Topic 6 Classic

A classic design is not simply defined by how well it functions or its impact. Classic can be recognized as from their design movement/era. Yet, originality— whether it is evolutionary or revolutionary—seems to be the trait that makes a product “timeless”. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

A design classic is an industrially manufactured object with timeless aesthetic value. It serves as a standard of its kind and, despite the year in which it was designed, is still up to date. For an object to become a design classic it takes time and what lasting impact the design had on society and what influence on later designs it had plays a large role in determining whether something is a design classic or not. Thus design classics are often strikingly simple, going to the essence, and are described with words like iconic, neat, valuable or having meaning.

A modern label which seeks to identify the enduring objects of 20th Century design - those which have stood the test of time and critical approval. These objects reflect a set of approved models and sit outside the vagaries of , but classic can also have other very different meanings. In the 19th century, when scientific materialism was having a profound intellectual impact, Darwin’s theory about survival of the fittest was applied to design, with the idea that certain objects ​ ​ deserved to survive on merit alone. although the word classic was not used by the victorians, its sense was implied, and this viewpoint underlay Nikolaus Pevsner’s ​ ​ book Pioneers of Modern Design.

The modern movement also subscribed to this view that leading architects and selected objects they felt embodied the values of excellence. Le Corbusier, for example revered Thonet’s mass produced bentwood chair, and from the 1930’s onward this ​ ​ ​ ​ attitude was also reflected in the collecting policy of the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

The concept of classic was also used to commercial ends by manufacturers who saw a reproduction market for the work of 20th century designers such as Charles Rennie Macintosh and Marcel Breuer. In fact, the furniture company Cassina has produced a series of reproductions, which include Gerrit Reitveld’s Red-Blue chair and some of Macintosh’s furniture. This category of classic ​ ​ ​ ​ however, is still reliant on contemporary taste rather than on some absolute standard. None the less, classic implies that the object has stepped out of the issues of style and fast and that its integrity survives within a wider context of the century, These qualities are strong marketing tools, and in the 1990’s there is a proliferation of shops selling ‘classic’ products. The Museum of ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Modern Art Shop in New York is an interesting example; objects ranging from pens to tableware are automatically granted classic status simply by appearing in the shop. Classic design is sometimes interchangeable with Cult Objects.

Perceptions of design within business have evolved and are now key in the corporate arena as companies find that investment in design gives returns on investment. A carefully designed and marketed product can bring iconic status to a company or designer. It can also offer unique stance in a highly competitive world.

Products are designed with particular considerations valued by the designer, client, or end user that are then communicate through the product’s purchase and use. Products help us interpret our positioning in the world. This can lead to a skew toward social ​ ​ context in

Image

How image makes a classic design instantly recognizable and provokes emotional reactions.

Image Definition: the general idea that the public has of a product, brand, or company.

Classic Designs are not simply artifacts, they also project lifestyles. Lifestyle is expressed in both work and leisure behavior patterns and (on an individual basis) in activities, attitudes, interests, opinions, values, and allocation of income. It also reflects people's self image or self concept; the way they see themselves and believe they are seen by the others. Lifestyle is a composite of motivations, needs, and wants and is influenced by factors such as culture, family, reference groups, and social class.

Products can evoke a wide range of emotions, both negative and positive. On the negative side, the complicated interface of a high-end music player might evoke irritation or dissatisfaction, while on the positive side, the same complexity might evoke fascination or pride. In terms of behavioral impact, these positive and negative emotions are fundamentally different: Whereas negative emotions stimulate individuals to reject (or withdraw from) the object of their emotion, positive emotions stimulate individuals to accept (or approach) the object.

Emotional Research

In consumer research, effects of positive emotions have been found that are in line with this general tendency:

• Positive emotions stimulate product purchase intentions (Pham, 1998; Bitner, 1992),

• Repurchase intentions (Westbrook & Oliver, 1991), and

• Product attachment (Mugge, Schoormans, & Schifferstein, 2005).

