GUNUNG KAWI TEMPLE TAMPAKSIRING: RELIGIOUS EDUCATION SITE DURING ANCIENT BALI Candi Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring: Tempat Pendidikan Agama pada Masa Bali Kuno
Kadek Dedy Prawirajaya R1; Heri Purwanto2; Coleta Palupi Titasari1 1Fakultas Ilmu Budaya, Universitas Udayana Jl. Pulau Nias No. 13, Denpasar 2S2 Brahma Widya, Universitas Hindu Negeri I Gusti Bagus Sugriwa Denpasar Jl. Kenyeri No. 57, Denpasar Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
Naskah diterima: 08-09-2019; direvisi: 05-06-2020; disetujui: 27-08-2020
Abstrak Kajian terhadap bangunan suci yang berfungsi sebagai tempat pendidikan agama masa lalu yang sering disebut dengan mandala kadewaguruan jarang disentuh oleh peneliti. Candi Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring sebagai salah satu bangunan suci keagamaan masa lalu telah memberikan petunjuk bahwa kemungkinan tempat ini difungsikan juga sebagai ruang belajar-mengajar. Untuk itu studi ini ingin menelusuri bukti-bukti yang memperkuat dugaan tersebut dan ingin menjelaskan kehidupan masyarakat pendukungnya. Teknik pengumpulan data dilakukan melalui pengamatan langsung ke lapangan (observasi) dan studi pustaka. Analisis data yaitu mengunakan analisis kualitatif, kontekstual, dan komparatif. Hasil dari penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa Candi Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring merupakan sebuah bangunan suci yang berstatus sebagai mandala kadewaguruan. Hal ini buktikan dengan beberapa variabel yakni tempat yang luas, ditemukan berbagai tinggalan arkeologi keagamaan, ditemukan gerabah, dan diberitakan dalam prasasti. Kehidupan yang dilakukan oleh kaum ṛṣidan pertapa menunjukkan aktivitas yang kompleks yakni memenuhi kebutuhan sosial yang berkenaan dengan kegiatan estafet pendidikan agama, memenuhi kebutuhan religius yang senantiasa mengadakan berbagai upacara keagamaan, dan memenuhi kebutuhan hidup yang berkaitan dengan makanan dan minuman. Kata kunci: gunung kawi, kaum ṛṣi, mandala kadewagruan.
Abstract The study of sacred buildings that served as religious education sites in the past or often called as the rarely carried out by researchers. Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring as one of the sacred religious buildings in the past has given hints of the possibility of this place used as learning and teaching space. For this reason, this study aims to find out the evidences that reinforce the assumption and to explain the life of the supporting community. Data was collected through observations and literature reviews. The data was analyzed by using qualitative, contextual and comparative analysis. The results of this study show that Gunung Kawi Temple is a sacred building with a Mandala Kadewaguruan status. It is proven by evidences such as, i.e. its wide place, variety of religious remains findings, ceramics findings, and inscription reports. The life of the rṣi dan hermits showed complex activities meeting social needs related to learning and teaching,fulfilling religious needs by conducting various ceremonies as well as fulfilling the needs life related to foods and drinks. Keywords: gunung kawi, ṛṣi, mandala kadewaguruan.
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 101 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari INTRODUCTION Gunung Kawi Temple (Munandar 2012, 33-34). Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring sacred Another opinion regarding the name of Gunung building was built on the Pakerisan riverside. Kawi is based on the reading of Tengkulak Administratively, it is located in Banjar Penaka, A which is King Marakata who ruled in Bali Tampaksiring Village, Tampaksiring District, from 994-948 AD. The most important content Gianyar Regency, Bali. Based on astronomical mentioned that Amarawati dormitory, located location, Gunung Kawi Temple is located at the on the banks of Pakerisan River. Then Goris(in coordinates of 8°25’22.65” South Latitude and Bagus and Prihatmoko 2016, 106)associated 115°18’45.93” East Longitude. The Pakerisan the term “sanghyang katyāgan ing pakrisan River watershed is a fairly wide area stretching mangaran ring amarāwatī” in Tengkulak A from north to south, which is located in narrow Inscription as Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring gaps flanked by steep cliffs with rough sandy Temple Complex. Both assumptions actually rock compositions. The Pakerisan River springs refer to the same meaning as the holy place for are obtained from the infiltration of Lake the ṛṣi and hermits. Batur and also get extra air from the springs at Studies of Gunung Kawi Temple Tirtha Empul Temple and Mangening Temple. Tampaksiring have been carried out some Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring is surrounded by experts within the countries abroad and from agricultural areas in the form of rice fields. various scientific fields. Unfortunately until Gunung Kawi which is used as the now there are not many researches that talk name of the holy location is very likely to be about its position as a religious education sites an archaic name. In East Java in the south of in the past which is often called asmandala Malang there is also a mountain which is a kadewaguruan. The research of Gunung Kawi famous destination for pilgrimage named Temple, Tampaksiring as religious education Gunung Kawi. It can be interpreted that in the site was conducted by Sunjana(2016, 68), who mountain once lived kawi (hermits), the authors stated that Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring of literary works. This is in line with the fact was a mandala kadewaguruan complex. The that Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring is conclusion was taken only based on the several also equipped with building niches which were descriptions , not from the other evidences. very likely to be used by the ṛṣi and hermits. Besides that, it did not explain about living Hermitage buildings are similar to the ones in activities of the community in Gunung Kawi Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring also has Temple Tampaksiring. The focus of the been found in archeological sites in Ratu Baka, research was indeed more on the implications Central Java and artificial caves in Tulungagung, of the spatial patterns in Gunung Kawi Temple East Java. towards the interaction and social hierarchy of It is very possible that the name of people in the past. Gunung Kawi was based on the number In addition, Laksmi (2017, 200) of ṛṣi and hermits which is acted as Kawi indirectly gave a statement that katyagan ring who composed literary works in the form of amarawatiwas Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring kakawin or gancaran. It is possible number of complex which might function as a place for Old Javanese literary works that have survived religious education, but this statement was until now days have been rewritten by the not followed by further explanation. Wahyuni hermits who lived in seclusion of Gunung Kawi (2015, 111) also suggests that the hermitage Tampaksiring complex. Since many Kawi used at Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring, may to live in who used to live in Gunung Kawi have been used for teaching and learning, and Tampaksiring complex, this holy place was has not explained in detail the life of education called “Gunung Kawi”, and now it is called as there, and the evidence on which to state this
