Traditional and Western Knowledge Integration in Water Governance and its Implications for Rural Livelihoods in Esigodini, Zimbabwe A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Water Resource Management The University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand Xolile Ncube The College of Science Waterways Centre for Freshwater Management 24 February 2019 Abstract Globally, the quality and quantity of water resources continue to decline, and there has been a realisation that water governance systems based solely on Western science, are not providing adequate solutions to the world’s water challenges. This has seen an increased interest in the integration of traditional and Western-based knowledge systems for efficient water management from the 1980s. Proponents of the notion, however, argue that although Western science and traditional knowledge are different, they can complement each other and improve the manner in which the world’s water resources are managed. In Zimbabwe, 70% of the population resides in rural areas, and 50% of the total population lives on communal lands, and utilises traditional knowledge on a daily basis to manage water. A plural legal system exists in the country, however, water statutory instruments do not recognise Indigenous knowledge systems. There are no provisions in water legislation and policy for improved access to water for the expansion of subsistence agriculture, which is mainly practised on communal lands. This qualitative study draws on fieldwork in Esigodini, Zimbabwe, to explore the different traditional water management practices of the Ndebele group. It identifies the opportunities and challenges of establishing a system that integrates traditional and Western-based water management, and considers how such a system can impact rural livelihoods. The research finds that small-scale agriculture is the main livelihood practised in Esigodini Village, and the villagers have, over time, developed traditional water management systems to support this livelihood. The local knowledge systems have, however, evolved over the years to address current water challenges including climate variability, and increased water demand. The study concludes that traditional water management systems practised in Esigodini, encourage the sustainable use of water. A water governance system that integrates traditional and Western- based knowledge can support improved and diversified rural livelihoods and reduce donor dependency in the village. Challenges such as local communities losing faith in government- initiated collaborative processes, have impelled the study to recommend that a third space be established. This space will allow for cross learning and formulation of information that contributes to decision making, legislation, and policy. A monitoring framework that is based on traditional and Western ways of knowing will need to be developed to monitor the outcomes of the implementation of the integrated system. All stakeholders need to participate with respect for each way of knowing and in good faith, in order for the collaborative process to have positive outcomes for rural livelihoods in Esigodini Village. Keywords: Water Governance, Traditional Knowledge, Rural Livelihoods i Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the Esigodini villagers and government departments including the Umzingwane Rural District Council (RDC), the District Development Fund (DDF) and the Agricultural Technical and Extension (Agritex) Department for their invaluable participation and contribution to this study. I would also like to thank the former Minister of Water Development and Management, Dr Samuel Sipepa Nkomo for taking time out of his busy schedule to be a part of this research. To those who were not formally interviewed for this study, but participated in giving more insight into the concept of traditional knowledge, or showed the research team the safest and quickest routes to take, your contribution is greatly appreciated. To this day I am in awe of how you all came together and assisted me in making the data collection exercise for this thesis a success. To my supervisors Dr Ed Challies and Dr Garth Cant, words cannot express my gratitude for your support and advice throughout the research process. I left every supervision meeting challenged to think beyond that which I possibly thought I could, I thank you both for provoking me to be a more critical thinker. To the Waterways Centre, your level of excellence is amazing, and I am really glad I was a part of you. To the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, this scholarship has afforded me the opportunity to grow both academically and as an individual, I am grateful. To student care and my advisor for making the transition from Zimbabwe to New Zealand so easy for me, and for the consistent support, I thank you. To my family, my “loudest cheerleaders”, (Mum, Gugu, Zie, Zoe), your prayers and unconditional love for me transcend borders, locate and sustain me. I can never put my love and appreciation for you into words. Through this thesis journey, I have made family and friends from all over the world who have supported me, and provided comic relief when it was all too hard, I appreciate you all. Last and definitely not least, to God, my author and my finisher, I am because You are, and I can never imagine doing this life without You. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................ii List of Figures ............................................................................................................ vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................. vi Acronyms ................................................................................................................. vii Working Definitions of Terms ................................................................................... viii Chapter One ............................................................................................................... 1 Introduction: Integrating Traditional and Western-Based Knowledge in Water Governance ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introductory Statement ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background ......................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 Water Governance through Different Eras .............................................................. 2 1.2.2 Water Management in Zimbabwe – Past and Present .............................................. 3 1.3 Thesis Rationale .................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research Aim, Objectives and Questions ............................................................ 7 1.4.1 Research Aim ..................................................................................................... 7 1.4.2 Research Question .............................................................................................. 8 1.5 Thesis Overview and Structure ............................................................................ 8 1.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 9 Chapter Two ............................................................................................................. 10 Indigenous Knowledge and Water Management: A Literature Review .................... 10 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10 2.2 Traditional Knowledge ....................................................................................... 10 2.2.1 The Emergence of the Field of Indigenous Knowledge Research ............................ 12 2.2.2 Western-Based Education versus Traditional-Based Social Learning....................... 14 2.3 The IWRM Paradigm ......................................................................................... 16 2.3.1 The Influence of IWRM on Water Governance in Developing Countries ................... 17 2.3.2 Challenges of Contextualising IWRM in Zimbabwe ................................................ 18 2.4 Access to Water for Rural Livelihoods ............................................................... 20 2.5 Debate over the Integration of Indigenous and Western-Based Knowledge Systems .................................................................................................................. 23 2.6 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 26 Chapter Three .......................................................................................................... 28 Research Methods ................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 28 3.2 The Study Area.................................................................................................. 28 3.2.2 Rural Livelihoods in Esigodini ............................................................................. 29 3.3 Data Collection