Index

Page numbers in italic denote figures. Page numbers in bold denote tables.

Abathomphalus 242, 244 Andes, uplift 393, 428–429 Abies 485, 487, 508, 510 annelids, Cambrian, Chengjiang biota 87 Acacia 484, 485 anomalocaridids, Cambrian 86, 90, 92, 94 Acarinina 326, 331, 335 anoxia, ocean 163 Acer 489, 505, 508, 510 Cretaceous 217 acidification, ocean, PETM 331–332 Ordovician 105 acritarchs Permian–Triassic boundary 191, 192, 195–196, 198 Cambrian 94 Superanoxic Event 195, 198 Early Permian, Oman 174 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 123–124, 126, 128, aeolianite, as palaeoclimate indicator 19 131–135, 136, 137 Aeronian Antarctic Bottom Water 372, 566–567, 568, 569 climate 8,24 Antarctic Circumpolar Current 30, 105, 320, early, glaciation 126, 130, 131, 132 371–372 Aesculus 485 inception 393–395, 397, 401, 403, 415 Africa, Early Permian, palaeontology 174 Antarctic Intermediate Water 430, 432 air temperature, surface, Neoproterozoic 70, 71, 72 Antarctic Peninsula Ice-sheet 519–521 Al Khlata Formation 174–175, 176 Antarctica Alamaminella weddellensis 356 Early Permian, palaeontology 178–180 Alangium 508 glaciation 28, 105–106, 352–377 albedo hysteresis 375 Neoproterozoic 66, 69, 70, 71, 73, 77 modelling 453–454 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 570 see also Antarctic Peninsula Ice-sheet; East Albian Antarctic Ice-Sheet; West Antarctic climate 9, 26, 27 Ice-Sheet palaeogeography 273 Apectodinium 333–335 Alchornea 485, 508 Aptian algae, haptophyte, alkenone production 14, 540, 541, climate 9,26 545–547 palaeogeography 272 Alisporites indarraensis 177 Arabia, Early Permian, palaeontology 174–175 alkenes, isoprenoid 13,15 aragonite sea 30, 31, 36, 37, 38 alkenones 540–541 Araucaria 219 application 543–544, 549–550, 552–553 Archaeoglobigerina 240 C37 Total index 542, 547–548, 552, 555 Arctitreta 178 carbon isotope composition Areosphaeridium diktyoplokum, extinction 355 Eocene–Oligocene transition 366 Argentina, Early Permian, palaeontology 173, 182 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 399–400, 402 argillisols, as palaeoclimate indicator 19 Plio-Pleistocene transition 542–555 Artemisia 485, 503, 510 palaeothermometry, Mid-Pliocene 473 Anatolian steppe 512 Plio-Pleistocene transition 539–555 arthropods, Cambrian, Chengjiang biota 81, 82, 83, 84, preservation 547–548 86, 87, 89, 90, 91–92, 94 production 14, 540, 541, 545–547 Ashgill 102 , 103, 105, 125 quantification 542–543 climate change 8, 24, 107, 109–116 K U37 unsaturation index 11, 541–542 early, regression 130, 131–132, 131, 132, 141–142 Plio-Pleistocene transition 543–555 Asselian–Sakmarian, deglaciation 171–184 unsaturation ratio 11, 14, 16, 541 Asterocyclina 356 water column studies 544–545 Atlantic Ocean Allonia 86 circulation 106–107 Alnus 483, 487, 491, 505, 508 water exchange with Pacific 428–430 Alpheus 437 water properties 430, 432–433 Altiplano–Puna Plateau 392, 393 see also Intertropical Convergence Zone; North Amanoa 510 Atlantic Deep Water Ambikella 178 atmosphere Ambikella notoplicata 175 chemistry, climate modelling 164 amino acid racemization epimerization 11,14 circulation, Ordovician 115, 116 amphibians climate modelling 158–159, 445–450 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 358 Aulosteges 178 as proxy 256, 260, 262 Australia, Early Permian, palaeontology 175–177, 182 Anatolia, Artemisia steppe 512 Avalonia, Ordovician 109, 110

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Avicennia 483, 484, 485, 485, 487, 505, 506, 508, calcium carbonate see calcite 509, 510 calcrete, as proxy 18, 19, 268 caliche, as proxy 268 Baltica, Ordovician 109, 115 California, climate and vegetation 489–491, 492 Bandoproductus umariensis 178 Calligonum 485, 485, 489 Banksia 487 Callovian, climate 9, 26, 37 barite, biogenic, as proxy 12,15 Cambrian, Early basalt, flood, and climate change 33 Burgess Shale biota 82, 91 Siberian Traps 32, 38, 192, 193, 195 Chengjiang biota 81–84, 83, 84 Basilosaurus, extinction 358 epibenthic 86, 87, 89–91, 94 bauxite, as proxy 18, 19, 256 infauna 85, 86, 87, 88,94 Beela digitata 413, 417, 420 meiofauna 90–91 beryllium, as proxy 12,15 pelagic 82–85, 86,94 Betula 505, 508 complex marine ecosystems 81–96, 93 Bighorn Basin marine food chain reconstruction 91–92 carbon isotope excursion 324, 326, 327, 328 Cambrian Evolutionary Fauna, extinction 113 terrestrial flora 338 Cambrian Explosion 61, 63, 81, 82, 94, 124–125 terrestrial mammals 336 triggers 95–96 biodiversity Cambrian Substrate Revolution 85 Early Cambrian 81–96 Cambrian–Ordovician warm mode 8,23 Early Permian 172–180 Cambrosipunculas 86 Ordovician 113, 114, 115 Campanian 27 biogeochemistry, and climate foraminifera 237, 238, 240, 241, 242, 244 modelling 163–164 palaeogeography 278 biomes, as proxy 262–264, 264, 265, 294 Canadaspis laevigata 89 biomineralization, Cambrian 95–96, 124 Cancrinella 180 biostratigraphy, Early Permian, Gondwana 170, 171 Cancrinella cf. farleyensis 173 bioturbation Candeina nitida 413, 417 black shale 132 Caradoc Cambrian 87 climate change 107, 109, 111, 112, 113–116 Boda Warm Event 107, 108, 109–111, 114–115 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 127, 141 bolide impact, Eocene–Oligocene transition 369–370 carbon, isotope ratio Bombax 485, 505, 508 Early Permian brachiopods 180, 181 boron, isotope ratio 12,16 Eocene–Oligocene transition 363–365 Eocene–Oligocene transition 366 Ordovician 107, 108, 109 brachiopods Permian–Triassic boundary 195 Cambrian, Chengjiang biota 85, 86 see also Guttenburg Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion; Early Permian 173, 175–176, 178, 182 Hirnantian Carbon Isotope Excursion isotope composition 180, 181 carbon cycle Ordovician 111 Early Palaeozoic 123–125 Permian–Triassic boundary 194 Icehouse 137–138 bradoriids, Cambrian 89, 89 Eocene–Oligocene transition 363–365 Brigantedinium 356 modelling 22, 29 Burgess Shale, Cambrian biota 82, 91 Precambrian–Cambrian Transition 96 Phyllopod Bed 91 proxies 12,15 Buxus bahamensis 485, 508 secular variation 29–30 Buxus sempervirens 485 carbon dioxide atmospheric 22 C37 Total index 542, 547–548, 552–553, 554 Cenozic 106 calcite Early Palaeozoic 123–125 deposition, Eocene–Oligocene transition 366, 367 effect of plants 34 foraminiferal Eocene–Oligocene transition 365–366, 372–375 Mg/Ca palaeothermometry 313–320 and glaciation 29–30, 105, 107 sample preparation 315–316 and global warming, Permian–Triassic boundary preservation 316–317 192, 193, 194–195 calcite compensation depth and magmatism 30, 32–33, 34 Eocene–Oligocene transition 360, 361, 362, 365, Mid-Pliocene 445 366–368, 374 Neoproterozoic 67–68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 PETM 332 and Northern Hemisphere glaciation 570–572 calcite sea 30, 31, 36, 37, 38 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 398–400, 402 calcium Ordovician 105, 107, 115, 125 palaeothermometry 313–320 proxies 6, 13, 15, 16 seawater palaeoconcentration 6, 314–315 Silurian 125 see also magnesium/calcium ratio and tectonism 30, 31