102 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) assumption has not been put forward. This result the central region or can be identified as a was also found in the research which is carried suburb. This was most likely a place for the ṛṣi out by Bagus and Prihatmoko (2016, 110-113) activities which were usually independent from which only explained the patterns of adaptation the central bureaucratic structure. to the environment occurred in Gunung Kawi During Majapahit period there was indeed Temple Tampaksiring. The existence of ṛṣi and quite a lot of information regarding the existence hermits who actually had an important role in of the mandala Kadewaguruan. During the era, the construction of the temple. Gunung Kawi, there were 4 mandala kadewaguruan which Tampaksiring is not explained. Considering were considered important namely mula- the results of these researches, it seems that the sagara, kukub, sukayajna, and kasini. The study of Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring four mandalas called caturbhasma mandalas as a past religious education site has not been are privileged, perhaps one of the reasons is entirely completed, so further research is because of the symbolic classification system needed to get a more complete explanation. based on 4 categories in ancient Javanese The sacred buildings with mandala society, which is conceptualized as 4 cardinal kadewaguruanstatus are often found in points. If the 4 mandalas are placed in the four archeological sites in Java. For example, in cardinal directions, then the sagara occupies the the middle of Java, there are Cetho, Sukuh and east, the kukub occupies the south, sukayajna Planggatan Temples. These sites are located occupies the north, and the kasini occupies the on the West Slope of Mount Lawu which west (Santiko 2005, 114-115). is administratively belongs to Karanganyar In general mandala kadewaguruan was a Regency. Based on Purwanto’s research sacred building inhabited by a large number of ṛṣi (Purwanto 2017, 92-95), these three sites are in and hermits. The clerics intentionally withdrew conformity with the requirements of mandala themselves to a quiet place with the aim to get kadewaguruantype of sacred buildings. The closer to the Almighty God. In addition, in requirements such as being in a quiet place Hinduism there are Caturasrama which are four (mountain slopes, hills, rivers), there are lingga stages or stages of life that a person must go pranala (lingga yoni), and leaders called through. The third stage Caturasrama is called dewaguru. wanaprastha, which is a level of life asking One of mandala kadewaguruan sacred for a kalepasan way by retreating to deserted buildings on the eastern part of Java Island is places or forests (Munandar 2014, 201-202). the Penataran Temple which is located on the The ṛṣi and hermits are very likely to be in this southwest slope of Mount Kelud, Penataran wanaprastha stage. Village, Nglegok District, Blitar Regency, East In the description above it can be seen Java. The period of the construction of this that the communities that had the interests in the temple complex shows that the construction mandala Kadewaguruan sacred buildings were process was not carried out at the same the ṛṣi and hermits who managed a mandala time, namely from the Kadiri (1052 AD) to complex. They were the ones who taught Majapahit (1486 AD) era (Setiawan 2016, 261; religious knowledge to their students (sisya). Rahardjo 2011, 55). Wahyudi et al. (2014, 110- It is very possible that activities related to not 111) concluded that Penataran Temple belongs only learning and teaching but also performing to a religious education center group during certain ceremonies, either routine or at certain Majapahit. Furthermore, the Gua Pasir Site times. In mandala Sukuh for example, the can also be identified as one of the centers of activities carried out by the ṛṣi and hermits educational, religious and literary activities of were so complex including gardening, raising Majapahit period that was independent from animals, and others (Purwanto 2017a, 75-79)
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 103 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari Based on the explanation above, the study is to look for interrelationships between problems examined in this study are 1) the data in the form of buildings and artifacts to elements that as markers that Gunung Kawi find the relation between them. Meanwhile, Temple Tampaksiring was a religious education comparative analysis is an analysis by comparing site in Ancient Bali era. The elements explored one data with other data. This analysis was consists of, pottery or ceramic findings, carried out by comparing a number of mandala archeologyfindings related to religion, the kadewaguruan located in Java, which many location of the site which is away from the experts have revealed. crowd, and the description of written texts The data that has been collected at the regarding Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring. 2) how collection stage (observation and literature was the life of the ṛṣi who lived in Gunung study) will then be analyzed. Then it can be Kawi Temple Tampaksiring which has not interpreted in order to solve the problems been revealed yet. The aim of this research is that have been proposed, namely elements to contribute in the history of Balinese culture as markers of sacred buildings as a place for in religious field. Specifically, it desires to religious education and life carried out by trace the evidences of Gunung Kawi Temple the supporting community at Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring as a religious education site, so Temple, Tampaksiring. The basic approach that it can provide an overview of its position used is religion. Zoetmulder (in Munandar and function in the past. 1990, 2) stated that none of the cultures in this world are free from the influence of religions, METHODS and this also applies to Indonesian culture This research was conducted at the during the Hindu-Buddhist era. Knowledge of Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring, which past cultures and religions is the key to unlock is located in Penaka Hamlet, Tampaksiring, the unknown problems in the writing of ancient Gianyar. The method used in this study history associated with various ancient relics. consists of two stages, namely data collection Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring is a sacred techniques (observation and literature study) building which is certainly related to religion. and data analysis (qualitative, contextual, and comparative analysis). Observation was RESULTS AND DISCUSSION carried out by observing various archeological Overview of Gunung Kawi Temple objects at the research site, followed by making Tampaksiring a description or recording the observable Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring phenomenon. Then literature study is an effort is a temple complex that consist of two types to study and collect writings or information of buildings, namely the temple complex and related to the research being carried out. the hermitage. The temple complex can be The analysis applied in this study is divided into three groups based on the number qualitative analysis. The steps are by describing of temples per group: group five temples that the results of the research in narrative description has five temples, group four temples that has in the form of sentences. This analysis focuses four temples, and group one temple that has on efforts to provide an overview or explanation a temple. Group five temples is located to the of the object under study through collected east of the river, group fourtemples is located data and analyze them to draw conclusions. to the west of the river, and group one temple The available data are in the form of rock-cut is located to the south of the group fourtemples. temples, hermitage niches, short inscriptions The hermitage niches complex is located not far and other artifacts. Contextual analysis in this from the temple area, both on the east side and