In the field of ergonomics, positive emotions have been demonstrated to have additional beneficial effects during product usage. When using complex technology, positive emotions decrease usage anxiety (Picard, 1997; Helander & Tham, 2003) and contribute to the experience of usage comfort (Vink, 2005) and to general usability (Tractinsky, Shoval-Katz, & Ikar, 2000). In other words, products that evoke positive emotions are bought more often, used more often, and are more pleasurable to use. It is therefore indisputably worthwhile to design products that evoke positive emotions – products that make users feel good. ​ ​

All designed technology, products, services, and systems evoke emotions, and not considering these emotions in the design process is a missed opportunity at best. To this end, design theorists have produced various approaches and frameworks that support designers in conceptualizing positive product experiences. Jordan (2000) discussed four sources of product pleasure, Norman (2004) introduced three cognitive levels of pleasurable product experiences, and Desmet (2008) proposed nine sources of product appeal. In my view, a main limitation of these approaches is their focus on generalized pleasure: they do not differentiate experience beyond the basic positive-negative distinction. In reality, products can evoke a diverse palette of distinct (positive) emotions, for example, pride, contentment, admiration, desire, relief, or hope (Desmet, 2002; Desmet & Schifferstein, 2008). Although all positive, these emotions are essentially different – ​ both in terms of the conditions that elicit them and in terms of their effects on human-product interaction. For example, whereas fascination encourages a focused

interaction, joy encourages an interaction that is playful (Fredrickson & Cohn, 2008), and thus someone who is fascinated by a product will probably interact differently with it than someone who feels joyful in relation to the product. The Four Pleasure model The Four Pleasure model (Jordan) is a framework that can be used to help evaluate how pleasurable a product will be use and own. It can also be used to identify and generate opportunities to enhance a product.

• Physio-pleasure • Psycho-pleasure • Socio-pleasure • Ideo-pleasure

PHYSIO-PLEASURE PSYCHO-PLEASURE SOCIO-PLEASURE IDEO-PLEASURE

Physio-pleasure is a sensual pleasure Psycho-pleasures are pleasures that Socio-pleasures, as the name Ideo-pleasures then are pleasures that that is derived from touching, smelling, are derived from cognition, discovery, suggests, are concerned with pleasures are linked to our ideals, aesthetically, hearing and tasting something. It also knowledge, and other things that derived from social signifiers of culturally and otherwise. conveyed by an objects effectiveness in satisfy the intellect. belonging, social-enablers and other enabling an action to be performed. social self-identification factors.

Examples of physio-pleasure Examples of psycho-pleasure Examples of socio-pleasure Examples of ideo-pleasure A refined and well engineered tool such as a The first time that you pick up an Facebook is a tool that enables people to I have a mug from Ikea. It is largely Wüsthof cooks knife has a pleasing weight iPod/iPhone/iPad and start playing with it have a greater sense of community and unremarkable and utilitarian, however I ​ ​ and balance that is noted immediately upon you quickly get an idea of how it works. involvement with one another. Often always glean a small moment of using the tool. It also conveys a pleasure to Even if you don’t get it straight away, it is geographically disparate friends can still ideo-pleasure when I wash it and place on ​ ​ the user of being highly effective — making learnable, memorable and pretty consistent retain a foothold in one another’s lives. the draining rack as it has a really elegant ​ ​ ​ ​ light work of the often mundane tasks for — you soon get to know the ropes. This For most web designers, especially a few design feature. It has grooves scored into the ​ which it is employed. leads to a certain sense of satisfaction years ago, owning an iPhone was more or base so that all of the water on the base runs When we close a car door and it makes a because, largely, ‘it just works’. less de rigeur in the same way that a off when it is placed upside down. Lesser ​ ​ ​ ​ satisfying clunk we experience a certain Blackberry is for crack dealers and bankers. mugs pool this water, often leading to a pleasure. This is a combination of the At school, wearing a pair of Adidas-like ‘one suprise when the mug is taken from the ​ ​ acoustic feedback that the door is definitely stripe too many’ trainers in PE would lead to draining rack. This reflects my own ​ ​ closed, combined with an aesthetic mockery. No-one was suggesting that the ideological standpoint that everything can be enjoyment of the sound itself. The sound shoes were of a lesser quality, simply that made better, often through very small and will have been engineered to produce this they said couldn’t afford the “real” ones. elegant changes. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ response.

Aesthetic sensibilities are often closely linked to our ideological or cultural identity and determine to a great extent the pleasure a product may bring. Many people that get a great deal of pleasure from driving VW camper vans. They are often impractical, unreliable and relatively expensive in comparison to other vehicles that offer greater utility.

Three cognitive levels of pleasurable product experiences (Norman) ​

1. Visceral : the most immediate level of processing, in which we react to visual and other sensory aspects of a ​ product before we actually interact with it. Helps us make rapid decisions about what is good, bad, safe or dangerous. Visceral design often refers to enhancing visual appearance.

