Social Studies Vol. 6, No. 2, 2012
Valbona NATHANAILI • Manjola XHAFERRI & Mirela TASE • Sunaj RAIMI • Ardita Prendi • Ervin Karamuço & Deniona Katro • Ermela HYSA • Mirela Çepele DIMO • Dashnor IBRA • Etel TELEZI • Gjergji SHQAU, Albana MADHI & Imelda SEJDINI • Lindita Lutaj • Marta BEJ • Ledia Kashahu • Marina Dalla & Lekë Sokoli Studime Sociale Vëll. 6, Nr. 2, 2012
SOCIAL STUDIES / STUDIME SOCIALE
Vol. 6, No. 2, 2012 / Vëll. 6, nr. 2, 2012 DIRECTOR / DREJTOR LEKË SOKOLI EDITOR IN CHIEF / KRYEREDAKTOR SEJDIN CEKANI EDITORIAL BOARD / BORDI BOTUES SERVET PËLLUMBI ANJEZA HOXHALLARI Chariman KARL KASER MARTIN BERISHAJ NEVILA KOÇOLLARI ALBANA CANOLLARI PAJAZIT NUSHI TONIN ÇOBANI ALI PAJAZITI ZYHDI DERVISHI ROBERTO CIPRIANI KRISTO FRASHËRI GËZIM TUSHI ILIR GËDESHI ALFRED UÇI EGLANTINA GJERMENI BRUNILDA ZENELAGA
International Conference of Albanian Institute of Sociology; Albanian University; Mediterranean University of Albania
Tirana-Albania, 21-22 November 2011 (Proceedings, III)
ISBN: 978-9928-4000-3-1
© Albanian Institute of Sociology / Instituti i Sociologjisë
Ed: Lekë Sokoli Arti Grafik: Orest Muça
Scientific Journal, certified by the Highest Scientific Committee of the Republic of Albania; Decision no. 170, date 20th of December 2010
Contacts / Kontakte: Rruga “Abdyl Frashëri”, pall. 3/3, Tiranë Mobile: 0694067682; 0682236949; E-Mail: [email protected]; [email protected] www.instituti-sociologjise.al; MARRËVESHJE PËR BASHKËPUNIM INSTITUCIONAL
1. PALËT E MARRËVESHJES Sot më datë 14 01 2012, në Tiranë, nënshkruhet kjo marrëveshje bashkëpunimi ndërinstitucional ndërmjet ALBANIAN UNIVERSITY, përfaqësuar nga Rektori Prof. dr. Pavli KONGO, dhe INSTITUTIT TË SOCIOLOGJISË (ALBANIAN INSTITUTE OF SOCIOLOGY), përfaqësuar nga Drejtori Ekzekutiv i tij dr. Lekë SOKOLI, me qëllim mbështetjen reciproke, si dhe nxitjen e shkëmbimeve të eksperiencave sipas objektit të veprimtarisë së tyre, pa cënuar misionet respektive. Palët në këtë marrëveshje, bien dakort të bashkëpunojnë për realizimin e veprimtarive të poshtshënuara në varësi të burimeve dhe potencialit të disponueshëm nga secili institucion. 2. PARIMET E BASHKËPUNIMIT: Institucionet nënshkruese të kësaj marrëveshje konfirmojnë nevojën e përpjekjeve në drejtim të konsolidimit të vlerave kulturore, shkencore dhe akademike në vend, e cila ndikon pozitivisht në drejtim të forcimit të klimës së shtetit të së drejtës dhe impenjohen: 1. Të punojnë së bashku në frymën e barazisë, reciprocitetit, transparencës, lehtësimit të pjesmarrjes dhe zhvillimin e kapaciteteve të nevojshme në drejtimin e studimeve shkencore; 2. Të promovojnë iniciativat shkencore dhe të shkëmbimit kulturor me qëllim rritjen e kapaciteteve njerëzore në drejtimin e studimeve shkencore; 3. Të nxisin promovimin e standarteve më të larta në cilësinë e kërkimit si edhe të integritetit etik në punën kërkimore. 3. DREJTIMET E REALIZIMIT TË BASHKËPUNIMIT Bashkëpunimi ndërmjet dy institucioneve do të përfshijë dy drejtime. A) Bashkëpunimi i përgjithshëm institucional nëpërmjet: • Përcaktimit të fushave kërkimore me qëllim integrimin midis strukturave për aktivitetin didaktiko- teoriko-praktik, të zhvilluar në mbështetje të kurseve universitare dhe pasuniversitare; • Shkëmbimit të kapaciteteve të burimeve njerëzore të institucioneve në aktivitete didaktike, projekte të kërkimit shkencor me interes të përbashkët si: konferenca, seminare, bashkëbisedime me studentë të tjerë; • Mbështetjes së kërkimit shkencor të orientuar drejt praktikës duke u mbështetur nga metodologji të bazuara në vëzhgime të thelluara dhe të situatave komplekse, raste studimore, anketime ose racionalizëm të përvojës së akumuluar menaxheriale dhe konsultative të institucioneve; • Organizimit të përbashkët të kurseve specifike, trajnimeve, leksioneve të hapura apo seminareve në lidhje me tematika që kanë interes studimor ose praktik. • Shkëmbimit të materialeve dhe rezultateve të punës studimore dhe shkencore që realizohet në të dy institucionet; • Krijimit të lehtësive për kryerjen e praktikave mësimore të studentëve të “Albanian University” pranë institucionit përkatës; B) Bashkëpunimi në fushën e studimeve të doktoraturës do të konkretizohet nëpërmjet: • Mbështetjes dhe bashkëpunimit reciprok në organizimin e projektit kërkimor shkencor të Albanian University si dhe në organizimin e programeve të studimeve doktorale në fusha të ndryshme. • Gatishmërisë së Institutit të Sociologjisë për të mirëpritur studentët e regjistruar në programet e doktoraturës për të konsultuar materialet e ndryshme të institucionit me qëllim kërkimin shkencor sipas rregullave të këtij të fundit. • Mbështetjes dhe bashkë-udhëheqjes të studentëve të ciklit të tretë të studentëve të doktoraturës gjatë realizimit të projektit shkencor. • Krijimit të lehtësirave të nevojshme nga ana e institucionit për realizimin e studimeve të doktoraturës në Albanian University. NDRYSHIMI/REVOKIMI I MARRËVESHJES Çdo parashikim i kësaj marrëveshje mund të ndryshohet apo të revokohet në çdo kohë, pas një konsultimi dhe mirëkuptimi reciprok ndërmjet dy institucioneve. HYRJA NË FUQI Kjo marrëveshje hyn në fuqi menjëherë, pas nënshkrimit nga përfaqësuesit e institucioneve përkatëse. Nënshkruar në Tiranë më, 14 janar 2012.
Albanian University Instituti i Sociologjisë Rektori: Drejtori Ekzekutiv: Prof. Dr. Pavli KONGO Dr. Lekë SOKOLI Contents:
Valbona NATHANAILI School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania. Politics, issues and trends...... 5 Manjola XHAFERRI Marriage and integrating formative & Mirela TASE basis of the family as society’s development process nowadays...... 15 Sunaj RAIMI Albanian University Education in the Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of Bologna process...... 23 Ardita PRENDI The cultural differences and social deviance...... 31 Ervin KARAMUÇO The role of Albanian Ombudsman & Deniona KATRO and the implementation of key priorities of European Union...... 37 Ermela HYSA The implication of philosophy on the diplomatic strategy...... 47 Mirela Çepele DIMO Textbooks - The challenge of the future: Psychosocial and pedagogical criteria of literature texts in secondary schools, a major factor for modern teaching...... 51 Dashnor IBRA The King Zog alliance with Italy for extraction the country out of crisis...... 57 Etel TELEZI Teachers motivation and teaching quality...... 63 Gjergji SHQAU, Albana MADHI Urban and regional development & Imelda SEJDINI of the city of Elbasan...... 71 Lindita LUTAJ Civic Education curricula in the formation for Civilization...... 83 Marta BEJ The impact of Parenting styles and education on the phenomenon of Bullism...... 91 Ledia KASHAHU The Influence of family functioning and school-family relationship in adolescent academic achievement at the subject of the Albanian language...... 101 Marina DALLA Acculturation and subjective & Lekë SOKOLI well being among Albanian immigrants in Greece...... 111
SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN PRE-UNIVERSITY EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ALBANIA. POLITICS, ISSUES AND TRENDS.
Valbona NATHANAILI - Albanian University, Tirana-Albania Director, UFO Press & lecturer of “Reform and legislation” E-mail: [email protected];
he job of the school leader is able to understand what will happen to becoming very difficult. During a school at 5 to 10 years following, to identify Tworking day, he has to face a variety problems and to know how to respond the of challenges and to find solutions for needs in change of the community. Will be many problems of all kinds. On the other able Albanian School leadership to manage hand, the children community in school successfully, the intensity and the speed of is growing diverse due to their family environmental change around? origins which have different and unique This essay is a review of key issues, structures and to demographic movements. trends and current policy in Albanian school A diverse community represents diverse leadership at pre-university education demands. The school leader shall be the system. manager and the teacher, the planner and the implementer, the school advocate 1. Overviews of the theme and its critique, so as to be committed and able to perform its responsibilities, Reforms in education reflect the social comply with the requirements of DAR changes. The political influence in the and MASH and find the balance between Albanian education system has been present top-down guidance with bottom-up and ongoing for a long time, affecting initiative. There are many complex roles therefore the formal and informal concept a leader shall take which means assuming of a school leadership. many responsibilities, however, not always Until the ‘90s, the most important justified by the salary. reforms undertaken in education are Our main concern is to save the public those of 1946 and 1963, as well as the schools, but to compile such a mission, we incorporation of ideological movements need a new kind of leadership, visionary, principles of ‘60s-‘70s in the field of
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 5-14 6 School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania education. The ideological context renders leading authorities in the field of education the school analyzing process and the by the draft law on pre-university education review of the pedagogical literature of that system in Albania, which I believe they time difficult. The school has completely will help us to shape the perception that the a political and ideological character. legislation gives to the school leader and to The most often used principle was “the proceed further with other issues. democratization of education”, which consisted in providing education to all 2. Leading authorities according people and keeping a close connection the draft-law “On pre-university between the school and everyday life. education system” As for the school leader, the solution applied in practice was interesting. The Law no. 7952, dated 21.06.1995 election was made on the basis of strict “On pre-university education system”, as certain criteria, including (but not limited amended; it is expected to pass soon the new to): correctness and fairness, long experience law “On pre-university education system” and excellent teaching skills, good relations (comments below refer to this draft). with the teaching staff and good knowledge Under Chapter III, Articles 23-40 in the field of pedagogy, communication and Chapter IX, Sections 64-66, it is and organizational skills as well as “good treated, respectively, “The management biography”. However, the communist of pre-university education system” party secretary enjoyed vast competences and “Leading authorities in the pre- regarding the implementation of the educational system.” Article 23 states the communist ideology line in school by main principles of leading of pre-university recruiting new and more promising teachers education institutions, including a list of to be, later, part of the school leadership. professional and managerial skills that a After the ‘90s, it should be noted how leader should possess, while articles 24-33 much efforts has been made to change schools. give the hierarchy of leading authorities of Although the importance of education it educational system, as well as the duties and is to all indisputable, the philosophy of missions of each of them. education, together with the priorities to be set and the standards to be used, have risen At the national level: The Council of and continue to rise debates. An increasing Ministers and Ministry of Education and number of stakeholders: politicians, school Science (MASH). administrators, parents, teachers, various The Council of Ministers designs the agencies, within and outside the country, general national policies, approves the are involved in varies debates, such as school national strategy of pre-university education functioning and preconception of its mission, and sets criteria for including children in the modification of educational practices in need in financial assistance schemes; response of new demands for accountability Ministry of Education and Science and quality, how to motivate teachers or (MASH) is the highest administrative how class size influence student academic public authority in the field of education. achievements, technological innovations MASH designs the national strategy of and their use in classes, the performance of pre-university education system; compiles students and the skills required to challenge and elaborates teaching plans and curricula job market, generally, under the same name: for the development of education through reform. The following is a brief summary its specialists and its subsidiary institutions of the mission and duties appointed on the in conformity with international trends Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 7 and national, regional, social-economic level, to respect standards leadership, to and demographic peculiarities of Albania; guide the design and implementation of approves the basic school documents which semester and annual institution plan in constitute teaching plans, programmes cooperation with the school board, faculty and textbooks for the public educational council, parents, local educational unit institutions; sets curriculum, administrative (DAR/AZ) and the local government unit, and infrastructure standards; inspects pre- to provide periodical assessment of student university education system; is entitled achievement and school self-evaluation, to to make experiments for the quality guide pedagogical council, and to encourage improvement of education in conformity and provide professional development to with international standards, in co-operation school; to perform annual assessment work with the specialised institutions within for all school employees. The school director and out of the country. MASH creates is appointed by the Regional Education the National Council of Pre-university Directorate (DAR) based on competition. Education System as an advisory body. Leadership directs, at school, the learning, administrative and financial processes. At the local level: The basic unit on the local government and Regional The translation of external expectations Educational Directory (DAR) or into internal meaning (from school inside) Educational Office (ZA). The basic unit on the local government The central figure of the school is duties relate to the provision of public its leader, known as the principal. The educational institutions infrastructure, leader is considered the highest authority and support with funding for: extra in the school to resolve any conflict; he salary, financial aid for students in need, must possess a range of skills, categorized awards for gifted students, training of as technical, personal and managerial. educational institutions staff and curriculum With regards to the leadership at school development by choice. level, there are many other organizational Regional Educational Directory (DAR) structures designed to support the work or Educational Office (ZA), whose director of the leader and to successfully achieve is appointed or dismissed by a decision of the school’s mission, but the engagement’s the Minister of Education and Science, quantity and quality of these actors is under the procedures established by legal mostly a product of the leadership style acts issued by it (see below). that the school leader has chosen to apply. Not only does it vary from area to area, At the school level: School but also, often, within the same area. The Leadership, Deputy Director, School success of a certain style comes as a result of Board, Pedagogical council, Subject team personal leadership initiatives, disregarding and Student Government. the guidelines of the system, which in fact are missing to a great extent. External exceptions for school leadership The leader may exercise control at class level and holds the right to make an annual The mission of school leadership is assessment of the teacher’s performance to guide the activities of the institution, in which gives him a formal authority over order to continuously improve the quality the teaching staff. On the other hand, of education service for all students, to it is almost impossible for the leader to ensure implementation of the law at school dismiss an incompetent teacher or such 8 School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania a mission requires extensive efforts and concept, but it is limited only to definitions. DAR proceedings, which often are forced The culture of individual leadership and to end up without an effective resolution. a lack in conceptualization of practices of This drawback can be compensated, distributed leadership are obstacles which however, by way of a good leadership have to be taken in consideration. In general, and communication skills so as to create the interchange and influence range of the the necessary climate of cooperation and leadership is limited: it starts and ends improvement (when necessary). usually at the school’s boundaries (as a Generally, it has been noted a lack of building and social structure). The model of ambition among old teachers to assume the isolated teachers is mirrored in the model of role of the leader. Their participation in the isolated leadership. There is a lack in formal qualifications offered by the government and informal networks of leadership. The or the ones they personally select are of an success of a part rarely becomes the success academic background, usually in function of the whole, restricting in such way, the of professional preparation and acquiring propagation and dissemination of successful teaching materials. A career in the Albanian initiatives or improvement at the large-scale. education system is very limited and doesn’t Because Albania is a Balkan country, offer wide possibilities: it starts as a teacher there is a stereotypical perception of and can end (or not) as a principal. This leadership concept: individual leadership, career perspective evidences the presence who has difficulty to share (especially when of two more negative sides of it: firstly, the speaking about success) and large inertia in leader is not dynamic and then its job falls decisions (i.e. lack of flexibility). By taking into a normal working routine; secondly, forward this traditional concept, more considering that there are few leaders sensitive features becomes visible to high only in a large group of teachers, most schools and large schools with high number teachers are hold back by such competition of students and teachers and less visible in and do not aim at being in charge of the primary schools and small schools (again school, which translates in a lack of daily in terms of number students and teachers). engagement to the success of the school as Finally, social (informal) ties between a whole and in the encouragement of the school leader-teachers are generally weak. isolated-teacher model surrounded by the Often teachers do not feel comfortable in the classroom walls only. Furthermore, it is presence of the school leader. Furthermore, necessary to develop structures which will in Albanian public schools, the teacher is free make the leadership role more attractive to leave the school immediately following and flexible and, at the same time, it will the end of the class. His working day set higher leadership standards. formally terminates there. This impaired the In some cases, the leadership is a distribution of expertise from the director product of political circumstances. The to the teacher and can increase, in turn, missing key competences in such cases are influences teachers have on each other. technical, resulting in a disability to adapt The latest may contravene other initiatives the teaching programme to local needs and undertaken by the school. Responsibility is to engage in teacher monitoring, evaluation fragmented and centralized, meaning that and professional development. teachers respond for their classes and leaders The legislation encourages the concept for the whole school. For these reasons, of distributed and collective leadership, as in order to achieve a collective leadership well as the cooperation with a great number model, I think that still a long path awaits of actors to successfully implement this us ahead. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 9
3. School leaders/school leadership a brief description of the mission school recruitment, preparation and development followed by the required criteria:
Based upon bylaws passed in The school director of SOS Hermann accordance with law No. 7952, the Minister Gmeiner directs and manages the daily of Education and Science has the authority activities of SOS school. to hire or dismiss the Regional Educational Directory leader (DAR) or Educational Criteria required: Office leader (ZA’s). In the case of the • Degree in teaching in 8-year education school leaders, the policies for hiring or cycle (preferably masters degree in the dismissing them vary on the applicable field of education/ management); formally designed procedures and criteria. • Have at least 5 years experience as So, with regards to public schools, DAR a director and at least 15 years of leaders have such power, whereas as per teaching experience; private school, the selective criteria and • Knowledge on contemporary teaching dismissing procedures are subject to the methods and pedagogical work with internal institution rules. However, despite children. the established authority responsible for • Skills in managing human resources; selecting the school leaders, there are some • Good interpersonal skills of oral and formal minimum requirements to be met written communication; for candidates which are almost identical • Ability to work under pressure; in both types of institutions (public or • Ability to work in groups and private), such as: the candidate shall hold independently; a university degree in the field of education • Ability to analyze and evaluate and other qualifications and he should situations and to take actions for have teaching experience. But due to the protecting the children; competition between these two sectors of • Motivation, commitment, flexibility; education, private schools, in order to gain • Good knowledge of English; popularity, tend to invest more resources in recruiting qualified leaders and embrace The following table is a summary of key higher standards of quality. The following qualified requirements for school leadership example is a school leader job vacancy compared with DAR leadership requirements. advertisement at “Hermann Gmeiner”, The selection criteria is based on Law No. an elementary school. The advert was 7952 on “Pre-university education system” published in the newspaper and it contained and bylaws issued in accordance with it:
Table 1
School leader – selection DAR leader –selection
With formal competition With open formal competition (organized by MASH) (organized by DAR/ZA) Without mandate With status of servant service (employment contract) Elected among teachers Elected among school leaders (professional) (professional) 10 School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania
Traditional scheme of carrier Usually traditional scheme of carrier are followed: (teacher-assistant leader – school teacher – school leader- DAR leader; the selection leader) applies occasionally is made by a commission, set up at MASH. Informal criteria: It is often Informal criteria: It is perceived as political perceived as political position; position; rotates together with the government individual initiatives is necessary changes accompanied by the change of DAR leaders from persons who aspirate to be itself. school leader; other peer network. Formal criteria Formal criteria - university degree MASH official notice for the election of the - (master in management/ Director of DAR Durrës, Lezhë and ZA administrative education is a responsible Librazhd, Krujë and Tropojë priority); 1. University degree (bachelor) or second cycle - qualifications; diploma, with good/very good results in the - long teaching experience. field of teaching; 2. Experience in education at least five years continuously; 3. Knowledge of the legislation in the field of pre- university education system; 4. Communication skills and group work; 5. Knowledge on information technology; Documents to be submitted: • University Diploma • List of high school grades • Employment card • Certifications of post university qualifications • Proof of proficiency of a foreign language • List of publications • Certificate of participation in team works or different projects • Proof of clearance The competition will be organized based upon files and interviews, on 23.12.2011, at the Ministry of Education and Science.
As seen from the table, Law No. 7952 nor to recognize professionals with strong “On pre-university education system” and leadership potential for the future. The the bylaws issued in accordance with it common perceiving of the teaching do not contain clear criteria for selecting profession is that it does not offer career the school leadership. Those criteria are opportunities. determined by DAR (ZA), which are not always transparent or accessible to In contrast with the actual law, the all; it should be noted that, in general, it draft law “On pre-university education doesn’t exist any clear policy to identify system” sets up criteria for selecting the and recruit candidates among the teachers, school leader which are characterized by: Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 11
• A selective procedure starting up with and are unrelated to the real problems the an open competition; schools face. Therefore, it should be done • Selective criteria easily accessible by more to improve the CVs of school leaders the public at large; which would improve directly the school • The decision for short listing the best environment. However, such programs shall two candidates taken by a committee be welcomed in all those schools which have composed of members of interest become part of their initiatives. groups; their decision is forwarded to We have to note, too, the role of Ministry the Director of the DAR (ZA) who of Education and Science, together with its makes the final selection; subsidiary institutions in compiling and • Obtaining a Leader Certificate (valid developing policies and strategies for school for 8 years and upon its expiration, the leadership: DAR, the Institute of Pedagogical holder must pass again through the Research, the Institute for Educational application procedures to renew it); Development (IZHA), the Department of • A limited mandate of 5 years, with pre-university education, the unit responsible the right to be reelected. for human resources policies in MASH and training centers for education and training In order to obtain a school leader (the latter is created with the help of World certificate, the application is open to Bank). But, the Ministry of Education individuals who: and Science has not drawn up a long-term plan related to the development of school 1. have finished successfully university leadership, nor did it list priorities in this studies of second or third cycles in the regard. Little effort has been made to develop field of administration/management human and social capital. Additionally, education the lack of a coherent and comprehensive 2. have a diploma in teaching method to select talented staff and the 3. are not subject to an administrative insufficient training funds have contributed or criminal proceeding together in the diminishing the quality of 4. present two positive recommendations school leaders and increasing the number of 5. have several trainings participations unqualified school leaders who run a school. 6. have taken the final exam of qualification Selecting school leaders who will participate of directors organized by MASH in training is usually a competence of DAR. The issued covered therein are generally 4. School leaders/school leadership related to: curricula, teaching by focusing preparation and development on the student, methods to develop a critical thinking, teaching methods, evaluation and The year period 1990-2010 self-evaluation, planning, decentralization, is characterized by an apparent lack of legislation, child abuse, human and children investments in leadership preparation and rights, communication, school conduct and development. An significant role for training management etc. school leader is played by various national and international nongovernmental agencies 5. The current changes that have been operating in Albania, which organize made in relation to school leadership through different projects workshops for in these last years school management. Unfortunately, they are uncoordinated at the national level. Trainings The current changes which have been are often offered outside the school building made in relation to school leaders are as follows: 12 School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania
• a clear list of a school leader’s powers 3. The leader’s role in the pedagogical and competences; development and curriculum • establishing selective criteria for the management. school leader; 4. Institution development plans; • a road-map to be followed so as to 5. Cooperation strategies with community obtain and maintain such position. representatives and governmental or non-governmental partners. Their powers and competences are 6. Communication, ethics and technology. granted by way of a certification issued by a special commission set up in MASH; According to the Directive no. 5310 the selective for electing the school leaders / 2, dt. 12.10.201, issued by the Secretary are established in the draft law; and the General of Ministry of Education, Mr. road-map to be followed so as to obtain Skënder Uka, a program is set up which the position of school leader is described adopts the belief that the institution’s direction in the MASH Directive on this matter. and management shall not be left to the Additionally, these changes are drawn up chance. School leadership should be set up in compliance with specific leadership professionally, at the expert level of leadership standards, following also the experiences and management. The purpose of this program of Albanian successful leaders and foreign is to help the current leaders and those who training program documents on topics such aspire to lead an institution, to meet the best as: what leaders should know and achieve standards of a leader. and ethical and behavior standards of The Directive Nr.7170, dated working. Therefore, qualification programs 22.11.2010 “On qualification of pre- and their respective modules are drawn up school and school leaders” of the Ministry which provide for the basic knowledge of Education and Science, states that and skills of a modern school leader and qualification procedures for leaders agencies/universities are contracted in order in public and private pre-school and to develop training modules for current school institutions shall be developed school leaders or candidates to the position. in compliance with the Regulation “On qualification of leaders in pre-school Example: Modules program for and school institutions”. Current school training school leaders in the pre-university leaders and aspiring ones are subject to education system: this Directive. According to the Directive, in order to be considered as a school leader 1. Main theories and practices of candidate in a pre-university institution, managing the institution; one shall obtain the “Leader Certificate”. 2. The applicable legislation for This certificate may be obtained in the way conducting and managing the described as follows: institution.
Leader Certificate (Valid for 8 years).
THE FINAL QUALIFICATION TEST [the assessment is based on bonuses (10 % of total points are awarded when holding one of these degrees: SHPU, MND, MSc, professional master, PhD and a foreign language qualification) and on test results (90 % of total points)] Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 13
The national program for qualifying Individuals Individuals Individuals contemporary leaders* who have hold who hold a who hold the Application criteria: the position of university position of the - holds a teaching degree based on an education degree of school leader the respective level of education institution second or for at least 5 system; leader at third level consecutive - is at least a qualified teacher least for 10 in education academic of the third category and it is consecutive management years until the awarded at least “good” at this years until the and passing date of qualification test - he is not subject passing date of administration the Directive to administrative or criminal the Directive of accredited of the Minister proceedings; of the Minister universities. On leaders - presents two positive On leaders qualification. recommendations from direct qualification. superiors with whom has worked during the last five years.
* According to the MASH website, “The on a national level etc. Usually, the national program for leaders qualification” communication is unilateral and the school aims to teach to the participants the knowledge, leader does not have power of freedom in the practices and necessary competences to perform implementation of such policies. Therefore, the duty of the leader in compliance with schools conduct strategies are harmonized contemporary successful principals and practices. with each other and with the system in The main object of the program is to increase whole. Other mechanisms applied to create competences at a national level and develop a close relationship between the DAR and school management materials. The program the schools and to monitor the policies’ author is IZHA, in collaboration with the implementations are zone inspectors who “School of Educational Management” in the cover 4-5 schools. They are part of DAR Netherlands, 2010-2012. staff and are organized and directed under the directives of MASH. 6. Actors and agencies that support The community is very passive on the policies and the implementation of school matters. In general, when a school school leadership is not satisfactory to a parent, the solution usually is to change it for a new one. Agencies which monitors the policies for leadership implementation are MASH 7. Major weaknesses and major strengths and its subsidiaries, DAR and ZA. on school leadership in Albania To a certain extent, DAR has some freedom degrees to implement the national Major strengths strategy for education, but always within the • A good tradition boundaries of its zone of jurisdiction. • A general desire of parents to provide a Periodic meetings are organized with good education for their children despite school leaders in DAR. The DAR leader financial difficulties, that’s mean more gives instructions on school policies, events pressure to school for a good quality. A to be organized, different issues on teaching national survey conduced in Albania by methods, initiatives to be undertaken ORT/USAID in the autumn of 1997 14 School leadership in pre-university education system in Albania
with 1500 residents with topic on life levels and measures when these levels achievements preferences, showed that are not satisfactory, to aware leadership 30% of them (around 439) chose as for public accountability has taken. first preference education. • The intervention of politics, steadily, • Constitutional obligation to implement in the appointment and dismissal of international treaties ratified by the school leadership, lack of transparency Republic of Albania (Article 4 of the in the selection of candidates; Albanian Constitution: The Republic • Unstable school leadership, especially of Albania applies international law in big cities (in some cases, within that is binding upon it; and under a period of 2 scholastic years, are Article 116, ratified international changed until three directors). treaties have priority over conflicting • The lack of professional networking Albanian domestic laws). leaders, formal and informal. • The draft law “On pre-university • Inclusion of school outside actors and education system”, which improves partners, in general, is ineffective and the object of the law and improves the sporadic. existents ambiguities in the professional • Lack of space needed for individual status of a teacher and school leader by leadership development. granting them a similar treatment with • Lack of initiatives or strategies for other professions. leadership development, lack of serious investment in creating a new Major weaknesses generation of leaders. • Lack of quality of external and internal • Appointment at the position of school accountability systems, have negatively leader of unqualified people , without a affecting in completing the tasks related preliminary preparation for direction. to the mandate of the Director, in • Lack of support for various forms of assessing and reporting of achievement successful leadership.