104 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) the west side. In addition to the temple buildings King Marakata and Anak Wungsu. Meanwhile and hermitage, there is also an entrance gate based on Kempers (Kempers 1960, 78), the and stairs (see figure 1). first temple was for King Udayana, the second Many experts have revealed that the temple was for Anak Wungsu, while the other Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring Temple complex temples were for the empress of King Udayana. was founded around the XI century for the The group four temples were presumed for pedharmaan of King Udayana, his wife, and lower level wives or concubines. The group one sons (Ardika, Parimartha, and Wirawan 2013, temple that reads rakyan is thought to be for the 241; Munandar 2012, 27-28; Bagus 2007, 13). prime minister of the king. Another assumption The first construction of the temple complex was from Munandar (2012, 27-28) who stated could have begun during the reign of King that group five temples was a pedharman site Marakata Pangkaja (944 -947 Śaka), and then of King Udayana, traditionally called the royal was added and renovated in the era of King family tombs. The group four temples which Anak Wungsu (971-999 Śaka). The two kings were traditionally called the Queens’ Tombs were indeed the sons of the sajalu-stri couple could also be connected as a place to glorify of Udayana-Gunapriyadharmapatni (Munandar Queen Gunapriyadharmapatni. 2012, 29). Based on the explanation from the The difference is the designation of each experts above, it can be concluded that the temple. According to Goris (1965, 25) the group initial construction of the Gunung Kawi five temples with haji lumah ing jalu written Tampaksiring sacred building began around were built for King Udayana, while the temples the beginning of the 11th century AD. Then the with rwa nakira written were intended to glorify question that arises is when the Gunung Kawi
Figure 1. Situation Map of Gunung Kawi Temple Complex Tampaksiring. (Source: Document of Centre for Conservation of Culture Bali, gathered by Gunawarman 2018)
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 105 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari Tampaksiring temple began to be abandoned The evidences presented were not only from by its inhabitants. This question seems difficult archeological side but also from ecological to answer with certainty, but it does not rule considerations. It is said that a center of the out interpretations. It is well known that the kingdom certainly considers various things ancient Balinese kingdom lasted around the as written in the Old Indian books, Manasara IX-XIV century, and of course, it had a central Silpasastra. One of the important things in government as was the case of other kingdoms choosing a central location for the kingdom is in the archipelago, but until now experts still it the land or the condition of the soil. is difficult to be able to reconstruct completely It can be seen that Pejeng to Bedulu due to limited data sources used for that needs. region has a flat to undulating land topography, Written sources that are expected to provide with an altitude between 0 to 750 meters above information about the location of theAncient sea level, and slopes ranging from 0% to above Bali royal palace and other archeological 40%. With such geomorphological conditions, evidences such as the existence of the palace it is undeniable that Pejeng or Bedulu region remains or anything closely related to the was a very suitable land as the location of the palace cannot be found with certainty, although IX-XIV century AD Ancient Balinese Kingdom there is a possibility of it being in Pejeng and before the central government finally moved to then moved to Bedulu. is kind of suspicion has Samprangan (Srijaya 2014, 67). The death of Sri not only hit the Ancient Bali Kingdom, but also Astha Sura Ratna Bhumi Banten was considered various kingdoms that have developed in this as the end of the history of Ancient Balinese archipelago. kings, and the appointment of a new king from Information about Pejeng or Bedulu as Mpu Kepakisan’s grandchild was considered the center of the Ancient Bali Kingdom was as the beginning of the Samprangan kings conveyed by Stutterheim in 1929 which was formation. Samprangan Kingdom was the first later strengthened by Robson in 1978. With kingdom built by the Majapahit dynasty who many archeological remains in Pejeng region ruled Bali after the Ancient Bali was imposed to Bedulu, both experts believed that the center by Patih Gajah Mada. Gajah Mada decided of the Ancient Balinese Kingdom was located to no longer use the Bedulu Palace located in there. These sites are mainly located along Bedulu Village as the center of government, the Pakerisan and Petanu Rivers, including but chose and set Samprangan Village, Gianyar Pegulingan Temple, Tirtha Empul, Mangening as the location of the new central government Temple, Kerobokan Temple, Pengukur-ukuran palace. It was chosen as the new palace location Temple, Tegallinggah, Bitra Relief, and Yeh because of the consideration on the distance Pulu Relief. In addition, there are still many and the faster it can be reached by Pabean loose findings in the form of statues and building Rangkung. At the same time, there were also parts scattered in Pejeng to Bedulu areas which considerations to stay away from inland villages are still kept and saved by the local community. which still continued to rebel against the new Stutterheim argued that the villages of Bedulu Balinese authorities (Ardika, Parimartha, and and Pejeng, which became known as the Pejeng Wirawan 2013, 268; Munandar 2018, 265). Month of Iron Bronze Age, had become the From the description above it can be center of the kingdom in the period before concluded that Pejeng or Bedulu was the center Majapahit (Ardhana 2014, 606). of the kingdom as well as the center of the Meanwhile, a recent study conducted ancient Balinese people activities which took by Srijaya (2014, 45-47) seems to reinforce place around the IX-XIV century AD. The first the notion that Pejeng or Bedulu area was the consideration is the existence of archeological center location of ancient Balinese kingdom. evidences found in the form of temples
106 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) and statues which are often kept in temples The Elements of Mandala Kadewaguruan around Pejeng and also Bedulu. They can be ofGunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring a fundamental argument in determining the The groups that had the most interests center of the Ancient Balinese kingdom at that or the residents in Gunung Kawi Temple time, although inscriptions evidences have yet Tampaksiring were the clergies. They consisted to be discovered. Archaeological evidences in of priests, ṛṣi, and hermits who were very Pejeng and Bedulu regions also represent two likely to deliberately seclude themselves to eras, namely prehistoric times and historical perform all religious activities. The religious times. Thus, since prehistoric times until the activity which was important for them was collapse of the ancient Balinese kingdom by mainly asceticism. In the Gunung Kawi Temple the Majapahit kingdom, Pejeng or Bedulu can complex, Tampaksiring there are number of be said to be the center of the kingdom and the hermitage niches that were likely to be used to center of religious and cultural activities. The meditate. In sources written in the Old Javanese second consideration is from the ecological period, the building for the ṛṣi and hermits was point of view, i.e. the fertile land conditions called karsyan. Karsyan comes from the Old and the geomorphology of the Pejeng-Bedulu Javanese ka + ṛṣi + an, the vowel i meets a and region which is very suitable to be the center of becomes y (Zoutmulder and Poedjawijatna a kingdom. 