• Contour bias is a tendency to favor objects with curved contours over objects with sharp angles or points. If you think

about it on a subconscious level this makes a lot of sense. Sharp and pointed objects can be used to stab and cut. They are potential threats to us physically. They lead to an subconscious processing of fear in a region of the brain called the amygdala. In contrast softer curves aren’t seen as a threat and so are preferred. They aren’t going to hurt ​ ​ ​ ​ us. There is no fear associated with them, no defense mechanism activated when viewing them. We like curves.

2. Behavioral level: the middle level of processing, the one that lets us manage simple, everyday behaviors. Interaction ​ ​ design, semantics and usability practices have primarily addressed this level of cognitive processing. Behavioral design tells us how to "behave" or "respond" to messages the products give us, for instance how to use or interact with the product in a certain way. A simple push plate on a glass door tells us that this door can be opened by pushing, not pulling.

Affordance - a situation where an object’s sensory characteristics intuitively imply its functionality and use. A button, by being slightly raised above an • ​ ​ otherwise flat surface, suggests the idea of pushing it. A lever, by being an appropriate size for grasping, suggests pulling it. A blinking red light and buzzer

suggests a problem and demands attention. A chair, by its size, its curvature, its balance, and its position, suggests sitting on it.

3. Reflective design: the least immediate level of processing, which involves conscious consideration and ​ ​ careful reflection on past experiences. Through reflection, we are able to integrate our experiences with

designed artifacts into our broader life experiences and, over time, associate meaning and value with the artifacts themselves. Reflective design is about considering how long-term relationships between products and owners can be built. Thus reflective design can tell us about the owner's taste in products, since the products that people allow others to see themselves possessing can be a reflection of what he/she wants to be in life. How does the user feel after using the product, what others may think if you own it.

Aesthetic Usability Effect

Aesthetic Designs are perceived as easier to use than less aesthetic designs. The aesthetic-usability effect describes a phenomenon in which people perceive more-aesthetic designs as easier to use than less-aesthetic designs-whether they ​ ​ are or not. The effect has been observed in several experiments, and has significant implications regarding the acceptance, use, and performance of a design.’ ​ ​ ​

Aesthetic designs look easier to use and have a higher probability of being used, whether or not they actually are easier to use. More usable but less-aesthetic designs may suffer a lack of acceptance that renders issues of usability moot. These perceptions bias subsequent interactions and are resistant to change. For example, in a study of how people use computers, researchers found that early impressions influenced long-term attitudes about their quality and use. A similar ​ ​ ​ ​ phenomenon is well documented with regard to human attractiveness- first impressions of people influence attitude formation and measurably affect how people ​ ​ ​ ​ are perceived and treated.’ ​ ​

Aesthetics play an important role in the way a design is used. Aesthetic designs are more effective at fostering positive attitudes than unaesthetic designs, and make people more tolerant of design problems. For example, it is common for people to name and develop feelings toward designs that have fostered positive ​ ​ ​ ​ attitudes (e.g., naming a car), and rare for people to do the same with designs that have fostered negative attitudes. Such personal and positive relationships with a ​ ​ design evoke feelings of affection, loyalty, and patience- all significant factors in the long term usability and overall success of a design. These positive relationships ​ ​ ​ ​ have implications for how effectively people interact with designs. Positive relationships with a design result in an interaction that helps catalyze creative thinking and problem solving. Negative relationships result in an interaction that narrows thinking and stifles creativity. This is especially important in stressful environments, since stress increases fatigue and reduces cognitive performance. ​

Status and culture

Status exists in all societies but varies in fundamental ways. Cross cultural differences in they way in which we perceive status, gain status and react to status differ from culture to culture.

Ascribed-status Ascribed-status refers to those cultures that base status upon external qualities such as age, wealth, education or gender. If one has the right external characteristics, status is ascribed to them. In such cultures there is little room for others to gain status through actions and achievements.

Achieved-status Achieved-status, as its title suggests, is earned. Internal qualities are valued more than external ones. Therefore, status is achieved through accomplishments such as hard work and contributions to a company or community. In such cultures status is malleable, in that it can be lost as quickly as it is gained and status can shift to other individuals.

What is considered a status symbol will differ among countries and cultural regions, based on their economic and technological development. As with other symbols, status symbols may change in value or meaning over time. For example, before the invention of the printing press, possession of a large collection of books was considered a status symbol. In later centuries, books (and literacy) became more common among average citizens, so a private library became less-rarefied as a status symbol. Another common status symbol of the European medieval past was heraldry, a display of one's family name and history.