BIBLIOGRAFI
Liebermann A. & Miller L., 1999. “Teachers: parauniversitar dhe standarde të lidhura me to”, Transforming their World and Their Work”. udhëzim i ministrit të Arsimit dhe të Shkencës, New York: Teachers College Press. Myqerem Tafaj, hyrë në fuqi, duke filluar nga Ligji nr. 7952, dt. 21.06.1995, ndryshuar me semestri i dytë i vitit shkollor 2009-2010. ligjin nr. 8387, datë 30.7.1998, “Për disa Nathanaili V., 2011. “Reforma dhe legjislacioni në ndryshime në ligjin nr.7952”, dt. 21.06.1995 sistemin arsimor parauniversitar”. Çështje, “Për sistemin parauniversitar shqiptar”, praktika dhe politika, rasti shqiptar. Tiranë: në mbështetje të nenit 16, të ligjit nr. UFO Press. 7491, datë 29.4.1991 “Për dispozitat Payne Ch. M., 2011. “So much reform, so little kryesore kushtetuese”, “Për sistemin arsimor change. The persistence of failure in Urban parauniversitar”, ndryshuar me ligjin nr.9903, Schools”. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard datë 17.4.2008, “Për një ndryshim dhe Education Press. shtesë në ligjin nr.7952”, datë 21.6.1995, Elmore R.F., 2011. “Reforma shkollore nga brenda “Për sistemin arsimor parauniversitar”, të jashtë. Politika, praktika dhe performanca”. ndryshuar, në mbështetje të neneve 78 dhe Tiranë: UFO Press. 83 pika 1 të Kushtetutës. Pierce & Stapleton, 2011. “Drejtori i shkollës i MASH. “Normat e punës mësimore në arsimin shekulli XXI”. Tiranë: UFO Press. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 15
MARRIAGE AND INTEGRATING FORMATIVE BASIS OF THE FAMILY AS SOCIETY’S DEVELOPMENT PROCESS NOWADAYS
Manjola XHAFERRI - University “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres-Albania Faculty of Political Science and Law E-mail: [email protected];
Mirela TASE - University “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres-Albania Faculty of Business E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
The paper aims to present the role that marriage plays in creating family base in today’s societies, which carries the factors that favor or not social context, especially in recent decades. What makes this work interesting is the way of the concept over the marriage, including that everyone dreams about marriage, facing reality, the decision making process, the issue of joint activities and special family, past on the future of relations, the violence, including the woman being abused, concern for the future of children, and coping with violence breaking silence. The study also aims to ensure appropriate conditions and environment for a campaign in mass media, about what we actually experience of married couples and marriage as acceptable in our society is referring to here using the concept of marriage taboo of the past or as a natural phenomenon and the most desired. Also, special attention will be paid to the phenomenon of marital abuse and the consequences that it carries, and especially the reduction and prevention of this phenomenon, through policies designed to. And finally, the study aims to raise awareness and encourage victims of violence, that they can break the vicious circle of silence and isolation. Keywords: Marriage, Integration, Family, Society,
Marriage and integrating formative of society and I have their origins back to basis of the family as society’s the birth of this society. Every member of development process nowadays society grows in a family environment and is the fruit of a marriage. Both marriage Marriage and the family constitute and family just are inseparable elements of the two most important social institutions our society and complement each other. If
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 15-21 16 Marriage and integrating formative basis of the family as society’s development process nowadays we refer to previous studies carried out by different authors we notice that marriage represented a highly desirable phenomenon for various companies. This is also proved by several sociologists and anthropologists in their studies, but what we want to bring in this study is whether the marriage continues to be desired and awaited for every member of society, or perhaps, over last 20 years the concept of family and marriage as the function of each other has changed. On the basis of this study focuses on the fact that our We see today that the conception of society has broken many taboos that existed marriage as an institution on the basis before the 90s and one of these taboos has of interest is increased especially in the to do with how this society today brings age group of 20-29% and 30-39 years, a conceptually new way of family and the indicating that youth today is far way from role that should have each partner in this conceptually the of marriage from the 90s regard. The question arises, has difficulty prior to the youth that marriage conceived appeared in this regard ? For this reason as laying the foundations of strong families. we have touched on some issues with the For these two age groups of sincere feeling typical marriage as the basic institution and love there it is only through books and of society. We used two research methods movies there is any connection between that are surveys and interviews. There have the interest. been developed over 100 surveys and 50 In the second chart, presented in a interviews. Surveys were focused mainly column chart with the answers given to on conceptually of marriage today, seeing various age groups regarding the main it in different views. While interviews are cause of divorce today in the Albanian more focused on domestic violence as a family. widespread phenomenon in the Albanian The question is: Which of the following society. Initially, our study will begin with phenomena is the main cause of divorce surveys that we conducted, with data and a. Adultery result giving from answers. There are b. Domestic violence included different age groups with different c. Emigration social statuses, which make our study more realistic and more reliable. Below we present some graphs, to understand the different perceptions that different age groups on the questions presented in the survey. In the first chart we present the percentage of answers who perceive marriage as an institution on the basis: a. 58% of respondents conceive as an institution that sets the stage of strong family b. 23% coronation of a durable c. 10% above the base interest 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50- d. 9% of life insurance of a relationship 59 years 60-69 years Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 17
As seen by all age groups the main Survey has come from this result cause of divorce is adultery and it is that the age groups 20-50 years are greatly increased, especially among young now preferable to the fact that this people today that due to immigration coexistence enables better recognition of has sparked further violence divorce. both partners and subsequently this leads Domestic violence is seen as the second to the crowning of their relationship, important factor of divorces today and it while age over 50 years have preferred is even more pronounced in the age group marriage because it continues to be a 20-29 years and 50-59 years age group. taboo issue and this is very sacred. This violence is caused by unemployment of young people who are more affected and they find solace in alcohol drinking, drugs that are then reflected in domestic violence. While the age group 50-59 is close to the threshold of retirement and are seen as an age group who have not exhausted everything and 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50- what to give, so here is manifested quite 59 years 60-69 years over 70 years domestic violence. As immigration is a plague of Albanian society and especially In the chart No. 4, there is the question: the last 20 years has become a key factor Does family income affect coexistence in divorce in the family, however, it is in pair? seen as a third factor which is causes after a. many betrayal, and violence. b. little In the third chart, the preference shown c. nothing to have different age groups in society today about marriage or cohabitation. The graph nr 4 show us that the two age The question that was addressed to groups have chosen the first option where respondents is: Which is the most preferred many affect income and age groups 40-49 in today’s society? years and 50-59 years old think that little a. marriage impact on income in the couple relationship b. cohabitation and last age groups say they do not affect at all so this age group think that the couple this factor plays no role in it probably because they still have family in their concept of sound created on the basis of respect and love and not on the basis of income.
Domestic violence
One other important issue which has affected this study is the fact that domestic violence represents one of the most serious injuries in the Albanian society. The wound to determine as fact only because violence is 20-50 years over 50 years a phenomenon inherited from the past, but nowadays that has intensified with the rank 18 Marriage and integrating formative basis of the family as society’s development process nowadays enhanced Albania as one of the countries the experiences that can cause pain and with high% of domestic violence and abuse emotional distress. The extent of domestic in family. This not only shows statistics violence can be understood from the data obtained from OJQ but also by institutions Counseling Center for Women and Girls, such as Ministry of Labour and Social which since its founding in 1996 until now Affairs, Ministry of Justice, etc.,. A more in this call center has about 10 thousand complete picture of this phenomenon and women and girls and are committed more give the foreign organizations operating in than 1500 face to face consultations. Albania, UNICEF, UN, WHO, WB, etc.. Today in Albania’s only reception center To even further reinforce this phenomenon, for victims of domestic violence in Tirana, have developed a series of interviews which has done and is doing a tremendous conducted with women and girls raped in job on the help and treatment that gives many Albanian cities, but the biggest focus these abused women. Given all these data, of ours has been concentrated in the cities indicated that domestic violence is a serious of Tirana and Durres. Interviewed about phenomenon and unfortunately, there is 50 women of different age groups, which still no proper protective policies for this vary from 15 -70 years old. Interviews problem. The number of women killed included a series of open questions, about or wounded physically and emotionally women’s experiences in connection with from their abusive partners, should not abuse. Questions were formulated in such a be ignored or tolerated by the Albanian way that gave these women the opportunity society, rather there must be an awareness to explain battered in their own words the to combat it. As mentioned above, were experiences that they had experienced. interviewed about 50 women who had Interviews focused on those women who experienced abusive relationships or who considered themselves as victims, who had experienced interpersonal violence. The had been subject to control or abuse of purpose of these interviews is to identify any sort, regardless of whether it was women victims of domestic violence, with physical, sexual, psychological, emotional, different social backgrounds and with or economic. Before interviewing each different demographic characteristics. woman, you made clear who was the Although these women represent, area purpose of this study and of each of their and socio-demographic characteristics of anonymity will be preserved if they were different interviews can not be considered unwilling to publicly emerge. Studies that as an example for the entire country. have to do with women’s experiences with Participating in the study do not represent domestic violence are considered, as studies the entire female population of Albania. on sensitive issues as the potential to bring However, note that the experiences that
Table 1: Demographic Distribution of Respondents and marital status
Residential Nr Marital status Nr Education
Tiranë 20 Married 20 Primary Durrës 15 Divorced 10 Elementary Krujë 5 Engaged 5 Secondary Shkodër 5 The widow 5 University Permët 5 Members living 10 Postgraduate Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 19
Table 2: Distribution by age and profession
Age Nr Profession Nr
15-21 years 7 Teacher 8 21-30 years 15 Lawyer 7 31-40 years 8 Economist 5 41-50 years 10 Doctor 5 51-60 years 5 Commercial 8 61-70years 5 The unemployed 12 - - Students 5 women have expressed in these interviews, that this is a complex problem, explanations are characteristic of many Albanian for this include cultural factors, social, women, who unfortunately are forced to family and individual that play a role in undergo violence and kill their pain, due to increasing or decreasing the likelihood that circumstances and conditions under which women will become victims of violence. they are located. Below we present a table As a result of the analysis of interviews with demographic and personal data of and observations made to find similarities respondents. And another table with the between them, were identified several kinds distribution by age groups and professions. of topics, such as: the dream wedding, As shown in the tables above, the facing reality, being an abused woman, interviews focused on different cities, ending the silence and identify the problem. but are dominant Tirana and Durres and interviewers belonging to different age Dreams for marriage groups and professions. To discover how abused women envision their personal Many Albanian women cite the dream experience, we used qualitative research of getting married, and for having a happy methods. For in-depth interviews with family. For many women interviewed, 50 women victims of domestic violence, marriage was the most important goal was used techniques of data collection. In of their life. They consider marriage as designing the interviews, we tried to build a means of gaining respect and approval questions as neutral as possible, in order to of society, two key elements to achieve a discover the local interpretation of the case. successful and valuable. Another part of The interviews covered several topics, some the women saw marriage as a dream. By of which were related to violence, while comparison between dreams and reality others were related to daily life couple. as expressed by Kruja, Sejdia 48 years old Based on the theme of the interviews, with two children, the reality is even bitter violence against women includes, any act and stays far away from dream that she of gender-based violence, which resulted in has had for the wedding. Expressing her physical injury, sexual or psychological. In experiences, this woman had been married this study we refer to domestic violence, as 25 years and lived with a husband who violence perpetrated by partners and close was drunk all day and also abused him, a to other family members and that manifests hundred times physically, psychologically, itself through, physical abuse, sexual abuse, so it felt a woman raped, a humiliated psychological abuse and economic abuse. mother and a human being deprived of Studies on domestic violence demonstrate the right to be happy. also another female 20 Marriage and integrating formative basis of the family as society’s development process nowadays
24 years old and divorced with children by the daily reality. Sejdia says, Albanian from Tirana , Vojsava, with a hairdresser women are taught to be subservient, saying that we have a wrong concept of passive, dependent and obedient to men. marriage, according to her we women have In a way Sejdija adds, are we to accept idealized marriage more than they should, this reality that we live and not against, but in reality it is nothing only one rate, to to change it The same opinion was also be accepted in society even though, such a shared Sejdijen from Kruja Vojsava from rate is costing us the most precious thing, Tirana. So the cultural habits of being that is the freedom of making decisions and convinced, and family traditions and happiness. referring to interviews of women norms of the community, have precedence and girls, It Appears that 90% of them are of individual rights before Lutfia says unhappy with the idea of Being married, a teacher of linguistics from Durres. to emphasize the fact that ‘broke even feel According to her women have more duties themselves deprived of the right decisions, than rights, what makes a woman be a the right of financial independence, the slave somehow her husband and family. right to be equal to be fair and equal Women’s narratives show that traditional competition in society, etc. But besides gender roles can destroy relationships and these unhappy women, we also interviewed partners. Habits of patriarchal culture some of those who feel happy and realized to identify the woman as her husband’s that ‘broke the marriage have, some of property and a subordinate status in them say, that to be happy must swear a marriage. The traditional role of Albanian little diplomat. So this group of women women in the family is caring for children hold this idea that ‘to be happy to ignore and home. Dominant male model prevents the dignity and use any means to achive it. the inclusion of women in decision- But be carefully analyzing how broke their making. Many women reported that their expressions conceive and happiness, We partners’ violence is greatly bolstered as see that ‘they want to somehow convince a result of the desire by women to be themselves that’ they are happy, but actually detached from such a relationship. Many are not, because being happy does not mean women, for fear of increasing violence to deny the betrayal That makes the spouse, has sunk even worse in the trap of abusive you are aware, but does not know though, relationships. means being happy to exist between a pair of mutual respect, sharing of family Conclusions responsibilities and what is most important emotional response from both sides.As Tina This is a study designed to explore states, there can not be happiness between perceptions of today’s society about a couple, as long as we live in a patriarchal marriage and was being raped by it. society, where no gender equality and where Referring to perceptions of marriage the male uses every moment , to manifest are designed surveys, where their focus his superiority and by labeling yourself as lies in how different generations look at a human superior to females. marriage today as a social institution is preferred or not, based on interest-related Facing reality or not, as a strong combination between marriage and family . Many women speak pessimistically Likewise a big enough attention is about the fact that their hopes and paid to the phenomenon of violence that expectations for marriage was opposed is a major social problem in society today. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 21
This phenomenon is taking the size in all valuable to our society. age groups and is more common in rural 1. The state should work through its and suburban areas where economic and structures for social programs that state Albanian households is below the were helpful to families in need. subsistence minimum. But not only the 2. The state should work more social economic situation of women’s positions in consciousness through restoration these areas indicate that ‘She ‘ is considered of those values helpful to the family the slave of her husband. In this way it is contribute to maintaining healthy, a prey to domestic violence that can be which is then reflected in society. exercised in addition to her husband from 3. Different organizations and NGOs his family. Therefore we see a transformation operating in our country should of society today and the family values that work harder to sensitize society to the are becoming extinct. phenomenon of violence. 4. These NGOs should develop as many Recommendations projects which are helpful battered women by rehabilitating and through From this study we think to give some an intensive therapy they might feel recommendations that we think are very like being useful to this society.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atlas. 1997. “Qualitative data analysis, management Gjipali. S, Ruci. L. 1994. “Albanian women: and creation of models”. Hesitations and prospects, victories and Baban. A. 2002. Qualitative Research Methods: losses”, “Women and Transition in Central Press University. and Eastern Europe”, Bucharest. Baban. A. 2000. “Interviews and observations in Mills. L. 1996. “Transnational empowerment qualitative studies” Cognition, Brain and of women raped, the case of post-modern Behavior, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 17-328. interventions Social Work”, Vol. 46, No. 3, De Soto, H. Gordon, P, Gedeshi, Simonieri, pp. 261-268, Z. 2002. Poverty in Albania, Qualitative Parker. I, 1992. Critical analysis for social and Assessment, Washington: World Bank. individual psychology, London: Routlege D. C. Gelles. 1997. Intimate violence in families, UN. 1999. Report for the population, prohibition of Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA. violence against women, Vol. 4 , New York: Giddens. A. 2004. “Sociology”, Tiranë: Çabej. United Nations-ACE.
ALBANIAN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA AND THE CHALLENGES OF BOLOGNA PROCESS
Sunaj RAIMI - State University of Tetova, Republic of Macedonia E-mail: [email protected];
he theme which I have configured systems (before and after Bologna for this scientific conference will be framework agreement system). In this case, TAlbanian university education in the our ultimate goal would be the diagnosis Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of anomalies of modern education and of the Bologna Process”. I chose this topic of the promotion of those positive values the fact that as Professor of Sociology, I had that will always lead the higher education the chance to meet directly with the practice towards the safe progress. Needless to say and teaching in universities of the Republic that in order to observe all these important of Macedonia, before and after application moments of sociology, we should make of the Bologna Declaration. In this case, in comparative catapults from the educational the analytical content of this paper I will system of public universities (state), with attempt to address some issues that are those of private universities. the backbone of the Albanian university I want to emphasize that all these education in Macedonia. So I will speak analysis I will try to support primarily on my about the history of Albanian university personal experience as a longevous Professor education challenges in Macedonia, political of Sociology in secondary schools, public effects during these processes, the teaching and private universities, hoping that the methods applied and the holding of issues raised in this paper, will help somehow examinations, the unreformed curricula, the the officials of how education policy of traditional educational system characteristics modern university education should be (exchathedra) and the Bologna framework conceived. Let our analytical excursion system in the Universitites of Macedonia. start with a brief retrospective of the In addition, during our scientific history of Albanian university education in treatments, we will also shed some critical Macedonia. But most importantly, a proper analysis of the main advantages and study for the development of Albanian disadvantages of these two university university in the Republic of Macedonia
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 23-30 24 Albanian University Education in the Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of Bologna process can not be treated completely separate from about preparations for the opening of the the development of Macedonian ethnicity Higher Pedagogical School in Skopje (the university education in the common state of so-called Pedagogical Academy), thinking the population of Macedonians, Albanians, that they will eventually ease the demands Turks and other communities that live there. of the Albanians for their education in their This is so because of the fact that native language. However, the opening of the creation of the state of Macedonia, the Higher Pedagogical School, failed to (People’s Republic of Macedonia), which resolve or approximately resolve the issue of had occurred after the Second World War Albanian education in Macedonia, because and that in the context of the then Yugoslav in the Higher Pedagogical School there were Federation of Tito, it was created as a joint prepared cadres of teachers only for primary state of Macedonians, Albanians, Turks and schools, but not for secondary schools. Even other nationalities living there. the opening of the Pedagogical Faculty in Considering this public fact, one should Skopje in Albanian language does not solve emphasize that the Albanian university in the problem but only softens it, as it only the Republic of Macedonia begins to be prepared educators and preschool teachers organized within the State University for elementary level and primary school - “Cyril and Methodius” in Skopje. Although Primary School Teaching (class. I-IV,), but the university was founded shortly after not for teaching subjects (from class.V-VI) World War II, more specifically on 1946, Bearing in mind all these documented one should clarify that learning across premises of the institutional discrimination faculties and study programs was then of the Albanian education, it becomes organized only in Macedonian, whereas clear that the flow of Albanian university Albanian educators while wishing to study education in the Republic of Macedonia in Albanian, were forced to learn in their took place somewhat different from non-native language, i.e., in Macedonian that of the Macedonian community, and and Serbo-Croatian. It makes clear that the that from the three main reasons. First, initial establishment of the University “Cyril the Macedonian community university and Methodius” in Skopje essentially only education in the Republic of Macedonia was the needs and demands of the Macedonian more advanced than that of the Albanians, population in the Republic of Macedonia, because it was realized in the level of while the Albanian population needs not faculties, and therefore lasted four years. only weren’t taken into account, but they Meanwhile ’university’ education for the continued to be ignore shamelessly and Albanian community was at the Pedagogical uninterruptedly with decades. High School (not the faculty!), and studies Exactly from these reasons, to fudge in this higher school lasted only two years! numerous allegations that the Republic Second, because of university education of Macedonia (which at that time thus for the Macedonian people was lying in found within the Socialist Federal Republic almost all fields of faculties and study of Yugoslavia), does not follow all the programs relevant to that time, which in requirements of the Albanian population fact shows clearly that university education to higher education, the Macedonian of Macedonians belonged to all the profiles authorities then allegedly began to think needed to complete an education of one about solving the problem of Albanians for nation. On the other hand, university university education. education for the Albanian community was Thus, the then government of the really limited, because it took place within Republic of Macedonia, begins “to engage” the Pedagogical Higher School, where Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 25 there were really only academic conditions specific subjects that were tought by for the production of class teachers and Albanian professors, still the majority of subject teachers for primary schools only. professional subjects were being taught in While other profiles important to realize Macedonian! the basic needs of people, such as economic Through a similar fate went the studies, legal, medical, engineering etc, Pedagogical Academy in Skopje (thus can not be followed in Albanian, but only Pedagogical Higher school), because from in Macedonian. And third, because of the the moment of its foundation in 1951-1952 reason that university education for the its functioning faced with a lot of troubles, Macedonian community in the Republic where in 1987 was closed, again later to of Macedonia occured only in their native re-open. This suffocating condition of language, i.e., in Macedonian, and that higher education of Albanians in Macedonia it occured in all study programs without went up from the years 1995-1996, exception. While university education for when the aforementioned Pedagogical the Albanian community was extremely Academy in Skopje decided to raise the curtailed, even at those levels which Faculty of Pedagogy. In this way, for the produced only educators and teachers for Albanians in Macedonia was finally created the elementary school cycle only! an opportunity to finish four years of study, It is significant to note that even in as their fellow Macedonians. directions where the impression was gained However, it should be noted that the that Albanian students were studying in advancement of the Faculty of Pedagogical Albanian (as in the old Higher School Academy, was not due to an empathetic of Pedagogy, or later in the Pedagogical sense of government officials towards the Faculty in Skopje), actually Albanian Albanian higher education which was left language courses were given only in bad, but because the legal reforms that teaching Methodology subjects out of many Europe had imposed, now requested that all professional subjects. Whereas all other teachers and educators without exception, subjects, which were numerically more must have a university education of four than 80%, Albanian students were forced to years. But despite all these formal and learn in the Macedonian language, although legal interventions from the government it was for students who were enrolled to officials, also this “advancing reform” did study in Albanian? not substantially improve the education Years passed, generations came and of Albanians in Macedonia, because went, but the state of university education in many subjects continued to be taught Albanian was changing very slowly, because by Macedonian professors, where to the government actually did only cosmetic Albanian students lectures were given in changes. Later, in the frame of the Faculty Macedonian!? of Philosophy of the University “Cyril and In the indexes of these students, Methodius” in Skopje which was founded grades for the passed exams were written in 1951, after many attempts and various in Macedonian language, even if thta it was vicissitudes, around 1971-1972 was finally for the students who studied to become established the Department of Albanian teachers of the Albanian language. Language and Literature. For such vulnerable situation and deeply But it remains paradoxical the fact discriminatory education of Albanians in that despite the naming of this educational Macedonia shows also the official statistics institution as the Department of Albanian of the Ministry of Education and Science, Language and Literature, except some where it can be noted that in the academic 26 Albanian University Education in the Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of Bologna process year 1995-1996 in Higher Schools and authorities used all perfide forms and modes Faculties in Macedonia, there are total to finally suffocate and kill the existence of of 28,766 students enrolled, of whom this University of Albanians. only 1566 were Albanians. It is worth Though these were the years when mentioning that in the earlier period, when activists, supporters, teachers but also the Albanians living in common Yugoslav students of the University were persuited, state, the discrimination of the Albanian harassed, imprisoned, and also there were demands in Macedonia for university cases where people were brutally murdered education in their native language was (as for example Abdylselam Emini). evident. Indeed, at that time Belgrade’s After a while, with the repressive forms hegemonic policies against Albanians could of the then Macedonian authorities still be seen in the recording of the Albanians in this did not bring any results, because the higher education, which barely ranged from University of Tetova continued with the 2 until 7 % over the period 1981-1987. work by being expanded and developed, So after all this long journey, the but the state began to use fraudulent forms situation of Albanian university education of diplomacy. Thus, in the academic year began to change more substantially in 2000/2001 Macedonian government then 1994, when the fate of university education tried to paralyze the functioning of the was taken in their hands by the Albanians University of Tetovo, by supporting the themselves, or one nation which had much establishment of an international university, more needs for education - the Albanian private, so-called South East European people. Thus, the insatiable appetite of University in Tetovo, (known as Stoel the Albanian population for university University, in token of his reverence for the education in their mother tongue, did founder of the former Commissioner on eventually engage all relevant factors and to National Minorities Max van der Stoel). solve the problem that was stopping their At that time from the rulers it was social progress years in a row. by and large trumpeted that the Stoel On the initiative of Albanian University will finally fulfill the needs of the intellectuals, political parties, various Albanian population for higher education. organizations and people who love Several scenarios developed in these education, on 17 December 1994 was districts which were prognozing merging founded the University of Tetovo, where of the University of Tetovo with the learning eventually began developing only private Stoel University, some others were in Albanian. This was a historic event for the envisioning the merge of Pedagogical history of the Albanian people in Macedonia. Faculty in Skopje with several branches of But, since to the state of Macedonia was the University of Tetovo. Voices were also not suitable the foundation of a University heard about the proposed combination of with Albanian national attributes that will these three institutions with undergraduate be governed exclusively by Albanians and teaching in Albanian (Tetovo University, have its own national curricula, the state South East European University in Tetovo immediately after the charter, declared the and the Pedagogical Faculty in Skopje). University of Tetovo institution as illegal The goal was clear: The government of (Pre-universy in the small Recica, by calling Macedonia wanted to establish control it even as ‘dead baby’!). over university education of Albanians in Although it was very difficult to Macedonia. But, even these following traps constitute and develop the University of for the strangulation of Higher Education Tetovo, because the then Macedonian of Albanians failed, because the suffering Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 27
Albanian people of these regions with an to happen this way in higher academic unprecedented fanaticism defended and circles, though, and higher educational levels financed the further functioning of the – the defenses of MSc and PhDs Albanian University of Tetovo. candidates. Thus for example, even when This national self-financing situation of the candidate is Albanian, the committee the University of Tetovo lasted until 2004, consisting of Albanian professors, knowing when the Government of the Republic of that master or doctoral thesis is in Albanian, Macedonia was found to a great pressure the applicant must address in front of the from the Albanian population in Macedonia, committee in Macedonian. but also by the international community and And now, after you were informed finally decided to accept the legitimacy of with the way of how is developed education this University, by officially declaring it in the Albanian language universities as the State University in Tetovo. Thus, in Macedonia, the time is to approach considering this chronology of events it can the aspect of implementing the Bologna be said that the years of university education Declaration in undergraduate institutions, in Albanian language in Macedonia during because all of the above institutions are the period 1994-2004 were filled full of signatories to the European Declaration for political tensions, and academic challenges education. When it comes to implementing of international diplomatic calculations, as the Bologna Declaration in Universities there were proved more different scenarios and Higher Institutions of the Republic of to solve the problem of university education Macedonia, it should be noted that the first in Albanian language in Macedonia. principles of this agreement in Macedonia Fortunately, today these mentioned begin to be realized after the 2001-2002 university institutions (State University, academic year, and that in the South East South East European University in Tetovo, European University in Tetovo. the Faculty of Pedagogy in Skopje and the This private university, which as Department of Albanian Language and mentioned above was established by Literature in Skopje), in spite of these internationals, its main aim was to satisfy difficulties faced during their progressive the demands of the Albanians for university journey, they continuously strive to satisfy education in their native language. Therefore, the demands of the Albanian population since Western European countries financed to modern education. Although, it should the operation of this University, they be noted that institutional discrimination immediately launched in this University against Albanians in terms of their education the teaching model of ECTS. And this outside of the State University of Tetovo, thing, for the new circumstances created still continues to be present. For example, in the Republic of Macedonia after the it is very difficult for the University of armed conflict of 2001, represented a new “St. Cyriland Methodius” in Skopje to university system which characterized the change discriminatory policies, when it transfer of credits, i.e, with the workload comes to Albanians. With the competition of subjects. Credit transfer system actually for students enrollment in academic year represents quality measurement system, 2011/2012 halved the Department of making the student’s job classification, the Albanian Language and Literature, since number of hours, participation in lectures, “St. Cyriland Methodius” stopped running homework, exams, etc. In other words, it translation section from Albanian to becomes clear that this educational policy Macedonian and vice versa. What’s even actually aimed compatibility of curricula of more surprising, discrimination continues the European Universities and the mobility 28 Albanian University Education in the Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of Bologna process of students and professors, with its purpose professional duties. While in the second of efficient communication between cultures group are being recruited those researchers and businesses. This noble initiative, who consider that the application of the although primarily aimed at integrating Bologna model in Universities of the the European educational segment, thus it Republic of Macedonia has positively aspired latently for the pre-preparation of affected, because among others it has several post-communist states of Europe, for stimulated new student enrollments in the political and economic integration in the various Universities. European Union. In this case, all countries These people believe that students, who and universities that wanted to enter in the study with researcher’s model of ECTS, ‘Federation of European educational values’, are characterized in that they know more were forced to perform some duties while languages and that they are more mobile respecting the requirements imposed by the across the world. It is worth mentioning Bologna Declaration. that both these contradictory attitudes about However, the realization of this project the impact of the implementation of the was no easy thing, because in many Bologna Declaration on higher education, countries of the former communist campus, remain persistent towards each other, socio-political transition proved to be an thus attempting to argue their advantages endless process, which is difficult to adapt but also disadvantages of the other party. to new circumstances dictated by the united Personally, I can fully agree with the views of Europe. Difficulties in the implementation any party, though from my own experience of these principles of reform in university I conclude that blind implementation of the education in these countries were numerous, Bologna Declaration, without taking into for there is everything inherited from the account our specific conditions, can lead to previous system and did not comply with irreparable damage in university education new rules dictated from the European in Macedonia. Union. In these difficulties there are also Figuratively, it will resemble to the included the ruied university facilities, old anecdote what the Greek philosopher house classrooms, old-fashioned technical Socrates said that ‘sometimes people are equipments, libraries and ideological transferred from the exciting waves, where books, old-fashioned professors, old- along with the wastewater from the manger fashioned teaching methods, students with they throw their babies, too!’ weak learning motivation, people with Also I want to emphasize that I traditionalist mentality and officials with do not agree with nihilistic attitudes of opportunistic mannerisms! some education researchers, who see the In short, this whole ecclecticism of Bologna Process as ‘cultural destroyer’ of all elements and moments that were just secular values that are created in university emphasized, in one way or another, has education of the peoples of the Balkans contributed to the full implementation of and elsewhere. But I can not agree with the Bologna Declaration in the Republic the negative phenomena secretly involved of Macedonia, which is still not felt in our university system, and that thanks to properly implemented. According to the the ‘unauthentic implementation’ Bologna proponents of this group, students of Charter! But what does this actually mean? previous generations who had graduated This according to my convictions means that from the traditional method of study, even rigorous implementation of the Bologna today, they are proving themselves to be Declaration, in the manner done for decades the most capable staff in performing their by the developed countries of Western Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 29
Europe, to us in Macedonia should not be without giving much effort. Several alike. The reason is that this way of applying technological devices to such manipulators the model of university education in our enable that with a mobile phones they copy circumstances is not natural, and therefore exam tests, then send them to ‘comrades in gives grotesque results! Implementations of logistics’ and finally get adequate answers to any innovation, no matter what it is, if not their exam tests. Some other ‘agile’ students ‘ironed’ the conditions and circumstances put in their ears chips or headphones barely where population lives or works it will too small to be seen, where their associates give a very doubtful result unless it fails who are at home with books in their hands completely! read their answers to the questions, thus In my opinion, the application of the getting answers instantly. Bologna Declaration in many universities of To these students’ ‘tricks’ it helps the Balkan countries, here joined Macedonia the fundamental principle of the Bologna as well, did not take into account the Declaration, which recommends that successes and traditional values that secured examinations must be held exclusively in ‘the old study of ex chatedra’. written form, because students should be Implementation of the Bologna allowed at any time to see their tests, in researchers model apriori it is understood order to see their errors. Here then, are as something of much better quality than hidden causes that a significant number our so far educational system, as coming of Macedonian students studying with the from the developed countries of Europe, Bologna Charter, have no proper education. which should necessarily lead us into that And consequently, these students have developed world. However, this way the difficulties later on in the exercising of their so-called ‘European transformation of life profession, future profession. university education’, brings the hyper One should not forget that to this production of the personnel and diversified unreal education of the students; contribute professionals, whose profiles were until also some professors, lecturers, who have recently unknown to us! finished their master degrees and PhD A significant proportion of students degrees in suspicious circumstances or completing their studies by learning these anonymous universities. A part of these subjects and study programs for which they teachers seems to have misunderstood the themselves simply do not know why could trump cards of technological progress and they serve for? In many cases the knowledge therefore they get not at all prepared for of these students is shown as restricted as lessons, but just read the instructions from they are taken from the handbooks and the laptop. They do this until the electricity non-scientific scripts (but not from reviewed stops, and when it happens, in order to not books), that within itself have thousands of be compromised, such teachers are obliged scientific and spelling errors. to give students a break! A significant proportion of students A problem in itself is the fact that a gripped with fever of Bologna process, large number of such students have serious think that their own presence at lectures difficulties in their communication. They and exercises, necessarily means that they actually can not properly express their should pass their exams, and therefore thoughts, because throughout their studies have no reason why to learn. This situation they have almost never spoken orally, since contributes to the boom of technology, all the tests they have passed in a written which in all probabilities; to many lazy form. There is no new thing when we students has helped to pass the exams note that the rhetoric, eloquence and 30 Albanian University Education in the Republic of Macedonia and the challenges of Bologna process marvelous style of speech is not achieved professional institutions dealing with just by copying others who speak or the issue of education should seriously write beautifully, but also by talking and consider, as said aloud by the eagle-hearted practicing nice speaking every day. So and with the nightingale voice philosopher oratory requires permanent training and - Nietzsche, to make ‘re-evaluation of cultivation, in every place and every time, values’, which in our case would mean the and this is best done in the classroom, re-evaluation of educational values. through lectures, exercises and exams. Thus, by doing carefully the re- It is quite indicative to mention the fact evaluation therefore one should take into that even in high schools similar situation consideration the best things that time has prevails that is characterized by lowering proven, like previous educational systems, the quality of education, loss of interest in as well as those younger systems. But always teaching the pupils and the violation of the having into consideration ethnic, cultural, school discipline and the code of conduct. It economic, social, political particularities of will be sufficient to open a daily newspaper indigenous population, because only this in order to get informed of this lamentable guarantees the successful implementation state of primary or secondary education of new educational models. in that country. Here is a statement of Based on all this that has been said professor F.E, employed in a high school above, we can conclude that the creation in Skopje, who with a few words clearly of a truly professional personnel, students reflects the difficult situation in which it is equipped with knowledge and practical the education in the Republic of Macedonia. skills, who are prepared to deal with Among other things she says: ‘Generations contemporary challenges of life, can only to come are becoming increasingly weaker. be achieved thanks to the careful adaptation They have come to such a level that they do of the principles of Bologna Declaration not know how to explain teaching’. conform the existing circumstances of that To get out of this dead end street, country and people.