1992, 4). In some other sources it can also be Since the center of the government called katyagan, kawikuan, kabuyutan, and was moved from Bedulu to Samprangan, all others. activities of the ancient Balinese people also Furthermore, according to Soepomo (in gradually began to leave the Bedulu region to Munandar 2011, 103) karsyan can be divided the new center of goverment. Based on this into two types, namely patapan and mandala. assumption, most likely the activities carried Both of these places were used by religious out at Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring people or people who really intended to also began to be abandoned by the supporting withdraw from the crowded world and deepen community. The beginning of the construction their religious knowledge. Patapan was a place of the Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring for seclusion for a limited number of people (a was around the XI century AD and it began person or a small group of people). Mandalas to be abandoned around the XIV century, so it were often also referred to as kadewaguruan. was around 300 years that all activities were In this type of karsyan, the highest religious carried out at this temple, passing fourteen leader was called dewaguru, in a small hamlet alternations of rulers from Marakata Pangkaja inhabited by many clergies. They consisted of to Bhatara Sri Astasura Ratna Bhumi Banten. students comprising of women and men. Apart This is a reminiscent of the Panataran Temple from being used for asceticism, it could also be in East Java whose construction was also not used as a place for religious education. When at the same time, namely in Kediri Period until observing both types of sacred buildings, it is Majapahit. For this reason, the construction and clear that Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring the use of Panataran Temple were also quite was a mandalakadewaguruan. The most long. It can be said that in the XI century AD, important element in a mandala is a place away a monumental temple soaring upwards was from the crowd. These places are like mountain builtin eastern Java, while in Bali a unique slopes, on the hills in the middle of the forest, temple built on a cliff, like a sacred building on the banks of large rivers, on the shores of in Ellora India in V century AD, was also built the sea, and so on (Santiko 2005, 132). When (Brown in Bagus and Prihatmoko 2016, 106). examining the opinion conveyed by Santiko, it is obvious that Gunung Kawi Temple,
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 107 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari Tampaksiring meets these elements. This The second indication (2) is the pottery temple is located on the banks of the Pakerisan findings around Gunung Kawi Temple River, which probably was quiet enough in the Tampaksiring. Potteries were found scattered past to carry out the teaching-learning process. in hermitage niches of the temple. It is very The difference is that the results of Santiko’s possible that the potteries were part of a study (Santiko 2005) revealed a lot of mandala particular container used as a complement for locations in mountain areas in Java which are ceremonies. The discovery of these potteries often referred to as wanasrama, while this shows the existence of human activity in a long study reveals the location of mandalas on the time. It is understood that potteries were part rivers banks. The mandala which is located on of a particular container that could support the the riverbank has not been found and revealed life of the people in the past in doing their daily by many experts, therefore the disclosure of activities. Furthermore, although they were the Mandala of Mount Kawi Tampaksiring is easily fragile items, potteries were generally important data and can be considered as novelty. cannot be destroyed at all, especially if they Wahyudi et al. (2014, 118) once stated that lied underground in the ground. To live in there are several indications that can be used settlements, the rṣi and hermits certainly needed to identify an archeological site as a center for containers, such as bowls and plates for serving religious education (mandala kadewaguruan), food, a cencer as a complement of worship, and namely (1) its wide area, as an indication that barrels for storing food and water. Meanwhile, it accommodated a building complex; (2) the discovery of broken pieces of ceramics has ceramics pottery findings, as an indication of yet to be found a community existence; (3) various religious The third indication (3) is religious artifacts findings, as an indication of religious archeological relics in Gunung Kawi Temple, activities; (4) being away from the crowd, as Tampaksiring. Archaeological remains with an an indication of the conditions of wanasrama; array of variations are indications that the area and (5) reported in the scripts as an indication had been used for a long time by the supporting of public recognition. These five elements will community. Archaeological remains in Gunung be discussed one by one to provide clearer Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring were quite diverse information, so as to strengthen the allegation with regard to religious rites, including temple that Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring was carvings, niches, pripih, potteries, and also indeed a religious education site during the the entrance gate. As explained above, temple Ancient Balinese Period. carvings can be divided into three groups, The first indication (1) is a broad place. namely group five, four and one (see figure 2). Gunung Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring was built The temples were carved on a cliff on the banks on the cliffs of the Pakerisan River which is of the Pakerisan River. The interesting thing is administratively located in Banjar Penaka that this kind of building was only found in Bali. region and covers a core zone of the site area It was not found in other places in Indonesia of 5.83 hectares and a buffer zone of 14.84 until now. The construction of temples in the hectares (Sunjana 2016, 36). This temple is a vast complex of sacred buildings consisting of three groups of temple carvings, hermitage niches, gates, and others. This indicates that it was a vast teaching complex and had a large capacity. It is understandable because a Figure 2. Sculptures of Gunung Kawi mandala was indeed a small village inhabited Tampaksiring Temple by many ṛṣi and hermits and their students. (Source: www.kitlv.com; Personal Documentation 2017)