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drawdown 23, 30, 35, 37, 399–400, 401, 402, 414 Chrysalidina 244 Early Palaeozoic 124, 138 Cibicidoides 352 and methane hydrate dissociation 36–37 Cibicidoides renzi 414 Carbon Isotope Excursions Cibicidoides wuellerstorfi 414 see Guttenburg Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion; Cindarella 86 Hirnantian Carbon Isotope Excursion; Cinnamomum 487 Monterey Event circulation carbonate atmosphere, Ordovician 115, 116 alkalinity 12,15–16 ocean burial, Early Palaeozoic 124, 138 Eocene–Oligocene transition 371, 372, 375 Caribbean 430, 432 magnesium/calcium ratio 318–319 deposition, Eocene–Oligocene transition 366, 367 Mid-Miocene 414–415 dissolution models 158, 162, 163, 165 Eocene–Oligocene transition 367 Permian 162, 163, 165 PETM 332 modern 427, 428 fixing 34–35 Neogene 427 oxygen isotope ratio 11,14 Ordovician 115 Permian–Triassic boundary 193–194 Pliocene 445, 566–567, 569 as proxy 16–17, 256, 366–368 proxies 12,14–15 see also calcite compensation depth; lysocline thermohaline Carboniferous Ordovician 103–104, 109–111, 112, 114–115 Early, climate 8 Panamanian Seaway closure 435 -Late Permian, cool mode 9, 24–25, 38 Cistus 489 Mid, glaciation 169 Clarkina carinata 192 palaeoclimate modelling 160–161 Classopolis 268 Caribbean clay minerals coral reefs 403, 436, 437 as palaeoclimate indicator 13,19 current system 428–430, 432 Eocene–Oligocene transition 368–369 extinctions 403, 415 Cleiothyridina 178 salinity 432–433 CLIMAP project 7, 21 sedimentology 430, 431, 432 Climatic Amplitude Method 482–483 Carpinus 485, 489, 508, 510 Cloudina 61, 96 Carya 485, 489, 508, 510 cnidarians, Cambrian 86 Cassia 487 coal Cassidulina teretis 415 Carboniferous, palaeoclimate modelling 160–161 Castanopsis 508 coal gap 25 Cathaya 487, 508, 510 Early Permian Cedrus 485, 508, 510 Weller Coal Measures 178 Celtis 485, 508 Witbank Basin 174 Cenomanian 27 PETM 340 foraminifera 236, 237, 243, 244 as proxy 13, 18, 19, 256, 264 palaeogeography 236, 274 Columbia River basalts 39 Cenozoic Conchoecia daphnoides 84 deep-water temperatures 317–319 Coniacian 27 glaciation 105–107, 317–318 palaeogeography 276 Mg/Ca palaeothermometry 313–320 conodonts surface-water temperatures 319–320 Ordovician 114 Central American Seaway see Panamanian Seaway Permian–Triassic boundary 194, 196–197 Central Atlantic Magmatic Province 38 Contusotruncana 242 Ceratonia 485, 489, 505 Contusotruncana contusa 242 Chaetoceros 356 cooling, global, Permian–Triassic boundary 192 chaetognaths, Cambrian 84–85, 84, 86,94 coprolites, Chengjiang biota 92 champsosaurs, Cretaceous 229 coral see reefs, coral chancelloriids, Cambrian 86, 87, 89 Corylopsis 485 charcoal, fossil see fusain Corylus 483 chemistry, atmospheric, climate modelling 164 Corynetis 86 Chengjiang Cambrian biota 81–84, 83, 84 cosmic ray flux, galactic 35–36 epibenthic 86 , 87, 89–91, 94 Costatumulus 173 infauna 85, 86, 87, 88,94 Crassispirifer 178 meiofauna 90–91 crenarcheota, tetraether lipids, TEX86 11, 14, 64, 227, pelagic 86,94 323, 331, 362 chlorite 19, 368 Cretaceous Choia 86 biomes 211, 213, 214, 218–219 chordates, Cambrian 86 Early, cool mode 9, 26, 38

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Cretaceous (Continued) Discoaster druggi 390 fauna 228–230 Discoaster saipanensis, extinction 355 flora 211, 213, 218–219 Discocyclina 356 isotope composition 229–230 Distylium 485, 508, 510 Late-Early Eocene, warm mode 10, 26–27, 38 diverticles 92 Lower, palaeogeography 204, 217 dolocrete, as palaeoclimate indicator 18, 19 palaeobiology 228–230 Dracodinium 335 palaeobotany 225–228 Drake Passage 392 palaeoclimate 203, 217–220, 225–230 opening 30, 32, 106, 371–372, 393–395, 396, 399, precipitation 211, 212, 213, 218 401, 403 temperature 210, 217, 218, 219–220, 225–230, 226 dropstones 17, 170, 256 Upper dust, aeolian, Eocene–Oligocene transition 369 foraminifera 235–245 isotope composition 240 Early Oligocene Glacial Maximum (EOGM) 352–377 palaeotemperature 240 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse see Palaeozoic, Early, Icehouse palaeogeography 204, 217, 226, 235, 236, 242 Earth, orbital variation 35 Cretaceous–Tertiary boundary 244–245 Carboniferous 160, 161 Cribrohantkenina, extinction 354 Eocene–Oligocene transition 373 Cribrohantkenina inflata 354 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 563, 571 Cricoscomia jinningensis 88 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 391, 392, 398, 401, 402 crocodilians Ordovician 111, 112, 113, 115 Cretaceous 229 PETM 339 as proxy 255, 256, 257–258, 261, 265, 297–299, Earth models of intermdiate complexity (EMICs) 21, 66 300–302, 303, 304 East Antarctic Ice-Sheet 106, 389, 396–397, Croton 485, 508 401, 523–525 Cryogenian glaciations 62–63, 63 modelling 454, 526–532 cryosphere, models 158 Ecca Group coal seams 174 ctenophores, Cambrian 86 eccentricity 35 cyanobacteria, Cambrian 91 Eocene–Oligocene transition 373 cyclicity see Milankovitch cycles Middle Miocene 415 cyclothems, Pennsylvanian 25 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 392, 401 Cyrtella 178 Ordovician 111, 112, 113, 115 Cyrtella australis 175 PETM 339 Cyrtocapsella tetrapera 390 ecosystems, marine, Early Cambrian 81–96, 93 Ediacaran deglaciation, Early Permian, Gondwana 170–184 climate 8, 23, 37–38, 63, 63 Deltopecten 173, 175 faunal assemblage 61, 63,96 demosponges, Cambrian 87 Edmondia 175 Derbyia 178 El Nin˜o conditions 434, 473 Devonian, climate 24 Pliocene 553, 555, 565–566, 569, 570–571 Devonian–Carboniferous boundary, climate 8 eldoniids, Cambrian 86 Diadema antillarum 436 Eleagnus 485 Diadema mexicanum 436 Embolanthera 485 diamictite Emeishan Traps 38 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 127, 130, 131, 136 Emiliani huxleyi 14, 541, 545–547 Early Permian 170 Emu Shale biota 92 Al Khlata Formation 174 energy balance models 66, 157 diamicton 17 Carboniferous 160–161 diatoms Engelhardia 484, 485, 485, 487, 489, 505, 508, 510 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 356 Entada 510 mid-Pliocene, SST estimation 467 Eocene PETM 335–336 Early Si ratio 12,15 palaeogeography 282 Sirius Group 524–525 warm mode 10 ,26–27 Dicarinella 237 Late Dicarinella primitiva/concavata 238 bolide impacts 369–370 dinocysts palaeogeography 284 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 355–356 Middle, PETM 333–335 cool mode 10,27–28 dinoflagellate cysts see dinocysts palaeogeography 283 dinosaurs see also Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Cretaceous 228–229 Eocene–Oligocene transition 28, 351–377 as proxy 256, 260 atmospheric carbon dioxide 365–366 Discoaster barbadiensis, extinction 355 bolide impact 369–370