REFERENCES
Jashari, Hasan, (2005), Sociologjia e arsimit, Petkovski, Konstantin, (1998), Menaadzment vo Interlingua, Shkup. uçilishte, Prosveten rabotnik, Skopje. Shehu, Shaban, (2001), Sociologjia e arsimit, Gazeta Nova Makedonija, nga datë 11.11.2011 Interdiskont, Shkup. (e premte), fq.5. Mustafa, Avzi, (1997), Edukata dhe arsimi nëpër http://vargmal.org/dan4969-fq8, nga datë shekuj, Shkup. 12.11.2011. Vishko, Ali, (1992), Kongresi i Alfabetit dhe i http://www.flf.ukim.edu.mk/Закатедрата/ Shkollës shqipe, Shkup. tabid/367/language/en-US/Default.aspx, Marks, Xhorxh, (1997), Educiranje na gragjaninot nga datë 05.11.2011. vo XXI vek, Obrazovni refleksi, Skopje. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 31
THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND SOCIAL DEVIANCE
Ardita PRENDI - E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
Many scentific studies are initially based at the statistic analysis of the data gathered in field. The field is preceded by a very interesting analitic aspect based in various psychological and social theories, thus combining several disciplines, which place themselves in service of individ and society. Social analysis of cultural differences become the basis of social deviances in general, as noted in modern societies today. The purposes of the analysis: in order to find the causes of changing and the cause-effect relations, refered in the background of this analysis, it is needed to set which variables, whether psychological or social, are involved in how the individuals are influenced by their cultural background. Also, here will try to analyze the ways of adapting to new cultural elements within the same cultures as such. Method of analysis: Since we are not dealing here with statistical analysis, the methodology of work will only be metaanlitike therefore based on already known theories and their combination for the purposes of our analysis. Results: The results of this study will blend together with conclusions and will be used as key points to the future orientations, so to whom this analysis serves, why is it important to consider, how and what changes might be done, if such are needed. Conclusions: Why it is important to consider, and what changes can be made, if such are needed. There is an urgent need to better understand social deviances, which are closely based on cultural differences or on other coexistent variables, need which this psycho- social analysis tries to cover. Certainly, such tests should be followed by proper studies in field, but this is only the preceding step and not empirical one. Variables suggested in this analysis, which could be used in future in the empirical direction are closely related to the culture within a city, different cities, influences on minorities (which by now have become part of local culture), gender differences, age, etc. Keywords: psychological deviances, deviant behaviors, cultural differences, cross communitation
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 31-35 32 The cultural differences and social deviance
I. Introduction types of deviant behavior. In Durkheim’s view, the punishments established within a All live into a society, without which culture (including both formal and informal we can live as we are dependent on it mechanisms of social control) help to define from birth up to death. Every society acceptable behavior and thus contribute has its values and norms. To live in the to the stability. If improper acts were not society we must obey them.Norms and committed and then sanctioned, people values are the expectations that society has might stretch their standards of what towards us. They have social sanctions and constitutes appropriate conduct. every individual is obliged to obey them, Social constructionist perspective sees otherwise social deviances occur. as a product culture in which we live. There are a number of case studies The representatives of this trend focus about deviance which relate to expectation specifically on decision-making process of why the deviant behavior occurs and how which creates deviant identities. They it can be addressed so the person. Deviant noted that the concepts as “missing behavior is behavior which does not attach childen”, “dead beat dads”, “spree killers” so widely and in acceptable way to social and “date rapists” have always been among and cultural norms, for example murder us, but with time have become major is an extreme form of deviant behavior social issues of the moment because the which violates the cultural norm and is media coverage, (Liska and Messner1991. unacceptable to kill another human being. Wright et al.2000). The first step to understanding deviant behavior is the study of social and cultural Interactions Perspective norms. Norms vary widely between The functionalist approach to cultures and in some cases, conduct which deviance explains why rule violation is decent or acceptable in one culture may continues to exist in societies despite be either hard or considered unacceptable pressures to conform and obey. However, to another. The study of norms in itself functionalists do not indicate how a given involves the history, the evolution of norms person comes to commit a deviant act or at all time, studying the changes that might why on some occasions crimes do or do not occur to the norm, just as societies change. occur. The emphasis on everyday behavior (example wearing gloves in public was once which is the focus of the interactions a social norm, especially for the ladies in the perspective is reflected in two explanations western world, and now worn mostly when of crime cultural transmission and routine the weather is cold and by both genders. activities theory. According to Howard Becker (1973), labelling theory was not conceived as Cultural Transmission the sole explanation for deviance; its Sutherland’s ideas have been the proponents merely hoped to focus more dominating force in criminology. He attention on the undeniably important drew on the cultural transmission school, actions of those people officially in charge which emphasizes that one learns criminal of defining deviance. behavior through interactions with others. Such learning includes not only techniques II. Theories of deviances of lawbreaking (for example, how to break into a car quickly and quietly) but also the Durkheim’s Legal on criminal acts, yet motives, drives, and rationalizations of his conclusions have implications for all criminals (Tseng. look references). Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 33
Traditionally, research on deviance has non verbal sign says one thing and means focused on people who violate social norms. another in a different culture and country. In contrast, labeling theory focuses on The connection between intercultural police, probation officers, psychiatrists, comunication and deviance exists when judges, teachers, employers, school officials, a sign can be offensive in a culture and and other regulators of social control. These the same sign can be appropriate in agents, it is argued, play a significant role in another culture. Must be noted that this creating the deviant identity by designating is an important part of the study, as to certain people (and not others) as “deviant.” educators, businessmen or any other form An important aspect of labeling theory is of career that is related to communication the recognition that some individuals or between cultures, it is important the groups have the power to define labels and understanding of non-verbal signs and apply them to others. This view recalls significance, their meaning, in order to the conflict perspective’s emphasis on the avoid offensive conversations. social significance of power. Nowadays with the changes and There are four different types of developments taking place with the galloping deviant behaviors, which are divided into strides, researchers are increasingly trying four categories. to recognize the importance of biological One of the four categories is the false factors of human behavior and mental . accusation of an individual who falls under the the others perceivement of you being IV. The psychological deviance. with obedient or deviant behaviours. Pure deviance, which falls under In psychological context, this science perceiving one to participate in deviant uses the concept of deviance, merely when and rule – breaking behaviour, is also part discussed about behavior and thoughts of deviant behavior. that are not appropriate with specific Conformism, which is not perceived as situations. In general, the deviances in deviant, but simply by taking part in social behavior are more obvious, because we norms that are distributed within society. are every day in contact with individual Finally secret deviance which is happens (person) and his environment. The when the individual is not perceived deviance behavior is characterized from as deviant or participating in any rule inconsistent features in time and in space, breaking behaviors. that means, that it may seems in different forms, against individual that have not the III. Cross-Communication as social same opinions (thoughts) ,when he do deviance it deviance behavior. The behavior is the communication form, with the reason to But what happens when people from communicate oneself and others persons. different cultures attempt to communicate, Numerous studies are conducted in when in many cases also may have misconceptions the Western and Asian world in trying to or misrepresentations among them? show the close connection of the scientific Intercultural communication is an area disciplines which will be mentioned of study that sees how people from different below, always taking into account the cultural background try to communicate. main objective, to highlight the individual All cultures use non verbal communication, psychological deviances, caused or not by which in many cases has different meanings the situation, structure or the role of the in different cultures. In a given country, a society and culture, they come from. 34 The cultural differences and social deviance
These kinds of relations between If communities compare cultural the thinking, behavior and emotion, differences, then it is becomes possible are characteristic of clinical psychology that this comparison be turned into analysis. In order for the deviances to enter epidemologic acros-cultural study. the framework of mental disorders, they In many cases the information provided must meet the following criteria: by this science becomes the basis for investigating cultural issues. In other words - cause restraint of expression of thought essence of cultural psychiatry is the analysis and its forward to others, of culture and its relation to psychiatry. This - slow the thinking, up to leaving the category includes several conditions that are sentence unfinished, commonly known as psychiatric disorders. - being lost in crossing through thoughts There is nothing particular about them or ideas, in terms of clinical manifestation (thus, - thought lost while going in details, they are not specific or unique disorders). - thought becomes persistent, being However, their prevalence is influenced constantly repeated (perseverance) strongly enough by cultural factors that they - thought is characterized by ruminations may be viewed as heavily culture-related (repetitively focusing on the symptoms syndromes rather than merely ordinary of distress) psychiatric disorders. Culture may also vary - thought is incoherent, the issues related to these problems. - of thought expressed in the form of From the perspective of examining the neologism. impact of culture on these psychopathologies, there is room for discussion, even though, Cultural psychiatry as a science in in a strict sense, they are not considered itself shows an interest in socio-cultural culture-related specific syndromes. Thus, aspects of human behavior, socialization a culture-bound syndrome is not always and recognition of entire psychological “bound” to a particular culture unit or system deviances. Representatives of intercultural identified in association with ethnicity, but psychology, the science that is related to the can be observed among several different systematic study of behavior and experience, ethnic groups in different geographic areas aim to understand how it occurs in different (Westermyer & Janca, 1997). cultures (Triandis, 1980). Its goal is to Such syndromes need to be test the majority of psychological laws, to reformulated as heavily “related” to certain develop psychological instruments, valid for cultural traits that can be found in different intercultural application, and to discover the geographic areas, or across ethnicity or frequency of specific behaviorsor separate cultural unit or systems, which share incidents in different populations. the common cultural view, attitude, or The Epidemologic Psychiatry elements attributed to the formation of epidemologike is connected to frequency the specific syndrome. Based on this new of mental disorders observed in the understanding, the term should be changed community or society. to “culture-related specific syndromes” By comparing the prevalence of mental to reflect its nature accurately (Tseng & illness in different societies or countries, we McDermott, 1981). can provides information about how the There is an increased interest among premises, sociocultural facilities contribute Western cultural psychiatrists such as to the formation and manifestation of (Littlewood & Lipsedge, 1986) to recognize different types of psychopatologyes. syndromes in “our own” Western cultures Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 35 that are heavily culture related. Several understand the disorders psycho dynamic. psychiatric disorder shave been suggested Clinical assessments must be carried out by various scholars for consideration as intensively to individual cases in order Western culture-related syndromes. These to understand the personal histories, include anorexia nervosa (Littlewood family background sites, psychological & Lipsedge, 1986; Palazzoli, 1985; development, stress and the models of Swartz, 1985), obesity (Ritenbaugh,1982), and handling it, as much as possible in drug-induced dissociated states, multiple forming disorders. Completion of these personality, and even premenstrual studies will make possible an understanding, syndrome (Johnson, 1987) disorders more meaningful information of the that are seldom observed in non-Western metamorphosis of culture-related syndromes: societies. Because these conditions are to how individuals respond to stress-related already recognized in the existing Western culture with culture-conditioned reactions, nosological system, they are, in a sense, not within a specific socio-cultural climate. viewed as “specific” syndromes. However, Making an effort to find the real they can be viewed as “culture related” positivity of cultural and historical psychiatric conditions that are influenced contributions of a society, learning at least by the pathoelaborative, pathofacilitative, a few expressions of in the language of or pathoplastic effects of Western culture. another person, showing appreciation for the music and food of another culture, V. Suggestions for future research can have positive effects and less room for misunderstandings and misinterpretations The need to perform comparative of the behaviors of individuals belonging studies of to individual cases in order to to different cultures.
REFERENCES:
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 22(3), 199-205. Disorders (4rd d.). Washigton D C.: Ritenbaugh, C. (1982). Obesity as a culture- American Psychiatric Association. bound syndrome. Culture, Medicine and Johnson, T. M. (1987). Premenstrual syndrome as Psychiatry, 6(4), 347-361. a Western culture specific disorder. Culture, Tseng, W.S., & McDermott, J.E, Jr. (1981). Medicine and Psychiatry, 11 (3), 337-356. Culture, mind and therapy: An introduction Littlewood, R., & Lipsedge, M. (1986). The to cultural psychiatry. New York: Brunner/ “culture-bound syndromes’ of the dominant Mazel. culture: Culture, psychopathology and Tseng, W.S., Handbook of Cultural Psychiatry biomedicine. In J.L. Cox (Ed.), Transcultural (248-260) psychiatry (pp. 253-273). London: Croom Westermeyer, J., & Janca, A. (1997). Language, Helm. culture and psychopathology conceptual Palazzoli, M. S. (1985). Anorexia nervosa: and methodological issues. Transcultural A syndrome of the affluent society. Psychiatry, 34(3), 291-311. 36 The cultural differences and social deviance Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 37
THE ROLE OF ALBANIAN OMBUDSMAN AND THE IMPLEMENTATION OF KEY PRIORITIES OF EUROPEAN UNION
Ervin KARAMUÇO - Albanian Peoples Advocate Office, Head of National Preventive Mechanism Against Torture E-mail: [email protected]
Deniona KATRO - Prosecutor at the Prosecutor’s Office of Durres Judicial District E-mail: [email protected].
very individual in the Republic sensitive issue which requires, among of Albania enjoys a number of others, especially by state institutions, Efreedoms and rights which are civil society organizations and their staff, recognized by the Constitution and the a special attention and care to prevent domestic legislation. In general, with torture and ill treatment. regard to freedoms and human rights, this This issue was simply and quickly country has adopted the most advanced dealt at the beginning of this study. international standards. Likewise, the However, many years were needed to individual who is convicted as guilty by a understand and then treat the above final decision of the court of the country, mentioned issue by all those who, in a enjoys certain rights that are sanctioned way or the other, exert their daily activity by the national legislation. at the penitentiary system in Albania. This In the middle, there is a another because of the simple reason that just like category of individuals, deprived of liberty, every other field, it took many years to who are in pre detention institutions, for change, improve and to reach as much whom there is still not a final decision by as possible the international standards of a national court. These individuals are the field. presumed innocent for as long as a decision And it was never easy, especially is taken for them. Given their position and for a country where the presumption particular status, the implementation of of guilt, even though unwritten in the human rights in relation to this category dictatorial period, was a burden in “the of people, remains a very delicate and ether” on every simple Albanian. The
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 37-45 38 The role of Albanian Ombudsman mentality of this country at the wake the state officer who inflicts, investigate of the democratic developments was or just acquiesces to act of torture, as inadequate and unfamiliar with freedoms well as the international responsibility and human rights and this was true even of the state. for the free people, let alone for the ones The general definition of torture deprived of their liberty. At the beginning contained in UDHR, the International of the ’90-es, the Albanian economy Convention on Civil and Political Rights was totally unproductive and unable “to (ICCPR)2 and the European Convention think” for its “good” children, let alone of Human Rights (ECHR)3 has been the “bad” ones. complemented since 1984 by the more In order for the life of this country precise notion establish in the UN to be changed, many years were needed Convention against Torture (CAT)4. In for the improvement of the economic the perspective of torture prevention conditions, the change of the mentality, the outstanding activity of European the creation of a democratic culture Committee for the Prevention of Torture and also a great technical and financial (CPT) inspired the United Nations to support from international organizations extend its role on monitoring all areas or democratic countries. And at the same where the freedom of individuals is time to change the life of detanees and deprived. The Optional Protocol CAT pre-detainees. And this change was from of the UN adopted in 20025, restores the the material and spiritual point of view so role of the state in the area of monitoring that their dignity and human being enjoy detentions places by establishing the the deserved respect. and this respect new mechanism in domestic level called had to be materialized in some specific National Preventive Mechanism (NPM). areas of this system: legal, institutional/ In the same time OPCAT enhance the organizational, infrastructure aspects and role of international mechanism such as among the respective staff. Subcommittee against Torture to assist The definition of torture and any other and cooperate with domestic level in treatment or punishment cruel, inhuman order to find the proper measures to or degrading, is foreseen in the UN prevent torture. Universal Declaration of Human Rights As is has been mentioned in such (UDHR)1 as well as in all other virtual international activities, by imposing the universal and regional instrument of member state to establish such NPMs, human rights and fundamental freedoms. the OPCAT brings home, to the domestic Preventing torture and the freedom from level, the responsibility of monitoring torture in an essential feature is a non and preventing the violations of the derogable human right. The prohibitions rights not to be subjected to torture. It of torture belongs to the peremptory can be said that the OPCAT adopted a norms of customary international law (ius complementary system, whereby states cogens) whose infringements involves the are encouraged to take up the primary international criminal responsibility of responsibility to protect those under
1 Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by General Assembly of UN in 1948. 2 International Convention on Civil and Political Rights adopted by General Assembly of Un in 1966. 3 European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) adopted by Council of Europe in 1950. 4 UN Convention against Torture (CAT) adopted by General Assembly of UN in 1984. 5 Optional Protocol of the Convention against Torture adopted by General Assembly of the UN in 2002. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 39 their jurisdictions from torture and ill- strengthening, if necessary, the protection treatment the international bodies retain of these persons against torture and other a role of second instance6. cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment The process of implementing or punishment. international treaties and standards in The OPCAT refers also that Each the Albania has been a priority in order State Party shall maintain, designate or to keep peace, consolidate the democratic establish, at the latest one year after the institutions and to fostering the process entry into force of the present Protocol of integration to the EU. or of its ratification or accession, one or Since 1992 the Albanian Parliament several independent national preventive has started to adopt international treaties mechanisms for the prevention of torture and new domestic institutions regarding at the domestic level. Mechanisms the protection of human rights and established by decentralized units may freedoms. In 1993 the Albanian State be designated as national preventive adheres to UN Convention against mechanisms for the purposes of the Torture by adopting the Law Nr. present Protocol if they are in conformity 7727, date 30.6.1993. In 1996 the with its provisions. In the Article 18-th Albanian Parliament implemented the of the Protocol the States Parties shall European Convention of Preventing guarantee the functional independence of Torture and other in human and cruel the national preventive mechanisms as well actions by adopting the Law Nr.8135 as the independence of their personnel. date.31.07.1996. In 2003 the Albanian They shall take the necessary measures Parliament ratified by the law no 9094 to ensure that the experts of the national dated 3.07.2003 the implementations preventive mechanism have the required of the UN Optional Protocol of the capabilities and professional knowledge. Convention against Torture (OPCAT). They shall be granted at a minimum the At the content of the OPCAT is power to the NPM as follows: foreseen the new role played by state (a) To regularly examine the treatment parties which has the obligation to of the persons deprived of their liberty establish the new national institution in places of detention as defined in with the task to prevent torture by multi article 4, with a view to strengthening, monitoring periodically regular visits if necessary, their protection against in the all places of detentions.(article torture and other cruel, inhuman or 3 of OPCAT). At the article 4 of the degrading treatment or punishment; (b) OPCAT each State Party shall allow To make recommendations to the relevant visits, in accordance with the present authorities with the aim of improving Protocol, by the mechanisms referred the treatment and the conditions of to in articles 3 to any place under its the persons deprived of their liberty jurisdiction and control where persons and to prevent torture and other cruel, are or may be deprived of their liberty, inhuman or degrading treatment or either by virtue of an order given by a punishment, taking into consideration public authority or at its instigation or the relevant norms of the United Nations) with its consent or acquiescence. These To submit proposals and observations visits shall be undertaken with a view to concerning existing or draft legislation.
