxim of the fable' (Ghazoul, 2013, p.21).

Concerning the importance of repetition in the Arabian Nights, Aoyagi (2006) states that the repetition of beautiful phrases, homonym names and story motifs makes them even more appealing and thus there is abundant use of repetitions in various levels.

In the Arabian Nights, verse and maxims are not used to stress a moral, but to highlight a moment of tension or emotion, especially when a character wants to express his great love and desperation. So, locutions and verse here add to the text, when words are not enough and are used for a descriptive or expressive purpose. Locutions in the Arabian Nights dramatize inner thoughts or opinions and give the culmination of the moment, while in Panchatantra locutions give a quality or the meaning of a lesson (Ghazoul, 2013). I will give a beautiful example of verse from the embedded story of 'Aziz and Aziza', which expresses and stresses the cousin's sorrow for parting from the beloved:

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The zephyr's breath flows from the guarded land,

And as it blows, it rouses love.

Come to us, breath of the east wind,

For every lover has his own allotted fate,

Could we control passion, we would embrace,

As the lover clasps the breast of his true love.

Translation (Lyons, M. & Lyons, U., 2008, p. 170)

So, 'the elements of the poetic logic of the Indian classic converge in order to mean, while the narrative logic of the Arabian classic works in order to be' (Ghazoul, 2013, p.21).

In order to see the structure of the texts in more detailed manner now, the study will proceed to the way the texts are innerly divided. Verma and Manna (2018) compare the Panchatantra inner structure to a rhizome with multiple connections and complexities. Apart from the five books division, the tales in them, arranged by the narrator in a linear way, can be read from any point, as there is no start or end, or individually, independently from the stories connected with.

Ghazoul (2013) analyses narrative construction in both collections and talks about the progression of the plot by storytelling in Panchatantra, but about digression from the plot in the Arabian Nights. He explains that 'the frame story triggers the narration and develops it' in the former, while inserted stories in the latter, like 'Aziz and Aziza' do not move the plot but distract it (p.15). This is explained as Panchatantra narrator wants to instruct, whereas the Arabian Nights narrator wants to enchant.

In the Arabian Nights, on the other hand, we have the technique of interruption, through the night divisions, which Van Leeuwen (2014) calls 'the art of interruption'. Interruption here is an artistic device that promotes rhythm and movement and not fragmentation. Nights and days connote the duality in people's lives and play a fundamental role in the frame narrative of the text in the dialogue between the stories and frame, the time dimension and the metaphors they convey. Shahrazad brings the king back to his senses, using the motif of the

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nights and the imagination. This transformation resembles the instruction tales for princes, like Panchatantra.

In relation to the nights in the Arabian Nights, Muller (2006) and Aoyagi (2006) talk about the formulas that appear in specific places in the frame narratives and can promote narration or decorate the text. There are formulas enclosing the nights, so at the beginning and end. Of course, stories do not coincide with the nights and the new day, as the king may order the continuation of a story until the next night. One such repetition at the beginning of the frame story is:

When the next night came, Dinarazad said to her sister

Shahrazad: 'In God's name, sister, if you are not asleep, then tell us one of your stories!' Shahrazad answered:' With great pleasure!' I have heard tell, O king, that...'

(Muller, 2006, p.49).

The closing formulas of the frame in the morning are also similar with the most renown:

Then Shahrazad saw that the morning had broken and fell silent in the tale which she had spoken

(Muller, 2006, p.51).

Muller (2006) continues with formulas beginning and ending a story within the frame. Similar words and the mention of time, place and characters at the beginning. At the end more lengthy closing, often with rhyming prose as in the story of 'Maruf the Cobbler':

Praise be to the Living One, to Him who shall never die, in His hands the keys to all the power and riches lie.

(Muller, 2006, p.54).