108 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) form of sculptures on cliff slopes is a form of variety carved on patirthan is not very clear, adaptation to the environment. The environment looked vaguely like tendrils, circular and in which Gunung Kawi Temple Complex, interconnected plant tendrils shaped. The Tampaksiring is built has limitations if it has to tendril itself means creeping or circular plants be built in three dimensions. In the environment (Purwanto 2017b, 20-21). There are around 34 of the temple complex, geographical factors and hermitage niches in various shapes (Wahyuni natural resources which are the raw materials 2015, 110) (see figure 3). Generally, this niche for the construction of the temples become is made by sculpting solid rock cliff walls. In the obstacles. The geographical conditions in the front of the monastery complex there is a the area have a fairly steep slopes. The temple gate and regol, there used to be traces of being complex is located on a landform unit under the equipped with wooden doors. In the center of the volcano with a height about 500 meters above complex there is a large stone carving building sea level, and an average slope of 12%, as well with recesses on the outside of the walls and as a maximum slope of 30%. Areas with steep surrounded by courtyards. On the left side of slopes are usually found on the banks of rivers the large building, separated by the courtyard, (Bagus and Prihatmoko 2016, 111). there are two doors and windows. The walls of Gunung Kawi sacred building the room that are evenly carved are also covered Tampaksiring has no space to store a statue. with a layer of white lepa, called wajralepa, Therefore, the temple itself is actually the therefore until now the room is in good condition symbol of kadewataan. This is reinforced by the finding of a nine-hole pripih that is very likely to have been planted under the temple carvings. This pripih usually stores the symbols of the pancamahabhuta, the five substances which are considered as the forming elements of the universe (macrocosm) and living things Figure 3. Gate (Entrance) and Hermitage Niches (microcosm). For this reason, with the existence (Source: www.kitlv.com; Personal Documentation 2017) of a pripih in a temple, the statue found there is (Munandar and Yulianto 1995, 8-9). It is very truly “alive” when the gods have resided in the likely that various activities were carried out in body of the statues, or in this case the sculptures these monasteries by ṛṣi and hermits for teaching of Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring can and learning, sleeping rooms, and ceremonies. give the aura of the existence of a god who has The existence of pottery findings strengthened descended when summoned during religious the allegation that various activities performed ceremonies. at those monasteries. Finally, the entrance The archeological remains with regard to gate to the site of the Gunung Kawi Temple, water are patirthan. At the front of the temple of Tampaksiring, has a height of about 6 meters the group five templesthere is a lower courtyard, and 3.2 meters carved plain without decoration that is court there used to be patirthan, the rest with a rectangular-shaped door and the roof is we still encounter today. The walls are made of left plain without being formed (Sunjana 2016, stone beams and natural stone blocks. There is 48). a remnant of jaladwara on the northeast wall The fourth indication (4) is being far in the shape of a lotus flower. That patirthan from the crowd. As mentioned by Santiko is clearly a fully artificial patirthan, because (2005, 128), the sacred buildings with mandala water is streamed from a higher courtyard. kadewaguruan status were located in a quiet, The remains of patirthan ponds are also found silent place and away from the crowd. These in front of group 4 temples. The ornamental places are located such as on the slopes of
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 109 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari mountains, hills, riverbanks, and on the same toponym as above is the inscription of seashore. It seems that these elements related Tengkulak B, C, D, and E (Astra in Sunjana 2016, to the location of Gunung Kawi Temple, 66). This quotation reinforces the allegation Tampaksiring which was built on the banks of that Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring was the Pakerisan River with a steep topography. a mandala building. Sang Hyang Mandala and Of course, in the past the access to the Gunung Sang Hyang Katyangan were clearly written, Kawi Temple Tampaksiring was more difficult both of these terms indeed refer to the sacred site than now days. In contrast to those in Java, sites intended for the ṛṣi and hermits (Santiko 2005, with mandala status tend to be located on the 120). Therefore, it can be said that the function slopes of mountains, for example on the slopes of Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring as a of Mount Penanggungan (Pawitra), Mount mandala kadewaguruan is proven by textual Lawu, and the Gua Pasir Site. data. The interesting thing is the use of the The fifth indication (5) is a written source name Amarawati used by Gunung Kawi Temple related to Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring. Tampaksiring is likely to imitate the name of a Recognition from written sources is a strong dormitory located in India, since the Amarawati indication on the status of an archeological site Dormitory in India existed in the third century as a past religious education site. In a number AD. Therefore, those who built Gunung Kawi of ancient Balinese inscriptions, Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring mandala hadalready held a firm Temple Tampaksiring is mentioned with the knowledge of India. It is undeniable that India’s term Sang Hyang Mandala ring Amarawati, relationship with Bali had been established one of the inscriptions is Tengkulak A, issued since the second century BC with the proof by King Marakata in 945 Śaka (1023 AD). of findings of pottery decorated with roulette Some of the quotations are as follows. typical of Arikamedu (Ferdinandus 2003, 18; Sheet 1b “.. manganwaya ri sanghyang Ardika, Parimartha, and Wirawan 2013, 5-52; katyagan ing pakrisan manga ran ring Calo et al. 2015, 383; Ardika et al. 2017, 36- amarawati..” 37). Sheet IVa “.. munggaha ri sanghyang These are the elements of the mandala mandala ..” kadewaguruan found in Gunung Kawi Temple Sheet VIIa “.. kapwa isung kabaih kunang Tampaksiring (see table 1). It seems that the five sanghyang mandala ring amarawati..” elements described above have already been Sheet VIIIa “.., kunang sawah i ruhur fulfilled, therefore it can be concluded that it is sang hyang mandala..” true that Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring Temple TheirTranslations in Indonesian. is a mandala kadewaguruan whose function Sheet Ib “... related to Sanghyang aside from being a place for religious activities Katyagan in Pakerisan named Amarawati was also used as a teaching-learning space. ...” These elements have not been the basis used Sheet IVa “..offering it to Sanghyang by previous researchers to reveal Gunung Kawi Mandala ...” Temple Tampaksiring as a mandala. The data Sheet VIIa “... rice fields (tax collector used as the basis were merely the expressions officials) (damaged?) Those are all from written texts, nor conducting comparative rice fields of Sanghyang Mandala in studies with other archeological remains. Amarawati ...” Previous researchers also have not discussed Sheet VIIIa “.. As for the rice fields above the life activities of local people at the Gunung Sanghyang Mandala ...” (Ardika and Kawi Temple, Tampaksiring. More details are Beratha 1998, 86-103). be described in the next sub-chapter. Another inscription that mentioned the
110 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) Table 1. Mandala Kadewaguruan elements in Gunung Kawi Temple
Marker Description Supporting artifacts Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring area Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring area can be divided into three main areas, covers a core zone of 5.83 hectares and a namely the carving of temple five, temple four and temple one. buffer zone of 14.84 hectares. Spacious yard This indicates its use as a vast education complex.