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carbon cycle 363–365 benthic 409 carbonates 366–368, 400 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 324, 325, 332–333, deep-water circulation 371, 372, 375 356–357, 359–360, 361, 362, 364 mass extinction 352–359, 375–376 Miocene 410–411, 412, 414–415 mechanisms and modelling 371–375, 400–401 modern 410–411 Milankovitch cyclicity 370 Neogene, evolution 412, 414–416 ocean gateways 371–372, 400 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 397, 398, 399, 400 palaeontology 352–359 Cd/Ca ratio 12, 14, 15 proxies 359–377 cryptic genetic divergence 420–421 sea-level fall 362–363 Mg/Ca ratio 11, 14, 313–320, 331 sediment weathering 368–369 benthic 314, 315, 317–319, 331 terminology 352, 353 calcite preservation 316–317 Eotrigonobalanus furcinervis 365 planktonic 314, 316, 319–320, 331 Ephedra 485 sample preparation 315–316 Epistominella exigua 356 modern 409–422 Eponides repandus 415 age estimation 411–412, 413, 416–419 Ercaia 86 origin 410–411 Ercaia minuscula 89 Nd isotopes 12,15 Erodium 485 Neogene 411–422 Eucommia 485, 508 Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 324, 325 Euprimates 336 planktonic 409, 410 Europe, Southeastern, Neogene, pollen data 503–512 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 353–355, 362 Europe, Western, Neogene, pollen data 482–498 Mid-Pliocene, SST estimation 466–467 Eurydesma 173, 175, 178 Miocene 410, 411, 412, 417, 418–419 eustasy see glacioeustasy; sea-level modern 410, 411, 413, 419 evaporites 17 Neogene 411, 412, 416–421 Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary 23 Panamanian Seaway closure 435–436 Neoproterozoic 65 PETM 335 as proxy 13, 256, 265, 266, 267–268, 269, 299, 305 as proxy 11, 14, 409–410, 421 evolution, biological, and atmospheric carbon Upper Cretaceous 235–245 dioxide 34–35 benthic 244–245 extinction, mass 35, 38 planktonic 235–244 benthic foraminifera 324, 325, 332–333 Zn/Ca ratio 12,14 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 352–359, 375–376 Fortiforceps 86 Late Miocene 415 fossils Middle Pleistocene 29, 415–416 as palaeoclimate indicator 19–21 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 403 small shelly 64, 96 Ordovician 113, 115 see also palaeontology Permian–Triassic boundary 25, 162, 191–199, 193 Fothergilla 510 Precambrian–Cambrian Transition 96 Frasnian eyes see vision climate 8,24 glaciation 38, 169 Facivermis 87 fusain, as palaeoclimate indicator 13,18 Fagus 485, 487, 489, 505, 508 Fuxianhuia 86 Famennian, climate 8,24 fauna gas hydrates Cretaceous 228–230 dissociation 36–37 Early Permian 172–184 Permian–Triassic boundary 192, 193, 195 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 358 PETM 335, 339–340 PETM 332–337 Gaskiers glaciation 63 fish, Panamanian Seaway closure 435, 437 gastropods, Caribbean 436–437 Fletcherithyris 178 gateways, oceanic flora and climate change 30, 32, 109–111, 217 and atmospheric carbon dioxide 34 Eocene–Oligocene transition 371–372 Cretaceous 211, 218–219, 225–228 Miocene 427–438 Early Permian 172–184 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 393–395, 396, Eocene–Oligocene boundary 357–358 402–403 Jurassic 209, 216–217 Panamanian Seaway closure 427–438, 431, 567, terrestrial, PETM 337–338 568, 571–572 Triassic 207, 215–216 Southern Ocean 105, 393–395, 396 see also vegetation General Circulation Models (GCM) 1, 21, 65–66, 201 food chain, Early Cambrian, reconstruction 91–92, 94–95 Cretaceous temperature 227 foraminifera Early Palaeozoic carbon 125 Ba/Ca ratio 12,16 East Antarctic Ice-Sheet 526–532