In some past cultures of East Asia, pearls and jade were major status symbols, reserved exclusively for royalty. Similar legal exclusions applied to the toga and its variants in ancient Rome. Special colors, such as imperial yellow (in China) or royal purple (in ancient Rome) were reserved for royalty, with severe penalties for unauthorized display.

Status symbols also indicate the cultural values of a society or a subculture. For example, in a commercial society, having money or wealth and things that can be bought by wealth, such as cars, houses, or fine clothing, are considered status symbols. In a society that values honor or bravery, a battle scar would be more of a status symbol. In academic circles, a long list of publications and a securely tenured position at a prestigious university or research institute are a mark of high status. It has been speculated that the earliest foods to be domesticated were luxury feast foods used to cement one's place as a "rich person” ​

Possessions typically perceived as status symbols may include a mansion or penthouse apartment, a trophy wife, haute couture fashionable clothes, jewelry, or a luxury vehicle. A large collection of high-priced artworks or antiques may be displayed, sometimes in multiple seasonally occupied residences located around the world. Privately owned aircraft and luxury yachts are movable status symbols that can be taken from one glamorous location to another; the jet set refers to wealthy individuals who travel by private jet and frequent fashionable resorts.

Status symbols are also used by persons of much more modest means. In the Soviet Union before the fall of the Berlin Wall, possession of American-style blue jeans or rock music recordings (even pirated or bootlegged copies) was an important status symbol among rebellious teenagers. In the 1990s, foreign cigarettes in China, where a pack of Marlboro could cost one day's salary for some workers, were seen as a status symbol. Cellphone usage had been considered a status symbol (for example in Turkey in the early 1990s), but is less distinctive today, because of the spread of inexpensive cellphones. Nonetheless Apple products such as iPod or iPhone are common status symbols among modern teenagers.

A common type of modern status symbol is a prestigious branded item, whether apparel or other type of a good. The brand name or logo is often prominently displayed, or featured as a element of decoration. Certain brands are so highly valued that cheap counterfeit goods or knockoff copies are purchased and displayed by those who do not want to pay for the genuine item

Obsolescence

How a classic design defies obsolescence and transcends its original function

Planned Obsolescence The Economist Mar 23rd 2009

Planned obsolescence is a business strategy in which the obsolescence (the process of becoming obsolete—that is, unfashionable or no longer usable) of a product ​ ​ is planned and built into it from its conception. This is done so that in future the consumer feels a need to purchase new products and services that the manufacturer brings out as replacements for the old ones.

Consumers sometimes see planned obsolescence as a sinister plot by manufacturers to fleece them. But Philip Kotler says: “Much so-called planned obsolescence is ​ ​ the working of the competitive and technological forces in a free society—forces that lead to ever-improving goods and services.” ​ ​ ​ A classic case of planned obsolescence was the nylon stocking. The inevitable “laddering” of stockings made consumers buy new ones and for years discouraged ​ ​ ​ ​ manufacturers from looking for a fibre that did not ladder. The garment industry in any case is not inclined to such innovation. Fashion of any sort is, by definition, deeply committed to built-in obsolescence. Last year's skirts, for example, are designed to be replaced by this year's new models.

A strategy of planned obsolescence can backfire. If a manufacturer produces new products to replace old ones too often, consumer resistance may set in. This has occurred at times in the computer industry when consumers have been unconvinced that a new wave of replacement products is giving sufficient extra value for switching to be worth their while. As the life cycle of products has increased—largely because of their greater technical excellence—firms have found that they need to plan for those products' ​ ​ ​ ​ obsolescence more carefully.

Take the example of the automobile. Its greater durability has made consumers reluctant to change their models as frequently as they used to. As the useful life of the car has been extended, manufacturers have focused on shortening its fashionable life. By adding styling and cosmetic changes to their vehicles, they have subtly attempted to make their older models look outdated, thus persuading consumers to trade them in for new ones.

Planned obsolescence is obviously not a strategy for the luxury car market. Marques such as Rolls-Royce rely on propagating the idea that they may (like antiques) one day be worth more than the price that was first paid for them; Patek Philippe advertises its watches as being something that the owner merely conserves for the next generation. At the same time as the useful life of consumer goods becomes shorter, consumers hanker after goods that endure.

Mass production How the role of mass production contributes to a product reaching classic design status

According to Lucassen (1995), the emergence of is a result of the increase in the production of goods. This relates directly to the mass production of goods and the economy Lucassen (1995) also adds that design answers the industrial demand for distinction and provides an added value on products. Lucassen (1995) states that the discipline of industrial design “was born from the idea of brightening up everyday life ​ ​ conferring a sensory richness on the everyday environment in order to enrich human experience: aestheticization as an instrument of humanization, (p.35)." Thus, on one hand there is mass production and an economic motive; and on the other hand, there is a utopian side.