6 Rights of person deprived of their liberty: The role of NHRI structure which are OPCAT mechanism and those which are not, Workshop debrief paper University of Padova, Italy, 2008, page 15. 40 The role of Albanian Ombudsman
In order to enable the national preventive that is due in December 2011. During mechanisms to fulfill their mandate, the this meeting the EU Member States are States Parties to the present Protocol expected to acknowledge the progress of undertake to grant them:(a) Access to the Western Balkan countries towards all information concerning the number the European Union. If Albania starts of persons deprived of their liberty in delivering with the reforms, EU member places of detention as defined in article 4, States can recognize the progress, and as well as the number of places and their ask the Commission for an assessment, location;(b) Access to all information without waiting until autumn of 2012. referring to the treatment of those persons Among the above 12 key priorities, as well as their conditions of detention;(c) Opinion of European Commission Access to all places of detention and has emphasize the important role and their installations and facilities;(d) The effectiveness of Albanian Ombudsman. opportunity to have private interviews In the content of key priority No.3 the with the persons deprived of their liberty EU Commission recommend urgent without witnesses, either personally or steps of appointing new Ombudsman with a translator if deemed necessary, as because they have identified that the well as with any other person who the work of the Ombudsman’s Office has national preventive mechanism believes been hampered inter alia by the pending may supply relevant information;(e) The election of the new Ombudsman. In liberty to choose the places they want the content of key priority No.12 the to visit and the persons they want to EU Commission recommend urgent interview;(f) The right to have contacts steps to the improvement of treatment with the Subcommittee on Prevention, to of individuals in police custody and the send it information and to meet with it. situation of mentally ill prisoners. In this During these years, Albania has context EU Commissions emphasize been also subject of several procedures the necessity of fully implementing the due to its aspiration to EU integration. Albanian Ombudsman’s role and his This initiative relies with some issue recommendation in this field. regarding human rights and fundamental In the new Albanian constitution of freedoms which are especially linked 1998 the Ombudsman has been one of with individuals kept isolated and the the independent institutions who took the role of Albanian Ombudsman in this main role of protection human rights and field. Last 12 key priorities identified freedoms and also promoting international by the EC Opinion 2010 is the only standards to be implemented. Since its way through which the Albania should initial activity in 2000, the Institution go in order to get the status of the EU of the Albanian People’s Advocate has candidate and open accession talks. The shifted the focus on the monitoring of the 12 key priorities are tasks addressed to detention and pre-trial detention centers. state, public institutions, government, It has been always considered the premises political and social actors, which should where a person’s freedom is restricted give their contribution in this democratic as the premises where human rights transformation process. In order to push are threatened most. The infringement forward this process, it is high time for of those rights more frequently occurs Albania to provide concrete results on “inside the walls”, disguised and isolated, addressing the 12 key priorities before than in public, visible and monitorable the meeting of the European Council by everyone. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 41
In respect of the of Paris Principles, escorted persons are kept, and disciplinary the Albanian Ombudsman has acquired isolation cells in the units of the Albanian a positive experience during ten years Armed Forces. since the creation, and has produced very The individuals, within these good outcomes in terms of the control of premises, actually enjoy the status of the detention and pre-trial detention centers, person deprived of liberty in comparison discovery of violations and submission to other state organizations where of recommendations for the punishment the accommodation or administrative of the officials involved in incidents of deprivation of several rights of the violence and abuse. Fully implementing individual are effected on grounds of the OPCAT, in early 2008 the Parliament social care or medical assistance (nursing of Albania assigned to the Albanian homes, orphanages, psychiatric hospitals, People’s Advocate (PA) the function of the centers of trafficked persons or asylum National Preventive Mechanism against seekers etc). Torture (NPM) on the basis of a special PA in the role of NPM monitors both law. This was done in the framework of its categories of the above cited premises. active role and positive experience. Yet, considering the term “deprivation In addition to the controls PA has of liberty”, I must focus especially on the carried out in terms of complaints or first category of institutions. Pursuant different incidents within the detention or to Law no. 8454, dated 4.2.1999, pre-trial detention centers, for two years, “On People’s Advocate” (amended), his activity is focused on the periodic for purposes of the completion of his visits or inspections of all premises where constitutional mission, the Albanian torture, inhuman or degrading treatment People’s Advocate is entitled to act under may be exercised. Only during 2009, the an independent investigation procedure People’s Advocate organized about 150 , having broader access to any premises, visits, inspections or special controls in the offices, officials without immunity and to detention and pre-trial detention centers any documentation, either classified, of and other similar institutions. PA has also the public administration bodies. promoted the rights and treatment that The article 19 of the said Law reads individuals must enjoy in those centers. as follows: First of all, the Albanian People’s “In case the People’s Advocate Advocate enjoys the benefit of having decides to proceed with an independent full jurisdiction for the implementation investigation, he shall be entitled to:a) of this activity and has full powers in this Conduct on the spot investigations, area.Specifically, pursuant to the point 1 including access to all public institutions of article 60 of the Albanian Constitution: and investigation on the spot of the acts “The People’s Advocate protects the rights, or documents related to the case. b) freedoms and lawful interests of the individual Request explanations from all organs from illegal and undue actions or inactions of of central and local administration and the public administration bodies”. obtain all files or material relevant to Referring to the Albanian legislation, the investigation;c) Interrogate any public administration also includes person that, in his judgment, is involved the state institutions covering the in the matter under investigation and penitentiary system (prisons and pre-trial subpoena at his office any person without detention centers), State Police bodies immunity. and premises where arrested, detained or People’s Advocate has the right to 42 The role of Albanian Ombudsman set a deadline for carrying out the above the fulfillment of the role of the National actions”. Referral Mechanisms Against Torture, This law also provides for the article provides for the activity of People’s 19/1,which specifies as follows: “People’s Advocate, particularly his access to prisons Advocate and any official authorized and pre-trial detention centers. According by him is entitled to have access at any to article 43 of this law covering the access time, without limitation and initial to the penitentiary institutions, only some authorization, upon the notification senior state personalities may visit prisons of the head of the institution, to all and pre-trial detention centers at any time public institutions, prisons, pre-detention and without any advance notice. centers, military units or state institutions, In addition to the highest state psychiatric hospitals, asylums, orphanages personalities such as President of the and any other place when there is evidence Republic, Speaker of Parliament, Prime of infringement of human rights and Minister, President of the Constitutional fundamental freedoms. Court, Deputy Speaker of Parliament, The access to the afore-mentioned Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of institutions will take place to investigate Justice, President of the Supreme Court a complaint, request or notification as and Attorney General; People’s Advocate, well as with the initiative of the People’s and his commissionaires and assistant Advocate for the purposes of inspection commissionaires enjoy this right to access. or studies. In these cases, the People’s Additionally, article 74, points 1.2.3, Advocate is entitled to meeting and expressly provides that People’s Advocate talking with any person kept in those is a special subject for the surveillance institutions without the presence of of enforcement and implementation of the head of the institution. All kinds of the law on sentenced persons and pre- correspondence between the People’s detainees. Pursuant to article 74, points Advocate and the above subjects cannot 1,2,3, the Institution of People’s Advocate be prohibited or surveilled”. in the capacity of the National Referral Provision of article 22/1 of the Law Mechanism Against Torture is vested “On People’s Advocate” represents a several additional powers borrowed from guarantee for the full effectiveness of the original text of the Optional Protocol implementation of this activity and at the of Convention against Torture ( OPCAT). same time the sanctioning of cooperation In more concrete terms, according with state bodies. The above law specifies to those provisions, People’s Advocate as follows: “The refusal to cooperate is entitled to periodically supervise with the People’s Advocate from the the treatment of individuals who are civil servant, high-rank official or public deprived of liberty, in the premises of authority constitutes a cause for the detention, custody or imprisonment People’s Advocate to request to the proper for the purpose of strengthening, if authority starting of the administrative necessary, the protection of individuals proceedings and taking of the disciplinary from torture, treatment or cruel, inhuman measures up to the dismissal from work or degrading punishment. He is also or civil service”. entitled to submit recommendations Further, the Law no. 8328 of 2. to the respective authorities in order 04. 1998 “On rights and treatment of to improve the treatment and living imprisoned persons and pre-detainees”, by conditions of individuals being deprived its addenda of March 2008, in support of of liberty and to prevent torture and Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 43 cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment improvement of rights and treatment of or punishment. imprisoned persons and pre-detainees. In this framework, according to the The increased presence in those premises said law, People’s Advocate enjoys a series has improved the communication and of special competences to ensure full trust of the persons deprived of liberty access to those premises by collecting, to introduce their real problems or inter alias, information on the number of report negative phenomena affecting people who are deprived of liberty and their rights. their respective location, the way of their On the other hand, the access to the treatment, their detention conditions etc. official and film documentation of those During those visits, People’s Advocate is institutions has been quite effective. entitled to conduct, at any time, private Accordingly, NPM has made a proposal interviews with the convicts without the for the punishment of certain police presence of the personnel of detention or officers of prisons or other employees of pre-trial detention center and to freely the penitentiary administration. Only in choose the places he needs to visit and the one case during 2009, three police officers individuals he needs to meet. of prisons were dismissed as following In capacity of the NPM, this the film interception, People’s Advocate institution may acquire at any time and found them in violation of the internal without excessive delay, information or regulation thus causing a conflict among complaints by the sentenced persons, some pre-detainees. These outcomes administration of prison or pre-trial represent a clear indicator of NPM access detention centers. At any time, he may to the penitentiary system and beyond. verify documents, objects, equipment or Being entitled to supervise the premises related to the sentenced person activity of the State Police, People’s or the pre-detainee, both within and Advocate has produced similar outcomes. out of the penitentiary institution. For During a period of ten years, the Albanian the purposes of the implementation of People’s Advocate has a made a record monitoring process, pursuant to this law, number of recommendations for the the NPM is entitled to hire specialists of improvement of the policing activity in respective areas such as forensic doctors, respect of human rights. In this frame, psychologists, psychiatrists etc. Also, we 250 police officers were punished. In have made available a free phone number addition, the premises of all State Police to the inmates and we have fixed special Stations with isolation cells have been post boxes at each prison or pre-trial periodically inspected in order to verify detention center, to be opened only by the treatment of individuals and ensure the People’s Advocate. the prevention of violence, inhuman and In fact, following the approval of degrading treatment. People’s Advocate the above provisions in March 2008, had a wide access not only to the police People’s Advocate intensively continued premises but also to their documentation to carry out his function as the NPM at and records where he has often reported prisons and pre-trial detention centers. irregularities in terms of the escort or Only for the year 2009 all prisons and detention of people, expiry of escort pre-trial detention centers have been timelines, wrongful legal qualification of visited and re-visited. Approximately 400 people kept in those premises etc. complaints were received and more than During the investigation of police 40 recommendations were made for the violence, People’s Advocate had to be 44 The role of Albanian Ombudsman acquainted with the police classified by our Institution and to facilitate documentation. This shows a high the implementation of the monitoring level of his access thus leading to a activities. serious and highly effective work on the In practice, senior officers of military claims of people who are kept isolated. bases have demonstrated a high level of The relations with the State Police willingness and they have often provided institutions are special in that they strictly with classified military information apply the provisions provided for in on the number of recruited soldiers, the law “ On People’s Advocate” as the their health treatment etc. Further, legislation governing their activity does People’s Advocate has introduced special not provide special rules for the access recommendations, with special focus on of our Institution to the police activity. drafting and approval of new regulations Compared to the access to the penitentiary on disciplinary isolation, equal rights system which is also provided in the law treatment of the military personnel governing such activity, this absence in and the implementation of transparent the legislation of the State Police is not procedures in case of their isolation. considered as a shortcoming or barrier to Like the State Police, Armed NPM work. However, the new regulation Forces do not have a new and extended to be approved by the State Police on legislation in place, where to reflect a the provisional isolation cells within its series of amendments to human rights premises, provides for special rules for the and watchdog institutions authorized for access of People’s Advocate. their observance within the military bases. The activity of the Albanian Armed Yet, this has not hindered the access of Forces (AF) is another area to which monitor bodies. People’s Advocate has broad access, either In the framework of the legal reform in capacity of the National Preventive of Armed Forces due to the membership Mechanism Against Torture. In the of Albania in NATO, People’s Advocate framework of reforms and major changes has attach priority to the completion of undergone by the Albanian army as a the entire legal military framework, with component of NATO forces, the People’s new principles and safeguards on human Advocate aims to ensure to the fullest rights to be enjoyed by each member of extent possible, his periodic presence the Albanian Armed Forces. within the military bases, particularly in the disciplinary isolation cells. For this Conclusions purpose, in capacity of the NPM, PA Office has organized about 25 visits in the Considering the comprehensive military bases and has closely overseen the analysis of the above referenced work, conditions of isolation cells, treatment of a basic need is identified for the active soldiers, bylaws governing the disciplinary presence of the Ombudsman in prisons, isolation measures etc. Furthermore, the pre-trial detention centers, police stations promotion of the Institution of People’s and Armed Forces as the fulfillment Advocate as NPM for the inspection of of national and international legal military bases has boosted the relations obligations and also to the importance of with the authorities of the Ministry of implementing key priorities of European Defense and the General Staff of Armed Commission. Forces. They have tasked the respective The increase of Ombudsmen’s bases to respect the legal access enjoyed authority in relation to the public Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 45 administration often depends on the and implementation of Albanian Peoples level of their access to the state bodies. Advocate recommendation about the This access is deemed too valuable if it places of detention). is particularly provided beyond the dark The increase of the active role of walls of human isolation where restriction Ombudsman and his broader access to of the individual’s liberty must not those premises must be viewed not only abusively imply the denial of other rights. as part of the reform in the institutions’ This role has a very important impact for legal acts and bylaws but also as an the integration process, because is closely international obligation of the latter to related to the progress evaluation by EU respect human rights and international institutions, especially where the reports values of democracy for been faster deals with key priority No.12 (situation integrated in EU.
REFERENCES:
Bibliography: - Encyclopedia of Human Rights by David P.Forsysthe, Oxford University Press 2009 - UN Universal Declarations of Human Rights. Volume 5 (Transitional Justice). - International Convention on Civil and Political - The Organizational Ombudsman, role and Rights (ICCPR). operations (Legal Guide) by Charles - European Convention of Human Rights L. Howard, Publisher American Bar (ECHR), Council Of Europe. Association 2010. - Rights of person deprived of their liberty: - Constitution of Republic of Albania. The role of NHRI structure which are - Paris Principle (Adopted with UN Resolution OPCAT mechanism and those which are Nr.48/134 Year1993 “On principles not, Workshop debrief paper University of of independent domestic bodies in the Padua, Italy, 2008. protections of human rights”. - Optional Protocol to the UNCAT, Manual of - Law No. 8485, date 12.05.1999 Administrative Prevention, published by Interamerican Procedure Code. Institute of Human Rights and APT, 2005. - Law No. 8454 dt.04.02.1999 “On the People’s - Guide of Establishment and Designation of Advocate” (revised). National Prevention Mechanism, Published - Law No. 9094 dt.3.07.2003 “To the Ratification by APT 2006. of OPCAT in the Republic of Albania”. - Torture in International Law, Guide to - Law No.8328 dt.2.04.1998 “On the rights and Jurisprudence, published by APT 2008. treatment of detainees”. - Torture and Democracy by Darius Rejali, 2007 - Law No. 9749, date 4.6.2007 “On the State Princenton University Press (Priority of Police”. Public Monitoring). - Annual Reports of People’s Advocate 2000- - Preventing Torture by Malcom Evans, Oxford 2009 (www.avokatipopullit.gov.al). University Press 1999. - Annual Reports of Albanian NPM 2008-2010 - The Protection Role of NHRI by Bertrand (www.avokatipopullit.gov.al). G.Ramcheron, Lieden-Boston 2005, - EU Commission 12 key priorities (progress Publisher Martinus Nijhoff. report Albania 2010).
THE IMPLICATION OF PHILOSOPHY ON THE DIPLOMATIC STRATEGY
Ermela HYSA - Albanian University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected];
ould be considered valuable the this area? The skeptical approach is justified effort in this approach, the frame because at first view seems not to be shown Wwork of integration initiatives? any connection, but despite not having a Before I pass on a theoretical attempt about direct connection, they can not be considered the motivation explanation, to treat this separately, where the combination of the thesis, I would like first, to note that the connection between philosophy and policy, fundamental basis of the action in foreign proceeds, and the connection between policy, is considered the representation political philosophy with diplomacy, to go and the protection of the interests of the fur their in trying to see same problems of country. Considering this, the diplomacy diplomacy under philosophical prism. is the specific activity on the area of foreign In the previous treatments, the concept policy with the decisive role and the task on of philosophy acceding the integration realizing the policy aims in this plan. process and the enlargement, with regard to Today it is defined as a communicative the accession of a country into the European activity with regard to the protection Union, the complexity of the stages to of national, and social interests through prepare the applicant country to take its role a continuous and intensive process as a member of the EU. between governments, nations and other In This context of expansion it seems to international entities with the prior aim of be a fundamental political process, not only representing and protecting the interests for the organization, but also in the context of the state, of the nations and citizens; of international relations in general. changing the views and the forms of the But, it should take into consideration actions of the actors in favor of national that the foundations of universal standards and social profit, of the state which is values already accepted of western and Euro represented or with the intention to resolve atlantics integration processes, where the problems which are considered as priorities. perspective of the present and the future Naturally arises the question: What kind reflects, are directly interdependent from of contribution can give the philosophy in the strategic diplomacy and the efficiency
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 47-49 48 The implication of philosophy on the diplomatic strategy in managing the policy. Philosophy, as with the comprehensive context in which it a way of concern and review deals with will be created and will operate. This context, everything that has to do with the physical represent the philosophical paradigm of and social reality and in this context also diplomacy, which should be based in facts, with policy. In the game of opposites, in in the real progress of the country, effectively the report of harms and of unfairness, is explained euro-atlantics consistent lines. the foundation of political problem. The To be functional, philosophy must specific problem of policy, of which policy give to the diplomacy, efficiency impulses become a problem for philosophy, it implies in the diplomatic communication line, as the base of political philosophy. In this line a methodology with specific nuances, in of discussion, I would like to include also tune with the euro-atlantics diplomatic the debate about diplomacy as an important environment. In this context, the philosophy policy area raising also the hypothetical with regard to the diversity, wile affect in a discussion if should have the diplomacy its more productive and objective diplomacy, own identity in this area? with a motivation and a incentive to be Diplomacy can’t be considerate effective in its mission. separate from policy, because it can not be The possibility of as many as possible conceived separate and independent the opportunities in opened & negotiations, influence of philosophy on diplomacy is is one of the most fundamental tasks indirectly related to the nature of public in diplomatic communication strategy access links. The spirit of philosophy where the lost one most function as the affects a lot the view of the diplomat, most efficient mean of communication in the perceptions, to pass later in the and improving the relation ships through management and, the analysis of specifics in strategic action systems, in representing practical context, in tong-term actions and efficiently the interest in the context of those who are direct. The impact of political international relations. The promotion of philosophy can specially be identified the friendly relations should be considered indirectly, through manifested effects or as priority in the attention of diplomatic by the way of approach to problems which action and mission. are discussed. The essence of diplomatic In this prism philosophy contributes in philosophy should be guided by the deepening the diplomatic mission, treating political truth (the strategic way haw the it not just as a mechanic mission, but also as policy develops in its totality into the state). an action that implies a high responsibility In this context , the trend of political on the one hand and creative engagement on diplomacy towards the political truth can the other hand, always looking for active and not be content only with the general role adaptive techniques to communicate, as well of peaceful relations, but requires a deep as efficiency in conviction and credibility tries philosophical approach, primarily associated in the area of the global agenda.
REFERENCES
D’Arcy, François. 2007. “Policies of the European Hoxha, E. 2007. “The Economics Concept” Union” (European Collection), New York: UFO Press, Tirana. Papyrus. Feraj, H. 2004. Political Science, Peggy, Tirana Doutriaux, Yves., Lequesne, Ch. 2007. “EU 2004. institutions”. Issue 5 (Europe collection), Goldestein S, Joshua. 2003. International New York: Papyrus. Relations, Wisdom. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 49
Miller, D. 2007. Political Philosophy, Tirana: Idear. Diplomacy in Centuries of History” (1600- Kiss, J. 1998. Contemporary Political Philosophy, 1899) Volume 1, Second Edition, Tirana, Tirana: Onufri. UFO Press 2010. Kegley, JR.W.Ch. 2009. World Politics, Tirana: Boriçi, GJ., “International Relations and UFO Press. Diplomacy in the whirlwind,” Second Mayer C, L. 2003. Comparative Politics, Tirana. Edition, Tirana UFO Press, 2009. Kissinger, H. 1999. Diplomacy, Tirana. Boriçi,GJ., “Power and Leadership”, second Lean, Mc, I. 1996. Political Dictionary, Oxford. edition, Tirana, UFO Press, 2009. Bashkurti L. 2006. “On International Law and Barston, R.P., Modern Diplomacy, Longmans, International Organizations”, Tirana: Geer. London 1988. Oxford: Globalization and Bashkurti L. 2007. Negotiation-History, International Relations Theory, Oxford Theory, Practice, Tirana: Geer. University Press 1999. Friedman, J., Ndreka, M. 2010. Western Balkans in the context of Globalization: the State and Violence. integration challenges. Tirana: Geer. AltaMira Press,Oxford 2003. Germain, R., Freud, Z. 2004. The psychology of crowds and Globalization and its critics. Basingstoke: Analysis Unit, Tirana: Fan Noli. Macmillan 1999. Gasset., O.J. 2003. “The revolt of the mob”, trans: Ritzer, G., Sociological Theory (seventh edition) Tirana: Constellation. 2008. Nohria, N., Khurana, R. 2011. Handbook of Agne, J.,and Corbridge,S., Mastering Space: Leadership Theory and Practice, Tirana: Hegemony, Territory, and International. UFO Press. Political- Economy. London: Routledge 1995. Tranoy. M, K. 2006. Politics and Democracy, Morgenthu H., “Politika ndërmjet kombeve”, Tirana: Onufri. Tiranë, 2008. Stiftung, E, F., “Political Management”, New Axford, B. The Global System: Economics, York: Foundation “Friederich Ebert”, 2007 Politics, and Culture. Polity Press, Sartori, G., “Once again for the Theory of Cambridge 1995. Democracy”, London: Wisdom 1993. Baylis, J., & Smith, S., The Globalization of Anastasi, A., “History of Institutions”, London: world Politics. 2006 Pegi. Oxford University Press, United States, New Schlesinger, A., “Veritas” Harvard College and York 2001. the American Experience, trans: Staff UFO Tayler, P., International Organization in the Press, Tirana 2011. Modern World. Boriçi, GJ., “Politics, International Relations & London: Pinter 1995.
TEXTBOOKS - THE CHALLENGE OF THE FUTURE: PSYCHOSOCIAL AND PEDAGOGICAL CRITERIA OF LITERATURE TEXTS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, A MAJOR FACTOR FOR MODERN TEACHING
Mirela Çepele DIMO E-mail: [email protected];
“The student experience as an architect of his learning is one of today’s modern practices of learning that promote student to return to constructors of their knowledge”.
ABSTRACT
Transmission of literature in schools is a process which takes place in multi-dimensional way, through the literary, literature textbook, the teacher’s role and that of its recipients: students. Through this four-stage hierarchy, each actor has its irreplaceable role, where the teacher’s position is as a kind of director or coordinator in the operation of this ensemble. It is interesting, especially the assessment of student position, which should not be conceived as a passive receiver, but as one active and inciting factor in the realization of this didactic complex chain. This paper, intended to reflect the features of redesigning literature’s teaching in secondary schools. This reconcilement, in the most scientific and positive sense of the note, asked in the first place the necessary modernization of the textbook, which is not only a contemporary requirement, but also an acute problem of psycho-pedagogical teaching in general. Keywords: Contemporary teaching, constructor’s knowledge, critical-creative thinking.
How can be interpreted literature in the personality’s formation, in the richness psycho-social and psycho-pedagogical of spirit and his nobility, in equipment with perspective? contemporary and European values such as dialogue and tolerance, understanding and Literature influences vigorously in argumentative debate, to select problems that social, cultural and democratic shaping, in are social and educational issues for all the
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 51-56 52 Textbooks - The challenge of the future humanity. Artistic literature is an important know their world. subject in our school which helps especially 5. Literary influence in the spiritual life of in the formation of taste and esthetic ideas, in students, inspiring in them a sense of the development of cognitive and emotional deep, noble thoughts. sphere of human personality, in the incitement 6. Literature forms the human of of their skills and creative forces. Especially tomorrow, to promote new visions of in the adolescence age, this course plays a major a society in developing the occasional role for the problem being treated because and change, to the knowledge society. teaching interests of youth are the subject of literary In the case of literature education forms terms. The fact that teenagers love literature, the aesthetic and human features, affective brought responsibility to the teacher, to make and proactive features. It inside the text with this case even more interesting, making the its programs, with the passionate work of maximum effort to increase the scientific teachers plays a primary role for aesthetic level and perfection of methods of learning. education.1 In this process include: Wide horizon of teachers, working style are 1. The education of the skills to understand important elements to achieve one excellence the beauty in art, in nature, the performance in the teaching, to make it phenomena of social life, in relationships attractive and interesting for students, to between people, in things that find integrate work throughout the class, to make widespread use in everyday life, etc. them freer teacher-student communications. 2. Developing the ability to perceive In such communications introduce that the beauty and gradual processing teacher that has broad interests, the proper of system images, the tastes, views, psychological preparation that is also aesthetic beliefs and norms of aesthetic humane and the polite. Teachers must work appreciation, primarily based on the with a curriculum (syllabus, plan, text, recognition with works of art. methodology, technique, strategy, etc.) to 3. Developing of the creative skills to transform the school from her informative the students and acquisition of those character to her formative information, to knowledge, skills and habits in the field prepare pupils and students to integrate into of special branches of art. the society of knowledge. Literature, affects strongly to the formation of social democratic culture, the Interpretation of the literature on the formation of personality, the enrichment psychological and social perspective of soul and nobility, in equipment with contemporary and European values such as 1. Literature interpreted as a practical and dialogue and tolerance, understanding and active manual that helps in the solving argumentative debate, to select problems of many problems of everyday life. that are social and educational issues for all 2. Literature is considered as a mechanism the humanity. that helps to harmonize the relationships of various communications between people. The importance of the critical thinking 3. Through the activities of characters in this discipline provides models of behavior for people to put them in living. This issue concerning with the 4. Literature helps naturally more and construction of textbooks lies in some more people, especially teenagers, to psychological, social, educational and scientific
1 Gjokutaj, M. Teaching of Albanian language. Tiranë 2009. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 53 aspects etc. Not being informed and without Re-conceptualisation of teaching enough scientific knowledge on the psycho- literature in psycho-pedagogical and pedagogical, not recognized and accepted psycho-social terms feeds taken by the MASH, in connection with programs and literature textbooks of higher Modernisation of the teaching of and secondary education. Secondly, there literature is related to a another different are confusing opinions on issues relating to link, very important that initially start with targets, lines, prelines, principles, criteria and the drafting of texts and then with the standards, rubrics which consume teachers breaking in one active and creative way of and make confuse students in accomplishing its. The pedagogic apparatus composes the intellectual or learning tasks. So, what is the the basis of logical learning, the activation relationship between the methodical construction in the highest degree of reflective, critical of apparatus literature texts in school and effective and creative learners. It is the mechanism teaching and learning, and encouraging critical that directs and guides, according to a and creative thinking? clear platform, the link between the triad: Developing critical thinking, in particular teacher-student-literary piece. Our school during the learning of literature should be the and teacher in the today’s stage first requires focus of a curriculum requirements today. a more just conception of the role to be Developing critical thinking, knowledge played pedagogical apparatus in activating of techniques, strategies, and curriculum the students, promoting to him as the sense updates, text, gives life to it, enriches the and the logic, as the emotion as well as the diverse activities, where collaboration reflection critical. Role and physiognomy and coordination, research, comparison, of pedagogical apparatus should look at a reflection, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, deeper understanding. So organically realize finding the solution of problems become the transformation of the scientific values in the predominant activities of creative critical ideo-artistic value. In this sense, teaching thinking-adolescent students. They give mechanism is a scientific and specific text on students more opportunities to cooperate its own that unites requirements methodical, in various forms with each other through psychological, sociological, pedagogical, working in groups, or other educational aesthetic, conceptual, linguistic, scientific, activities to increase the level of interactive argumentative, reflective, critical, etc.., and learning, providing quality, skills, abilities that is targeted at a literary text with very and attitudes critical, creative and logical clear objectives. Undoubtedly, the success argument and the analysis of the students. of this important link that organizes all the Learning, should be assessed, as the class, originally launched in the conception process by which acquired knowledge, values, in a fresh way, according to modern methods attitudes, skills. Learning needs of students of connections to be established between seen as a process which belongs to them teachers and students on the one hand, to build knowledge and enrich it further. and literary students of the other part. Are Knowledge should be seen as an architecture these two directions that should be guided which is composed and constructed by the by an inner logic where must predominate learner. “The student experience as an architect regarding and the dependence cause- of his learning is one of today’s modern practices consequence at all levels of the pedagogical of learning that promote student to return to apparatus (for itself and each crossing of a constructors of their knowledge”.2 lesson to another).
2 Gjokutaj, M. The Didactics of Albanian language. Tiranë 2010. 54 Textbooks - The challenge of the future
The challenge of curriculum specialists organized as a process that sets in motion and school textbooks is to create and exploit the intellectual potential of visions of the future and to adapt for students, develops independent and creative the schools and their programs to thinking, interests, aptitudes and their these visions, in order that actualized abilities, recognizes and provides them with curricula to serve the needs and desires, the methodic’s basics of the independent the members of school and society3 work, research and cognitive, practice and independent activity of learning. All this requires an organization of Positive changes that are apparent teaching on a new and contemporary in the textbooks require changing the mentality, which facilitates the learning of methodological requirements of teachers, students and: in order that they be transferred to the best Develop the skills of students in the class of way possible to those for whom the textbook literature, to achieve a critical learning, creative was conceived, namely the students. The and independent. possibility of using alternative texts is another Develop initiative and independence in advancement of literature textbooks, which decision making, analysis of characters, in undoubtedly enrich teaching and learning. comments and discussions within and outside Suffice it to an alternative school text the classroom. used by teachers, if only for a teaching theme. Promotes diversity in student learning and It is clear that all alternative textbooks as the their creativity in their ongoing improvement of landmark, they have the curriculum based literary and aesthetic. on the expected results, but methodological Develop better communication skills, construction is what distinguishes them and, develop management skills, organizational, in this context, the teacher may use more than cooperative, etc., where the primary example and a textbook, but also other sources information, model present the teacher. to achieve the expected results. I think that Encourage self-assessment and appropriate the choice of school textbooks by the teacher assessment of the learning and academic- at all does not mean its use from beginning scientific results. to the end of the year, as is happening in Exploring possible future, offers great our school practice. The teacher can choose opportunities for creative thinking and a basic text, where the psycho-pedagogical imaginary, and to practice skills in a high degree and methodical formulation of which is of scientific knowledge. more accessible and more accomplished, but he may use other texts to certain topics The determination of the value of a whenever the need arises. This way of the literature textbook use and operation of textbooks will provide greater opportunities and more favorable to In terms of new requirements issued the successful implementation of results. by the dynamics of life in its ever-changing, learning can not be developed and evaluated Contents4 as a flat process that has a duty only or primarily to equip students with a certain Does the text match the content and system of knowledge theoretical and practical objectives of the course? habits. So the text should be conceived and Is the textbook accurate with the time?
3 Allan C. Ornstein, “Textbook instruction: Processes and Strategies”. 4 Allan C. Ornstein, “Textbook instruction: Processes and Strategies”. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 55
Is it understandable? with separate classes. Is it appropriate to the needs, interests and In contextual: Language in use, in real abilities of students? communication situations, with the variety Does it encourage a methodological way of reading and writing materials, thematic consistent with contemporary procedures used by lessons and with joined and combined the teacher and the school? classes. Does it reinforce the type of learning that From passive learning: Information, promotes critical and creative thinking, and listening, reproduction, the teacher speaks, problem solving? the students read, the student speak when Does it join with the manual, teaching and asked the teacher, read a little, write less, study guide? talk less, use traditional methods, oriented- Recent pedagogical and scientific teacher and traditional style. studies indicate that the text for students can To an active learning: Constructing be arranged as “hypertext” (which means the information, seeking, using, to reflect, organizing the text material to computer- work groups, work with projects, the use of based, where the performance of the students interactive methods, more globally-oriented readers in this material is not required to be teacher. listed , it can also be conceptual). The student From separate topics: The fragmented may request through the text material in curriculum, not associated with principles one interactive way, which would fulfill his and criteria, only learning in the classroom, interests and needs. In this case the student not appropriate and interactive literature, the has the ability to control the text, to build schools as closed islands. and disassemble own knowledge, material, To cooperation: Objective and related therefore not be simply part of the text, but goals, coordination with subject areas, to go beyond the text.5 schools as open environment for teaching, Today competition should be done extra activities, teacher-student, student- through programs and alternative texts, student interaction, school, exposed classes. competitive, not only as principles and From passive questions: The teacher criteria, but also in other didactic, psycho- asks students with question to knowledge pedagogical solutions, in order that they and riproduce level. Teachers know a little not are cloning of each other. An university didactic concept of the questioners. institution, publishing houses, etc., must To actice questions: Take the question of compete with an online program and texts “How and Why,” argument. The student that response the program that offers online ask. Learning begins when a student begins programs for the entire cycle to ask, analysis level’s questions, of the interpretation, synthesis, of the development Today curriculum’s albanian language of critical and creative thinking. and literature has purpose to convey From one textbooks: Provide factual changes in several areas related to the knowledge, theory and long texts, overloaded teaching of Albanian literature6 with scientific terms, overloaded with teaching mechanism-control, which of them From no-contextual: Subject not related reproduced a single text. to life, topics separated and divided into To alternative textbooks: Procedural chapters, topics related to school, with books, knowledge, observed levels of Bloom’s
5 Bill Gates, The Road Ahead, New York, 1995. Richard L. Venezky, “Textbooks in School and Society”. 6 Gjokutaj, M. The Didactics of Albanian language. Tiranë 2010. 56 Textbooks - The challenge of the future taxonomy, have creative and argumentative require accurate answers and direct and that tasks, alternative texts, within and inter- the student will find them readily available subject combination (integration). in text, but this satisfies then the part of the From Assessment: The fragmentary note, duties , in which appear various interactive threatening, non-motivating, based on tests. situations, keeping active student and leaving To Motivational assessments: Motivational space and reason for him to find various associated with assessment with words, based sources of information to achieve the desired on essays, creative works, the feature work result. Positive changes in the textbooks in groups and group projects, assessment of Albanian literature were made in the portfolio forstudents. examples and illustrations, through which was made an effort that the female gender What remained to be done? to not appear discriminate, rather there are situations that favor the position of women However, what it remains to be done in society, presenting it to the relevant roles in the future, in both levels of schooling and professions. is much less information, or only essential Positive changes that are evident and necessary information and as much in the textbooks require changing the part of which encourage communication methodological work of teachers in the through interaction, images, illustrations, way that to transmit them in the best way photographs, other situations, which help possible to those for whom the textbook the student to be constantly active part of was conceived, namely the students. In our the learning process. practice school, the textbook is not only the As the literature textbooks focus on main source, but also the only one learning. expected results and from the other hand There are few cases in which the teacher expected results oriented not only to pure emerges beyond the textbook to reach the knowledge, in the facts and the available desired result. Since the teacher is the number information, but also in developing skills, one person who gives life to change, then attitudes and values, it has begun to reach surely his role in the learning process is students through questions and tasks, extraordinary and irreplaceable. which according to the degree of difficulty, Our society is in a very important stage in most textbooks present in different levels of its emancipation, the throwing of steps of knowledge and not just at the level of to a more vigorous pace and with more simple reproduction. Ways of designing serious predisposition to reach high levels in questions and tasks in the textbooks of all aspects of her being. The modernization Albanian language and literature provides of our society, in more and more scientific space for students to take the initiative and positive meaning, at first has claim in themselves; people can come to conclusions a necessary way to modernize the teaching, and judgments of independent, individual learning, textbook-building, redesigning the and group, putting them in position pedagogical apparatus, the methodology of investigators and researchers to reach the teaching, requirements which are not only necessary information and key. There are contemporary, but also acute problems of such cases when questions are designed psycho-educational teaching and learning to the level of simple reproduction, which in general. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 57
THE KING ZOG ALLIANCE WITH ITALY FOR EXTRACTION THE COUNTRY OUT OF CRISIS
Dashnor IBRA - Legal Expert of Treaties and International Law, The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Albania Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Through this paper will seek to analyze the main stages of economic and political cooperation between Albania and Italy’s military at the time of arrival in power of Ahmet Zog. The focus of this paper will focus on the analysis of actions taken by King Zog to cooperate with a powerful state Italy of that time. What were the goals of King Zog? What were the objectives? What were his goals? What will bring the cooperation with Italy? How will affect relations between the two countries, in order to overcome the appetites of Albania’s neighbors, which required the Albanian territories and access to the Adriatic Sea. On the other hand, this paper aims to bring the facts of political and legal aspect of Zog’s diplomacy at the time, in its effort to ensure the preservation of the independence, territorial integrity, economic and financial development, as well as the peaceful development of relations with neighboring countries and other European countries. A main argument that this paper aims to elaborate on, is the effort of King Zog in creating a balance of forces, which made it possible to avoid an armed military conflict between Albania and neighboring countries, and between Albania and the great powers. Keywords: Economic cooperation between Italy and Albania, Secret military Pact, Pact Tirana I and II.