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General Circulation Models (GCM) (Continued) gleysols, as palaeoclimate indicator 19 Eocene–Oligocene transition 372, 373 Globigerina bulloides 413, 417, 420, 420 GENESIS 160, 161 Globigerina falconensis 413, 417 Hamburg Ocean 437 Globigerinella calida 413, 417, 420 Mesozoic 202, 205 Globigerinella siphonifera 413, 417, 420 Mid-Pliocene 445–454 Globigerinelloides 242 Ordovician 107, 109 Globigerinita glutinata 413, 417 and quantitative proxies 251–254 Globigerinita uvula 413, 417 GENESIS general circulation model 160, 161, 218 Globigerinoides 390 GEOCARB model 124, 125 Globigerinoides conglobatus 413, 416, 417, 420 Geochelone 259, 262, 265 Globigerinoides ruber 413, 417, 420, 436 Gephyrocapsa oceanica 541, 545–546 Globigerinoides sacculifer 413, 417 Gharif Formation 174–175, 176 Globigerinoides trilobus 413, 417 gibbsite 13,19 Globoquadrina conglomerata 413, 417, 419 Gilledia 178 Globoquadrina tapuriensis 354 Ginkgo biloba 365 Globorotalia crassaformis 413, 417, 418, 419 glaciation Globorotalia hirsuta 413, 417 Antarctic 105–106, 352–377 Globorotalia inflata 413, 417, 418 modelling 453–454 Globorotalia kugleri 390 see also Antarctic Peninsula Ice-sheet; East Globorotalia menardii 413, 417 Antarctic Ice-Sheet; West Antarctic Globorotalia scitula 413, 417, 419 Ice-Sheet Globorotalia truncatulinoides 413, 417, 418, 420, 436 atmospheric carbon dioxide 29–30 Globorotalia tumida 413, 417, 418, 419, 436 Carboniferous, palaeoclimate modelling 160–161 Globorotaloides hexagonus 413, 417, 419 Cenozoic 105–107, 317–318 Globotruncana 238 early Aeronian 130, 131, 132 Globotruncana arca 238 Early Oligocene Glacial Maximum 352–377 Globotruncana bulloides 238, 240 Early Palaeozoic 125, 127–145 Globotruncana linneiana 240 and galactic cosmic ray flux 35–36 Globotruncana ventricosa 238 Hirnantian 38, 101–103, 105, 111, 112, 113, Globotruncanella 242 126, 130, 131, 132 Globoturborotalita decoraperta 417 Late Cretaceous 27 Globoturborotalita rubescens 413, 417, 417 Late Jurassic 26 Globoturborotalita tenella 413, 417 Late Ordovician-Early Silurian 24, 38 Glossopteris 178 Late Palaeozoic, Gondwana 169–170 Glyptostrobus 489, 508, 510 Late Pliocene-Recent 29, 30 Golden Spike 353, 354, 355 Late Telychian 130, 131, 132 Gondwana Laurentide 106–107 Carboniferous, palaeoclimate modelling 160 mid-Miocene 106 Early Permian Neoproterozoic 62–63, 65, 66, 67, 96 deglaciation 169–184 Northern Hemisphere 28, 29, 106–107, 396–397, 519, palaeontology 172–180 520, 521, 555 glaciation 24, 113, 160, 169 causes 570–572 Large Igneous Province 38 Central American Seaway closure 433–434, Ordovician 109–110 567, 568 atmospheric ciculation 115, 116 deep ocean water 566–567, 568, 569 glaciation 105, 127 Milankovitch cycles 434, 563 ocean circulation 109–110, 111, 115, 135 models 437–438 palaeogeography 104, 109–110 proxy evidence 563–572 see also South Gondwana Current; West Gondwana thermocline 569–570, 571–572 Current upwelling 569–570 Granulatisporites confluens 178 Ordovician 101–116 graptolites causative hypothesis 103–105 Early Palaeozoic black shales 132–136 proxy data 107–116 Ordovician 114 stratigraphic evidence 101–103 Great American Interchange 429, 431, 435 Pleistocene see glaciation, Northern Hemisphere greenhouse gases proxies 13 Neoproterozoic 67–68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 sedgwickii graptolite zone 130, 131, 132 Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 319–320, see also deglaciation; Mi-1 event; Oi-1 event 323–340 glaciers, models 158 greenhouse model, runaway 192, 195 glacioeustasy Greenland Ice Sheet 519 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 127–145 growth rings 11,20–21 Eocene–Oligocene transition 362–363 Cretaceous 227, 228 glendonite carbonate nodules 13, 17, 25 Grumantia cf. costellata 175

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Guadalupian-Lopingian mass extinction Invertocysta tabulata 390 event 38 IP25 see alkenes, isoprenoid Guttenburg Positive Carbon Isotope Excursion 101, Ireviken excursion 127, 129 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 113–114, 115, 126, island effect 434 127, 129, 130 Isoxys 86 anoxia 131–132, 137–138 Isoxys curvirostratus 83, 84 gypcrete 18, 19 Itea 508 gypsum, as proxy 305 Jasminum 508 HadAM3, GCM 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 526 Juglans 485 HadCM3, GCM 451 Jurassic Haikoucaris ercaiensis 89 Early, warm mode 9, 25–26, 38 Haikouella 86 flora 209, 216–217 Hangenberg event 38 Middle-Early Cretaceous, cool mode 9, 26, 38 Hantkenina, extinction 354 palaeoclimate 203, 216 Hantkenina alabamensis 354 Upper Hantkenina compressa 354 biomes 209, 214, 216–217 Hantkenina nanggulanensis 354 palaeogeography 204, 216 Hantkenina primitiva 354 precipitation 209, 216, 217 Hantkeninidae, extinction 352, 353–355 temperature 208, 216 Hedera 508 Helianthemum 485 kaolinite 19, 368 helium, extraterrestrial 328, 329, 330–331 Karharbari Formation 177–178 Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica 237 Karoo magmatism 32 Heterohelix 242 Katian Stage, climate 8,24 Hirnantian Kazakhstan Seaway 415 Carbon Isotope Excursion 102, 103, 107, 108, 111, Keeneia 175 130, 131, 132, 143 Kellwasser event 38 climate 8,24 Keteleeria 485 glacial maximum 101–103, 105, 111, 112, 113, 115, Kiangsiella 175 125, 126 kimberlite eruption 32–33, 34 histosols, as palaeoclimate indicator 19 Krithe 453, 473 Hoskingia 178 Kuamaia 86 Hyaenodontidae 336, 337 Kunmingella 86 Hyalina balthica 415 Kunmingella douvillei 89 hyolithids, Cambrian 86,94 hysteresis, Antarctic ice-sheet 375 La Nin˜a conditions 434 lakes, alkenone organic proxy 544 Iapetus Current 110 land-surface topography, PRISM palaeoclimate Iapetus Ocean 102, 109, 110–111, 115, 135 reconstruction 471 ice sheets large igneous provinces (LIPs), and atmospheric carbon modelling 158, 525–526 dioxide 30, 32–33, 37, 38, 39 Mid-Pliocene 453–454, 526–532 laterite, as palaeoclimate indicator 18, 19 Neoproterozoic 69, 73–77 Laurentia Pliocene 517–532 atmospheric circulation 115, 116 ice volume ocean circulation 103–104, 109, 111 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 360, 361, 362 Laurentide glaciation 106–107, 112 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 563–564 Laurophyllum acutimontanum 365 PRISM palaeoclimate reconstruction 469, 518 Laurophyllum pseudoprinceps 365 ice-rafted debris 25, 26, 28, 65, 106, 519, 563, 564, 565 lava, subglacial, as proxy 17–18 Icehouse, Early Palaeozoic see Palaeozoic, Early, leaf margin analysis 11 Icehouse in palaeoclimate reconstruction 20–21 ikaite 17 Cretaceous 225, 227–228 Ilex 485, 508 Leanochoilia illecebrosa 89 illite 19, 368 Leea 485 impacts, bolide, Eocene-Oligocene transition 369–370 Lepidochelys kempi 437 India, Early Permian, palaeontology 177–178, 182 Lepidochelys olivacea 437 Indonesian Gateway 392, 402, 433–434, 571 Lepidorbitoides 244 infauna, Cambrian 85, 86, 87, 88,94 lignite, as palaeoclimate indicator 13,18 insolation, astronomical controls 35–36 Ligustrum 485, 508 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1, 459 Lingula 194 Intertropical Convergence Zone 106, 115, 216, 218, 433 Lingulella 85 invertebrates, shallow marine, Eocene-Oligocene Lingulellotreta 85, 86 boundary 357 Liquidambar 485, 489, 508, 510