Classic designs are not one-off products but are mass produced items. Design in all its forms was born within a business environment, to meet a business need or serve as a business purpose. The design/business relationship, some argue, is what separates the , particularly design, from the fine arts, such as painting, photography, or sculpture. The “make more than one” dimension of design - wether for print, commerce or mass production - is what inextricably ties ​ ​ ​ ​ design to business. Design, at its most basic level, is about helping businesses seek a sustainable advantage in their given market, an advantage that leads to consumer preference and, in turn, to improved profits.

Design for manufacture Design for manufacture (or DFM) is the general art of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on the manufacturing technology. This design practice not only focuses on the design aspect of a part but also on the producibility. In simple language it means relative ease to manufacture a product, part or assembly. Classic designs embrace the process of mass production.

Ubiquitous/omnipresence How the constant presence of a product in a changing context leads to classic design status

When an object becomes part of our everyday lives, we become very familiar and comfortable with it’s presence and style. The product becomes part of our life and ​ ​ we start to attach emotions, feelings and experiences to the product. The product becomes embedded in our life. Therefore the demand for the product continues even when new products with better function enter the market. This continued demand for the product when newer alternatives are available give the product classic design status.

Dominant design How classic designs are dominant in the marketplace and difficult to change Dominant Design: is a product configuration which endures; a particular combination of product features which appears to satisfy the market and survives, without ​ ​ major change, for some time.

There is a concept known as "dominant design," which has it that there is a standard that people within a given industry follow. For example, consider PCs. No matter what form factor the computer takes (desktop, notebook, laptop), no matter whether it has as innovative a shape and material of an iMac, no matter whether it has a battery that will let it run for hours on end, you can be sure of one thing: it will have a QWERTY keyboard. To be sure, there have been alternative keyboards designed (with QWERTY having been developed in response to the mechanisms of early typewriters: if someone were to type too fast, the keys would get jammed; QWERTY was a means by which the typist's fingers would be sufficiently slowed).

‘The dominant design in a product class is, by definition, the one that wins the allegiance of the market place, the one that competitors and innovators must adhere ​ to if they hope to command significant market following’ (Utterback, 1995). A dominant design is often the norm within the market which creates difficulties in ​ ​

other similar products to compete for market share. This often creates a monopoly over alternatives, whereby the only means of competing is to imitate or expand upon the concept. There are often factors that lead to a design becoming the dominant force:

• Economies of Scale

• Market entrance time

• Product standardizing

• Distribution networks

• Market segmentation

• Advertising

• Networks

Interestingly, dominant designs can link to diffusion theory portrayed by Rogers. Getting your product to market as quick as possible may mean it diffuses quicker than competitors and reaches the majority of users faster. If this occurs; a business may experience ‘buyer loyalty and brand retention’ (Constantinos et al, 2005). ​ ​ ​ ​ The product or design may become the dominant design and be hard to dislodge by competitors and alternatives.

Dominance Process The process by which a specific design achieves dominance consists of a few characteristic milestones: • A pioneer firm or research organization begins conducting R&D with the intention of creating a new commercial product or improving an existing design. • The first working prototype of the new product/ technology is introduced, sending a signal to competitors to review the feasibility of their research programs. • The first commercial product is launched, connecting consumers to this new for the first time. It is usually directed at a small group of customers. This milestone acts as a “last minute call” for competitors to review and speed up their research efforts. ​ ​ ​ ​ • A clear front-runner emerges from the early market. For example, in the Personal Computer industry, Apple Computers dominated after the introduction of their Apple I in 1976. • Finally, at some point in time, a particular technological trajectory achieves dominance and this marks the final milestone in the dominance process.

Dominant designs may not be better than other designs; they simply incorporate a set of key features that sometimes emerge due to technological path-dependence and not necessarily strict customer preferences.