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In addition, decorative formulas include the imagery of a needle or the fading of the day into evening inside the stories, or even the description of certain people and places, like that of young men or gardens (Muller, 2006). Similar descriptions and lines with stereotyped metaphors recur throughout the text: beautiful girls and boys have faces like a moon or red cheeks like a flower and teeth like pearls. Fearful creatures and jinnies are also given stock descriptions and sudden mischief is described as ' the light becomes darkness in his sight (Aoyagi, 2006).

Among the narrative techniques of the collections of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, there is the use of narrative motifs in the plot. Ghazoul (2013) affirms that the plot in Panchatantra is fairly simple and there is one simple discovery at the end. Whereas in the Arabian Nights the plot is complex and to get the point it takes effort and a lot of layers. He gives the example from the story of Panchatantra The Wedge-pulling Monkey, a monkey, who meddled in a building site, got trapped in a wedge and the point here is not to interfere into what is of no concern to us. Whereas, Ghazoul (2013) gives the example of the story The Three Ladies of Baghdad, which goes to so many directions, that takes a lot of analysis to understand it.

Aoyagi (2006) refers to preferred motifs in the Arabian Nights, like the infidelity of women, an old man having a child, fights between brothers and going against rules. In addition, there are duplicate and parodic stories and anecdotes, like the jinni stories, which are recycled. All this repetitiveness of motifs gives a sense of deja vu. Irwin (2010) mentions some of the recurrent story motifs like life and death and how one can save his life. Also, there are tales of sexual betrayal and revenge, the rhetoric of animals, how idle youths become heroes, tales of magic and those of travel. Sallis (1999) affirms that 'motifs refer outward to the veiled narrative and ultimately to the reader and our awareness, no matter how dimly, is provoked by these repetitions'.

All in all, the narrative techniques comprising the Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights have to do with the frame narrative and the narrator of the frame and embedded stories, the interruptions and various repetitions inside the text and of course mostly the dexterity and beauty of the plot. As we have seen, both collections have narrative techniques in common, peculiar to the frame narrative, but there are often dissimilarities or differentiations that make

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the two texts unique. The important element is that they both belong to the continuity of the oral tradition of the past.

In continuation, I will give concrete examples of textual analyses and comparative comments of both collection of tales.

7. Panchatantra, the Loss of Grains (Book 4) and the Fisherman and the Ifrit (Arabian Nights 3-9): A comparison of their narrative techniques

Firstly, I will refer to the editions from which I take the extracts to be compared. Both extracts come from the notable Penguin Classics of more than seventy years of printing experience.

The 1993 translation of Panchatantra from Sanskrit by Chandra Rajan tries to convey the meaning as accurate as possible, especially the names of the characters. The king asks the teacher Vishnu Sharma to educate his three idle sons and he composes a series of entertaining fables to provide the princes with vital guidance for life. The narrators are animals. For example, the names of the two jackals in the frame story of Book 1 are Karataka and Damanaka. Rajan is not satisfied with their names in English as Little Crow and Little Tamer, because they do not convey what the Sanskrit names mean. As a result, he names the jackals Wary and Wily to express their basic traits and also match with each other in sound (Rajan, 1993).

The 2008 translation of the Arabian Nights from the Arabic, from Calcutta II compilation by Malcolm Lyons, also tries to be close to the original. Ursula Lyons in turn, translates the tales of Aladdin and Ali Baba from French from Antoine Galland's compilation of the eighteenth century. Lyons tried to correct any inconsistencies in the text and also he avoided reproducing the effect of rhymed prose, which in Arabic sounds fine, but not in English. Another asset is that Calcutta II, from which Lyons translated, contains far more tales than

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the Galland manuscript. The ending, also, in this translation follows Calcutta II, with Shahriyar forgiving Shahrazad after she has shown him their children (Irwin, 2010).