1. Introduction arrival in Tirana1 was made up quickly, without any concrete resistance and On December 24, 1924 Ahmet Zog without blur. In fact it came not because the forces triumphantly entered in Tirana. His people obeyed the call of the government
1 They were assisted by the forces of northern Albania bajaraktarëve Isuf Elezi, Muharram Bajraktari, Aqif Lleshi, TAFE Kaziu, Mark John, Maliq Bushati do. Went to the aid of two columns: One commanded by Zef Sereqi to assist operations in the north and the other luftrake Mufid Bey ft. from the south. Pietro Pastorelli, l’Italia and Albania, p.83, telega. I Leveranit, December 20, 1924.
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 57-61 58 The King Zog alliance with Italy for extraction the country out of crisis of Fan Noli general mobilization, but the power to which should be supporting, not arrival of Zog accepted the ruling.2 only politically but also in economic and How does the international community financial terms. to recognize the power of Zog? League of Nations and other European 2. Economic agreement between Italy countries had not taken any step to prevent and Albania the march of Tirana Ahmet Zog. Once he took power, first England and then on Having strengthened his internal all other states legally recognized as the position in Albania, Zog laid a foreign restoration of his power.3 policy program on the main goal of Ahmet Zog on the proposal on establishing a balance of forces (balance of January 21, 1925 Constitutional Assembly power), in comparison with neighboring proclaimed the first country in the history countries, whose interests ran counter to of the Albanian Republic. On January 31, the Albanian national interests. 1925 House of Representatives elected Zog can not resolve Great Britain him the first President of the Republic, for and France, which supported Greece and a term of 7 years.4 Yugoslavia and most of all were a little Proclamation of the Republic of concerned about Albania. He can not Albania and the appointment of Ahmet choose or Yugoslavia, regardless of when Zog president occurred in the period when Zog was helping had been in trouble. No the major European countries had begun Greek, no doubt because of the rivalry to strengthen the capitalist system. He appeared to territorial problems. Italy swept the Balkans there was only partial remains, which at that time saw many years and inconsistent. In Albania he entered with a special interest Albanian market. with much difficulty and pain when she Ahmet Zog addresses Italy, in order inherited from the Ottoman Empire an to build a state in a small, poor, neglected economic level of trouble. President of for many centuries of Ottoman rule, Albania aimed to create a strong state lacking in infrastructure and without an economically, politically and militarily, in official currency. On March 15, 1925 the order to support the dignity rows other first agreement was signed with Rome European countries. However A. Zog was for the establishment of National Bank not easy to find ways to link Albania with of Albania and the provision of a loan for other countries without causing jealousy of public works for the Albanian government.6 neighboring countries, but not risking the This loan for public works will become a fate of the new Republic.5 society of SVEA (Society for the economic Albania to develop normally and development of Albania). without obstacles had to cross the appetites Success for whom aggrieved Yugoslavia of its neighbors and to solve the force reached the Albanian diplomacy, which that could help a lot in maintaining the sought through philosophical Serbs in country’s independence and its economic Albania preventing the signing of economic development. So the Zog must choose a relations between Albania and Italy.
2 Joseph Swire, Albania, The rise of a Kingdom, London, 1929, p.450. 3 Bernd J. Fischer, Mbreti Zog dhe përpjekjet për stabilitetin në Shqipëri, Tiranë, 1996, pp.100-105. 4 Historia e Shtetit dhe së Drejtës në Shqipëri, Luarasi, 2007, p.362. 5 Valentian Duka, Historia e Shqipërisë 1912-2000, Tiranë 2007, pp.183-187. 6 Lothar Loose, Die wolkerrechtlichen und politischen Beziehung Albanies zu Italien, Leipzig, 1936, p.243. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 59
However, Yugoslavia has not reached the obligation of both countries not to sign the intended purpose and economic similar agreements with other powers. agreement, which failed to sign the Also, the pact was a secret and can Agreement Albania Italy was one of the not become public, this to avoid reactions major successes for the government of Zog of other countries, especially Yugoslavia. and across the country, having managed to Through this pact Italy assisted Albania solve the financial problem and the most militarily.9 serious economic had involved the country Further to the pact stipulated that if at that time. As for Italy was a major Italy will be attacked by a Balkan country, diplomatic success, reaching to abandon the Albania should declare war on that country government of Albania Zog and Yugoslav at the request of Italy.10 influence as well as from England, linking This military alliance was aimed at it after itself. the protection and assurance that Italy would give Albania from home and abroad, 3. Secret military pact and expanding the limits to ethnic ones, without formally violating its sovereignty. On completion of the agreement for In conclusion it can be said that the the establishment of the Albanian National signing of this pact was a success for Bank and the concession of credit to Italian diplomacy of Zog, who managed to get a Albania, was enabled to open the way to guarantee from a major power like Italy, to completing a secret military treaty between preserve the independence of Albania and Zog and Mussolini on August 26, 1925. its government. The conclusion of this pact was reached through a long negotiation between 4. Pact Tirana I representatives of both countries. Albania’s independence and integrity Once achieved not guarantee pact through the least protected from Italy, signed in early December 1925, due to not which guarantees these within the limits fall between Mussolini and Zog agree on defined by the four major powers in the some points provided in the provisions of Paris Declaration of 9 November 1921 the pact, political treaties between Italy and and declared as a “casus belli”, any attack Albania were suspended for several months. against Albania.7 Good report among them began only Various authors as Pastorelli, Zamboni after the breakdown of the relationship emphasize that this pact was an Italian between Italy and Yugoslavia, which was military protectorate over Albania in order the main driver that led to the conclusion to clear anti-Yugoslav. So the Italian state of the “Pact of friendship and security through this pact had reached the southern between Italy and Albania,” also called border as an ally in the Balkans referred to “Pact of Tirana I”. as “a back shoulder blade of Yugoslavia”,8 An important role in restoring good reaching to connect gathers Albania, a relations between Italy and Albania were small, but important. also Baron Pompeo Aloisi, Minister The provisions of this treaty stipulated Plenipotentiary of Italy, which had as
7 Giovanni Zamboni, Mussolini Expansionspolitik auf dem Balkan, Hamburg, 1970, p.LXX. 8 Ibid, p. LXX. 9 Art.1 of the Militar secret pact. 10 Art.4 of the Militar secret pact. 60 The King Zog alliance with Italy for extraction the country out of crisis objective to remove all obstacles to 5. Tirana Pact II economic and political field between Italy and Albania. Based on this view, he came On the Tirana pact, cemented his to the meetings held between the bird and position Zog internal political and Italy on Mussolini to convince them to open the the Adriatic it. door to a new stage of agreements between Against this pact was Yugoslavia, the two countries.11 which in reaction, further increased its ties Thus, on November 27, 1926 was with France and the overthrow of King signed by Minister of Albania Mr. Vrioni Zog designed using regular troops and and Representative of Italy Mr. Aloisi “Pact armed gangs on the border with Albania of Tirana I” or “pact of friendship and to provoke disturbances and riots.13 confidence” between the two countries. Take action against Yugoslavia The Pact carry out two main political assistance from Italy to Albania was of goals of A. Zog: special importance, which showed the treaty concluded between Italy and Albania 1. no reference to the Paris Declaration had valid work and not just by theoretical of 1921 but also practical. 2. and ensuring equality between the two Relations between the two countries contracting parties.12 within a year intensified even more by bringing in a new treaty, by which the two Signing the pact of friendship and contracting parties in a more organic set security always explained more of policy goals their reports. and methods of Italy in the Balkans, which After numerous discussions between was the policy of commercial penetration, Tirana and Rome, on November 22, 1927 cultural and civil. This was one of Italy in was signed in Tirana “Pact defense alliance” its objective of each it is not wanted in the referred to as “Tirana Pact II”, between the Balkan Peninsula only provide favorable Foreign Minister of Albania Mr. Iljas do positions, but increasingly consolidating its Vrioni and Italian Minister Mr. Sola. bases peaceful expansion. Tirana II Treaty created a new The pact was the most desirable guarantee for peaceful development and solution for Albania and Italy, because prosperity between the two countries. politically the interests of both countries The Treaty was provided that in case better ensured through this alliance. of attacks from external aggressors, both Also, the Pact came before Serbia as an Parties shall assist each other. So the treaty obstacle to realizing its dream of centuries, was peaceful and aimed at protection the occupation of Albanian lands. from attacks by third parties and not the Pact of Tirana I set the end of disputes mobilization of Italy and Albania against between the two countries and pave the other countries’. way for a new consensus that will ultimately Zog purpose of this pact through the sanction in the political and military author Pastorelli was: “the success of his relations between Albania and Italy. policy to get the support of Italy against
11 Pompeo Aloisi, Diario: Albania, 1926 (MS), alla data del 4 febbraio 1926, 20 febraio 1926, 15 marzo 1926, 18, 19 e 20 maggio e 4 giugno 1926. 12 Contractors, ie the two countries that have signed the Pact Tirana I. 13 Amadeo Giannini, L’Albania dall’indipendenza all’unione con l’Italia 1913-1939, Milano, 1940, pp.174-175. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 61
Serbian eksistente pretexts and emerge not Albanian diplomacy of that time, which from Greece, without giving up on all the ensured the preservation of independence, country’s formal independence.” territorial integrity, financial and economic On conclusion of the treaty relations development and peaceful development of between Italy and Albania will be in good international relations with neighboring general until the beginning of World War II, countries and with countries other where we also end the relationship between European countries. the two countries. Thus was created a balance of forces, which made it possible to avoid an armed 6. Conclusion military conflict. These collaborative relationships and alliances with Italy were Finally alliance Albania and Italy the basis for the development of friendly can be viewed as an achievement of relations between the two countries today.
REFERENCES
Aloisi Pompeo, Diario: Albania, 1926 (MS), alla Leipzig, 1936, p.243. data del 4 febbraio 1926, 20 febraio 1926, Group of authors, Historia e Shtetit dhe së Drejtës 15 marzo 1926, 18, 19 e 20 maggio e 4 në Shqipëri, Universiteti Luarasi, Tiranë, giugno 1926. 2007, botimi i katër, p.362. Berndj J. Fischer, Mbreti Zog dhe përpjekjet për Pastorelli Pietro, L’Italia e l’Albania 1924-1927, stabilitetin në Shqipëri, Tiranë, 1996, pp. Firenze, 1967, p.494. 100-105. Swire Joseph, Albania, The rise of a Kingdom, Giannini Amadeo, L’Albania dall’indipendenza London, 1929, p. 450. all’unione con l’Italia 1913-1939, Milano, Valentian Duka, Historia e Shqipërisë 1912- 1940, pp.174-175. 2000, Tiranë 2007, pp.183-187. Lothar Loose, Die wolkerrechtlichen und Zamboni Giovanni, Mussolini Expansionspolitik politischen Beziehung Albanies zu Italien, auf dem Balkan, Hamburg, 1970, p. LXX.
TEACHERS MOTIVATION AND TEACHING QUALITY
Etel TELEZI E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to contribute in achieving educational goals by determining the level of motivation of teachers. Based on this purpose in the study participated 50 teachers from a school on the outskirts of Tirana, who perform in the secondary educational system. Also based and focused on some surveys of the study, teachers did not ‘meet” all needs, however the study and the results of the questionnaire found out that teachers must meet higher levels of motivation, which is sufficient to meet the major goals of education. Keywords: Motivation; secondary educational system; needs; education.
Introduction by contributing directly in teaching quality. Due to major changes in time that our Teachers are a group of professionals country suffered in the economic and with special importance especially in political terms, the school has not been country’s development. They’re gradually indifferent to these developments. Both, “build solid and very strong foundation with its physical changes and concepts on of knowledge”, which if are “built” with the school, the role and its importance, but perfect quality will produce growth and also teachers and their status have changed. success. Those are exactly the reasons , that Another element that is very directly affect the quality of education that important, and effects development and children receive. Government, are directly professional advancement is motivation responsible in education systems raised itself. Motivation is a psychological concept, by it. Also are responsible in providing very important in daily academic life. It is opportunities to teachers, trying to help not unknown to us and it enjoys a very them to express better their skills. It strong interest when it comes to quality thus created a good structure and strong work. incentive enables teachers. Facing directly Motivation is a natural work, teachers to promote their professional development press and shapes behavior and different ways
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 63-70 64 Teachers motivation and teaching quality of teaching. Motivation at work promotes labour. By supporting this idea precisely and enhances interest in the work, increases study Anderson and Iwanicki (1984) the level of work satisfaction, increases determined a correlation between catalytic competition when it comes to professional factors as autonomy, recognition of work skills, creates a better social climate, status and levels of teacher’s burnout. increased desire to do a professional job According to researches of studies in the with responsibility, facilitates the process of world on this subject we find that in a teaching, increases the quality of teaching study conducted by the Henderson-Sparks and creates an elite firm and stable in time. (1995) with 135 schools in California say So it is this factor that set in motion that the factors affecting the reduction of all the knowledge acquired over the years, teacher performance are lack of motivation, pushes and encourages the teacher to be a exhaustion and crisis personal. more stable picture, the social and in the end If you concentrate on our education what everyone is expecting growth in labor system in terms of 9-year school you quality. Motivation increases when basic will find that exist a number of factors needs and necessities in the highest levels effecting the performance of teachers in are met. If needs like security, evaluation, school. These factors may be related to physical conditions, professional growth, education, background, gender, years at etc… “meet” the motivation will be work, burnout, working conditions, wages high. If the teacher needs are not taken and bonuses etc... This study is focused into account, but taken for granted no on all they need filled or missing, which motivation to work, then there will be low, directly affect teacher’s performance in therefore the quality of work and positive school, and serve as factors to increase or results will be missing. According to decrease in work motivation and impact. Brophy (1983), the main reason for a low In this study, I have tried to itemize level in school is poor motivation among all of those basic needs, physical, social, teachers and students. Despite the efforts emotional or not, which met from school, and work with students, teachers, other seeing them as real indicators of the studies show that levels of motivation, existence of motivation at work, and in addition to professional competence consequently its quality. For this reason, of teachers, play a very important role in in this study the opinions and concerns of the learning process of students (Atkinson teachers interviewed during the teaching 2000; Glynn, Aultman, and the Owens process are examined in accordance with 2005) . So, when we think about high Maslow’s hierarchy of needs-t. Hierarchy levels of motivation to increase quality at of Needs by Maslow ‘s theory specifies work question: “How can i increase the physiological needs, safety, social needs, motivation of teachers and students?” assessment and updating, which is needed During the process of working in to determine the last meeting and meet education to achieve the objectives and the highest that an individual can achieve purposes, note that the level of stress among in terms of social psychological but in teachers is higher compared with other professional terms. Physical needs, which professions (Jesus and Conboy 2001). include the need to feed, to drink, to sleep, This situation can be explained by etc.. certainty the needs in the existence the relationship between impact and of individual influence. Social needs, then motivation of teachers. According to Reyes the individual’s ability to create good (1990), there is a positive relationship relationship at work with colleagues, with between teacher motivation and impact of management staff and other individuals Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 65 who perform various services within the to express my thoughts, I fear that the use school affects the individual relationship of something, etc.. skills to help him have another need to The questionnaire was distributed in fill . While the last two needs according a 9-year public school and filled out all the to Maslow ‘s hierarchy of needs are his teachers of all subjects as math, English, evaluation and self-actualization, which physics, geography, music, history etc contribute to individual and professional also the primary teachers of this school is. growth of teachers. Thanks to this study will This questionnaire is designed based on need find out which are completed to our the methodology Likertit instance, where teachers, which ones are missing and what they had a choice about the questions they themselves think about these needs. by the teacher: I totally agree (I am fully What must be completed and that even if satisfied), I agree, neutral, agree disagree, I you miss not playing a significant role in am not at all agree. This questionnaire, as their motivation and interest to work. I mentioned above contains 25 questions As will be understood from the which were intended to measure the results of studies and statistics, during the fulfillment of physiological needs, safety, process of achieving educational goals, the social, emotional that are based precisely on interaction and face different issues at the the theory of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs-t. same time has a negative effect on the level The questions are based on Maslow’s of goal achievement (Nelson and Quick theory on the hierarchy of needs (I totally 1997, Daft 1994; Hellriegel, Slocum, agree; I agree; Neutral; Not agree; Not and forester 2001). For this reason, in agree at all): this study, opinions about the motivation of teachers in the educational process 1. I have a job that meets all my are analyzed according to Maslow’s physiological needs (food, water, hierarchy of needs-t and are discussed in space, heating, cooling, etc.) terms of needs theories of motivation. 2. There are different laboratories for Thus the entire study tries to answer different subjects in the school. some questions like: How many teachers 3. The school meets the conditions needs met? What are they best met? How during the seasons, especially during much importance is given to the needs of winter. teachers in order to increase performance 4. Classrooms are equipped with teaching in the educational process? What are the tools, which enable learning to be very most important needs for teachers? encouraging. 5. School fulfills the sanitary conditions. Methodology 6. Number of students is suitable for interactive teaching. For this study I used two types of 7. Classes are large enough (space) to methods: a questionnaire consisting of 25 develop a quality learning. questions and an interview with 5 questions 8. Students respect my rights. open. The questionnaire was distributed 9. There are policies and guidelines that to 50 teachers, and interviews with open protect my rights. questions are filled in only 15 of them, 10. The institution where I work gives me who readily agreed to give their opinion. enough resources to do my job better. Others refused to give an interview by 11. I have confidence in the institution presenting various reasons, like lack of where I work. time, not appreciated as important, I wish 12. I have good cooperation with the 66 Teachers motivation and teaching quality
school psychologist. needed reassurance. So, this questionnaire 13. I have good relationships with students. determines which physiological needs 14. I have good relations with management are and which are missing, a school staff. provides the necessary security for students 15. I have good relationships with and teachers, a teacher feels valued by colleagues. supervisors, teachers, community, etc., 16. People respect me because I am a is there a line in terms of social relations teacher. within in high school altogether and scale 17. I like class discussions with students. of the needs a person is completed by a 18. Moral evaluations have not missed professional? These were the five pillars on work. which the questionnaire was constructed by 19. I feel understood from managerial me, based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs staff. and using Likert degree. 20. During the staff meeting I feel heard. The second stage of the study had 21. Rejoice gratitude to my superiors. to do exactly the interview, which was 22. If I had the opportunity to choose completed by 30% of teachers. He was another profession I would not do. granted voluntary and teachers were asked 23. I am always interested in training, to express their opinion freely trying less vocational courses that enhance me affected by external factors. Even here the professionally. teachers were hesitant to answer, especially 24. Certified training have been part of my when it came to expressing negative professional growth. opinions on unfulfilled needs. 25. The work I do fulfill me professionally. Results After receiving permission from the school, I distributed the questionnaire Study results are based on is being gathered and I. Also, these questionnaires completed by 50 teachers questionnaires were completed by all and 15 interviews with open questions. teachers, as well as a member of the Questionnaire consists of 25 questions management team in order to obtain an listed and deliberate to assess needs fulfilled opinion and their inclusion in the study or not by teachers. To show the results in because they are part of teaching and can percentage would rank below even doing play a direct role in increasing the needs the necessary analysis. The first 6 questions and therefore increase the motivation and are dedicated physical needs, including quality provided. physical factors to school and classes, Teachers who put the questionnaire namely: working conditions in space as were concerned about the confidentiality classrooms, no. fitting of students for a of their opinions, and often mixed to give comprehensive and interactive teaching, an opinion of their own or to give such an sanitary hygiene conditions, the existence opinion had to be real. of heat in the winter means the existence From the 25 questionnaires completed of conditions necessary for something to by teachers, 14% were male and 86% of eat, to drink a coffee or water inside the them women. The purpose of the survey school during free time in the school bar was revealed the needs which were filled etc. But somehow describe the conditions by teachers as such schools which were of the school where the study. It is a 9-year completed and physical conditions are school with 1400 students. Classrooms absent, or” a pardon”, and he felt the school are equipped inside with tables and chairs Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 67 for students, most of them has 4 rows very encouraging” 33% responded Agree, of students. It also features a black table, 13 % neutral, 37% I’m not agree and 17% and one or two shelves. On the walls I’m not at all agree. are located photos and various tables. 4 Questions in addition to the Children in classroom use table, desk and questionnaire are designed to show the chair them. There can be no object fur, level of safety at school more specifically and find him tomorrow, or you can use those needs fulfilled or not evidenced by tomorrow for afternoon classes used by these questions: respect for the rights CU school has to use a computer class, of teachers by students, the existence of which works, but used only during hours policies and guidelines that protect the of information for students and teachers rights of teachers (almost all claim that such for their documentation regarding the policies, but none you know who they are work. At school there is no other lab. and what is written in them specifically), During the winter there are many stop I feel safe in school and pay is enough to lights, which especially during the winter motivate teachers. short Nee affect attention and interest Is worth mentioning the results of reduction for learning. School does not these questions according to the results in have a suitable place where teachers can percentages: eat something, drink water or coffee. From “Payment motivates me to be more the responses on the above listed needs productive in teaching” answered - 7% teachers have specified the absence of I totally agree, I agree 33%, 19% are these needs, especially that of inadequate answered that I not agree and 40% I’m conditions during winter, large numbers of not at all agree. students or pupils, who assessed is absence “There are policies and guidelines that of laboratories will thus make learning protect my rights,” responded, 5% I totally more concrete, more practical and tangible agree, I agree 33%, 10% Neutral, 36% and by the students. Lighting, appropriate 16% I’m not at all agree. temperature according to the seasons, New School which has been developed classrooms and laboratories suitable for that does not have a yard questionnaire contemporary lessons play a direct role in to own. “Courtyard” is also shared with the quality of teaching and increase results another school, and is also a channel for in learning. cars, individuals who do not belong to the The first results in percentage: school. In this “court” developed teaching First question: “Classes are large gym, as well as for upper elementary level. enough to develop a quality learning” There have been no cases of accidents, due responded: 67% I don’t agree, 13% I to its location. don’t agree at all, 13% Neutral 6.6% and The questions below are social needs, I totally agree. which is related to a high level of need Another important question is: “The assessed is in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs number of students is appropriate for an regulation. These questions are based interactive teaching” have responded this more specifically on: the existence of good way: I agree 19%, 40% neutral, 13% not relationship with colleagues, superiors, that I agree and 26% I’m not at all agree. psychologist and students. In all result the As another question, which is part of the same results as a percentage, which means group of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs-t that almost 40% of teachers they have good is: “The classrooms are equipped with relationships with supervisors, teachers, teaching tools, which enable learning to be school psychologist and the students, 55% 68 Teachers motivation and teaching quality have very good relationships with staff, on the rise, and last question if choose psychologist and students and only 5% are another profession would do or (not very satisfied / agree by their social relations surprisingly a good portion of them within the school. responded that they would change their Ascending to the top of the hierarchy profession if they could). From this of needs in the questionnaire 5 questions of paragraph I have chosen to present the assessment are intended to meet the need results in percentages these questions: of assessment, which according to Maslow “The work that meets the carry on ‘s fulfillment of this need contributes to by professional”, 39% I am totally agree, meeting the needs psychological help I agree 41%, 5% Neutral and 15% I not in life and psycho-emotional wellbeing at all agree. individual, and thereby contributing “My interest and work quality is always to an increased level of motivation to in the present”: 74% I am totally agree, I work. These questions are based on the agree 18% Neutral and 8% I’m not agree. feeling heard by superiors, the sensing / And the third question selected needs is understanding, the teacher feels that it is precisely this “ If I had the opportunity respected by teachers outside the school, to choose another profession I would not as well as the existence or not of moral do,” responded or answer this way: I totally evaluations directly affecting the growth of agree 30%, 10% I agree, 22% neutral the individual for performance evaluation responses them, 10% I agree and 26 I’m thus affecting the growth of positive self- not agree at all. esteem. Results of some of the questions The second method used by me was in% are as follows: just an interview with open questions, in “During staff meetings I feel / which like to know who were the three heard”: 45% I totally agree, 35% I agree, most important needs in a group of 10 13% neutral in their responses, and 7% I set of needs that the teachers interviewed not agree at all. for meeting these needs will the effect of “I like discussions with students” is increasing their motivation to work. Also another question, which meets the need during the interview what were these needs, of a positive assessment to the teachers and teachers tried to argue percent the selection affect their growth performance during of these needs for themselves. The purpose learning, and results in percentages are: of using a second method of proving it was 40% I totally agree, 45% I agree and 15 fair correlation between the controversial % I not agree. Another question is “People elements above, and precisely for this respect me because I am a teacher.” Results reason was focused on : physical conditions, in percentage are: 59% I totally agree, 19% to protect the rights of teachers as a security Agree 14% Neutral, 7% not that I agree. feature, to pay monetary reward , to their And the last 5 questions are dedicated interest in the profession etc.. 10 needs set to the highest need at the top of the hierarchy out in the interview were exactly: is exactly what the self-actualization, which I have attempted to measure and analyze a. Hygienic using the questions include: satisfaction b. Safety that the teacher has to work and he feels c. Certified Training the profession of him, if certified training d. Moral incentives increased their skills and their professional e. Increase in duty work, their interest is always present, the f. Recognition of superiors demand for professional growth is always g. Increased salary based on qualifications Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 69 h. Food, water, coffee, etc.. elements, but I focused only on the needs i. Successful in classroom discussions according to Maslow ‘s, that affect the with students motivation to work satisfaction affecting j. Community recognition for my work the performance and quality at work. If you see the problem from the standpoint From these teachers’ needs by of basic needs theory of motivation, unmet selecting one that will motivate them more needs may have a direct negative effect on was just - Safety at school for them and motivation or losing his job. According for students. Need second most important to this view, and despite the fact that among the others was just - Increased why these needs are not met, they affect training wage under qualified. And the the loss of motivation to the institution’s third was definitely needs - community leaders, teachers and students. According recognition for their work as teachers. to the findings of the study note that less fulfilled needs are basic needs level, physical Discussion and security that affect the individual’s existence, and needs to be completed are A large part of researches from other those of the updates assessment. From the scholar has found that when teachers results obtained from the questionnaire were given the right to vote individually, show that needs to “feel heard”, “I feel example allowed to choose teaching understood”, “I feel appreciated for the fact materials and programs, their teaching is that I am the teacher” met by 50% - 60%. greatly enrich and enhance their motivation It also needs a completion percentage over and performance at work (Kaiser 1981). 50% of updates find for teachers, which In contrast, poorly planned schedules, tell us that teacher are valued and feel inadequate teaching materials, inadequate emotionally and psychologically, but unmet working conditions and a large number of needs at basic levels, which contradicts applications can hinder performance and the theory The Maslow-t. According to result in job dissatisfaction (Rowley 1996). the theory of Maslow’s hierarchy we can’t If we talk about this study conducted supplement the needs of higher levels not just a lack of security during the learning meet their basic levels, so as to explain process, the unmet physical conditions, lack this phenomenon in our study should also of a salary and bonuses unsatisfactory not consider other theories of motivation. The affect a good level of motivation at work, most important of Maslow ‘s theory is in a low quality performance in teaching that the motivating force of a higher need and a poor quality education. I’ve tried in the hierarchy of needs depends on the to include the study of needs based on fulfillment of a need to lower level (Eren Maslow’s hierarchy of needs-t, and all those 1993), while the results of this study do not factors that affect the level of satisfaction reflect the hierarchical ranking. for work, which are measurable and not measurable. Should mention the existence Conclusions of other factors affecting the performance of teachers who are unmanageable. They Based on the findings of this study, as may be fatigue and psychological problems, have the completed results in a percentage which have no direct connection with the above 50% needs to higher levels in the school, but directly affect performance, hierarchy of needs, and unmet physical personal satisfaction, motivation, etc. In needs sufficient sanitary hygiene conditions, this study we have not included these insufficient space, number of students for an 70 Teachers motivation and teaching quality interactive teaching and quality, the lack of education of teachers, their needs must be security that meet the needs of the school as met in a short time through the analysis teachers and students, the unmet needs that and finding concrete ways to fulfill them. appear to directly affect the performance In addition, if teachers have sufficient and the low level of motivation. During the knowledge and skills related to performance interview the teachers argued that they feel management and motivation, student respected by superiors, their colleagues, and performance will improve. While teachers that this did not constitute an unmet need that do not have enough knowledge of for them, rather they need to be listed as the subject of motivation and who are must be met to enhance their motivation not motivated, exhibit difficulties in their and job satisfaction as : Safety at school, students’ motivation to learn. For this increase the salary based on qualifications reason, a training program designed to and community recognition for their work. provide that service needs are met before The first two needs are part of the lower and during the service. In this way teachers levels of Maslow’s hierarchy-t, while the can increase their motivation. Also, attentive community’s gratitude for their part in the teachers who have sufficient knowledge level of assessment (psychological need). and skills in the subject of motivation If you rely on the basic needs theory can enhance students’ motivation during of motivation, study findings indicate that the learning process, contributing to the to achieve the goals of higher education- achievement of educational goals.