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Llandovery, glaciation 127, 144, 145, Microtropis 510 131, 132 Microtropis fallax 483, 485 lobopods, Cambrian 86 midges, chironomid 20 loess 13,19 Milankovitch cycles 25, 35, 370 lonestones 171 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 370 low order models 157–158 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 434, 563 luminosity, solar 35 Miocene modelling 160, 161 cool mode 28, 106 Neoproterozoic 65, 67, 69, Early 73–74, 76 glaciation 318 Lygeum 485, 485, 487, 489 palaeogeography 287 Lyonia lyoni 175 foraminifera 410–411, 412–415, 417, 418–419 lysocline 21, 332, 365 Late extinctions 415 Maastrichtian 27 palaeogeography 289 foraminifera 237, 239, 240, 241, 242–244, 243, 244 pollen, latitudinal climatic gradient 486–488 palaeogeography 236, 279 Middle magmatism, and atmospheric carbon dioxide 30, glaciation 106, 317, 401–402 32–33, 34 Mg/Ca palaeothermometry 320 magnesium/calcium ratio palaeogeography 288 palaeothermometry 11, 14, 313–320 pollen Eocene–Oligocene transition 360, 361, 362 Southeastern Europe 503–512 Mid-Pliocene 453, 472, 473 Western Europe 483–485, 486, 494–495 Plio-Pleistocene, eastern equatorial Pacific study Panamanian Seaway closure 427–438 550, 552–553, 555 see also Oligocene–Miocene boundary as proxy for ocean circulation change 318–319 Misszhouoia longicaudata 90 seawater palaeoconcentration 314–315 modelling magnetite 369 climate analogue 21 Mahonia 487 geochemical 21–23 Mallotus 485 ice sheets 525–526 mammals Mid-Pliocene 526–532 Eocene–Oligocene boundary, extinction 358 mass-balance 21–23 Great American Interchange 429, 435 palaeoclimate 21–23 PETM 336–337 Carboniferous 160–161 as proxy 20, 260–261 Eocene-Oligocene transition 371–375 manganese crusts, as proxy 12,14–15 Late Palaeozoic 157–165 Maotianoascus 86 Latest Permian 162–163 Maotianoascus octonarius 84 Middle Pliocene 445–454 Maotianshania 88 Middle-Late Permian 161, 162 Mappianthus 485 parameterization 158–159 Marginotrucana 237, 238 models Marinoan glaciation 62, 63, 75–76, 96 circulation, global 1, 21, 65–66 Mediterranean, vegetation and climate, Neogene, pollen climate analysis 503–512 boundary conditions 160 Megadesmus 173 comparison 271–306 meiofauna, Cambrian 90–91 Cretaceous 210, 211, 213 Membranophoridium aspinatum 390 global 158–160 Menardella exilis 436 Jurassic 208, 209, 216–217 Menardella miocenia 436 low order 157–158 Merismopteria 173 mass extinction, Permian–Triassic boundary 198 Mesozoic Mesozoic 202, 205–221 climate models 202–221 Triassic 205, 206, 207, 215–216 palaeoclimate 201–221, 203 cryosphere 158 palaeogeography 204 Earth models of intermediate complexity 21, 66 Messinian salinity crisis 489, 505 energy balance 66, 157 Metasequoia glyptostroboides 365 Carboniferous 160–161 methane, Neoproterozoic 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 ocean 158 methane hydrate Permian 162, 163, 165 dissociation 36–37 ocean-atmospere, Mid-Pliocene warm period Permian–Triassic boundary 192, 193, 195 450–451 PETM 335, 339–340 Panamanian Seaway closure 437–438 Mi-1 event 390–391, 401, 402 slab-ocean 158, 450 Microbaculispora tentula 174 vegetation, Mid-Pliocene warm period 448–450 Microdictyon 86 see also General Circulation Models

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Modern Evolutionary Fauna 113 Northern Hemisphere glaciation see glaciation, Northern modes, palaeoclimate Hemisphere Phanerozoic 5, 6, 8–10, 23–29, 37–39 Nothofagus 401, 524 molluscs, Cambrian 91 Nummulites 356 Mongolodus longispinus 84 nutrient utilization, proxies 12,15 monsoon systems 115, 116 Nyssa 508, 510 Asia 393 Pangaea 161 obliquity 35 Monterey Event, mid-Miocene 106, 412, 414, 415 Eocene–Oligocene transition 373 Monterey hypothesis, Ordovician 103–105, 114 Middle Miocene 415 Morania 91 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 571 Morozovella 326, 335 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 106, 391, 401 morphology Ordovician 111, 112, 113, 115 functional 92 Pleistocene 29 leaf margin analysis, in palaeoclimate reconstruction Pliocene 460 20–21 ocean, acidification, PETM 331–332 Mussaenda 508 Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 690 Myrica 485, 485, 505, 508, 510 PETM sediments 325, 326, 328, 329 benthic foraminifera extinction 333 Namurian see Serpukhovian extraterrestrial helium 328, 329, 330–331 nannofossils oceans Eocene–Oligocene boundary 355 circulation, models 158 PETM 335 Latest Permian 162, 163 Naraoia 86 deep water Naraoia spinosa 90 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 566–567, nekton 568, 569 Cambrian 93 thermocline 569–570, 571–572 Panamanian Seaway closure 437 temperature, Mid-Pliocene 473–474, 564–566 Neochonetes 173 heat storage, Neoproterozoic 68 neodymium isotope variation 12 heat transport Eocene–Oligocene boundary 371, 372 Eocene–Oligocene transition 371–372 Ordovician 111, 112 Mid-Pliocene 445 Neogene Neoproterozoic 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 climatic evolution 510, 512 Ordovician 115 cool mode 10,28–29 see also anoxia, ocean foraminifera 411–422 Odontogriphus 91 palaeoclimate reconstruction, pollen data 482–498 Oi-1 event 30, 317–318, 352, 356, 360, 397, Paratethys Sea 504–505 400–401, 402 Southeastern Europe, pollen analysis 503–512 Olea 485, 489, 505 Neogloboquadrina dutertrei 413, 417 Oligocene Neogloboquadrina incompta 413, 417, 417, 418 cool mode 28 Neogloboquadrina pachyderma 413, 417, 417, 418, 420 Early Neoproterozoic glaciation 317 palaeoclimate reconstruction 61–77 Glacial Maximum 352–377 challenges 63–64 Mg/Ca ratio 318 climate trends 62–63, 63 palaeogeography 285 climate-sensitive sediment 64 Late, palaeogeography 286 GCM simulation 66–69, 70, 71, 72,73–77 see also Eocene–Oligocene transition greenhouse gases 67–68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 389–403 ocean heat 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 76 age 390–391 palaeogeography 67, 69 atmospheric carbon dioxide 398–400, 402 solar luminosity 67, 69, 76 cause 392, 402–403 Neospirifer 178 climate change 28, 395–403 Nerium 485, 489 orogenic uplift 392–393 Neurada 485, 485, 489 palaeontology 390 Nitraria 485, 485, 489 plate tectonics 392–395 nitrogen, isotope ratio 12,15 Oman, Early Permian, palynology 174–175, 176, nitrogen cycle, modelling 22–23 177, 182 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 264 Omphalocyclus 244 North Atlantic Deep Water 318–319, 430, 566, 568, 569 opal 15 production 30, 428, 432, 437–438, 473–474 Eocene–Oligocene transition 365, 367, 372 North Atlantic Intermediate water 567, 568, 569 Pacific Ocean 433 North Brazil Coastal Current 106, 433 Ophioblennius atlanticus 437 North Equatorial Counter Current 106, 109 ophiolites, obduction 32, 34