Fudge (2016) also reports on the excellence and fidelity of Lyon's translation. He explains that Calcutta II compilation is the most complete and it is what people in both the East and West think of what The Arabian Nights are. Lyon stresses the orality of the tales and he tries to speed up the narrative in his translation and make the bland syntax into a more readable prose. He sticks to the literal sense of words in Arabic and plain prose. As a result, he is more faithful to the original.

In continuation, I will give the exact outline of the Panchatantra Loss of Grains and the cycle of tales from the Arabian Nights 3-9, which will be used in the current comparative study.

7.1 Panchatantra, Loss of Grains (Book 4) - Structure

1st layer: The unknown storytellers and audience or readers transcending time and space.

2nd layer: Basic frame of all five Books or Tantras with Vishnu Sharma, the King and the three princes.

3rd layer: Book 4- Loss of Grains (Labdhapranasam). Frame story with the ape Red Face and the crocodile Hideous Jaws. Narrator is Vishnu Sharma and the audience are his students the three princes.

4th layer: 10 embedded tales - narrator in all stories is Red Face and Hideous Jaws in one.

- The Frog-king who overreached himself

- Long Ears and Dusty

- The Potter who played the hero.

- The Ungrateful Wife

- Two Henpecked Husbands

- The Ass in tiger-skin

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- The Unfaithful Wife (narrator is Hideous Jaws)

- The Officious Sparrow

- The Smart Jackal

- The Dog who went abroad

5th layer: Embedded tale onto The Potter who played the hero of layer 4: The Jackal mothered by the Lioness. Narrator is the king and the audience is the potter himself.

7.2 The Fisherman and the Ifrit (Arabian Nights 3-9) Structure

1st layer: The unknown storytellers and audience or readers transcending time and space.

2nd layer: Basic frame embracing all nights and stories with the vizier's daughter Shehrazad as the narrator and the King Shahriyar as the listener.

3rd layer: Nights 3-9 (The Fisherman and the Ifrit). Frame story with Shehrazad as the narrator and the King Shahriyar as the listener.

4th layer: 2 embedded tales

- The Story of King Yunan and Duban the Sage. The fisherman is the narrator and Ifrit the listener.

-The Story of the Semi-petrified Prince. The young man/prince is the narrator and the King is the listener.

5th layer: 2 embedded tales onto the tale The Story of King Yunan and Duban the Sage of layer 4.

- The Story of King Sinbad and the Falcon. Narrator is the king Yunan and the king's vizier the listener.

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- The story of the Treacherous Vizier. Narrator is the king's vizier and the king Yunan the listener.

Outlines are given according to Rajan (1993) in the Penguin Classics.

Having these outlines as valuable guides, there will be a comparison of the narrative techniques between these two chunks of the important works of the global oral and written literature scene.

7.3 The narrators, frames and story line of the tales

The Panchatantra, the Loss of Grains (Book 4) frame story narrator Vishnu Sharma is actually the 2nd layer narrator of all Books and the 3rd layer narrator of The Loss of Grains, starting with the actual storytellers lost back in the oral tradition of ancient India in the initial level. In both cases, listeners and readers of the books transcending time and space are the recipients of the tales accordingly. The same is true with the Arabian Nights' Shahrazad, narrator of Nights 3-9 and also narrator of all the Nights, going to the second and third layer of narration. As we can see, both Vishnu Sharma and Shahrazad are actually teachers, who want to instruct their students the three princes and the king respectively, who are the recipients/listeners of their tales.

As we move on levels in depth, the narrators and listeners vary, but they are also embedded to the initial narrators and listeners, without annulling them, like the embedded frames themselves. In particular, in Panchatantra and The Loss of Grains we have as many as 10 embedded tales in the 4th layer, with the following polarity of narrator/listener:

- the monkey Red Face/ the crocodile Hideous Jaws in 9 stories

- the crocodile Hideous Jaws/ the monkey Red Face in 1 story and an embedded story to The Potter who played the hero, The Jackal mothered by the Lioness with the narrator/narratee polarity of the king/the potter.