Pottery findings There were potteries found scattered in Findings of broken fragments. the area of the recesses.
This suggests human existence in a long period of time (community).
Various findings in Ten temple sculptures were found which Findings of temple carvings, pripih, patirthan, potteries, hermitage niches, and religious context. can be grouped into three, namely: gate feature. groups of five, four, and one.
Pripih findings Patirthan as a producer of holy water for religious rituals.
The findings of pottery artifacts as a support for religious activities.
Dozens of hermitage niches findings.
Gapura (gate) feature as a support for religious activities. This indicates the existence of human activities in a long term (community).
Away from the Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring is Its location is patterned with other sites located on the banks of the Pakerisan crowd. located on the banks of Pakerisan river watershed. watershed with steep tophographics.
This implies the conformity of a mandala kadewaguruan prerequisites.
Reported in This temple was reported in inscriptions. Tengkulak A, B, C, D, and E Inscriptions. Manuscripts. This signifies its function as a mandala kadewaguruan evidenced by textual data. (Source: gathered from Wahyudi et al. 2014, 107-109)
The thing that needs to be explained mandala kadewaguruanwith the existence of is about the initial review which stated that various artifactual and textual sources during Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring was a the Majapahit period. On the other hand, pedharman building or a place to glorify a Santiko(2012, 123-125) mentioned that the king’s figure. This statement is different from status of Panataran Temple which is as the royal the arguments stated in this study that Gunung temple of the Majapahit Period and added its Kawi Temple was a mandala kadewaguruan. possibility to be amandala kadewaguruanas This problem needs to be answered so it does well. Indeed, as a royal temple, its position was notraise new questions. To cope with the certainly inseparable from the rulers or power problem, the author provided a comparison or of the Majapahit period. It can be proven by review of the mandalas of Panataran Temple the routine visit of Hayam Wuruk at the end and Sanggrahan Temple in East Java. Wahyudi of the rainy season to Palah (the ancient name et al. (2014, 109-118) in his study stated that of Panataran Temple) to worship the hyang there is no doubt that Panataran Temple was a acalapati. Hyang Acalapatiwas a local deity
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 111 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari called parwatarajadewa (deity of the ruler of officers named Samgat Wilang Patapan and Mount Kelud) which was placed in Panataran Samgat Tapa Haji who were given the mandate Temple(Purwanto and Titasari 2018, 46-47). to maintain and take care of these buildings. The routine in form of visit was apparently King This kind of building also seems to be found Hayam wuruk’s tradition. Not only the Palah in Kintamani area which is topographically Temple, he also visited the ṛṣiplaces located located in the mountains. This was explained on the slopes of the mountain, as described at in Kehen C Temple inscription issued in 1126 length in the book of Nagarakrtagama poem Śaka (1204 AD) stated that”.. Sang Hyang XXXII. Based on this fact, it can be concluded Mandala ring Lokasarana...”, said that the that Panataran Temple had two positions or sacred building is located in Bangli area which functions, namely as a mandala kadewaguruan is very quiet and deserted(Laksmi 2017, 409). and a royal temple. This description was sufficient to provide The Sanggarahan Temple or in the information that Lokasaranawas one of the Nagarakrtagama poem LXXVI called Kuti sacred buildings that had the status of a mandala Sanggraha is located in Sanggrahan Village, kadewaguruan, however until now its existence Bayalango District, Tulungagung. This has yet to be until now. The hermitage building temple also had two positions, namely as a whose location had been identified waspatapan pedharman (prasada haji) for Bhre Paguhan, langgaran. According to Suarbhawa (2007, 147- one of the regional rulers during the Majapahit 167) the patapan langgaranlisted in Langgahan Period. The second position was as a mandala inscription was located around Patapan Temple, kadewaguruan(Wahyudi et al. 2014, 114-117). Langgahan Village, Bangli. On this basis, Gunung Kawi Temple is likely to also have more than one position, as a mandala The Life of theṚṣiin Gunung Kawi as well as a pedharman. As explained previously, TempleTampaksiring Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring was The communities living in mandala considered to be a pedharman of King Udayana kadewaguruan were the ṛṣi and hermits who and his empress Mahendradata. Moreover, if it is deliberately went into a seclusion to a quiet place true that Pejeng or Bedulu region was the center and away from the crowd. It is likely possible of the ancient Balinese kingdom, then Gunung that ṛṣi and the hermits also lived together in Kawi Temple Tampaksiring can be interpreted Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring both as as a royal temple considering its largest site teachersor students (sisya). In a mandala, there complex compared to other archeological sites was a leader called dewaguru (a mahaṛṣi). in the region. Therefore, it is very reasonable Apart from being in charge of leading the if a past sacred religious building complex had mandala in daily life, he also taught apart form two or more positions at the same time. lessons about everything related to religion to In addition to Gunung Kawi Temple his students (Santiko 2005, 117). Based on this Tampaksiring, sacred buildings destined for description, it can be explained that a priest the ṛṣi during the Ancient Balinese period were or ṛṣiwithmahaṛṣistatus was assigned to be also found elsewhere, for example Kerobokan a teacher. It seems that not only mahaṛṣiwho Temple, Tegallinggah Temple, Garbha Cave, had the highest position in a mandala, there Kelebutan Temple, and others. The thing that were also lower positions, namely dewaṛṣi and needs to be conducted is to identify each of siddhaṛṣi(Munandar 1990, 154-155; Santiko the sacred buildings into two types of karsyan, 2005, 118; Rahardjo 2011, 153). namely patapan or mandala kadewaguruan. Information about the ṛṣi in Gunung Kawi Based onthe results of Wahyuni’s research(2015, Temple Tampaksiring was indirectly written on 118-119), these buildings were overseen by Tengkulak A inscription which mentionedGuru