The often cited example is the QWERTY keyboard, specifically designed to overcome operative limitations on the mechanical typewriter but now almost universally preferred over other keyboard designs. Dominant designs end up capturing the allegiance of the marketplace and this can be due to network effects,

technological superiority, or strategic manoeuvering by the sponsoring firms. Dominant designs don't always remain dominant, however. The last time that you ​ ​ called an airline or the like and got the "automated" system, you were undoubtedly told, "If you don't have a touch-tone phone, please stay on the line” ​ Form V Function The Birth Of Modern Design In 1908, Adolf Loos, an influential Austrian architect, wrote an essay provocatively titled Ornament and Crime. The modern ornamentalist, he claimed, was either a “cultural laggard or a pathological case. He himself is forced to disown his ​ ​ work after three years. His productions are unbearable to cultured persons now, and will become so to others in a little while.” Even more boldly, Loos asserted, “The lower the standard of a people, the more lavish are its ornaments. To find ​ ​ ​ ​ beauty in form instead of making it depend on ornament is the goal towards which humanity is aspiring.” ​

What triggered such an attack on ornament? To understand the mindset of this pioneer of modern design, we must first form some idea of the state of design in the late-19th century.

The advent of the steam engine ushered in an era of mechanized mass production. As the art critic Frank Whitford writes, “Steam-driven machines could stamp, cut and fashion almost any substance faster and more regularly than the human hand. Mechanized production meant lower ​ prices and higher profits.” ​

But while the method of production shifted from hand to machine, the style of goods did not. Most every product, from building and furniture to fabric and cutlery, was adorned in an opulent coat of ornament, built upon the grand spirit of the Renaissance.

Historically, handcrafted decoration has been expensive to produce, serving as a symbol of wealth and luxury. With the advent of mechanization, imitations of those same sought-after ornaments could be stamped out cheaply and quickly. Rather than stop and think about what sort of design would be best suited for mass production, manufacturers jumped at the opportunity to copy historicized styles at low cost. The result was the flood of garish, low-quality products that Adolf Loos, along with other pioneers of modern design, railed against. In The Decorative Art of Today, famed architect Le Corbusier bluntly asserted that trash is abundantly decorated, and that, “The luxury object is well-made, neat and clean, pure and healthy, and its bareness reveals the quality of its ​ ​ manufacture. It is to industry that we owe the reversal in this state of affairs: a cast-iron stove overflowing with decoration costs less than a plain one; amidst the surging leaf patterns flaws in the casting cannot be seen.” ​

Montgomery Schuyler, an influential critic and journalist, condemned the heavily ornamented 19th-century facades, saying, “If you were to scrape down to the face of the main wall of the buildings of these streets, you would find that ​ ​ you had simply removed all the architecture, and that you had left the buildings as good as ever.”Louis Sullivan, the ​ ​ architect known as “the father of skyscrapers,” called for restraint by suggesting, “It would be greatly for our aesthetic ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ good, if we should refrain entirely from the use of ornament for a period of years, in order that our thought might concentrate acutely upon the production of buildings well formed and comely in the nude.” Below is an image of one ​ ​ of Sullivan’s buildings. The ground floor is decorated, but the upper floors are surprisingly modern for a 19th-century ​ ​ design, especially when contrasted with Harrods’. ​ ​

During the 1920s, a new movement emerged in Germany known as the untranslatable word Sachlichkeit, which has a sense of “factual,” “matter of fact,” “practical,” “objective.” The Neue Sachlichkeit movement in the field of design ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ sought pure utility. German architect Hermann Muthesius explained how this idea of utility could be applied to style, to produce something he called Maschinenstil, or “machine style.” In his own words, we find examples of this style in ​ ​ ​ ​ “railway stations, exhibition halls, bridges, steamships, etc. Here we are faced with a severe and almost scientific ​

Sachlichkeit, with abstinence from all outward decoration, and with shapes completely dictated by the purposes which they are meant to serve.” ​

Instead of attacking ornament, other pioneers of modern design focused on elevating functional form on a pedestal. In 1934, an exhibition curated by modernist architect Philip Johnson was held at New York’s ​ ​ Museum of Modern Art, titled Machine Art. On display were various pieces of mechanical equipment, such as airplane propellers and industrial insulators. The idea was to highlight beauty of form in objects that were purely functional. For the modern design movement, decoration was not necessary. Beauty and elegance were to emerge from the design of the content itself, not from a superficial coat of decoration.

It took much of the first half of the 20th century for the Modernist movement to prevail, but eventually traditional styles and techniques were surpassed by newer approaches. In his book Twentieth-Century Design, Jonathan Woodham notes that the Modern aesthetic was characterized by “clean, geometric forms, the use of ​ ​ modern materials such as chromium-plated steel and glass, and plain surfaces articulated by the abstract manipulation of light and shade. The use of color was often restrained, with an emphasis on white, off-white, grey, and black.” Modern design had shed its opulent coat of ornament and instead sought beauty in a ​ ​ harmonious fusion of form and function.