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Likewise, in the Arabian Nights section 3-9, narrators and listeners vary as we move on in depths with two emboxed tales (layer 4) and two subtales (layer 5). The polarity of narrators /listeners is as follows:

- the fisherman/Ifrit the jinni

- the young prince/the king

- King Yunan/the vizier (subtale)

- the vizier/King Yunan (subtale)

It is evident now that the majority of narrators and listeners in Panchatantra are animals, as the genre is fables, that is animal stories, which want to instruct with a moral (Naithani, 2007). The names of the animal and human characters have a significance in Sanskrit, which either describe the character externally or internally (Kulkarni, 2013). Examples are Raktamukha meaning red mouth for Red Face, Vikaralamukha meaning horrible mouth for Hideous Jaws, Gangadatta meaning gift of Ganges river for the king of frogs, Karalakesara meaning flaming mane for the lion, Dhusaranga meaning color of dust for the jackal Dusty, Shuddha patta meaning pure leaf for Clean Clothes and Nanda meaning bliss for the king Delight. The potter's name is Yudhisthira meaning stable warrior and it is a name from the Mahabhararata Epic (Vaman, 1965).In addition, some characters are given no names, but they are called the lioness, the farmer's wife or Brahmana and Brahmani for the Hindu priest and his wife.

In the Nights 3-9, on the other hand, we have humans trying to instruct, with the interesting presence of a personified jinni named Ifrit. Ifrit gives the spell of magic in the narration and its name in Arabic means the demon. Not all characters are given a name, but we have the king Yunan meaning one from the country of Iones in Arabic, the sage Duban meaning solution in Arabic and the king Sinbad meaning spike in Persian. So names in Arabic or Persian here, like in Panchatantra, signify an external or internal trait of the character. Toufan (2013) talks about the Persian roots and names of the main frame narrator Shahrazad meaning 'of noble appearance and origin' and of the listener king Shahriyar meaning monarch, as the first part of his name shahr signifies authority and power.

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Srivastana (2014) refers to the two kinds of narration, one using the first person, 'I' and 'You' and the other using the third person, 'He', 'She', 'It' or 'They'. In both the Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights we have a third person narration. According to Srivastana, that makes the narration more flexible, and the narrator is all seeing and all knowing. In these collections, in particular, the narrator comments, provides a moral, intervenes and influences the readers.

At this point, having pointed out the narrators of the tales and their names' significance, there will be a brief description of the similarity or dissimilarity of the frame structure in both collections and a brief outline of their storyline.

In Book 4 The Loss of Grains there is a clear technique of the main frame tale enclosing another frame with stories and these embracing, in their turn, other stories, like opening boxes, one after the other, just to find a smaller size inside. Some other Books or Tantras or strategies are even bigger, following the same frame narrative technique. The same technique of frame stories we see in the Arabian Nights. The main frame initiates hundreds of stories, with more stories deriving from the latter. Both collections, part of the oral tradition of the East, elaborate a schema most convenient for the memory of the storyteller narrating hours on end (Irwin, 1995; Ong, 2002).

In Panchatantra, Book 4 Loss of Grains, what prevails is the friendship-adversity motif with the story of a monkey and a crocodile, narrated by Vishnu Sharma in the 3rd layer of narration (Kulkarni, 2013). The ape Red Face resided in a big apple tree full of fruit. When he saw the crocodile Hideous Jaws coming out of water he treated him with fruit like a guest. They both had a good time eating and conversing with each other. This continued on a daily basis and the crocodile took some fruit for his wife, too, back home. When his wife learnt about their friendship, she demanded that her husband take his heart, as it would be as sweet as the fruits he carried. The crocodile tried to avoid such a task, but his wife asserted all her power on him. From that point, we see the wiles of the two friends, as the crocodile invites the ape to his home and have him ride on his back to cross the waters, with the aim of killing him. When the crocodile reveals his intentions to the ape, Red Face conjures up the exquisite, sweet heart hidden in his tree, so that he is safely brought back home in the land. The crocodile, in vain, tries to trick the ape back to waters.