REFERENCES
Alderfer, C.P. 1972. Existence, relatedness, and Sciences Department, Uludag, University, growth: Human needs in organisational Bursa, Turkey settings, New York: Free Press. Jesus, S.N. and Conboy, J. 2001. A stress Anderson, M.B. and Iwanicki, E.F. 1984. Teacher management course to prevent teacher motivation and its relationship to burnout. distress. The International Journal of Educational Administration Educational Management, 15(3): 131 Atkinson, E.S. 2000. An investigation into the Jordan, D. 1986. A Correlational Analysis of relationship between teacher motivation School Leadership and Organizational and pupil motivation. Educational Psychology, Climate with Students’ Classroom 20(1): 45–57., 20(2): 94–132. Achievement (Beaumont, TX: Lamar BISHAY, Teacher Motivation and Job University Press). Satisfaction: A Study Employing the Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of Human Experience Sampling Method, ANDRE Motivation. Psychological Review, 50, p. 370. BISHAY Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality. Brophy, J. 1983. Classroom organisation and 2nd edition, New York: Harper and Row. management. Elementary School Journal, 83 Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teachers’ workplace: The (4): 265–85. social organization of schools. New York: Eren, E. 1993. Management and organisation, 2nd Teachers College Press. ed., Istanbul: Beta Basim Yayım Dağıtım. Teachers Job Satisfaction and Motivation for Gokce, School Leadership & Management, School Effectiveness: An Assessment Assessment of teacher motivation, Feyyat Nwachukwu Prince Ololube, University of Gokce Education Faculty, Educational Helsinki Finland. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 71
URBAN AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CITY OF ELBASAN
Gjergji SHQAU, Albana MADHI & Imelda SEJDINI University Aleksander Xhuvani Elbasan; Department of management Faculty of Economic Elbasan E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
Elbasan is the model of goodness and wisdom, of tolerance and cooperation, culture and science of education and work of songs and joy, of orange yards and olives groves. Urban development in Elbasan up until now in perspective, is conditioned by its dynamic of demographic, economic and social development, which during the last two has been characterized by these main tendencies as : a) the immediate increase of the population of the city, increase of density of the urban population, etc; and b) social and economic development of the city, immediate structural changes of economy, etc. The new regulating plan not only takes into consideration the perspective tendencies of development of the city, but it is drafted on some fundamental principles, which also comprise the basis for the future economic and social development of the whole urban zone of Elbasan. They are different principle for perspective development as: the geographical location of the city and its new position in the 8th corridor, etc. The methodology of this paper is based on different primary and secondary data, on the strategy of development of region and Elbasan, interview questioners and computer programs. In the end of the paper there are some conclusions and recommendations. Keywords; Urban, regional, development, Elbasan, population
I. The development of urban cities where depended from many factors. Alexander commissioned him to lay out The development of urban City his new city of Alexandria, the grandest belong to the last few centuries. From example of idealized urban planning of Neolithic period to Greeks, Romans etc the ancient Mediterranean world, where they all have thought to develop their cities the city’s regularity was facilitated by its in different way in non similar situations. level site near a mouth of the Nile. The They all had divers interests and those Hippodamian, or grid plan, was the basis
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 71-81 72 Urban and regional development of the city of Elbasan for subsequent Greek and Roman cities. urban region to varying degrees (Sassen, (Jackson, Kenneth, 1985). The ancient 2001). Major urban areas tend to offer a Romans used a consolidated scheme for wide range of infrastructure support to city planning, developed for military businesses, including transport (roads, rail, defense and civil convenience. The basic airports, and ports), telecommunications, plan consisted of a central forum with educational institutions and ancillary city services, surrounded by a compact, services. In addition, the agglomeration rectilinear grid of streets, and wrapped in process tends to be self-reinforcing, a wall for defense. To reduce travel times, as incoming enterprises recognize the two diagonal streets crossed the square economic benefits offered at existing grid, passing through the central square. locations and accordingly locate adjacent A river usually flowed through the city, to these. providing water, transport, and sewage In essence, businesses that cluster disposal. Many European towns, such together adopt a risk minimization strategy as Turin, preserve the remains of these and benefit from shared availability of schemes, which show the very logical way services (Asheim et al, 2006). Some of the Romans designed their cities. They the drivers for this managed, or smart, would lay out the streets at right angles, growth approach are emerging policy in the form of a square grid. Vitrivius priorities, including minimization of (1914) Wheeler, in his 1998 article, air and water pollution, reutilization of defines sustainable urban development derelict lands, reduction of commuter as “development that improves the long- travel distances, creation of critical mass term social and ecological health of cities for city regions and preservation of and towns.” He sketches a ‘sustainable’ natural lands. The success or failure of city’s features: compact, efficient land such policies in preventing unmanaged or use; less automobile use, yet better access; dispersed development continues to be the efficient resource use; less pollution and subject of diverse opinion as to whether waste; the restoration of natural systems; growth management works. In particular, good housing and living environments; attention is often paid to the role of a healthy social ecology; a sustainable landowners in the transformation of land economy; community participation and affected by metropolitan expansion and involvement; and preservation of local leapfrog development patterns (Sazak, culture and wisdom. (Wheeler, Stephen 2004). As infrastructure is vital to (1998). In the developed countries of both urban development (Hall 1998) Western Europe, North America, Japan, and the economy (World Bank, 2003), and Australia, planning and architecture pressures for reform towards effective can be said to have gone through various co-coordinating capacities at a regional paradigms or stages of consensus in the level are likely to continue. It is therefore last 200 years. (Hall Peter,1998). Patterns essential that mechanisms be developed of urban development are expressed at an appropriate regional level to ensure through a variety of distinct forms, which an organizing capacity exists at this level act to constrain and influence the patterns to plan and implement development of development in metropolitan areas. policy. The relative decline in state direct Each metropolitan region is the product involvement compared to stated aspirations of a number of principal economic, social, in social and economic development physical and political factors that have projects is apparent internationally (Evans influenced the respective character of each A, 2003). The growth of cities in Europe Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 73 has historically been driven by increasing same need for strategic planning in order urban populations. However, despite the to foster sustainable development. In fact that population pressure no longer fact, cities form the pivot of future global looms as large a threat as it once did during development. Many of the problems faced the mid 20th century, a variety of factors by cities such as rural-urban migration are still driving urban sprawl (European cannot be solved within cities alone. Environmental Agency, 2006). These are The population living in rural areas entrenched in the desire to follow new must also be taken into account. We lifestyles in a suburban context, outside need new ways of thinking about the the inner city. The world population is interrelation between rural and urban rapidly becoming urbanized as the rural areas, especially with respect to planning population gravitates towards cities. “The issues. Today, from a strategic planning world is witnessing unprecedented urban perspective, we realize that urban centers explosion. The urban population has more are not only focal points for their own than quadrupled since 1950 amounting economic growth but also service centers to 3.2 billion in 2005 and should reach for surrounding areas. The relationship 5 billion people in 2030 (about 60% of between urban centers and surrounding the World population).” This change in areas is one of interdependence rather the distribution of the world’s population than competition or struggle. In most presents new challenges for cities, especially countries, rural areas have been excluded in terms of planning. Urbanization is from the planning process even though now a crucial issue for local and national cities depend on surrounding areas for economies. Uncontrolled urban growth natural resources. Although this fact has has generated serious environmental been recognized, the value of rural areas as problems, increasing social segmentation a natural environment which contributes and poverty. This accelerated growth to bettering the quality of life of a poses new challenges to national and territory has not always been appreciated. local authorities, especially in the field Moreover, the role of rural areas in of the promotion of social inclusion. local, regional and global economies is These problems, coupled with a lack of of utmost importance since productive land-use plans, have pushed to the limit and natural rural areas are necessary for the capacity of cities to provide services achieving sustainable development. In such as transportation, energy, education, order to create an interconnected, unified health care and security. Cities present territory, planners must take into account different characteristics in different areas the interdependence of rural areas and of the world. They are densely populated urban hubs. (UNPD,2007,a,b). These in Asia and the Middle-East, sprawling considerations force us to re-think the role in Latin-America and combine both rural of cities in global planning processes. From and urban aspects in Africa. “Cities occupy policy paper on urban strategic planning just 2% of the world’s surface but at the including regional reports and case studies same time half of the world’s population from all around continents of the World, that consumes up to three quarters of united cities and local government as natural resources (OECD, 2008).”1 democratic and decentralized structure Despite their differences, cities share the propose the scheme as below.
1 European Environment Agency and others, Ensuring Quality of Life in Europe’s Cities and Towns, Tackling the Environmental Challenges driven by European and Global Change, Version 10/02/09. 74 Urban and regional development of the city of Elbasan
Figure 1. Five groups can cooperate for urban development
Local governments are the main drivers planning, and support local management of urban strategic planning. Community and its capacity. The private sector benefits groups, citizens and nongovernmental from the strategic process to assess the organizations are strategic dialogue feasibility of investments. The academic partners, making local governments sector prepares the professionals and is responsible to the population. National nurtured by knowledge in cities. (Greg governments promote and benefit from Clark, 2010) strategic planning as local governments are delivering, coherent programs II. Population and employment and intergovernmental cooperation improves. Associations play an important The population of Elbasan has role, as strategic and urban planning really changed a lot during the two last emerges from local experiences and decades. This happened, from the high nurtures intergovernmental dialogues. immediate migration after the year 1990 International partners that focus on and migration of a part of population
Table 1: The population of the city during the years of transition
No. Year Population Changes since the year 1990
1 1990 82 114 - 2 1995 102 868 + 25.27% 3 2000 116 560 + 41.95% 4 2005 123 210 + 50.00% 5 2010 128 150 + 56.06% Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 75
Table 2: Number of families according to years
Year Number of families Change in % Persons per family
1 1990 22809 0 3,60 2 1995 29993 31.5 3.55 3 2000 33928 48.7 3.50 4 2005 35708 56.5 3.48 5 2010 37348 63.7 3,43 towards Tirana, on one side and on the The greatest number of inhabitants other side from the numerous incomers is in the Administrative Unit No.1, in the city from the villages of Elbasan about 24 thousand inhabitants and the and partly from the other smaller cities of smallest number of inhabitants is in the Albania. As it is seen from the Table 1, the Administrative Unit No.5, about 13 population of the city is increased from thousand inhabitants. The density of about 82 thousand to about 128 thousand inhabitants, the average one, in the city inhabitants, within a period of 15 years. of Elbasan is about 1600 inhabitants per The number of families is increased km2. The Administrative Units No.1 too, during the last decades. In comparison and No.6 have the greatest density and with the year 1990, the total number of the Administrative Unit No.3 has the the families in the year 2010 is increased smallest. with about 15000 families or about The structure of the population, 66.7% (see table 2) and has reached in according to the age groups, almost has about 37350 families. This increase is remained the same during the last years, influenced by the same factors as for the and is not influenced much from the increase of the population, as well as by increase of the population. Thus in the last the new created families. But the number five years period (2006-2010), the general of incomers has had a greater influence increase of the population is accompanied than the number of new families. with almost the same increase of the The population of the city is not population of all the age groups, where distributed equally in the six existing dominates the working age population, Administrative Units (see table 3). stipulating thus as a priority the need to
Table 3: Population according to the Administrative Units in the year 2010
Administrative Population Density Unit Inhabitants Inhabitants/km2
1 No 1 24113 2660 2 No 2 22699 1140 3 No 3 27056 1004 4 No 4 21982 2626 5 No 5 13130 1681 6 No 6 19170 2690 City 128150 1617 76 Urban and regional development of the city of Elbasan
Table 4: Data on population and employment
Source Population Active population Unemployed Unemployment Total % %
1 Repoba 2001 97 224 43 138 49 16 233 37.6 2 Administrative 2001 118 749 76 375 49 14 684 19.2 3 Administrative 2010 128 150 49 11 439 18.2 4 Administrative 2010 128 150 70 392 54.9 11 439 16.2 increase the possibilities for employment. thousand inhabitants of the city). This In the year 2010, the composition of the corresponds with an unemployment scale population was dominated by the age of 18.2%, against 13.8% that is the official groups 18-65 years old, that are the work figure of the average unemployment at the age and that represents about 55% of the nationwide scale for the year 2010. In this population of the city. The children and calculation it is taken into consideration school age young people represent an age that this part of the active population group that is about 22% of the population. (in proportion) is the same with that of The other age groups represent a smaller the Repoba 2001. These data hide the part of the population of the city. In real scale of the labor force and that of the same year (2001), the registration unemployment, because on one side they of the population in the city of Elbasan have as reference non constant figures numbered about 6 thousand unemployed, of the active population, and on the against 14 thousand work requests other side consider as unemployed only registered in the Regional Employment those that are registered as such to the Office. This difference may be from employment offices. the lack of interest to be registered as According to this data, the labor force, unemployed in this public service, a factor actually is about 44 thousand persons, known and accepted in general. In spite out of which are employed only 23.835 of this discordance, the unemployment persons, while the others are unemployed, in the city of Elbasan has resulted to be so the scale of unemployment results to very high (in the margins from 19.2% be much more higher, at levels more than to 37.6%), the highest, compared with 45.29% as to the unemployment figures the main cities of the country. According of the Municipality and about 23% with to this logic, at the end of the year the figures of the labor requests registered 2010, from the data of the Regional at the labor office. From the data of this Employment Office, have resulted 11 table ( table 5) it is obvious that, with 439 unemployed (out of which about 10 the current rhythms of the economic
Table 5: Data of the labor market 2010
Populati-on Labor age population Labor forces Employed Unemploy-ed Proporti-on in % Total Propor-tion in % Total
Elbasan 128 150 62.0 78 392 61.9 43 572 23 855 19 717 Albania 87.9 61.9 Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 77
Table 6: Employment in years
Employed YEAR 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Total 787 600 800 616 451 418 development of the city, each year are the local level with 824 persons. The averagely created only 600 jobs, and even other part of the employed belongs to the number of employed in the last years the transport, construction, industrial have been under 500 persons in a year, agricultural, etc. local enterprises, which what means that the employing capacities are generally activities with perspective are stabilized in quite insufficient levels, of being transformed into private sector. compared with the great need for jobs that Another indicator is seen from this, has the city of Elbasan. which testifies economic pan development Thus, in spite of the source of of the city of Elbasan: the part employed data and their accuracy, the situation in the private sector. The data of Table 7 of employment is considered to be show clearly that state sector in Elbasan very problematic, compared with the remains to be the main employer, where real possibilities of jobs that have been works 1 in 2 employed persons. Meanwhile created each year (see table 6). From the at the nationwide scale, this indicator is 1 data of this table it is obvious that, with in every 5 employed persons. This result the current rhythms of the economic from the low development of the private development of the city, each year are sector, which employs only about 53% of averagely created only 600 jobs, and even the whole employed persons, against 82% the number of employed in the last years in the nationwide scale. have been under 500 persons in a year, what means that the employing capacities III. Business and development of are stabilized in quite insufficient levels, Elbasan in the future compared with the great need for jobs that has the city of Elbasan. Elbasan city, in distinction from many Labor force is actually employed other cities of Albania, is deeply touched in the private and state sectors (see from the structural changes of transition, table 7). In the state sector the greatest due to the interruption of work and that employers are educational and health almost all the great industrial enterprises, sectors, which employ 2879 and 1918 concentrated in this city, stopped the persons respectively, followed by the work and were out of function. The fact central and local power institutions at is that in the nationwide scale, among
Table 7: The employed in the state and private sectors
Total employed In the state sector In the private sector Total % Total %
Elbasan 23 855 11 271 47.2 12 584 52.8 Albania 917 000 167 000 18.23 750 000 81.77 78 Urban and regional development of the city of Elbasan
Table 8:
Kind of business Year 2000 2005 2010 2020*
1 Small business 2486 2783 3263 5713 2 Big business 204 293 677 960 3 NGO&state enterprises 47 51 88 90 Total 2737 3127 4028 6763 * Prediction Table 8: the number of business in years the whole active enterprises; dominate businesses per one thousand inhabitants the small enterprises that represent about or an increase of the density to 5.8% 92% of the total number of enterprises. compared with the year 2000. By paying This tendency is evident also in the city a great attention to this small business of Elbasan, where actually are registered indicator, with evident and stimulating 4028 businesses, from which about 81% measures applied by the Municipality, it are small business and only 17% are big has been made possible that at the end of or medium business( see Table 8). the year 2010, this indicator be 25.46%, During the period 2000÷2005, achieving thus an increase of 12.8% in the number of businesses is increased comparison with the year 2005, or an averagely with 59 businesses yearly. In increasing rhythm of more than two times the period 2006÷2009, the number of with that of the period 2000÷2005. The businesses is increased averagely with 96 greatest value of this indicator results to businesses yearly. The greatest increase be of the last three years. has been in the period 2008÷2010. There were registered about 50% more III.1. The projection of the active businesses in the year 2010 then population ÷2020 in the year 2000, or about 35% more than in the year 2005. The quick increase The rhythms of the increase of the of the number of active small businesses population in this decade are envisaged has really raised their density and it is to be the same with those of the last five especially evident in the last years. It is years. According to the calculations with seen clearly from the data of the table the known methods of the projection 9 that at the end of the year 2005, was of the population and according to reached the density of 22.58 active small the conclusions of the social-economic
Table 9: The density of the small business
Index Year 2000 2005 2010 2020
1 Small business 2486 2783 3263 5713 2 Inhabitants 116 560 123 210 128 150 136 981 3 Business per 1000 inhabitants 21.33 22.58 25.46 41.70 Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 79
Table 10:
Year Population Changes from the year 1990
1 1990 82 114 - 2 2010 128 150 + 56.06% 3 2015 132 751 + 61.6% 4 2020 136 981 + 66.82% studies, the city will have about 140 will represent 55% of the total population thousand inhabitants at the end of the year of the city. The observation of the main 2020 (see table 10 and Fig 2). problematic of this age group, carried out The density of the city is not by the Municipality of Elbasan, shows envisaged to have a remarkable increase that the employment and the health care and may be at 1727 inhabitants per km2, remain the most important problems to going thus towards stabilization. The be considered. increase of the density with about 110 inhabitants per km2 is envisaged to be in III.2. The increasing perspective proportion to Administrative Units and it is not thought that may be any great In order to thoroughly change the deviation from the artificial influencing rhythms of the increase of employment factors, due to the unpredicted waves and incomes, it is also essential to consider of migrants. This would mean that the some main potential sources: Administrative Units No.1 and NO.6 will continue to have the greatest density (i) The quick spread of the services in and the Administrative Unit No.3 to have the whole Administrative Units like the smallest density. The structure of the the level in the Administrative Unit population, according to the age groups, No.2. This would mean, that at least is envisaged that at the end of the year up to the year 2020, the density 2020 to be the same with that of the year of the small business has to be 2010. The population will be dominated increased to about 30.4 businesses by the age groups 18÷65 old years, which per one thousand inhabitant, which
Figure 2. The change of the population during the period 1990-2020 80 Urban and regional development of the city of Elbasan
corresponds to the increase of the structure in wide nation scale number of the small businesses of (see Table 15). As a minimal about 1250 business; objective may be achieving the (ii) Keeping the last three years rhythms structure of 14% producing firms, of the increase of the small business. 15% constructing firms and about These rhythms up to the year 2020, 71% other firms. Through the corresponds to the creation of improvement of this structure about 600 new businesses; it may be possible to achieve an (iii) The number of small businesses average number of the employees is to be increased by applying the of big business at least at 13 specific encouraging measures, that employees for every business; have the local power and that are (vii) To increase the employment linked with the priorities of the according to the current economic development of Elbasan, employing rhythms, declared by such as tourism. This may create the Employment Regional Office; possibilities for an extra increase (viii) To create Business Improvement at about 600 of the number of the Districts2, according to the models businesses; applied successfully in the United (iv) The average number of the States and Canada. The essence employees of the small business of the scheme is the improvement must be increased to arrive at of the climate of the business and about 1.8 employees. This potential its revival with specific measures possibility is based on the fact applied in these districts. that at nationwide level about 91.0 % of businesses employ IV. Conclusions and averagely 2 employees. This may recommendations be achieved by redirecting also the encouraging programs of In the end of this paper there are some employment towards small business conclusions: The population of Elbasan as well as by encouraging measures has really changed a lot during the two in the framework of a new program, last decades. This increase is influenced initiated by the local power: ”One by the same factors as for the increase employer more”; of the population, as well as by the new (v) The number of big business must created families. The general increase be increased, by considering as of the population is accompanied with possible to keep the current existing almost the same increase of the population rhythms of the number of the big of all the age groups, where dominates businesses; the working age population, stipulating (vi) The improvement of the structure thus as a priority the need to increase of the big business, giving priority the possibilities for employment. The to the producing businesses and situation of employment is considered to construction businesses, to be be very problematic, compared with the nearer at least to the current average real possibilities of jobs that have been
2 Business Improvement District, a revolutionary idea applied very successfully in more then 400 American cities and 300 Canadian cities, as well s in New Zealand and South Africa. The model is distributed by USAID also in other countries, even there had been some pilote efforts in some Balkanic countries. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 81 created each year. The quick increase of near future like 8th corridor, super road the number of active small businesses Elbasan-Tirane etc. For this it need for has really raised their density and it is more cooperation between local and especially evident in the last years. We central government, low tensions between can give some recommendations. The political forces and parties, less corruption development of region of Elbasan is in public administrations, better capacity very interesting not only for this city, building on human resources, more but also for the other cities of Albania. demand for direct foreign investments , This development will grow when the cooperation with different industrialized road system will become avable in the countries etc.
REFERENCES:
Sassen, S (2001) The Global City, Princeton 98504-X, John Wiley & Sons, New York. University Press, Princeton, 2nd edition. Wheeler, Stephen (1998). Planning Sustainable Sazak, S (2004) ‘The role of landowners in and Livable Cities. New York: Routledge. the transformation of land affected by the ISBN 0-415-27173-8. metropolitan city, Corlu’, Land Use Policy, Greg Clark, Advisor to OECD and Urban Land Vol. 21, No. 1, 21-31. Institute. ( 2010) “Local leaders preparing Asheim, Bjørn. Cooke, P., Martin, R. (2006) for the future of our cities” Clusters and Regional Development: (OECD, 2008) “Competitive cities and Critical. change” 2nd Annual meeting of the Reflections and Explorations, Routledge, OECD roundtable strategy for urban London/New York. development cities, http://www.oecd.org/ Hall, P. (1998) Cities in Civilisation, Weidenfeld dataoecd/23/46/41440153.pdf and Nicholson, London. Gregg Clark, Gareth Evans, Sarah Nemecek World Bank (2003) World Development Report: (2011) “What Creates the Upwards Cycle?” Sustainable Development in a Dynamic United Nations Population Division. (2007a). World, Oxford University Press, Oxford. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Evans, A (2003) ‘The Development of Urban Revision. United Nations, New York. Economics in the Twentieth Century’, United Nations Population Division. (2007b) . Regional Studies, Vol. 37, No. 5, 521-529. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Jackson, Kenneth (1985). Crabgrass Frontier: Revision. United Nations, New York. The Suburbanization of the United States. INSTAT, Results of Labor Forces Survey 2009 Oxford University Press. pp. 73–76. – Labor Market in Albania, Tirana 2010 Vitrivius (1914). The Ten Books on Architecture, According to INSTAT the active population is Bk I. Harvard University Press. the age group 15÷65 old years. Hall, Peter et al. Sociable Cities; the legacy of Strategic development plan of the city 2010-2020 Ebeneezer Howard, 1998, ISBN 0-471- (2011) «Elbasan Deserve even more»
CIVIC EDUCATION CURRICULA IN THE FORMATION FOR CIVILIZATION
Lindita LUTAJ - “Aleksander Moisiu” University, Durres; Faculty of Education E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
The study “Civic education curricula in the formation for civilization” identifies the place this subject has in the curriculum, the role of the teachers in teaching this subject, the contribution of the “Aleksander Xhuvani” University in Elbasan in the preparation of the teachers graduated in this department. The values of this study consist on the irreplaceable role of the school in civic formation, where the civic education curricula must take a very important place. This study is exploratory because it is based on the opinions of the teachers, directors and students of the District of Berati, and ideas of the students of Civic Education Department in the “Aleksander Xhuvani” University in Elbasan. Through qualitative researches there were discovered the perceptions of the teachers and the students for the place that civic education takes in the curriculum, the space that it must have for a qualitative realization in the civic formation of the students. There was seen the effectiveness of teaching this subject by non-profiled teachers. This study showed that it is difficult to change people’s opinions. The school has in its structure the teachers and the curriculum that help in civic education and formation of the students. Teaching this subject requires more space in the curriculum, to have full access in the knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and values. Also, the teaching of this subject by profiled teachers in the department of civic education has become a necessity, as there is no time to “experiment” on this subject. The preparation of students in civic education department at “Aleksander Xhuvani” University in Elbasan, in this institution which is pro- service, helps in softening major problems in the field of civic formation of the students. If we refer to the quality of teaching civic education, it is necessary the creation of a favorable environment for the accommodation of teachers profiled in this subject. Keywords: Curriculum, civic formation, teaching, teaching program.
Introduction the educational policies be focused on the cooperation of formal and informal Taking the education for democratic education, on the principles and values of citizenship into higher levels claims for education for democratic civilization, on the
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 83-90 84 Civic Education curricula in the formation for Civilization professional formation and improvement is not obligatory, but its concepts can of teachers through trainings, on the use of be found in subjects such as: Personal methods where the student is in centre of Education, Social Education and Health the lesson, on the inclusion of education Education. While in the secondary and for civilization as part of the social high school Civilization Education is learning, on the creation of legislation obligatory and lasts for 5 years. In France, for democratic and civic education and education for civilization is developed in the changing of the programs for civic a different way according to the levels education , by orienting schools towards of education. In the primary system education for democratic civilization it is presented as transversal thematic where the individual demonstrates from 3d grade to 5th with at least responsibility and civic behavior. one lesson per week. In the secondary In the law “For the pre-university school it is as an integrated subject with education system” Nr 7952, date 21. History and Geography. In Poland, 06. 1995, paragraph 21 says: “Public one of the most significant values that obligatory education aims to develop civilization education transmits is the intellectual, creative, practical and physical one of patriotism. “Although in USA abilities of the students, to develop their they spend a lot of money for the staff personality and to provide the essential improvement, much of it is spent on elements of general culture and civic seminars and sessions that very often education to them”.1 are superficial in the intellectual prism, Observing other countries experiences unconnected with the curricula and concerning this issue, this study aims that learning issues, fragmented and separated opportunities for change be taken into from each – other”. (Ball and Cohen, consideration, as the education of the 1999, page 3-4).2 civic right is actually an up-to-date issue But how is the social and civic in many countries, also a necessity to education subject organized in our face the challenges of the new century. country? The terminology used is: Social Change must begin in the system of Education and Civic Education; method: training teachers, as the upbringing of the cross-curricular; realization time: 1 lesson future teachers is closely linked with the per week... In the primary school Social standards of the future citizens. Education is studied from the 1st to the Today many countries are 5th grade and it is 1 lesson per week. The reconsidering their educational main aim is to provide the pupils with system, especially the curricula, school knowledge and expressions so that to take books, methods of teaching, teachers’ part in social activities. In the secondary qualifications and legislation, their school, which includes grades from 6 to 9, structure and organization. Changes in Civic Education is studied as a distinctive the field of education aim to strengthen subject, 1 lesson per week and aims the the school role. In Spain civic education preparation of the pupils as the next is proposed as an integrated subject and citizens. While in high school it is given a transversal thematic in all levels of through the Civilization subject which is education. In England during primary studied 1 lesson per week in the 10th grade school years, the subject of Civilization and 2 lessons per week in the 11th grade.