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Orbitoides 244 palaeogeography 334 Orbitolina 244 planktonic biota 333–336 Orbulina universa 413, 417, 418, 420 temperature anomaly 331 Ordovician terrestrial mammals 336–337 atmospheric carbon dioxide 125 terrestrial plants 337–338 glaciation 101–116 palaeocirculation see circulation, ocean causative hypothesis 103–105 palaeoclimate proxies 107–116 modelling stratigraphic evidence 101–103 Carboniferous 160–161 global biodiversity 113, 114, 115, 126 Late Palaeozoic 160–165 Late-Early Silurian cool mode 8, 23–24, 38 Latest Permian 162–163 marine anoxia 126, 128 Middle-Late Permian 161, 162 orogenesis 38, 39 modes, Phanerozoic 5, 6, 8–10, 22, 23–29, 31,37–39 and atmospheric carbon dioxide 30 proxies 6–7, 11–13,14–21 Neoproterozoic 63 reconstruction, Neoproterozoic 61–77 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 392–393 Palaeogene Orthomorphina 416 Early, warm mode 10, 26–27, 38 osmium, isostope ratio 12 Mid-Recent, cool mode 10,27–29 Eocene–Oligocene transition 369 palaeogeography 270–271 ostracodes Albian 273 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 357 Aptian 272 mid-Pliocene, SST estimation 467 Campanian 278 Ordovician 114 Cenomanian 274 PETM 333 Coniacian 276 Ostrya 485 Early Eocene 282 Ottoia 91 Early Miocene 287 Ovalvulina 244 Early Oligocene 285 oxisols 18, 19 Early Palaeocene 280 oxygen Late Eocene 284 atmospheric, Precambrian–Cambrian Transition 96 Late Miocene 289 isotope ratios 11,14 Late Oligocene 286 Atlantic/Pacific Oceans 432–433 Late Palaeocene 281 biogenic calcite 313, 319 Maastrichtian 279 Cretaceous 229–230 Mesozoic 204 Early Permian brachiopods 180, 181 Cretaceous 204, 217, 226, 235, 236 Eocene–Oligocene transition 359–360, 361, Middle Eocene 283 362, 397 Middle Miocene 288 Mi-1 390–391 Neoproterozoic 65, 67, 69 Oi-1 397 Ordovician 104, 109 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 397, 398, 399 Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 334 Ordovician 107, 108, 109, 110 Panamanian Seaway closure 430, 434 Permian–Triassic boundary 193–194 Pleistocene 291 oxygen cycle, modelling 22 Pliocene 290 oxygenation, regressive, Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 135–136 Santonian 277 Turonian 275 Pachycyrtella 174 palaeontology Pachysandra 510 Early Permian deglaciation, Gondwana 172–180 Pacific Ocean Eocene–Oligocene boundary 352–359 deep water 566–567, 568, 569 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 390 eastern equatorial study, Plio-Pleistocene 550, as palaeoclimate indicator 19–21 552–553, 555, 564 palaeoproductivity see productivity, ocean Subarctic stratification 107 palaeosalinity see salinity water properties 430, 432–433 Palaeoscolex 86 Pacific-Caribbean current system 428–430 palaeosols palaeobiology, Cretaceous 228–230 Eocene–Oligocene transition 366 palaeobotany, Cretaceous 225–228 Permian–Triassic boundary 194 Palaeocene, palaeogeography 280, 281 as proxy 18–19, 268 Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 27, 319–320, palaeotemperature see temperature 323–340 palaeothermometry age 325, 327–328 Mg/Ca benthic biota 332–333 Cenozoic 313–320 carbon isotope excursion 324, 325–328 Eocene–Oligocene transition 360, 361, 362 causes and effects 338–340 Mid-Pliocene 472, 473 ocean acidification 331–332 alkenone organic proxy 539–555

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palaeowind 19 Late, cool mode 9, 24–25, 38 Palaeozoic Latest, palaeoclimate modelling 162–163 Early 123–148 Latest-Early Jurassic warm mode 9, 25–26, 38 carbon cycle 123–125 Middle-Late, palaeoclimate modelling 161, 162 glaciation 125–145 Permian–Triassic boundary Icehouse mass extinction 25, 162, 191–199, 193 carbon burial, and glacioeustasy 137 carbon dioxide level 194–195 carbon cycle 124, 137–138 climate change 192–199 glacial maxima 129, 130, 131, climate models 198 140, 141–145 methane venting 37, 195 glacioeustasy 125, 126, 127–145 sea-water strontium ratios 196–198 oxic-anoxic stratigraphy 131–132, 138, 140, temperature rise 193–194, 195–196 147–148 Peruvispira 178 regressive oxygenation 135–136 PETM see Palaeocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum transgressive anoxia 132–135, 136 pH, oceanic, proxies 12, 13,16 Late, climate modelling 157–165 Phanerozoic Palaeozoic Evolutionary Fauna 113, 115 climate change 5–39 palms, as proxy 256, 261–262, 263, 265 climate controls 29–37 palynomorphs 19, 20 palaeoclimate modes 5, 6, 8–10, 23–29, 37–39 Early Permian, Gondwana 172–184 Phillyrea 485, 489, 505 see also pollen phosphate utilization, proxy 12,15 Panama Isthmus 427–438 phosphorite, Ediacaran–Cambrian boundary 23 Panama sill phosphorus cycle, modelling 23 and global circulation 437–438 Phyllopod Bed, Burgess Shale 91 uplift 415, 428–429, 431, 432 phytoplankton, Cambrian 93,94 Panamanian Seaway 319, 392, 403, 415 Picea 485, 508, 510 closure 30, 106, 419, 427–438, 431, 567, 568 Pinus 487, 508, 510 ecosystems Pistacia 485, 489 marine 435–437 Planera 508 terrestrial 434–435 plankton Great American Interchange 429, 431, 435 and carbonate fixing 34–35 models 437–438 Panamanian Seaway closure 435–436 NADW production 432, 437–438 Plantago 485, 487 Northern Hemisphere glaciation 433–434, plants see flora 437–438, 571–572 Platanus 508, 510 sedimentology 430, 432 plate tectonics surface water properties 432–433 effect on atmospheric carbon dioxide 30, 31 Pandanus 508 effect on Northern Hemisphere glaciation 571–572 Pangaea 30, 38 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 392–395 megamonsoons 161 Platycarya 485, 487, 489, 505, 508 Permian–Triassic boundary 194 Platycarya platycaryoides 338 Triassic climate 215 Pleistocene Paraleptomitella 86 cool mode 29 parametrization, global climate models 158–159 glaciation 317 Paraselkirkia 86 Northern Hemisphere, proxy Paratethys Sea 504–505 evidence 563–572 Neogene pollen analysis 503–512 Middle Parrotia 485, 489, 508, 510 benthic foraminifera 415–416 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana 485 Transition 107 Parthenocissus 485, 510 palaeogeography 291 peat see also Plio–Pleistocene transition burning, PETM 340 Pleuromeia 215 Carboniferous, palaeoclimate modelling 161 Pleurostomella 416 as proxy 18, 256, 264, 265, 266–267 Pliensbachian, climate 9,25–26 Pemma papillatum, extinction 355 Plio–Pleistocene transition Pennsylvanian alkenone organic proxy 539–555 cyclothems 25 eastern equatorial Pacific study 550, glaciation 169 552–553, 555 Permian monsoons 115 Early Pliocene deglaciation 170–184 cool mode 28–29, 569 Gondwana 169–184 Early, pollen, latitudinal climatic gradient 488–491 biostratigraphy 170, 171, 172–183 glaciation 317, 519 brachiopod isotope ratios 180, 181, 194 Northern Hemisphere 29, 519, 520, 521