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At this point, we have the interpolated stories of the 4rth layer, narrated by Red Face and one by Hideous Jaws, who act as advocates at court, trying to justify their points of view. The shift in narrators and the slip of the emboxed tales, come in a natural way, tickling our curiosity for the narration of another tale. The enumeration of the morals of each emboxed tale will be useful to justify their use by the narrator and also they are a good pretext- technique for more tales.

-The Frog-king who overreached himself: 'The starving and poor men can go to the extreme and are ruthless'. This moral sheds more light to the crocodile's behavior of the previous frame.

-Long Ears and Dusty: 'Do not be a fool like the ass Long Ears and believe in everything'. This moral justifies Red Face's decision not to trust the crocodile any more.

-The Potter who played the Hero and its subtale by The Jackal mothered the Lioness: Both morals highlight the king's view from the first story, that 'one should be with the people of his kind and status, where he belongs'. This moral is in defense of Red Face, too, of the previous frame accusing the crocodile for his double attitude.

-The Ungrateful Wife: 'Do not trust a woman for she can desert you ruthlessly'. Red Face tells that story to crocodile, who so blindly trusted his wife.

- Two Henpecked Husbands: This tale has the same moral as the previous one, talking about the power of women over men.

-The Ass in tiger-skin: 'Do not try to be a trickster, because the secret will be soon revealed'. Red Face here gives another incident, similar to what he has faced.

At this point, a second calamity hits the crocodile of the previous frame after losing his home and his wife dies. So, he narrates the following story.

-The Unfaithful Wife: 'One misfortune never comes alone'. This moral depicts the crocodile's pitiful situation.

- The Officious Sparrow: 'Advice should not be thrown away'. This moral is directed straightforward to the poor crocodile.

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- The Smart Jackal: 'Take the courage to destroy your enemies, especially when they are on par with you'. With this moral Red Face wants to help the crocodile decide to combat the intruder to his home.

- The Dog who went abroad: 'Prefer to live in your own land, as foreign people will always see you as stranger and hate you'. This is the last moral and advice of Red Face, which helped the crocodile in his further action to obtain his house.

All in all, it is evident now how the morals of the enframed tales contribute to the moral of the frame of Book 4 Loss of Grains, which has it that one can lose the things he had earned before because of his own foolishness (Kulkarni, 2013). Also, there should be a mention of how important a guest is in ancient Indian 'code of conduct', where the Hindu scriptures quote in Sanskrit: 'Atithi Devo Bhava' meaning that the guest is equivalent to God (Munasinghe, Hemmington, Schanzel, Poulston & Fernando, 2017). Red Face got really upset by Hideous Jaws attitude, as he was his guest. In addition, there is a direct connection of these morals to the instruction given to the three princes by Vishnu Sharma in the main frame. All fables contribute to the 'Mirror of Princes' genre of Panchatantra.

Having established the frame technique in Panchatantra, we can see the affiliations the Arabian Nights have with it. What prevails in the cycle of tales The Fisherman and the Ifrit during Nights 3-9, is the trickery-trust motif, narrated by Shahrazad in the 3rd layer of narration. Once, a poor fisherman, trying to fend for his three kids, threw his net only to catch a bottle with a jinni inside, the giant Ifrit. Ifrit was doomed by Solomon himself and he wanted to kill the fisherman. So, a battle of wiles started between them, so that both could save their lives. The fisherman won over Ifrit and also won the grace of his King.

Here, we have interpolated stories, too, which like in Panchatantra add to the meaning of the frame and interrupt it in a natural way, changing narrators and listeners. The outcomes of the stories act not so much like morals, though, as in Panchatantra (Ghazoul, 2013). They are concluding statements that help for future action. They are mementos of wise contacts, which are also entertaining, pastimes and sagas.