It would be wrong to suggest that the Modern design movement on the whole can be characterized as anti-ornamental. New styles came and went, such as the popular movements of Art Nouveau and Art Deco. Some styles, such as Futurism, pushed for an exaggerated technological aesthetic, while others, such as De Stijl, sought harmony in a limited palette of colors and shapes. But underlying the outward shifts in style was the steady movement away from needless ornament, a movement towards a cleaner, more restrained form of design whose beauty lay in the style and shape of the content itself, rather than in external decoration.

The balance between function and form is often a difficult area for the designer. If a product is purely functional, it may be lacking in appeal to consumers, no matter how good it is at completing its job. Often we are drawn to products that have been developed with form as the primary consideration. The human psyche appreciates beauty. The aesthetics of a product are embedded in its form- and often we can be drawn or attracted to it because of its inherent beauty- perhaps over-looking its functional attributes.

The corollary is interpreted in one of two ways-as a description of beauty or a prescription for beauty. The descriptive interpretation is that ​ ​ beauty results from purity of function and the absence of ornamentation. The prescriptive Interpretation is that aesthetic considerations in design should be secondary to functional considerations. The corollary was adopted and popularized by modernist architects in the early 20th century, and has since been adopted by designers in a variety of disciplines.'

The descriptive interpretation i.e., that beauty results from purity of function was originally based on the belief that form follows function in nature. However, this ​ ​ ​ belief is false, since function follows form in nature if it follows anything at all. Evolution by natural selection transmits no intention from one generation to the ​ ​ next; genetic patterns are simply passed on and it is left to each organism to find use of the form that they have inherited. Despite this, functional aspects of a design are less subjective than aesthetic aspects and, therefore, functional criteria represent a more objective aesthetic than alternative approaches. The result is

2 designs that are more timeless and enduring, but also frequently perceived by general audiences as simple and uninteresting. ​

The prescriptive interpretation i.e., that aesthetic considerations in design should be secondary to functional considerations-was likely derived from the descriptive ​ ​ ​ interpretation. The use of form follows function as a prescription or design guideline is problematic in that it focuses the designer on the wrong question. The ​ ​ 7” question should not be, "What aspects of form should be omitted or traded for function ​ b​ ut rather, "What aspects of the design are critical to success?" ​

These success criteria, not a blind allegiance to form or function, should drive design specifications and decisions. When time and resources are limited, design tradeoffs should be based on what does the least harm to the probability of success, however success is defined. In certain circumstances, aesthetic considerations ​ ​ will be compromised, and in others, functional considerations will be compromised. The determining factor? Whatever best serves the need.

Design whose beauty lies in function is not the same thing as minimalism minimalist style. With the former, the designer seeks to remove the superfluous, to make the product easier to understand, to make it perform better and to make the most of its medium. The latter seeks to create a minimalist aesthetic, to give the object an aura of simplicity and cleanliness. One is a fundamental principle of design, the other a stylistic choice.

Retro design

Retro product design is an approach that's taken many industries -- particularly fashion and technology -- by storm. It seems that nostalgia is appealing to many kinds of consumers, and serves as somewhat of a clever juxtaposition when it comes to making products stand out. Here's some reasons why this type of approach to design is popular with so many brands.

It sets brands apart. Many companies turn to nostalgic design as a way to define themselves from ​ competition. Doing so presents a relatively straightforward way of appealing to customers' nostalgic sensibilities. The Typescreen, a very unusual looking iPad accessory, is a great example of this. With a design that made the product look like an actual typewriter when in use, the unusual appearance of this product not only sets it far apart from competing products, but earned the company a great deal of coverage based on how unique the design was as well. The beauty of retro design is that it incorporates tried and tested aesthetics mixed with more modern technology in most cases, giving consumers good reason to consider a product designed in this way.

It creates a more emotional connection. The beauty of nostalgic product design is that it brings ​ together two things that consumers can appreciate: familiarity and innovation. Tapping into a retro aesthetic is appealing to many based on familiarity and style, and when executed properly, communicates a more genuine, trustworthy brand message that appeals to many consumers. This is especially powerful when paired with a product that performs in a futuristic and technologically advanced way, like the Smeg Oven. Built with incredible features which made it

more energy efficient, this oven was sold with a design that referenced the past. Simultaneously appealing to consumer's aesthetic preferences while providing the best available technology, this product offered the best of both worlds.