112 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) Hyang and priests in Amarawati(Ardika and The further discussion is the students Beratha 1998, 89). The two stated names (sisya) of the mahaṛṣi who lived in the possibly referred to the ṛṣi who lived in Gunung mandala of Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring. In Kawi Tampaksiring mandala. The interesting the teachings of Hinduism, there is a notion thing is the Guru Hyang designation. Guru can of wanaprastha which is the stage of human mean a father or someone who gives advice, life by isolating themselves in a quiet place to while the word hyang is someone who is meditate and obtain spiritual teachings. This respected. The meaning of the two words give stage is recommended after having the first a clue about the existence of a dewaguruin grandchild (Santiko 2005, 129; Suarbhawa Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring. It can also 2007, 150-151; Munandar 2014, 202). From be said that Guru Hyangwas the local name the elucidation, it can be assumed that that for dewaguru or even the name of someone those who are in wanaprasthastage could come who served as dewaguru. For example, from all classes of society such as the royal the Sukuh mandalawas led by a dewaguru families, ordinary people, and religious leaders. named Begawan Ganggasudi, the Planggatan Therefore, students who lived on Gunung mandalawas led by Rama Balanggadawang, the Kawi Tampaksiring mandalawere the common Wanawati patapanwas led by a woman named people who might be on wanaprastha stage, Mahayani(Purwanto 2017a, 73; Purwanto and but it does not rule out the possibility that an Titasari 2017, 107). hermit who learned there temporarily and left In the process of becoming a dewaguru, after the wishes were fulfilled. As an example, somebody apparently must undertake a the ksatrya who would go into the government ceremony called abhiseka. At first, abhiseka sector were required to first gain knowledge referred to ceremonies in Hinduism which was in the mandalas. It can be traced through the performed through holy water-bathing. It was Pucangan Inscription or more commonly often used as a coronation ceremony of the known as the Calcutta Inscription issued by king or other high officials. In addtition to that, King Airlangga in 963 Śaka (1041 AD). When in mantrayana, this concept was maintained Kadiri Kingdom experienced pralaya caused in the sense of confirmation of the religious by an attack from Wurawari, Airlangga fled to experience that had been achieved as well as the forest (Mount Pawitra) with a hermit named preparing for the achievement of the following Narottama. Airlangga joined the hermits and higher experiences at the same time. The lived the life like they did. The goal was not analogy element in its implementation plays a only to save himself, it was likewise to prepare very important role. For example, a person who himself physically and mentally to immediately is Doing self-purification from all impurities by reunite the kingdom of his uncle which had using water, Is likewise from mind-ignorance been destroyed. Airlangga indeed learned with abhiseka (advayavajrasamgraha) everything related to government sector in the (Rahardjo 2011, 515). In the process of mountain (Santiko 2005, 128; Suarbhawa 2007, this ceremony the most important media 156; Riyanto 2016, 1721; Purwanto 2017a, 70). is water, which will be purified into tirtha. In the mandala of Gunung Kawi Tirtha functions as a mean of purification and Tampaksiring, it was verylikely that there were salvation which results in spiritual attainment students who came from ksatrya group. In and knowledge(Kieven 2014, 133; Soekmono fact, there were short inscriptions like sajalu- 2005, 23).It is likely possible that the istri, rwa nakira, and rakyan written on the ceremony was also performed in Gunung Kawi temple carvings. Apart from informing it as a Tampaksiringmandala, yet it was not explicitly place of pedharman, do they possibly serve as written. a sign that the former kings, sons of the king,
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 113 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari and the ministers had studied in Gunung Kawi Sang Kumara and his beautiful wife who Tampaksiring mandala?. It has been found in one in the text is called Mahadewi, and Bhatari of the Sukuh mandala inscriptions, mentioning occasionally. This teaching was confidential, so that there were students who came from not all colud learn. In learning such teachings, ksatrya and called babajang (Purwanto 2017c, there are levels of them in which the students 186). Therefore, the students from the ksatrya must go through. It aims to prevent students group were properly enshrined in writings from finding it too heavy in accepting the whose purpose was to signify important events teachings. The Jnanasiddhantawas intended as or others.These such assumptions do need a handbook for religious teachers/priests who a separate study to provide a more accurate were proficient about this teaching, not for explanation. students who knew nothing or hadyet gotten It could not be ascertained for the the initiation(Surjandari 2009, 182). Examples period of time of the ksatrya in pursuing their of other books are Bhwanakosa and Vrhaspati- education in a mandala. It was mahaguru who Tattva. would be likely possible to determine someone The above religious book or scriptures was considered capable and knowledgeable generally explain the concepts related to the void enough, so that the person was encouraged or the Supreme Reality, which is often referred to leave the place of education to practice to asParamaśiwa, Parameśwara, Mahādewa, their knowledge for the needs of society and Śiwa, and others. In order to achieve the highest the country (Munandar 2014, 203). If seeing reality, it can reached through meditation or Airlangga’s self-exile on a mountainside, it took asceticism with certain levels. Furthermore, him about four years before being the leader in based on these speech books, Santiko (2012, the government (Riyanto 2016, 20). 