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- The story of King Yunan and Duban the Sage: The king said to the vizier 'I think that it is envy that has made you say this'. This conclusion applies to the treacherous Ifrit, who acts like the vizier in the tale.

Here we have two interpolated stories with the king narrating The story of Sinbad and the Falcon and the vizier narrating The story of the Treacherous Vizier. Each narrator tries to defend their side, the king proving that the vizier is envious and the vizier that the king is not right by showing his grace on the fisherman of the previous layer.

- The story of the Semi-petrified Prince: What one derives from the outcome is 'Be benevolent to those who give you assistance'. This saga applies to the fisherman, who like the prince of the tale, was granted riches by the king.

All in all, it is clear now, how the sagas of the enframed tales, like in Panchatantra, contribute to the saga of the frame of The Fisherman and the Ifrit and this in turn, contributes to the main frame of Shahrazad's plight, trying to talk for her life. It is a tight nexus of interrelated meanings and life lessons. It is worth noticing that all the tales here, of all the frames (Nights 3-9) have the character of the king. The knowledge that the character of the king accumulates and his final right decision making, applies to the king Shahriyar in the main story, who has to be instructed by Shahrazad's 1001 nights' narration and find his senses again. The character of the fisherman, also, is similar to Shahrazad, trying to save his life.

7.4 Suspensions, Iterations and Apophthegms

What is of paramount importance in both collections under study and inherent to the frame narrative technique, is the use of suspensions, iterations and apophthegms. The main frame is suspended to suit the frame motif, but also the interpolated stories, when the narrator wants to support his point of view with characters in other stories and in similar condition as his. With the explanation of morals and sagas above, we have made this point clear, but further explanation is needed for the interruptions of initial frame. In Panchatantra, we have the 5 Books as the umbrellas under which stories are categorized. The suspension of narration and the passage from one book to the other is made smoothly, having as a binding the eager

39 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

curiosity of the princes to learn more. For example in Book 4: The princes asked eagerly, 'How did that happen, O venerable sir?' and Vishnu Sharma then began the tale.

In the Arabian Nights, on the other hand, we have the suspension of narration of the main frame through the coming of the first light and the nights are the bits that give a good analysis of the whole picture. Each night Shahrazad starts or continues her narration, trying to keep the interest and curiosity of the king. This stopping is not adverse to the narration, but gives the sufficient time for retrospection and renewal of interest. It provides the rhythm and the gravity of the narration, which turns out to be successful and provides a happy ending. This interruption is another projection of the physical intercourse level to the mental intercourse of Shahrazad and Shahriyar and the 'painful moment' of interruption, prolongs the pleasure for more narrative moments. In addition, this intermittence in narrations resembles the natural phenomena and cycles not only of night and day, but also of season, lunar and solar eclipses, life and death, reminding us that we are part of nature and the universe. This very truth makes Shahriyar wake up from his lethargy and repent for his deeds. This awakening comes after Shahrazad brings their children in front of him, on the completion of her last story and they highlight birth and the cycle of life and death. Lastly, Sallis (1999) calls every new recitation of Shahrazad at night a trance, the king falls into, and every day the king has a different awareness, as from a hypnosis or deep mediation. All these three-year experiences of Shahriyar remind us of therapy sessions.

Iterations are also important in both collections of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, as they are often used and are part of the frame narrative technique. In Panchatantra The Loss of Grains, we have the opening verse that includes the moral of the frame, which also closes the Book. This is valid for all Books.

He who foolishly lets himself be wheedled into parting with his grains is a dolt thoroughly bamboozled like the Crocodile by the Ape.

Translation (Rajan, 1998, p.353)

40 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

The same repetition of verses including the moral of the tale to be narrated, takes place just before the start of narration of the new embedded tale, as a bait to attract the listener's attention and interest and right at its ending. The example comes from the first embedded story and moral of The Frog-king who overreached himself.