It's consistently popular. Nostalgic product design is a remarkably consistent design trend. Compared to other forms of design, retro is a style that seems to ​ constantly appeal to consumers, which is why many brands like A&W have built entire brands around a nostalgic message. This approach to design has proven staying power, and will likely continue to serve brands well provided that the approach is executed properly and with tact.

Comparison of retro-styled products When you look at the Braun products by Dieter Rams—many of them at New York's MoMA—and compare them to Jonathan Ive's work at Apple, you can clearly ​ ​ ​ ​ see the similarities in their philosophies way beyond the sparse use of color, the selection of materials and how the products are shaped around the function with no artificial design, keeping the design "honest."

This passion for "simplicity" and "honest design" that is always declared by Ive whenever he's interviewed or appears in a promo video, is at the core of Dieter Rams' 10 principles for good design.

Ive's inspiration on Rams' design principles goes beyond the philosophy and gets straight into a direct homage to real products created decades ago. Amazing pieces of industrial design that still today remain fresh, true classics that have survived the test of time.

The similarities between products from Braun and Apple are sometimes uncanny, others more subtle, but there's always a common root that provides the new Apple objects not only with a beautiful simplicity but also with a close familiarity.

Practical function or psychological function

The merits of a product may be thought of as relative to the perceived “function” of the product in relation to the context in which it operates. Hence, the ​ ​ ​ ​ psychological function of an object is often as important as the practical function. In general, practical function is concerned with aspects of performance: size; ease-of-use for a particular user population; efficiency and safety; strength and durability and so on. These aspects are usually quantifiable and evaluation can be quite objective using strategies such as performance tests, user trials etc. However, many products also have a psychological function which is less quantifiable and is reliant upon more subjective judgement. In this area, success of a product may be a matter of subtle distinctions or a response to individual preferences. This does not mean that the psychological function of a product cannot be assessed but that the assessment does not rely upon gathering quantitative data. Sometimes the appeal of the psychological function can be predictable linked to market segments such as those based on gender or age. Mobile phone designers capitalize on this by ensuring that color and style of their products appeals to a particular market segment such as young people. There are other circumstances where preferences are more unpredictable and only by testing with a typical sample of the intended market will the designer know whether the product has the right kind of psychological appeal to consumers.

Alessi, an innovative Italian company renowned for its radical design approach to domestic products such as kitchen appliances, is an example of a company successful due to the psychological appeal of its products. In the 1990s Alessi collaborated with French designer Philippe Starck to produce a range of products which transcended utilitarianism to the point of being exotic. Probably the most iconic example of such a product is the Juicy Salif lemon squeezer designed by Starck in 1990 and shown below.

The lemon squeezer is cast from aluminium and polished to resemble high quality silverware. It has become a classic design and, as such, is on display in the Museum of Modern Art in New York.

The design was conceived on a napkin while Starck enjoyed a dish of squid in a restaurant and was squeezing a lemon over the squid. The resultant design is a good example of the use of analogy for inspiration. In an article in Wikipedia titled “Lemon Squeezer as a Decorative Object” Starck is quoted as saying that ‘my ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ juicer is not meant to squeeze lemons; it is meant to start conversations. Indeed, there is even a gold plated version of the squeezer which is commented upon in the Wikipedia article as lacking in practical function because the acid in lemons reacts with the gold.

With Starck’s lemon squeezer clearly the unique selling point is the form as there are many more lemon squeezers on the market most of them much cheaper and ​ ​ probably more functional. It is the sculptural qualities of Starck’s squeezer which makes it so appealing as a decorative object to have standing on the work surface ​ ​ making it a “must touch” product when seen for the first time. ​ ​ ​ ​

Practical function Psychological Function

The practical function of an object or is determined by the rational - the The psychological function of an object is determined by the emotional logical or well reasoned approach to its design. Decisions by the designer or responses. decisions by the designer or the user will evoke psychological user will determined by the objects usability and reliability. responses - personal identity, the narrative of “me” and relate to the desirability ​ ​ ​ ​ of the object or space.

Practical function meets Psychological function- rational meets emotional When practical function forms the designers primary goal the interaction with the object can become intuitive. Intuitive design will have a number of redeeming features: affordance, expectation, efficiency, responsiveness, responsiveness, forgiveness, explorability, emotional security. A product can transcend the its practical function to meeting the psychological needs of the user by evoking emotions- aesthetically pleasing objects appear to the user to be more effective, by virtue of their sensual appeal. This is due to the affinity the user feels for an object that appeals to them, due to the formation of an emotional connection with the object.