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Pliocene (Continued) time-slab 444, 450, 460, 461 proxy evidence 563–572 topography 471 ice sheets 517–532 productivity, ocean Antarctic Peninsula 519–521 Eocene–Oligocene transition 363–365 East Antarctic 523–525 Permian–Triassic boundary 193, 196 modelling 526–532 proxies 12, 15, 363–365 West Antarctic 521–523 Prosopis 484, 485, 485 importance for palaeoglaciology 518 protactinium, as proxy 12,15 Late, benthic foraminifera 415 Proto-Tethys, Ordovician 109 Middle protoconodonts, Cambrian 84–85, 94 pollen 491–493, 494, 494, 496, 497 Protoherzina unguliformis 84 PRISM reconstruction 459–475 Protosagitta nagae 84 warm period 443–454 Protosagitta spinosa 84 forcings 444–445 protosols, as palaeoclimate indicator 19 General Circulation Models (GCM) 445–454 proxies palaeogeography 290 atmospheric carbon dioxide 6, 13, 15, 16 pollen 503, 505, 510, 511, 512 atmospheric circulation 13, 19 see also Plio–Pleistocene transition; PRISM biomes 262–264, 265, 294 Pliocene Research, Interpretation and Synoptic Mapping carbonate alkalinity 12 see PRISM chemistry-based 7, 14–16 Poaceae 485 climate-sensitive sediments 64 Podocarpus 219 data-model comparison 271–306 podzol, as palaeoclimate indicator 18, 19 Eocene–Oligocene transition 359–377 polarity, reversal geological 7 Oligocene–Miocene boundary 390, 391 glaciation 13, 17 Pliocene 460, 461 lithological 16–19 pollen magnesium/calcium ratio 318–319 analysis 11, 13,19 Neoproterozoic 64 Neogene nutrient utilization 12, 15 Southeastern Europe 503–512 ocean circulation 12, 14–15 Western Europe 482–498 Ordovician 107–116 as proxy 268 palaeoclimate 6–7, 11–13,14–15 Populus 485, 505 palaeontological 19–21 post-Cryogenian warm interval 63, 63 pH 12, 13,16 Praealveolina 244 precipitation/evaporation 13 Praeglobotruncana 236 productivity 12, 15 pre-Cryogenian warm interval 62, 63 quantitative 251–306 Precambrian–Cambrian transition, ecology 81–82, 85, salinity 11, 14 94, 96 sea-ice cover 13, 15 precession 35 temperature 11 Ordovician 111, 112, 113 Pseudohastigeria micra, extinction 354 Pleistocene 29 Pseudotextularia elegans 242, 244 precipitation Pterocarya 485, 489, 508, 510 Cretaceous 211, 212, 213, 218 Pulleniatina obliquiloculata 413, 417 palaeoclimate modelling 161 Pyrgo elongata 415 proxies 13 Pyrgo murrhina 414 Triassic 207, 215 Upper Jurassic 209, 216 Quadrolaminiella 86 predation, Cambrian biota 92, 94–95 Quercus 483, 484, 485, 487, 489, 505, priapulids, Cambrian 85, 86, 87, 88,94 508, 510 Priapulus caudatus 87, 88 primary production Racemiguembelina 242 Cambrian 94 Racemiguembelina fructicosa 242 Permian–Triassic boundary 196 radiolarians Primicaris 91 Cambrian 84,85 PRISM Eocene–Oligocene boundary 355 GCM modelling 445–454 PETM 335 palaeoclimate reconstruction 459–475 Rakvere regression 126 , 129, 130, 131, 132 history 461–463, 462 rare earth elements, as proxy 12,15 ice volume 469 Recent localities 463, 464–465 cool mode 10,27–29 sea level 469 foraminifera 239 sea-ice 470–471 geography 292 SST estimates 461–469, 472, 474–475 reconstruction, palaeoclimate, Neoproterozoic 61–77

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red-beds, as proxy 256, 268 sediment Redlichia takooensis 89 climate-sensitive, Neoproterozic 64 reefs glacial 17 carbonate 17, 219 glaciomarine 368 coral weathering, Eocene–Oligocene transition 368–369 Caribbean 403, 436, 437 sedimentology, deglaciation 171–172 as proxy 11, 14, 256 Semilingula 178 Reevesia 508 Sequoia 489, 491 regressions Serpukhovian, cool mode 9,24–25 early Ashgill 130, 131, 132 shale early Rakvere 126, 129, 130, 131, 132 black Guttenburg see Guttenburg Positive Carbon Early Palaeozoic 123, 131–135, 137–140 Isotope Excursion Mo/Al ratio 12,15 reptiles, as proxy 255, 256, 257–260 see also anoxia, Early Palaeozoic Icehouse Rheic Ocean 109, 135 ‘hot’ 134, 170 Rhodoleia 485 Shankouia zhenghei 89 Rhoiptelea 485, 508 Shatsky Rise LIP 32 Rhombodinium 335 shells see biomineralization Rhus 508 Siberia, Ordovician 109, 115 Rhynchopora australasica 175 Siberian Traps, flood basalt 32, 37, 38, 192, 193, 195 Roadian, warm mode 9,25–26 Siderolites 244 Rodinia, reconstruction 63, 65, 67, 68, 69 Sidneyia 91 Rotalipora 236, 238 silcrete, as palaeoclimate indicator 18 Rugoglobigerina 242 silica, biogenic 15 Eocene–Oligocene transition 365, 367, 372 Saiwan Formation 174 Pacific Ocean 433 Sakmarian, deglaciation 171–184 silicate weathering, Ordovician 105 salinity silicon cycle, modelling 23 Atlantic/Pacific contrast 430, 432–433 silt, sortable, as proxy 19, 394, 395, 401 proxies 11,14 Silurian Salix 505, 508 atmospheric carbon dioxide 125 Santonian early, cool mode 8, 24, 38 foraminifera 237 marine anoxia 126, 128 palaeogeography 277 mid-Early Carboniferous warm mode 8,24 Sciadopitys 485 simulation see modelling sea-ice Sindora 485 modelling 66, 69 Sinoburius 86 PRISM palaeoclimate reconstruction 470–471 Siphonodosaria 416 proxies 13,15 sipunculans, Cambrian 86, 87, 88,94 sea-level smectite 19, 368 fall, Eocene–Oligocene Transition 362–363 snow cover Mesozoic 202, 203 modelling 161 PRISM palaeoclimate reconstruction 469 Neoproterozoic 66, 69, 70, 71, 73–74, 77 rise, Permian–Triassic boundary 195 snow gun hypothesis 106–107, 109, 111, 360 sea-surface temperature Snowball Earth glaciations 61, 62, 64, 65 Cenozoic 319–320 simulation 23, 62, 66–69, 70–71, 72,73–77 Mid-Pliocene soil, fossil see palaeosols PRISM reconstruction 450–451, 453, 459–475, South America, Early Permian, palaeontology 173 470, 472, 474–475 South Equatorial Counter Current 109 foraminifera 466–467 South Gonwana Current 109, 115 Neoproterozoic 66 Southern Component Water 414 Plio-Pleistocene Southern Ocean alkenone organic proxy 539, 541–555 gateways 105, 371–372, 393–395, 396 eastern equatorial Pacific study 550, 552–553, oxygen isotope data 397, 398, 399 555, 564 Sphaeroidinella dehiscens 413, 417, 418, 419 seawater Sphenolithus capricornutus 390 Mg/Ca variation 314–315, 331 Sphenolithus ciperoensis 390 Cenozoic deep-water 317–319, 331 Sphenolithus delphix 390 Cenozoic surface-water 319–320, 331 spodosol see podzol strontium ratio, Permian–Triassic boundary 196–198 sponges, Cambrian 86, 87, 94 see also aragonite sea; calcite sea Stellostomites eumorphus 84 sedgwickii graptolite zone steppe, origin 512 glaciation 130, 131, 132 Steptoan, climate 8, 23, 32, 37 regressive oxygenation 135–136 Stilostomella 352