What crime will a man famished not commit?

For ruthless indeed are those down and out.

Go, fair lady; tell Sir Handsome from me

Gangadatta will never appear at the well again!

Translation (Rajan, 1998, p. 359)

Another example and moral comes before and at the end of the embedded story of the Two Henpecked Husbands.

What will a man not do what will he not grant too, when asked by a woman.

Where those who are not horses, neigh, there, heads are shaven out of reason.

Translation (Rajan, 1998, p. 378)

In the Arabian Nights, on the other hand, there are numerous verses cited by the characters or poets that explain the thoughts or feelings of the protagonists. They are usually not repeated verbatim, but the meaning of verses praise and express awe either towards God or the king. The following verses from the subtale The Story of the Treacherous Vizier exalt both God and the king.

Leave your affairs to God, the Gentle, the Omniscient,

And let your heart rest from all the worldly care.

41 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

Know that things do not go as you wish;

They follow the decree of God, the King.

Translation (Lyons, M. & Lyons, U., 2008, p. 23)

In addition, apophthegms, that is short instructive sayings can be found scattered all over the

Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights. Examples from the Loss of Grains are the following:

- 'Advice should not be thrown away'

- 'A guest is one who arrives at the right moment'

- It is best to eat just what one can well digest.'

Translation (Rajan, 1998, p. 389)

Similarly, examples from the Arabian Nights are the following:

- 'There is no might and no power except with God, the Exalted, the Omnipotent'.

- 'I bear witness that there is no god but God and that Muhammad is the Apostle of God'.

The first aphorism, in particular, is a steady repetition in all tales of the Arabian Nights.

Translation (Lyons, M. & Lyons, U., p. 11)

Lastly, there are certain motifs in description or storyline that are recurrent in both collection of stories. Sallis (1999) affirms that 'the motifs refer outward to the veiled narrative and ultimately to the reader' (p.96). In Panchatantra we have the motif of trickery found in all his tales in The Loss of Grains, as a constant battle between the evil and good and the process for revealing the truth. The characters often use bad words and swear, like 'You blasted villain!' or 'You incorrigible idiot!'. But outsmarting the other, changes hands all the time, not letting the audience choose sides. Whereas, in the Arabian Nights 3-9, the narration of Shahrazad and rest of narrators is more poetic, using descriptive metaphors for the characters, like 'My

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darling, fruit of my heart', or ' a handsome man with a mole on his cheek like a disc of amber'. More space is given for description of both places and characters and there seems to be affinity for all the entrants in the diverse and intriguing universe of the tales. Here, there is also the motif of trickery to save one's life like the fisherman or the motif of conspiracy, like that of the vizier. Chraibi (2005) referring to the frame story The Fisherman and the Ifrit talks about the motif of antithesis and injustice, where the fisherman is doomed to be killed by the very person he had saved. This is the 'little causes, great effects' thematic unit of antithesis found at the beginning of the Arabic Nights narration and among its most ancient core of tales.

This chapter of textual analysis and comparison of the narrative techniques of the two great masterpieces of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights explain their popularity and endurance through the ages, transcending both the oral and literary tradition and get in the position of a tales treasury for future generations, too.

At this point, it would be crucial to point out what the educational value would be of the Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, especially in the domain of refugee and migrant educational policies. Kulkarni (2013) mentions that Panchatantra can help indifferent students be more involved in the learning process, as these fables combine knowledge with entertainment and touch upon issues of psychology, philosophy and human traits. In the case of refugees and migrants, though, it is not merely an issue of learning/teaching process, but primarily an issue of orientation and personal identity in a host country. By using tales of wisdom from the tradition of the refugee and migrants' country of origin, such as Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, we provide them with a vital lore to their values, traditions, customs and ideas, that have nurtured all past generations to the present time. Their own tales can be very inspiring and motivational for their acculturation process, as we talk about integration and not assimilation. In addition, we educators can reap a double benefit by using tales from the oral tradition of the East, as we can gain the confidence and trust of the refugees and migrants in the learning/teaching process and be credited our respect for the cultures of their countries of origin.