1 The Law on Pre-university Education System, Tirana 1995, paragraph 21, page 9. 2 Fullan, M. The new meaning of change in education,) Tirana, Edualba. 2001, page 59. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 85
Table 1: Organization of civic education in its initial phase
Place Terminology Method Lessons per week
England Civic education Non-statutory On behalf of the Cross-curricular school Australia & South Human society and Non-statutory Not specified New Chelsea its environment Integrated Canada Social studying Non-statutory Not specified Integrated France Social studying Statutory based. 4 lessons from 26 Distinctive and lessons integrated Germany Civic education as part Non-statutory Not specified of “World discovery” Integrated Hungary Statutory based. 4 up to 7% of the Integrated curricula time Italy People and society Statutory based. Not specified Integrated Japan Social sciences Statutory based. 175X45 minutes Distinctive and per year integrated subject Korea Social studying, living Statutory based. Changes experiences and moral Distinctive subject according to the education year Holland Social structure and Statutory based. 80 up to 100 essential abilities Integrated lessons per year New Zealand Social studying Statutory based. Not specified Integrated Singapore Civic and moral Statutory based. 3X30 minutes per education Distinctive and lesson integrated subject Spain Knowledge of natural, Non-statutory 170 lessons per social and cultural Integrated year environment Sweden Social sciences Non-statutory based. 885 lessons over 9 Integrated years of obligatory scholarship Switzerland Social studying Non-statutory Not specified Integrated USA Social studying Statutory based. The specified time per Kentucky Integrated week varies according to the states 86 Civic Education curricula in the formation for Civilization
Simultaneously the students are offered the teacher’s duty to evaluate and realize the subject of Sociology (chosen) in the the role, the responsibility and the noble 11th and 12th grade, 2 lessons per week. mission that he has as a teacher and an In Albania the tendency is towards educator”.5 integrated curricula where Civic Education “A teacher can use the new material starts in the 4th grade with the subject of or technology of the curricula without Natural Knowledge. Civic Education changing his way of teaching. Or a teacher being a complex and challengeable process can use the material and change some can’t be realized through the subject of of his behavior during teaching without Civic Education only. In the upbringing understanding the concepts that stand in of the students as the future citizens the foundation of change.”6 the school should pay attention to the In the book “Education didactics connection in-between subjects, giving for democratic civilization” among else special emphasis to the contribution it says: The growing sensitivity of the the other subjects should give in this citizens towards educational issues clarifies direction. that education still plays an important “The integrated curricula is a guide role in the human development and that for all them who want to go beyond the errors done during the educational the classes, for all of them who want process are more or less not reparable in to surpass the boarders and break the the future”.7 walls artificially erected, for all of them Teachers of Civic Education typically, who want to stimulate the curiosity, pay more attention to the subject and inspiration, interest, fantasy, imagination the teaching methods than the moral of the student...”3 dimension of the relationship with the It is of precious value to cite here a students. The concept of the curricula goes part from the studying “Civic Education beyond the subject, so that to include the in school and out” of the year 2002 moral dimension of the lesson. It serves to where among others it says: From their cultural interests, their social status, time to time teachers of subjects like their national ethnic and sexual identity “Social Education”, “Civic Education” and different style of learning. The main and “Knowledge about Society” feel ideas and values of civic education are the separated. Maybe in connection to this basis of the curricula.8 opinion is the fact that schools rarely School is still like a boat with oars undertake qualifying activities with the that goes where the stream takes it rather participation of all the teachers of social than a ship that knows clearly not only subjects about the problems that civic where to take its passengers but also how education encounters.4 to take them there as promised. School In the Normative Regulation for in Albania doesn’t have a clear contract pre-university education, September with the clients, its passengers. They (the 2002, paragraph 44.2.b it says: “It is passengers) don’t know where they are
3 The pedagogical magazine Nr. 4, 2007, page 69 Lidra Remaçka. Toronto University – Canada. 4 Prof. as. Dr. Bekim Çomo, Prof. dr. Adem Tamo, Prof. dr. Theodhori Karaj, “Civic education in school and out” Tirana, 2002. Page 62. 5 The Normative Regulation for Pre-university Education, September 2002 6 Fullan, M. The new meaning of change in education,) Tirana, Edualba. 2001, page 66. 7 The didactic of education for democratic civilization, Tirana 2011. Page 268. 8 “Civic and democratic education” Tirana 2004. Page 138. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 87 directed to, and it (the boat) doesn’t know Xhuvani” University in Elbasan, Mr. where to take them. Even the repairing we Arben Haxhiymeri; do to our school very rarely is a capital The specialist of the personnel office reconditioning of the engine. They are in The Regional Education Deroctoryof mainly efforts to have it at a better outside Berat Mrs. Aferdita Melengu, The look at the quay next to the seafront.9 specialist of social subjects in The Education Office Kucove Mr. Ajaz Ajazi; Material and methods school headmasters, teachers and students of Berati District and students of 3rd The studying “Civic education grade of Civic Education in “Aleksander curricula for the upbringing of the Xhuvani” University in Elbasan. For a civilization” of the students shows the qualified analysis of the problem it was place that this subject takes in the learning further explores through the use of focus program, the role of the teachers in groups as a second instrument. teaching this subject, the contribution We realized 5 focus groups with 10 of “Aleksander Xhuvani” University – 15 people: with teachers from grades in Elbasan in the preparation of the 1 – 5 of the primary school, teachers of graduated teachers of this subject. The grades 6 -9 of the secondary school that values of this studying consist in the teach Civic Education, with teachers of irreplaceable role of the school in civic grades 10 – 12 of high school that teach formation where civic education curricula Civilization and Sociology, with students take a very important place. of grades 8 – 12 and students that study This studying is exploratory as it is Civic Education at university. based on the teachers, headmasters and students opinions of Berati district, and Results and discussions on the ideas of the students studying Civic Education at of “Aleksander Xhuvani” The status of the subject of Civic University in Elbasan. Through qualified Education is special because it is searching we discovered teachers and conditioned by the school mission for students perception about the place civic formation of the individuals in the that civic education curricula take in democratic society, and by the requests the learning program, the space that it that are getting larger and larger for the should have to be highly realized for the Albanian society, which aspires to become civic upbringing of the students. The a consolidated democracy. Changes in the effectiveness of teaching this subject by subject of Civic Education are linked with non profiled teachers was observed. the professional formation of each teacher. In the successful realization of this Time claims from the teachers to obtain studying as a first instrument we used the essential concepts of the democracy, guided interview packets with open intellectual expressions and values of questions realized with: The headmaster democratic participation. for trainings at the Curricula Institution Social and Civic Education Curricula Prof.as.dr. Petrit Muka; The chief in defines explicitly the main aims of charge of the Department in the Faculty education and formation for democratic of Education Sciences in “Aleksander civilization according to the teaching
9 Prof. as. Dr. Marjana Sinani, Prof. as. Dr. Milika Dhamo, “Civic and democratic education” Tirana 2004. Page 101. 88 Civic Education curricula in the formation for Civilization levels. It supplies the teachers and civic formation of the students there students with the objectives of the subject has been no exchanging experience fields, by clarifying the standards to be between the teachers of the schools. achieved. Based on different experiences • In most cases teachers use the it recommends the concrete ways to be textbook as a source thinking that it followed by the teachers and students is obligatory for him. in the realization of the objectives and • The absence of trainings at the right the evaluation way of the knowledge, level for the teachers has led to lack of expressions and attitudes of the students the fulfillment for the teachers’ needs towards different problems. It is very for higher qualification in teaching much important to be based on clear the subject. methodological criteria like: providing • Teaching the subject by non-profiled an open education system, gradual teachers has led to difficulties. pass of school levels, establishing right • Underestimating the subject by the relationship between subjects, use of teachers, students and parents has led intellectual capacities of the students, to not serious teaching. maintaining contemporary methodology • The fact that it is taught only once and effective in teaching, and establishing in a week has led to not fulfilling the right relations between teaching and teachers and students expectations for learning. access in full knowledge, capabilities, The preparation of the students of expressions, attitude and values. the Civic Education branch of study • The monitoring absence and at “Aleksander Xhuvani” University in systematic evaluation of the civic Elbasan, a pro service institution, helps formation of the students has led to in reducing the problems in the civic unrealistic evaluation of the situation. formation field of the students. If we refer • The subject of Civic Education is listed to the quality of teaching Civic Education, at the end of the day and because of it is important the creation of favorable that the students’ attention is reduced environment for the profiled teachers considerably where tiredness plays an of the subject. Results in this studying important role, and this leads to low showed that: feedback of the lesson. • Sharing the subject to different • School is the most important teachers of other subjects has created institution that realizes the civic an image for the subject of Civic education and formation of the Education as a second-hand subject. students, considering civic formation • The structure of teachers’ formation as an essential stone to install the to be more flexible, more effective, democratic climate in schools. as the care level to educate teachers • The curricula reform of the Civic and shows the priorities of a society, its Social Education subject has widely future vision. contributed to the civic education of • It is time we all contribute to the the students. civic formation and education of the • The students feel unconstrained students. To do so it is needed that when having the subject and it is the the best students who apply to go teachers who make it possible for to university to be chosen so that them. they can fulfill the deficiencies that • To face the common challenges in the we see for this subject. Not only Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 89
this, but these students, 4 years after the school for a qualitative civic graduation, to be able to face the formation and education should be challenge of taking the license of the at high levels, where the curricula teacher. of civic education take an important • The quality of the service towards place. teachers should be improved, by • The Regional Directory of Education offering distinctive trainings and and the Education Office should qualifications looking at their needs to appoint the specialists of teaching help students in their civic formation the subject not non-profiled teachers. and education. The creation of When not possible the other teachers opportunities in including schools should be helped by time after in projects and programs linked time trainings and qualifications with civic education. Knowing and to overcome difficulties, because putting into effect the right practice this subject has a direct impact on of other countries and adapting them the civic formation of the future to our country’s conditions. generations. • The Ministry of Education should increase the volume of the Civic Conclusion Education subject in the annual teaching program. Schools consist of the teachers • The contact circle to share experience and the curricula that help in the civic should be created, to support school education and formation of the students. based programs, where the impact of This studying showed that it is difficult to civic education can find a favorable change the way people think. The process environment. This will create the of teaching civic education needs more chances that the requests in this space in the teaching program to have full subject go beyond the boarders of the access in knowledge, abilities, expressions, lesson itself, as they claim for debate, attitudes and values. Teaching this subject attitudes, and opinions. by profiled teachers is a necessity, as it is • To enhance the teachers and students not time to carry out further experiments knowledge it is important that with this subject. as information source should act The space that social education not only the text, but pedagogical occupies is only 3 – 5% of the school literature and materials from the net curricula of the current year. These too. numbers are converted into thought • The curricular frame of the Social stations for all. The status of civic and Civic Education should not education is the lowest not only compared be evaluated the same as the other to other subjects, not only in the education subjects by the teachers. In evaluating policies context and curricula, but also in this subject the teacher should take in the teacher’s point of view. The percentage consideration not only the students of the teachers of civic education trained answers during the lesson, but also the to teach this subject is relatively lower putting into effect in their practice, compared with that of the teachers of their communicative abilities and other subjects. This is obvious in almost expressions with the others and their all European countries. active participation in their social life. School transmits knowledge and • It is clear that the demand towards ability to the coming generations and 90 Civic Education curricula in the formation for Civilization plays an important role in the process of continual formation of the teachers will political and social integration. Therefore, help in facing challenges consisting in educating democratic civilization should protecting the human dignity, as we live not be reduced in a superficial change in a complex world and in a rapid change. in the field of education, but to create This will help for a qualitative civic structural changes. formation and a safer European future of The improvement of the initial and our country. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 91
THE IMPACT OF PARENTING STYLES AND EDUCATION ON THE PHENOMENON OF BULLISM
Marta BEJ - Kristal University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected];
evels of aggression and the use of of the phenomenon, it also brings us to the various forms of violence among conclusion that bullizm is a wrong way of Lthe children of a group, class or affirming identity, based on wrong social community have increased significantly roles, cultural contexts of communication and this has been an object of measurement . These roles may be learned in childhood, study for years by school staff to discuss but they also clearly demonstrate the social particularly by set of psychologists operating impact closely associated with expectations in the capital city`s schools. This study was of responses against a certain reality - the assumed in order to see the impact of social condition, and it is also closely related particular styles of parenting education on to internal factors like personality victim as the causes that affect his continuous rising well as that of the aggressor. at high levels. The study covers two 9-year schools in Tirana from where the sample was Introduction taken of 200 respondents of participants, 50 students directly involved in bulisment Bullism is the phenomenon of using acts and their parents as well. From the various forms of violence among children results obtained it is evidenced that while and young people in a group, institution or the style of parenting is ambiguous and mini community. In foreign literature, this tends to emerge clearly from the analysis phenomenon is known and perceived as of unstructured interviews, the greatest one of the most prevalent problems among impact in promoting phenomenon is the peer group, especially in adolescence. In the way of education, time and quality Scandinavian countries this phenomenon of time consumed with the children, is also known under the term ‘Mobbing’. mismanagement of identified cases, the The name comes from English “mob” - children’s own attempts to attract attention “a group of persons involved in acts of of their peers in various ways. The result of violence”. Nowadays, the phenomenon this qualitative and quantitative research it is spread all over the world, especially in deals with the scope, factors and nuances America where the recent studies about
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 91-99 92 The impact of Parenting styles and education on the phenomenon of Bullism the phenomenon come from. In general, 1 The purpose of the act the term “Bullism” tried to put under 2 The duration set one category as aggressor and victim. In 3 The asymmetrical relational foreign literature the term is often used: Relationships Bullism – to understand the concept: aggressor - victim. It will also continue to So an act is perceived as Bullism act be used in this study because there isn`t if: it is intentional, repeated against an a full translation of the word “Bullism”. individual or group in particular, has a We are using a term that maybe most of disequilibrium in using of force among the listeners don`t know its significance, those who exercise violence and the one that`s why at the beginning of each who suffers and always reactivated under presentation, interview or questionnaire the same situational context.According we specify the definition of the term, so to researchers there are different types that participants be clear in their answers. of bullism, firstly detect two types: one In our country the term is hardly known in expressing bullizmi directly and indirectly . its English name but the phenomenon and As understood, the first is represented by a its extension are considered important. So direct link between the victim and bull and in the school are known various forms of presents many forms: physical, verbal, and violence involving young children of a rival psychological or cyber bulling - electronic group or between groups, or the spirit of of bullism. Meanwhile oblique bullism is antagonism that is often created among less obvious but no less damaging. He students of a class. Also we highlight tends to damage the victim from social numerous cases of violence between peers, perspective, relations with other persons insulting epithets forms of nicknames, in by excluding and isolating from society, using indirectly physical violence in the using details rumor that psychologically form type: slander, gossip creating stories, damage by denigrating the victim after the arm injury to exclude the person completely in front of the group of friends hurt by a group of friends. by avoiding him indirectly. Kun hypothesis To define the phenomenon we should of this study Heads from seeking Bullism present three features specified as below and phenomenon of the existence of significant scientifically accepted: differences regarding several different
Physical Verbal Psychological Cyber Bullizm Bullizm Bullizm Bullizm
Figure 1. How widespread is the phenomenon and how it is distributed by age groups in the study Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 93 variables: sex, cultural level, social and they have between their pupils. economic development of the family, The work conducted in this study has personality factors, family constellation, two chapters. The first part consists about parental educational styles, education in a questionnaire which aims to measure particular, parental attention etc. Let us the extent, type and characteristics of recognize a map of the most commonly bullism while the rest of the detailed study used types of bullism, according to data belongs to the study of specific surveys obtained by questionnaires in an age cases including interviewing their parents, division. We specify that the data belong some of which was received information to the opinion of students participating in about family models, parental educational the questionnaire. styles and the effects of child education and continuous tracking of adults for a The methodology reduction in general Bullism instance. Nearly 7 in 10 children, as distinguished In our daily work, as well as counseling in the study, have closely known bullism clinic also in finding and discussing on acts, as in the case that have been victim of issues that pupils have, this phenomenon, such an act or also when it has happened albeit not expressed by correct term - to their friend. Nearly 60% of respondents Bullism, constitutes one of the major declare that it is right that the injured party concerns of students from the age of 10 shall ask assistance from an adult teacher years up both in late adolescence. Among or parent, 40% think that if it happen to questionnaires conducted in schools him, it would defend itself. So in the first in Tirana, this phenomenon is clearly opinion polls study, we notice that peers distinguished by the size it occupies, so judged negatively those bullism victims it represents the initiative of this study who require help to adults, teachers, but also the previous studies. In fact the parents or relatives. compilation of a questionnaire about the It`s distribution was conducted by the conclusion of the phenomenon, its 6 people trained with specific details extent and the spread has been the subject of waiting time, reaction ,collection of the previous studies, so that some of the questionnaire, and questionnaire was data obtained from them will also lend distributed to students of sixth, seventh to this phenomenon as the the attached eighth and ninth grades, respectively with study. Incentives and also “wonder” which 50 pieces from 10 to 12 questionnaires has encouraged me to work on this line is per class. This division was equal for able to see how education affects parenting both schools, so 100 questionnaires for style but also the phenomenon by bullism. each school. Students were selected as Are there factors that influence, which the alphabetical order in the register, one aggravate or cause the phenomenon or in three students for all the gymnasium is this simply a phenomenon related to high cycle of and the 10th, 11th and 12th growth and growth stages of adolescent Class of high school. After students were children. In questionnaires completed by informed about the privacy and anonymity me also in the beginning of the school of responses, they quietly waited to end year for several consecutive years about completing the questionnaire and after the recognition and assessment of student ending, ensured that the collection of the the needs to know which topics should questionnaire was carried out respecting be selected to prevent, bent continiously their anonymity. By way of electing the problems of the problematic relationships sampling questioned and also by his 94 The impact of Parenting styles and education on the phenomenon of Bullism extent we believe that the results will be parents and other like these are common credible, even though for such important for each of the respondents. With the phenomena it would take a large number parents that they have can be seen the of questionnaires, but it probably could be style toward their child the way they see accomplished at a second time of this study. the problem but also the attitude they The purpose of this first part of the hold toward their child’s reaction. These study which is related to the questionnaires, interviews were conducted it in a period of was taking some general information two months. We can say that the results are about the spread of the phenomenon, quite interesting even though they can not the level of recognition of the term by be generalized it in a large extent by their most often, students, the most prevalent own limited number . The way of realizing gender by modality: bull - a victim, the the study consists in collecting and statistic ways as most often expressed the reaction ling the results of questionnaires and of a group of friends and suppositions the unification of studying the material of type: if you were a subject that have collected by the interview to use it in the suffered violence, how would you react context of the hypothesis of this study. / think etc.. If you personally used any Based on these data was compiled the form of violence which do you think that material which it in general lines confirms would be the cause? Such questions in the the general hypothesis established at the questionnaires conducted with selected beginning of the study that the parenting students give us extensive information style but especially the education affect not only about the level of recognition significantly on bullism phenomenon. that they have about the phenomenon While a new factor which comes from but also related to influencing the thought parents interviews but also from the of the peer group reaction they carry out questionnaires which also seems to have a educating them. Do you cheer for the wide impact is type and the personality of strongest? Do you despise the weakest? the subject and hypotheses derived from group Which protect? Why? How does here that in the phenomenon of bullism the education they received, affect in their an important role related with his causes reaction against the whole phenomenon? has the subject’s personality either in case These and other questions like these are of the victim or bullies. object of the study through questionnaires distributed at random among students Results which cover 10% of the total number of students at both schools. Regarding the From the canvass at the first part interviews, they are well defined open of the study it’s been seen that the questions with a clear purpose. One respondents (female ones), declare that part is addressed to the children who they know many cases of threats, than are directly involved in bullism acts. A physical violence between peers. So total of 15 persons. 10 students subjects 80% of the respondents (pupils female) which have suffered systematic violence accept that have seen many cases of being of various forms of peers, also 25 parents, gossiped, mockery, ignoring as far as 15 mothers and 10 fathers. Interviews are threats with technological devices like open questions even though they have a internet, telephone etc. The respondents standard group of questions from which (boys) answer that that the biggest part gender, family constellation, parents, of using violence between pupils regards their status, they consume time with their to cases of conflicts between the group or Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 95
A way A wrong A way to An attitude A A lieder A to show way of dominate that damage personality attitude phenomenon power introducing the weaker individ trait of that will pass your self bullies by age
Figure 2. other rival groups. From the interviews light of the person, but also the impact with open questions we have got the of his personality and family patterns following data that shows how bullizm we have interesting answers. We have is sold to pupils, teachers and parents. students question the questionnaire Distinguish it from the perspective, most invited participants to put themselves in students see their act as a conduct which the role of the perpetrator so in the role of severely impairs the individual. Teachers one who carries out threat. We thus expect tend to incline more from the perspective to get answers as close to reality, but above of the child’s personality traits as well as a all the manner of thinking by the students way of dominance of the strong against the themselves who have an original way weak. While this table does not constitute of understanding the mentality of their an exact percentage of expressing opinion friends but also expect that their response but is merely an indicator for the observed not be exclusive. They will decide under phenomenon as seen in the general social a scale from 1-10 according to a number plan. This concept helps us to understand which indicates the correct option. So the mentality of students, parents and they are not forced to choose between teachers regarding bullizm. alternatives but to indicate which of their Under one of the hypothetical survey shows better opinion by putting out a questions, questions which measure access stipple for each alternative. to initiatives that are in the interest of The same questions but in the opposite our study, because it is aimed to see the approach is addressed to respondents in
I am Bullie because
I show that I’m I Like the At least I am Is the best Friends expect Parents learned stronger that fact that the one that way to solve me to act me to defend the others other fear me lead things like that like this since I was a child
Figure 3. 96 The impact of Parenting styles and education on the phenomenon of Bullism
If you were a victim of Bullizm act is because:
It happens all the This is never No one can help Parents learned Even in family time only to me going to end me me to behave my brother is good the strongest
Figure 4. connection with the assumption that the order to list it as a high concern and fear pupil is a victim of prepotencies cases of they have the situation will worsen and assault. So if he were subjected to insults, that everything is hopeless, because even humiliation or violence used by others how if they seek help from adults, still would you would react? Response alternatives be subject to contempt and ridicule of offered are not structured according to friends and peers. In this way a common degrees recognized standards but also characteristic of them excel in 11 of 15 consider the opinions of respondents respondents who are subject to acts of who should give their opinion on visas bullizm while you have questions about but left empty while the alternatives the reasons for this behavior is explained that are offered alternatives that help in the following table 4. us understand the reasons and causes of While we have interviews with the violence against accepting behavior and significant results even on the scale of if the causes of this behavior are deeply assertively and acceptability to the exercise embedded in the personality of the person and acceptance of these acts. therefore or family has or social reasons which emphasize that the parents of those 10 have influenced the deceased person as a victims of bullizm, started participating in victim. It should be noted that a portion interviews, though one of them claim that of persons, subjects appear to use bullizm their child is educated to be calm, wise and acts are taken by the clinic’s counseling and confident and friends respect the teachers. are invested in order to constitute some seven of them claim to have wise children of the replies received by these entities in in the family even while the question was
Your parents are:
Tough in their Rules require, I don’t have any My parent is like decisions but are right. problem, I am my friend free
Figure 5. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 97 addressed to them separately shows that characteristics of bullizm, students claim 8 out of 10 parents of children victims that this is a phenomenon encountered of bullizm express themselves when they among student groups. The table on pg. have not been to school have ever suffered 2 which shows the kind of bullizm most such episodes. From 6 parents, 8 were prevalent under different age groups, we male while they say that they did not have find that depending on the age difference fathers as such problems, perhaps even is also a type of bullizm variability imply that this should be asked mothers. expressed as a percentage. We interview questions addressed students Expressed in physical violence, but also subject to violence aggressors, bullizm appears higher in lower age have a question that guides us to see the groups, as well as verbal bullizm, insults style of parenting. This question have led and nicks. While growing, psychological them to interview students of whom 15 pressure comes increasing by nearly 30% were aggressive and 10 separate subjects in the age group 14 to 17 years and of violence of various forms. 70% in the age group 14 to 17 years. Question helps us to see whether we This type of bullizm is seen lately on the can see correlations between parenting type of Cyberbullizm - Technological styles and being the aggressor or the Bullizm which seems to be disturbing teen victim of bullizm. The stipple is realized students. This type is seen as attached to in the form where each query is treated as the psychological bullizm such as social special and to be multiple answers. In this pressure is increasing and appears with way we capture the nuances of different increasing age. Thus, social pressure, variations of the responses for each type. fear of being published and all the While asking people think we get the data consequences of such acts, and above all compare with concise about the way it unfair breach of privacy, perceived as the affects parenting style to the appropriate most troubling problem for students aged people. The calculation was done in the from 14 to 17 years. In this analysis, taken form of data collection by percentage, from interviews with open questions (Fig. separately for each type in order to receive 2)we have tried to do some questions this comparative table of species versus related to the concept that specific groups types bullizm styles. These data will be affected about bullizm. Thus a total of 15 interpreted so as they are trying to take students were asked bull who practiced the stand as faithful responses to the acts of violence, 10 students - subjects on respondents. which violence was used as the respective parents of an interview with some selected Interpretation of results teachers, a total of 5 teachers. The purpose of such a mixture is to see how bullizm is Spreading bullizm phenomenon is seen from the perspective of social roles a fact which clearly confirmed by the and how there are different expectations results of the questionnaire. The students of community stakeholders: teachers, recognize the phenomenon as a good parents, persons involved, etc. to the show even recognize its manifestations discretion of the phenomenon. Among while unclear terminology have. Only the selected alternatives with respect to 30% of respondents say they know this how they see bullizm are: a way to show term, while over 50% of respondents claim strength / wrong way of the Match for they do not recognize the term. When themselves / one way to dominate over the asked about the following features and weak / behavior that seriously harms the 98 The impact of Parenting styles and education on the phenomenon of Bullism individual / a personality trait of abusers / each. Such selection also shed light on behavior of the leader / age phenomenon the formulation of our hypothesis that that will pass. There is a flexible selection the role that education gives bullizm is of all groups in relation to alternatives quite large. where the differences are small. The From the perspective of the person way the response is placed beside each who suffers violence we see that victimized questions from 1 to 10 where 10 is people feel depressed, without hope that more important. We recognize the bull this situation could change. In what we children’s parents have mostly declared are interested in, is studing the two recent answers like this: This is a phenomenon options selected, at the rate of 10 and of the age which would exceed(Rated 15%.One is about the fact that victims 6 out of 15 times the maximum rating of bullizm behave assertive in their family scale 10)while there are types of response too, and find themselves somehow below such as: behavior of a leader. This gives in the hierarchy of family constellation. us sufficient information to confirm This is confirmed for us by the parents hypothesis that parent-ship style affects of children who have been victims of the phenomenon. Turn on the option bullizm. in the further interviews they selected by the teachers interviewed on stated that their children are children wise this phenomenon is that personality and do not trouble. traits affect children’s bull. While being Let`s have a look now on the careful to note that the alternatives clearly comparative table which has come up distinguish phenomenon has a clear social from the results of interviews with bull impact of the reality that there are social children and those who are victims of expectations that make this phenomenon bull acts. The question is related directly to the extent it has. It also asked people with the parenting styles and people not underestimate the alternative which are requested to answer on how they emphasizes the influence of personality think their parents. We note that, in the factors in the phenomenon. In the bull behavior, the highest punctuation table which presents the results of the of belongs to the alternative which questionnaire where are asked students emphasizes the permissive liberal style, respondents, which put themselves in the of parents while the higher punctuation role of bullies, (Fig.3) showy selection in victimized persons is achieved in of alternatives which shows that bullies authoritarian style. people are stronger than others (70%) . These results are obtained with from Further, the second selected alternative is the materials very carefully and analyzes the one which points out that this is the of questionnaires and also from detailed best way to solve things (50%), followed interviews, gave us a lot of information to by, friends expect me to do so (55%). verify our hypothesis. While hypotheses From these responses is clear and in the early about the impact of parental confirmed that there is a social condition style and education on bullizm fenimenin which is associated with expectations stands, it is enriched with new data from versus social roles but also with the where it is obvious that community education on a particular concept. expectations, not fair mode of social Alternative in the same point: “It’s me communication and certain personality that command”, it’s been seen nearly on traits also influence on this phenomenon. equal levels with: “parents have taught In general lines this study supports me to defend myself so”, at nearly 30% the hypothesis that the influence of Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 99 parental style and education has a clear and instruments and communication impact on the forms shows modalities of of fair reaction, he responds to the expression of the bullizm phenomenon surrounding environment circumstances . Social roles which formed early in with this sort of behavior which is not familiar environment and tailored to the only normal for the development , but social environment, school and society, presents a high level of risk for mental create expectations about the ways of health of these individuals. reaction of the people in the conditions This study helped us see in a scientific of the occurrence of traits types bullist manner some of the reasons that influenced behavioral. the phenomenon while the other studies When fair means of communication would be necessary to verify and also to and conflict resolution fail, when the individ designe strategies which to reduce impact is not equipped in childhood by means of the bullizm phenomenon.
REFERENCES
Baumrind D. 1971. “Current patterns of Femijes”, përfshirja e Adoleshences ne Sjellje parental authority”, Developmental Psychology Rriskuese. Monographs, 4/1971, p. 53. Menesini E. e Gini G., “Il bullismo come processo Besag V. 1999. Coping with bullying, Wshington: di gruppo: adattamento e validazione The Rotary Coping with life series: del questionario “Ruoli dei partecipanti” Programme 1; alla popolazione italiana”, Età Evolutiva, Karaj Th. 2001. “Psikologjia e Zhvillimit te 66/2000, p15 - 23.
THE INFLUENCE OF FAMILY FUNCTIONING AND SCHOOL-FAMILY RELATIONSHIP IN ADOLESCENT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AT THE SUBJECT OF THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE
Ledia KASHAHU - University “Aleksander Moisiu” Durres-Albania E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact that , the level of family functioning, and teacher-parent relationship have at the results of the adolescents results at the subject of the Albanian language. For this purpose a measuring instrument was applied to family functioning (Olson 1982) with self-reporting (N = 714) for middle grade students at the ninth grade at the schools of Tirana for the 2010-2011 academic year, two measuring instruments “Review of parent-teacher relationship and teacher-parent” (Vickers, & Minke, 1995) to determine the level of parent-teacher relationship (N = 714) and teacher-parent (N = 173) who took into account these dimensions of the relationships, cooperation and communication between each other, and the evidence was held strictly to grades earned for each student (N = 714) during the academic year 2010-2011. By processing and analyzing the data collected it was found that the parents have a higher level of cooperation than the teachers do, but the communication between these two is at a lower extent. According to the correlation coefficients it is shown that there is weak relationship between the grades of students and the cohesion of the family (.16), and the adaptability (flexibility) of the family (.21), but there is a moderate relationship between the grade of adolescents and parent- teacher cooperation (.64). These findings will serve leaders at different levels of education, school psychologists, who can exploit them to build programs to support families with negative factors in the academic achievement of children but also to programs related to parenting and communication of families with school and these are helpful not only for parents but for teachers and directors. Also, I hope that this study will serve professors of the Faculty of Education, who can guide their students to understand the dynamics in depth within
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 101-110 102 The Influence of family in adolescent academic achievement families, the importance of relationship between teachers and parents, to achieve a progress in the educational process, which would be different and successful. Keywords: family cohesion, family adaptability (flexibility), academic achievement, parent-teacher relationship, teacher-parent relationship, parent-teacher communication, teacher-parent communication.