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Stilostomella extinction 412, 415–416 Tibetan Plateau 392 stomata, density, as proxy 13, 21, 219, 365–366 uplift 393 storm deposits see tempestite Tilia 485, 508, 510 stratification, Sub-arctic Pacific Ocean 107 Tivertonia 173 Strombina 436 Toarcian, climate 9,25–26 strontium Toba super-eruption 32 isotope ratio 11, 12, 14, 16 Tomiopsis barakerensis 178 Eocene–Oligocene transition 368 Tonian Period 62, 63 Ordovician 105, 107, 113 tooth enamel, oxygen isotope composition 229 Permian–Triassic boundary 196–198 topography Strophlosia 178 land-surface, PRISM palaeoclimate reconstruction Sturtian glaciation 62, 63 471 simulation 65, 66–69, 70–71, 72,73–77 mountain, palaeoclimate modelling 161, 163 Subantarctic Mode Waters 415 Tortonian, latitudinal climate gradient, pollen data Subbotina 326, 331 486–488, 494–495 Sula dactylatra 435 tortortoises, as proxy 256, 259–260, 262, 265 sulphur cycle, modelling 22 Tournaisian, climate 8, 24, 34 Sun Tournquist Sea 109 faint young 61, 65, 67, 73–74 Toweius 326 output variation 35 trace fossils see also luminosity, solar Cambrian 87 Sunella 86 Cretaceous 230 Sunella bispinata 84 transfer function techniques 20, 466–467, 548 sunspots 35 Tremadocian, climate 8,23 Superanoxic Event, Permian–Triassic boundary Treptichnus 87 195, 198 Triassic superplume events 30, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38 biomes 207, 214, 215 Ordovician 109 climate model 205, 206, 207, 215–216 Symplocos 485, 487, 489 flora 207, 215–216 palaeoclimate 203, 205, 215 Talchir Formation 177–178 precipitation 207, 215 Tasman Gateway 392, 394, 395, 396, 399, 400 temperature 205, 206 opening 30, 32, 371–372, 393–395, 403 Upper, palaeogeography 204 Taxodium 484, 489, 508, 510 warm mode 9,25 Taxonomic Uniformitarianism 474 see also Permian–Triassic boundary taxonomy, in palaeoclimate reconstruction 19–20, 228, Trigonotreta 178 418 Trigonotreta hesdoensis 173, 178 tectonics see plate tectonics Trigonotreta lyonsensis 175 Telychian Trigonotreta narsarhensis 178 climate 8,24 trilobites, Cambrian 89, 91, 92 Late, glaciation 126, 127, 130, 131, 132 Tsuga 485, 491, 508, 510 temperature Turborotalia cerroazulensis, extinction 354 anomaly, PETM 331 Turborotalita humilis 413, 417 Cretaceous 210, 218, 219–220, 225–230, 226 Turborotalita quinqueloba 413, 417, 420, 420 land surface, modelling, Latest Permian 162–163, 164 Turonian 27 proxies 6, 11, 14, 539 foraminifera 237 Triassic 205, 206 palaeogeography 275 Upper Jurassic 208, 216 turtles tempestite 13,17 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 358 Tenuitella anfracta 413, 417 Panamanian Seaway closure 437 Terminal Tethys Event 402 as proxy 256, 258–260, 261, 265 Tethys K closure 402 U37 alkenone unsaturation index 11, 14, 541–542, 565 Seaway 392, 403 assessment 548–553 Triassic 215 Ulanisphaeridium berryense 177 TetraEther indeX see TEX86 Ulanisphaeridium omanensis 174, 177 TEX86 11, 14, 64, 227, 323, 331, 362 Ulmus 485, 508, 510 Thalmaninella 236 Uniformitarianism, Taxonomic 474 thermocline, and Northern Hemisphere glaciation upwelling 569–570, 571–572 late Ordovician 134–135 thermohaline circulation see circulation, thermohaline Mid-Miocene 415 thermoregulation 229 Northern hemisphere glaciation 569–570, 571 thorium, as proxy 12,15 Urokodia 86 Thuleilat well sections, Oman 175, 176, 177 Uvigerina mediterranea 415

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Varanger glaciation see Marinoan glaciation weathering vegetation flux, proxies 12,15–16 climate modelling 164 palaeosols 18 Mid-Pliocene warm period 448–450 sediment, Eocene–Oligocene transition terrestrial 368–369 Eocene–Oligocene boundary 357–358 Weller Coal Measures 178 Neogene, pollen data 482–498, 503–512 Wenlock, climate 8,24 PRISM palaeoclimate reconstruction 471–472 Early Palaeozoic Icehouse 127 see also flora West Antarctic Ice-Sheet 389, 396, 401, 521–523 vertisols, as proxy 18, 19, 268 West Gonwana Current 109 Vetustovermis 91 Wetzeliella 335 Vise´an, climate 8, 24–25, 38 whales, Eocene–Oligocene boundary 358 vision, as trigger of Cambrian ecological revolution 95 Wilsonidium 335 volcanism Witbank Basin, coal seams 174 and atmospheric carbon dioxide 30 Wiwaxia 91 Central America 428 wood, fossil see growth rings subglacial, as palaeoclimate indicator 17–18 Xianguangia 86 Walvis Ridge, PETM, carbonate dissolution 332 Xiaoheiqingella 86 waptiids, Cambrian 86, 89, 89 warming, global Yakutsk-Baltica LIP 38 Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 319–320 Permian–Triassic boundary 192, 193–194, 193, Zelkova 485, 508, 510 195–196 Zhenghecaris shankouensis 83, 84 water column studies, alkenone organic zinc, as proxy 12,15 proxy 544–545 zooplankton, Cambrian 82–85, 93,94–95

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