Conclusion

The content of fables and tales in the frame narrative, the flow and the rhythm of narration, either in oral or literary storytelling, nurture human beings and accompany them through their

43 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

existence. They occupy the very core of 'being' and thus, instructive in nature, shape people's line of thinking, acting and interacting. Fables and tales reside in the collective conscience of humanity. Thus, there are innumerable examples of fables and tales, starting from Aesop's Greek oral tradition and continuing through the literary tradition globally, such as the European La Fontaine (17th century), Grimms and Hans Andersen (19th century).

The purpose of the current study is to move to the oral narrative tradition of the East and throw the bridge between the important oral traditions of the Indian and Arabic cultures, in particular, finding possible affiliations in their narrative techniques. The current research, also, has had as its diving board the frame narrative technique.

Van Leeuwen (2014) sees the frame story as a story on itself, with its complex universe of characters, motifs and metaphors and not a mere vehicle of tales. He, also, talks about the fluidity of frame narrative, referring to the relationship of instructive tales for princes found in Persian and Arabic collections, fluidity especially 'in form, narrative functions and ideological concept' (p.58). The Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights belong to this generic pattern of frame narrative and their intertextuality is indicative of this fluidity.

The current study started with a meticulous examination of the compilation, content and translations in middle Persian (Pahlavi) and Arabic of the Indian fables of Panchatantra, as well as with their sociopolitical contexts. In continuation, it examined the importance of the tales of the Arabian Nights in the oral tradition of the East and that of the frame narrative technique. On that grounds, there was a comparative study of the narrative techniques of both collections, to fill the gap in the existing literature. Although, research had focused on each of the collections of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights, little textual analysis and comparison has been carried out between the two.

As a result, having examined the history of both of these collections in this study, we can see that they belong to the same oral tradition of the East, with many affiliations in relation to their narrative techniques of the frame or story-within-a-story method, suspensions, iterations, apophthegms and recurrent motifs. Neither collection can be accredited the genesis of frame narrative technique and their narration strategies. Yet, the use of the same exigent narrating tools, are indicative of the same tradition and disclose a mastery only to be found in the continuum of the oral narration thread of the East.

44 Postgraduate Dissertation Efrosini Vizovitou, Narrative Techniques in the Indian Fables Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights.

I aspire to have shed more light on the two masterpieces of the world literature: the tales of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights. In particular, there has been extensive textual analysis and comparison between the Panchatantra Book 4 The Loss of Grains and The Arabian Nights The Fisherman and the Ifrit Arabian Nights 3-9. The results of this research in relation to the extracts in both compilations comprise the following: a) the same frame narrative or story-within-a-story technique and the contribution of the moral of individual stories to the moral of the frame one, b) suspensions that interrupt narration and there is a new beginning, c) iterations in the form of verses that carry the moral of the tales, d) apophthegms that inspire and instruct and e) recurrent motifs in the description or storyline.

The outcome of this research can be the starting point for more research on the frame narrative technique in the East, as seen in these two collections. In addition, more textual analysis can be carried out in the vast volume of Panchatantra and the Arabian Nights. Lastly, More research is also needed on the Mirror of Princes instruction genre, pattern of seeming both the Panchatantra and the Arabian nights, whose roots are lost in ancient pre- literary oral storytelling and has influenced both the literary tradition of Europe and the Middle East.

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Statement:

I hereby expressly declare that, according to the article 8 of Law 1559/1986, this dissertation is solely the product of my personal work, does not infringe any intellectual property, personality and personal data rights of third parties, does not contain works/contributions from third parties for which the permission of the authors/beneficiaries is required, is not the product of partial or total plagiarism, and that the sources used are limited to the literature references alone and meet the rules of scientific citations.

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