Introduction adolescent development and his progress in school is in a relationship with the With the rapid changes that our following factors: society is undergoing, the results the children get at school have an importance • child’s personal qualities, which is growing day by day. Every day • the child’s interaction with the family we look at parents whose main concern of environment, and their lives are the grades th children get at • cooperation of the family with the school. This happens because of the belief school (Bronfenbrenner, 1998. that without being properly educated it Cicchetti & Toth, 2000). is impossible to find your place in society and to create a successful economic life Family environment represents the for yourself and your family. totality of children’s interaction with Going to school is considered by parents (Bronfenbrenner, 1976. Lerner, scholars as one of the main goals of school 1986). Aspects of family environment age (García Coll & Szalacha, 2004). Now, that positively affect the progress of the it is clear that if the family does not fulfill its children at school are: (a) family structure, obligations in time, it will be impossible to (b) the behavior of parents, (c) family achieve them by the school or the society. cohesion, (d) parent-child relationships, This is why today, more and more studies (e) level of education of the parents, and (f) in the field of education are giving special ECONOMIC family level (Masten, 2001. attention to the study of relationships Rutter, 2000) within the family and its functioning. Cooperation school-family is part of Family Functioning the work of teachers. Parental involvement in their children’s education is a difficult First Dimension (Cohesion) task and a common source of insecurity The concept of cohesion reflects and fear as for teachers and for parents. the emotional connection that family In the 9th grade of 9-grade school/middle members have, in other words, their school, where students are more at their close relationship or emotional distance, peak period of adolescence, problems can the time they spend together, the ways arise and challenges in teaching, which they felt in making decisions, interests, teachers 9-year schools did not face before, common entertainment (Olson, Portner, because at this time students went to high Bell, & Filsinger, 1982). Evaluation of the school. Therefore, cooperation with family above factors helps in defining the level of is a need for teachers but also parents, family cohesion. Families with low level of to support the growth and the healthy cohesion are characterized by the concept development of adolescents. “emotional separation”, while families with Theories of adolescent development high levels of cohesion have basic quality and its progress. as a “strong relationship” or families with According to contemporary theories, a “high consensus”. Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 103
Second Dimension (Adaptability) The studies conducted in the past Adaptability (flexibility) is the ability two decades show that researchers in the to adapt, the ability to change that the field of education are mainly based on system of the family has in the function Epstein’s and her colleagues typologies of the roles, relationships, the established to make their measurements for parental rules in order to maintain the relationship, involvement in school, listed as follows: in response to stress. It is seen that the Type 1 - Skills and expressiveness of excess of flexibility leads to a chaotic their parents. family, and low flexibility leads to a very Type 2 - Communication. solid relationship. Type 3 - Volunteering. According to Olson’s theory of Type 4 - Learning at home. the “family complexion”, the above Type 5 - Decision making at school. two dimensions determine the type of Type 6 - Collaborating with family and the research findings show community agencies that balanced families function better (Epstein, 1997) et al. throughout the life cycle. In their classification they state that the communication is the main obligation Parent-school relationship and of the school. However, communication parent-teacher relationship should be active in both directions. Often school- family communication is labeled The importance of the relationship as parental involvement, but in fact it is between parent and school about an information for the parents, as well the grades of the students is already as a form of relationship between the consolidated (Cancio, West, & Young, parties, where both parents and teachers 2004; Dearing, McCartney, Weiss, as specialists must not only give but Kreider, & Simpkins, 2004; Gutman also receive information and share ideas & Midgley, Hill et al. , 2004; Izzo, (Epstein, 1986). Parental involvement Weissberg, Kasprow, & Fendrich, 1999; in school is not the same as parent- McWayne, Hampton, Fantuzzo, Cohen, teacher relationship, although parental & Sekino, 2004; Senechal & Lefèvre, involvement often leads to more positive 2002; Rumberger, 1995; Sheldon, perceptions of teachers (Christenson, 2003). Based on the above studies we et.al., 1997). can list a number of benefits that have a We know from our experience, relationship with parental involvement but also from research that a good in education: the improvement of the relationship between a parent and a grades, higher test scores in language, teacher improves learning, development, reading and mathematics, improved student achievement and success in school attitudes towards school, good behavior, and in life. (Allen, 2007; Blankstein, a higher self-esteem, the realization/ 2010, Epstein et al., 2008; Sanders, completion of more homework, academic 2006). Based on the studies, we can say persistence, increased participation in with conviction that the relationship of learning activities in class, less need for the parent with the teacher is critical to special education, higher level enrollment academic success of children and our in the following level of education, higher study will feed this thesis with empirical level of school attendance, lower rates of findings. abandonments, fewer suspensions, and Studies conducted in the field of realizing the highest level of talent. education in our country have not had 104 The Influence of family in adolescent academic achievement at their focus the academic achievement of the study were also the 22 teachers of adolescents, not even the influence of the native language who taught the of family functioning. Although there students f the 9th grade of 21 schools. have been several studies on parental For purposes of this study it was involvement in education, none of used a measuring instrument consisting the studies has not seen the teacher- of four parts; parent relationships and parent-teacher The first part was a self-report relationship connected to student grades. questionnaire that included personal and demographic data on students (N = 714) The aim/purpose of the study The second part was a self-report questionnaire for the adolescents “My This study aims to: Family” which was intended to measure • To determine the level of the two the level of family cohesion and flexibility. dimensions of family functioning and (Olson, 2000, Olson, Portner, Bell, & level of the functioning of families of Filsinger, 1982). The questionnaire at adolescents. Likert scale, where 1 means that what is • Determining the relationship that described never happens in the family, exists between the two dimensions of while 5 means that what is described family functioning and the students’ occurs very often in the family, consists grades.. of 30 items that assess “Cohesion” (16 • Determining the level of parent- articles) “flexibility “(14 items) was α teacher relationship and teacher- = 0.76. Realibiliteti is α = 0.76 for the parent relationship. cohesion and α = 0.88 for flexibility, • To compare the level of cooperation family adaptation in various situations. and communication reported from The third part was self-reporting two perspectives (parent and teacher) questionnaire from the teacher, “Review • To determine the relation which exists of parent-teacher relationship” (Vickers, between the level of parent-teacher & Minke, 1995) to determine the level relationship and students’ grades. of parent-teacher relationship (N = 714) which had two sub-scales, collaboration Methodology ( 19 items), reabiliteti is α = .92 and communication (5 items) reabiliteti α The sample of the study were students = .66. of 9th grade of the 9-year/middle public The fourth part was self-reporting schools of the city of Tirana, their parents questionnaire from parents “Review of and the teachers the native language who teacher-parent relationship” (Vickers, & taught during the academic year 2010- Minke, 1995) to determine the level and 2011. Sample of this study were 714 teacher-parent relationship (N = 173) students who were selected randomly who had two sub-scales, cooperation from 21 schools in 66 public schools that (19 items), reabiliteti α = .82 and are at Tirana city. After random selection communication (5 items) reabiliteti, α of students, there were involved 173 = .62 parents in the study, who were contacted Grades and absences of students were on purpose during the meetings with taken from school records and the related parents, to complete a questionnaire that classes. measured their collaboration with the Statistical data were processed with teachers on mother tongue language. Part SPSS. Comparative analyzes ANOVA was Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 105 conducted to see the progress of children from the emotional perspective on the basis of personal and demographic with the members of their families, factors, correlation analysis (correlation 20.3% (116 students) are detached analysis, Pearson r) to see the connection emotionally with family members, of parent cooperation with the level only 4% (28students) declared to be of grades and attendance. To compare emotionally connected and there is the perceptions of parents and teachers not any case that shows to be very about the relationship of cooperation / emotionally connected with the relationship and communication a t-test family members. Graphic 1 represents was used for the groups. Only the results this family dimension. which are proved to be reliable from the • For adaptability (flexibility); teenagers statistics are reported in this paper. The claim that 13% (91 students) and their records kept by observations, interviews families are solid, 34% (244 students) and focus groups were also analyzed. are structured, 46.5% (332 students) are elastic and 6.6% (47 students) Results stated to be more flexible. Graphic 2 Family Functioning represents the family dimension. • While the level of family functioning, Levels of both dimensions of family in a division of four levels, where was functioning expected to have family functioning of extreme level, average level, at the It should be considered the fact that extreme, average level of balanced and during adolescence, the level of family unbalanced, the study findings show cohesion starts to decline because of the that 78% (570 students ) are from need for independence that the teenagers families with extreme functioning, have. The levels of family functioning are 21.6% (126 students) have family as follows: functioning which is average and only • For cohesion; Adolescent reported 0.6% (4 students) have families that themselves that 75.6% (540 students) have average balanced functioning. of them are completely detached See Graphic 3
Graphic 1. Levels of family cohesion on the basis of adolescents reporting 106 The Influence of family in adolescent academic achievement
Graphic 2. The level of family adaptability (flexibility), as reported by adolescents
These findings coincide with those It is sure that the level of the cohesion has of other researchers for the dimension an impact on determining the type of family of family adaptation (flexibility) but are and this is the reason why the Albanian very different in terms of the dimension families are mainly at the extreme and of cohesion where researchers that have average level. used FACES II (Olson, Portner, Bell, & In terms of connectivity of the Filsinger, 1982) have these findings : 16% two dimensions of family functioning of teenagers are “completely separate” (cohesion and flexibility) with the grades from their emotional perspective with of adolescents, as seen from Table 1, there their families, 34% are “separated”, 36% is a positive relationship between them. are “connected” and only 14% declare Although a weak one, it is statistically themselves “very connected” emotionally. significant.
Graphic 3. Levels of family functioning on the basis of adolescents reporting Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 107
Table 1: Correlation of family functioning with the grades and absences of the students
Grades Family functioning Cohesion Flexibility Total
1. Annual grade on mother tongue language 0.18** 0.17** 0.20** 2. The grade f the state exam of mother tongue language 0.16** 0.21** 0.21** Note: ** p<0,01.
Level of parent-teacher relationship cooperation t (n, 140) = -5.29, p <0.001. and teacher-parent relationship On the other hand it appears that teachers declare that they communicate with The study findings regarding the level parents, t (n, 172) = 5.71, p <0.001. See of the relationships between the parties are graphic 4. as follows: The level of parent-teacher relationship • According to teachers 12% low level, and students’ results 44% medium level and 44% high level, The analysis of the correlation with • According to parents, 4% low level, Pearson, showed that the cooperation 45% medium level and 50% of high between teacher and parents has a moderate level. positive connection with the annual grade and the exam score. Correlation The level of relationship was studied with absences is negative and low. The in two dimensions: cooperation and higher the collaboration is , the higher is communication. the grade and the lower is the number of To compare the perceptions of absences. Communication is positively parents and teachers about the relationship related to annual and exam grades, the of cooperation / relationship and level of correlation is low. It is not related communication t-test was used for the to absences. groups. Results showed that compared to parents, teachers declare a higher level of
Graphic 4. The average of cooperation and family-school communication on the basis of the statements of teachers and parents 108 The Influence of family in adolescent academic achievement
Table 2: Correlation of family school cooperation on the basis of statements of teachers with grades and absences.
Cooperation Communication
1. Annual grade 0.64** 0.23* 2. Examination grade 0.50** 0.16* 3. Absences -0.29** 0.02 Note: * p<0,05. ** p<0,01.
Conclusion and recommendations that parents have considerable influence on adolescent grades. Policymakers at all It is clear that different cultural levels should consider these indicators contexts, have changes in the dimensions which are positively connected to the of family functioning, particularly in the results. So I suggest undertaking policies family cohesion. I think that the prolonged in order to strengthen cooperation and transition of the Albanian society has communication between parents and its effects on the level of the family schools at all levels. cohesion. Although cohesion has weak Also, school psychologists, can exploit connection with adolescent grades, it has these findings to build programs to support a positive relationship which is statistically families with negative factors in the progress significant. For this reason, I would suggest of children but also programs related to further studies on the level of family parenting and family communication with functioning. This could be accomplished the school and these are not only helpful for in collaboration with school psychologists. parents but also for the teachers. I hope that The reason we take into consideration this study will serve professors of the Faculty family functioning is related to the literature of Education, who can guide their students which states that balanced families function to understand the dynamics in depth within better during the life cycle, and such families, the importance of cooperation families are considered as healthy. In between teachers and parents, to achieve a terms of cooperation and communication progress in the educational process, which of parents with the teachers it is shown would be different and successful.
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ACCULTURATION AND SUBJECTIVE WELL BEING AMONG ALBANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN GREECE
Marina DALLA - University of Athens, Greece; E-mail: [email protected];
Lekë SOKOLI - Universiteti Marin Barleti, Tirana-Albania; Albanian Institute of Sociology E-mail: [email protected];
ABSTRACT
In this study, we studied acculturation, emotional well being and demographic characteristics of Albanian immigrants in Greece. The acculturation is considered as a measure of cultural adjustment, while well being as a measure of socio-psychological adaptation in immigrants. A sample of Albanian immigrants (n=200) aged 18 and older participated in the study. The immigrant group was compared with native group (n=265) in regard to well being. In regard to relationship between acculturation and well being the following questions were investigated: (a) how do immigrants deal with the acculturation? (b) How does acculturation relate to well being of immigrants? (c) Do these two variables interact differently among men and women and among young and old people? (d) What is the relationship of these variables considering family status? In addressing these questions, analyses of variance and regression analyses were used to understand the distribution of the variance in acculturation and well being, and to predict well being from acculturation all and above demographic variables. Keywords: immigrants * acculturation * cultural adjustment * emotional well being * socio-psychological adaptation
Introduction 2009). The hedonic viewpoint focuses on subjective well being as a “relatively The study of well being had tended stable feeling of happiness one has to fall into two general viewpoints of towards his or her life” (Oishi, Diener & psychological and sociological research Lucas, 2007: 347), while the eudaimonic (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Sokoli & Tershana, conception describes psychological well
Social Studies 2012, 2 (6): 101-120 112 Acculturation and subjective well being among Albanian immigrants in Greece being as ‘the striving for perfection culture identification and mainstream that represents the realization of one’s culture identification make different true potential’ (Ryan & Deci, 2001: contribution to immigrant’s adjustment 146). Although the hedonic and the (Ward, Bochner & Furnham, 2001). eudaimonic approach views highlight Identification with heritage culture is different approaches to well being, they associated with better psychological actually reflect complementary sides of adjustment and higher life satisfaction, the same coin (Tamir & Gross, 2011). while immigrants who are more oriented While the eudaimonic approach focuses towards the mainstream culture may be on the type of goals people pursue and subject to increased stressors, such as on the content of their life, the hedonic the lack of supportive networks, and at view reflects the optimal experience as greater risk of depression and lower level doing well or as the desired state and of life satisfaction. result. In this sense, both approaches However, other studies (Nguyen et can be seen as different paths to well al., 2001) reported that the degree to being (Seligman, 2002) and all scholars which one adopts mainstream cultural agree that eudaimonic attributes can be values contributed to psychological associated with subjective well being adjustment. In this sense, the positive (Ryan, Huta & Deci, 2008). Especially, interactions with members of the host life satisfaction, as an information-based culture can improve life satisfaction, since appraisal of one’s life for which people it is easer to acquire basic social skills such judge the extent to which their life so as learning a new language and dealing far measures up to their expectations with daily problems of living and getting and resembles their envisioned ‘ideal’ life a job, especially in Greece that experience (Van Hoorn, 2007), has been useful in multiculturalism only recently (Besevegis understanding and predicting reactions & Pavlopoulos, 2008). to stressful and challenging events in life According to acculturation theory, (Bradley & Corwyn, 2004). Researchers high orientation towards heritage culture stipulate that life satisfaction is not a simple or separation involves minimal learning reflection of actual positive or negative for features of the new society, combined events and conditions. It also reflects with maximal retention of features of individual’s cognitive appraisal of events one’s heritage culture (Berry, 2011). and conditions (Lyubomirsky, 2001). The avoidance of learning for the Previous researches indicate that country of adoption can result from general satisfaction of immigrant groups defensive attempts to cope with anxieties was low (Safi, 2010; Verkuyten, 2008). concerning acculturation, such as the Aside from the factors, such as lower pressure of assimilation, discrimination, income, or other immigration related stereotypes, etc, leading people to turn problems with the new surrounding, off toward own group. Assimilation, such as new language, everyday life in on the other hand, is the strategy when the country of settlement, acculturation individuals seek daily interaction with as the way immigrants prefer to relate the new culture and acquire the new to the society of settlement (cultural cultural identity, relinquishing their adoption) and country of origin (cultural ethnic heritage. Integration refers to the maintenance) (Celenk & Van de Vijver, preservation of the heritage together with 2011) is related to the satisfaction with the acquisition of some characteristics life. There is evidence that heritage of the host culture (Berry, 2011), Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 113 while individualism is an orientation they speak better Greek than Albanian in which immigrants define themselves (The Economist, 2012). as individuals rather that as members Recent studies have provided of origin or host community (Bourhis, insights into acculturation of Albanian Moise, Perreault & Senecal, 1997). immigrants in Greece, but, very few have In all cases, integration is the most explored their perception of their life preferred acculturation strategy and this satisfaction and the relation to the process demonstrates the strongest relationship of acculturation changes. Previous study with positive adaptation. Marginalization is (Antoniou & Dalla, 2012) indicated that the least beneficial strategy for adaptation, Albanian immigrants and Pontic Greeks while assimilation and separation are scored lower on life satisfaction than intermediate (Liebkind, 2001). native Greeks initially and after financial Greece was the first important foreign crisis, although the life satisfaction of three destination for Albanian immigrants after groups was no there was evidence that the 1991. They are the biggest Albanian contribution of high heritage maintenance community in Europe (Kasimati et al., on life satisfaction vary among Albanian 2009). Albanian immigrants in Greece immigrants and Pontic Greeks. High level strongly favor integration, which is of involvement of Albanian immigrants in based on two identification, one with heritage culture was associated with lower their heritage culture and one with level of life satisfaction, whereas there was the host country (Antoniou & Dalla, no the effect of this nature for the life 2009), although they were intensely satisfaction of Pontic Greeks. There was stigmatized (Dalla & Motti-Stefanidhi, not found one relationship between that 2010). This paradoxical coexistence mainstream dimension of acculturation between integration and stigmatization and life satisfaction. by Greek society indicates the partially Based on the previously discussed successful progress of Albanians toward literature, we expected the following adaptation into Greek society. Greece- trajectory of life satisfaction of immigrants: Albania monetary remittance flows Hypothesis 1: According to previous have been mentioned by Eurostat as studies (Dalla & Antoniou, 2011), one of the most important ones during we expected the Albanian immigrants 2008-2010 (Chukanska & Comini, in Greece strongly favor integration 2012). Although the crisis in Greece is and assimilation, versus separation or forcing Albanian immigrants to return individualism. home, the statistics show that return is Hypothesis 2: Comparing the embryonic, only a few have returned acculturation strategies, immigrants, (The Economist, 2012). The ambitions who are more assimilated or integrated of returning clash with demographic in the mainstream culture, are expected factors and lack of supporting policies to exhibit higher levels of life satisfaction at governmental level both in Albania than immigrants reporting higher level of and Greece. A crucial demographic heritage culture maintenance and rejection dimension of the Albanian migration of interactions with host community. We in Greece is its youthfulness. Albanian assume that immigrants reporting more children constitute the overwhelming involvement to their heritage culture are foreign nationality in the Greek school more exposed to adaptation difficulties in (Gotovos & Markou, 2004). Many of the host culture as previous study indicated them have no knowledge of Albania or (Antoniou & Dalla, under press). 114 Acculturation and subjective well being among Albanian immigrants in Greece
Method Alden & Paulhus, 2000). The version of 18 items used in this study assesses the Participants heritage and mainstream dimensions Overall, 189 Albanian immigrants of acculturation. The two dimensional recruited from the wider area of Athens, framework enables us to investigate the aged from 18 to 64 years (M.=34.39, integration into two cultures separately. S.D.=11.44), took part in this study. Of Items were in pairs with regard to different the 189 of the participants, 88 (46.6%) life domains (everyday life style, global were males and 101(53.4%) females. involvement, group interaction), with There were no differences regarding the one item in each pair referring to heritage age and the gender of participants. and to Greek culture. Examples of items include “I am interesting in maintaining Procedure or developing tradition of my heritage The questionnaires were administered culture” “I am interesting in Greek individually at every participant after traditions” Each item has a 5-point Likert having obtained his cooperation. Each style rating. Every subscale yields an participant was given a randomly ordered overall rating of involvement to heritage questionnaire packet that required them and to mainstream Greek culture, with to answer questions. It was emphasize a rating of 1 indicating a low degree that the data were anonymous, the of culture involvement and a rating of participation voluntary and there was no 5 indicating a high degree of culture obligation to participate or to continue involvement. In the present sample, participating. the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were for heritage dimension α = 0.84 and Measures mainstream dimension a = 0.75. Well being was measured with Satisfaction with Life Scale (Pavot Results & Diener, 1993). The Scale assesses satisfaction with respondent’s life as a Life satisfaction of immigrants by gender whole ob the basis of their unique set of We used univariate analysis of criteria. The 5 items are global (e.g. In variance to check for differences between most ways my life is close to my ideal, males and females on a measure of life The conditions of my life are excellent, satisfaction. The mean of life satisfaction I am satisfied with my life, So far I have of respondents was M=2.89 and standard gotten the important things I want in my deviation SD=0.78. Male’s mean score life, If I could live my life over, I would was 2.90 and female’s mean score 2.89. change almost nothing). The questions There were no differences regarding the were measured on a five-point Likert scale, gender of participants. The perceived with one indicating “strongly disagree” total life satisfaction was moderate for and five “strongly agree”. The values of two groups. Cronbach α of life satisfaction were 0.70. According to Pavot and Diener (1993) the Acculturation of albanian immigrants Satisfaction with Life Scale has a potential by gender cross cultural index of life satisfaction. We compared the means of Heritage Immigrants acculturation was and Mainstream subscale of acculturation measured using an adapted version of of Albanian immigrants according to Vancouver Index of Acculturation (Ryder, gender. There was the same means of Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 115
Table 1: Means and standard deviation of heritage and mainstream dimensions of acculturation of immigrants by gender
Acculturation Males Females F M SD M SD
Heritage dimension 3.51 0.77 3.03 0.91 14.45*** Mainstream dimension 3.22 0.71 3.26 0.65 0.21 Note: *** p<001 mainstream dimensions of acculturation four groups is shown in Table 2. Separation of immigrants. Regarding the heritage profile included 45% of immigrants, dimension, male participants scored integration 21.2%, assimilation 18% and higher than females F (1, 180)=14.45, individualistic approach 15.8%. More p<0.001 (Table 1). females than males fell into assimilation We used the Cluster analysis (Ward’s (25.7% versus 9.1%) and individualism method) of the two dimensions of (20.8% versus 10.2%). More males than acculturation for the whole sample to show females tended to be separated (48.9% the position of immigrants on the two versus 41.6%) or integrated (31.8% versus dimensions of acculturation (Besevegis 11.9%) χ2(1, n=189)=16.49, p<0.001. & Pavlopoulos, 2008). Participants (table 2). scored high on heritage (M=3.73) and mainstream (M=3.92) dimensions indicate Predicting satisfaction with life of an integrative approach. Immigrants immigrants from gender and acculturation tended to assimilate had high score on profile mainstream dimension (M.=3.92) and low Regression analysis were used (in score on heritage orientation (M=1.93). total four), in order to test the predicted Immigrants with high score on heritage pattern of well being of immigrants by orientation (M=3.73) and low score on gender and acculturation. According mainstream dimension (M=2.67) have the to results, assimilation was a positive tendency of separation. Immigrants with predictor of satisfaction with life β= low scores on both heritage (M=1.93) 0.17, t= 2.17, p< 0.05, R2= 2.6%. and mainstream (M=2.67) dimensions Furthermore, high separation predicted of acculturation placed fell into the low level of satisfaction with life β=-0.15, individualistic orientation. The profile of t=-1.99, p<0.05, R2= 2.2%. Integration
Table 2: Acculturation profile of immigrants by gender
Male Female Total f % f % f %
Integration 28 31.8 12 11.9 40 21.2 Assimilation 8 9.1 26 25.7 34 18 Separation 43 48.9 42 41.6 85 45 Individualism 9 10.2 21 20.8 30 15.8 Total 88 46.6 101 53.4 189 100 116 Acculturation and subjective well being among Albanian immigrants in Greece
Table 3: Prediction of Satisfaction with Life from Gender and Acculturation profile of immigrants
PREDICTORS Integration Assimilation Separation Individualism Gender Integration Gender Assimilation Gender Separation Gender Indiv/lism β β β β β β β β with life Satisfaction -0.009 -0.02 -0.04 0.17* -0.01 -0.15* -0.01 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.026 0.00 0.022 0.00 0,001 R2 and individualism were not related to life high level of interaction and participation satisfaction of immigrants (Table 3). in the host society is 18%. About 16% of immigrants seemed not to value both their Discussion heritage of origin as well as the host culture. In previous studies, this group was typical The present study examined the of individualistic values, which reflect the perception of Albanian immigrants of wish of immigrants to achieve personal their own satisfaction with their life and goals and to do well in the host country how their acculturation profile accounts (Besevegis & Pavlopoulos, 2008). for their subjective well being. Our The most probable explanation for our main finding is that 45% of immigrants finding of higher percentage of immigrants tended to be oriented toward heritage in separation profile is the fact that context, culture, providing no support for our first public or private, is crucial component in hypothesis and unlike previous studies. As the study of acculturation. While in different we expected (2nd hypothesis), satisfaction studies were used two main question of of immigrants with life was positively Berry’s acculturation framework: “Is it of related to assimilation and negatively value to maintain my cultural heritage?” related to heritage orientation. From this, and “It is of value to maintain relations we conclude that acculturation process with other groups?” (Berry, 1997), in this should be considers as important factor study all questions referred to every life style when studying the life satisfaction of and group interaction that private space immigrants. of immigrants. Publicly, immigrants may express a certain tendency for assimilation Acculturation profile of immigrants or integration, but in their private space Contrary to our hypothesis based may embrace more separatist attitudes and on acculturation model, that indicate the behavior (Cabassa, 2003). Further studies preference of immigrants for integration, are needed to understand how the context high percentage of Albanian immigrants influences acculturation of immigrants. prefer their heritage traditions, enjoy social The results indicated that male activities with their coethnics, often behave immigrants have more positive attitudes in ways that are typical of their heritage toward heritage dimension of acculturation culture, etc. About 21% of immigrants and more women than men are more value their heritage traditions while likely to assimilate to the host values and participate and acquire values, attitudes and traditions. It seems that immigrant women behaviors related to the dominant society. are more likely to show more autonomy The percentage of immigrants that seek a and independence than men. Although Social Studies Vol. 6 No. 2 117 gender roles in Albania are characterized or assimilation of immigrants in Greece as patriarchal and male dominated (King and psychological adaptation (Besevegjis & Vulnetari, 2009), it is important to note & Pavlopoulos, 2008). that women worked alongside with men The results suggest that separation is before immigration. Furthermore, some the preferred strategy for many immigrants. studies on gender and migration extending According to the analysis, separation is beyond household boundaries indicated negatively related to satisfaction with life. that immigrant women are more likely than As such, it is possible that some of the men to successfully utilize networks in their immigrants may encounter difficulties of job search, contrary to a common belief that adaptation due to the use of this strategy. the use of the networks is beneficial only to According to Berry (2011) separation immigrant men (Livingston, 2006). Similar refers to minimal learning for features of results are found in studies regarding the new society, combined with maximal acculturation and adaptation of immigrant retention of features of one’s heritage adolescents in Greek schools (Motti- culture. Previous studies indicated that Stefanidi, Pavlopoulos, Obradović, Dalla Albanian and Bulgarian immigrants et al., 2008. Motti-Stefanidi, Pavlopoulos, preferring separation felt unwelcome Obradović & Masten, 2008). Results of discriminated and excluded from host these studies indicated that immigrant society (Dalla & Antoniou, 2011). Less girls reported higher involvement with acculturated individuals experience more the host-national culture and lower cultural dissonance and conflict with host involvement with the ethnic culture than culture during acculturative process than boys. Furthermore, Furthermore, Albanian those who are assimilated (Tadmor, Tetlock, girls had significantly fewer absences than & Peng, 2009), especially in societies with the boys in the school. assimilative pressures toward immigrants. A preference for separation predicts low The link between acculturation and sociocultural adaptation that involves a life satisfaction of Albanian immigrants successful daily living and contact with the Pattern of acculturation were related host culture (Ward et al., 2001). to life satisfaction of immigrants. Higher Furthermore, according to results, the involvement to the host culture was the sense of belonging to heritage group lead to positive predictor of life satisfaction, while dissatisfaction and feelings of unhappiness, higher heritage dimension of acculturation contrary to studies those relate heritage predicted lower level of subjective well maintenance with psychological adaptation being. It seems that learning of features of and high level of life satisfaction (Ward the Greek society by immigrants, cultural et al., 2001). Immigrants do not derive knowledge about how to carry out daily life satisfaction from their belongingness activities combined with positive attitudes and sense of inclusion to their heritage towards the hosts (Berry, 2011) is related to country. Support for this finding may satisfaction with life. According to previous results from approach-avoidance conflict studies, a lack of conflict between host theory (Lewin, 1951) that involves two and heritage identities is associated with negative threats, fears or frustrations. greater psychological well-being (Downie, Such conflicts face immigrants coming Koestner, ElGeledi & Cree, 2004). The from socioeconomically disadvantaged finding of our study is in agreement countries that may feel uncertainly not only with previous research that revealed for their adoption .country, but also for positive relationship between integration their background country (Akhtar, 1999). 118 Acculturation and subjective well being among Albanian immigrants in Greece
Albanian immigrants with separation from acculturation process. Separation have to confront, on the one hand, a high and integration are the most preferred heritage maintenance, and on the other acculturation strategy among immigrants. hand, the adaptation to the new country, Males prefer separation while females or a high heritage maintenance and the predominantly choose assimilation and distance from their motherland or their individualism. The major finding is that difficulties to return to their background separation of immigrants is a negative country, due to difficult economic situation. predictor of life satisfaction, while It is possible that failure to negotiate these assimilation is associated with positive representations can result in problematic subjective well being. Future studies conflict, which may result in adverse mental are expected to reveal how the way that health outcomes and low life satisfaction. immigrants feel about their life in the country of settlement influences their Conclusion general life satisfaction. Furthermore, it is important to examine, for example, why This current research attempts to find separated immigrants show low level of out preferences in acculturation strategies satisfaction, although they have a strong among Albanian immigrants in Greece sense of belonging to their heritage and the prediction of life satisfaction culture.
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