127-129)stated that there were two stages of Before becoming an official student in a learning that must be taken by a student who was mandala, prospective students must undergo a studying in a mandala. First, as the preparation, process called a diksa ceremony. It is a kind of ethics and ceremonies were taught. Ethics initiation ceremony that one must go through to are teachings regarding good attitude of life, reach a higher level of life or religious teachings, while ceremonial ordinances are to cleanse the for examplesomeone from the grhasta level physical and spiritual disciples by developing to the wanaprastha level (Gonda in Santiko parārtha and parahita, eliminating evil (hala) 2005, 61-62). Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring and creating goodness (hayu) in the mind. mandalacertainly held this diksa ceremony and Physical cleansing can be done by washing was led by a ṛṣiwith mahaṛṣi status. the body with holy water called matīrtha and The important thing to discuss on doing pūja 3 times a day (trisāndhya). Second, religious education in a mandala is the material the core stage, by given the material related given by the mahaṛṣi to their students. The to philosophy and knowledge of religious goal of the ṛṣi and hermits (especially for concepts, they are namely paśa (the fetter those in the wanaprastha stage) was to find a that blocks the human soul from reaching way to escape the soul (kalepasan) by uniting kalepasan, in kakawin called a tali/dadung), themselves with the highest substance through māya, punarbhawa (rebirth), kalĕpasan, moksa. meditation (Santiko 2005, 135). The teachings It can be said that the first thing to learn that comprise about the way to release the was about rituals and morals followed by soul can be traced through religious books meditation or asceticism. Tapa is self-control called tutur. One of them is Jnanasiddhanta, from earthly restraints or can mean as one’s which describes the sacred teachings of Sang effort to make him/herself holy. According to Hyang Siddhanta by Shiva to his son called Avalon as quoted by Munandar (1990, 425)
114 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) self-control consists of three kinds, namely: 1) into self-release, which is to get the perfection sariraka, which is a physical tapa, 2) vacika, of the soul while remains alive and the final which is tapa in speech, 3) manasa, namely purpose to be able to reach moksa (perfection tapaof the mind. Furthermore, the book of the soul obtained when one is gone (Santiko Jnanasiddhanta poem XIX described the path 2017, 129). When one has reached moksa, the of the release of the soul through asceticism soul will be freed from rebirth or often called which can be done in three stages, namely: 1) re-incarnation (punarbhawa), because the soul vahya-vairagyathat istapa by releasing sensory (atma) has reunited with paramasiwa. ties, 2) para-vairagya, that is, tapa who is free Moreover, it is questionable to know from the body or the hermit loses everything where the teaching and learning activities carried related to pleasure, 3) isvara-pranidhana, out by teachers and student took place there namely diligently doing yoga by worshiping are about 34 hermitage niches (monasteries) Shiva (Soebadio 1985, 221). formed to resemble houses. These hermitage Actually, religious teachings can also niches (monasteries) were definitely used as be based on stories that have developed in the classrooms to carry out educational relays and Indonesian classical era which were actualized provide religious materials from the teachers to in relief panels.The teachingsconsidered as a the students. The space in this niche is quite large message and a reflection of the behaviors of a And can fit approximately five to ten people. teacher, brahmin, or ṛṣi can be noticed in the Seeing the number that reaches up to tens of relief panels in Panataran and Sukuh mandala. caves, it can be ascertained that Gunung Kawi Both education sitespossess quite a lot of reliefs Tampaksiring mandala could accommodate of stories related to someone who reached students in large numbers. However, the exact the kalepasan way. For example,Bubuksah- number of students and teachers were uncertain Gagang aking which tells the story of two because the data Have been yet found until now. brothers who weremeditating on Mount Wilis Apart from being used as a place for in their respective ways. Bubuksah meditated teaching and learning, it is likely possible that by eating everything in the forest, while Gagang these caves were also used as places to live by aking only ate in moderation withoutbeing too the ṛṣi and hermits. Generally, it was used as excessive. In the end, however, both could reach a resting place at night, while in the afternoon kalepasan (Munandar 1990, 221). In the story it was used for teaching and learning activities of “Dewa Ruci” Bhima who was looking for (Munandar and Yulianto 1995, 8), yet it does livelihoods met with Dewa Ruci. He was then not rule out the possibility that teaching and given advice by Dewa Ruci about the secrets of learning activities were also carried out at night. life, the views of monism and pantheismas well According to Wahyuni’s research (2015, 60) asthe essential relationship or balance between these niches were also apparently designated as the jagat ageng (macro cosmos) and the jagat hermitage. It is a natural thing if a cave is used alit (micro cosmos), the knowledge they must as a hermitage, as stated by Munandar (1990, have in order to seek the perfection/release 208) that the niches in the Pawitra karsyan were of the soul and the experience gained from used for meditation at certain times. Until now, various difficulties, both physical and spiritual it cannot be ascertaine whether in one niche difficulties (Santiko 2017, 124). could be used for several functions: for resting, Those are religious teachings that teaching and learning, asceticism, or also as a were very likelytaught in Gunung Kawi place of ceremony,or they were separated from Tampaksiringmandala. The material as a key one another, that is, a niche is used for only one part was about self-control, in this way a ṛṣi activity. and hermit could escape from worldliness to get
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 115 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari The dwelling place of the ṛṣi and was made of palm fiber. In the northern part hermits in a mandala seems to have been of the complex, there were offering places implied in Arjunawijaya and Sutasoma books. in the form of highroof cones. The sound of The placement pattern of the houses was sangkhawas heard together with the clapper specifically arranged at the topmost place sound(Teeuw in Santiko 2005, 116). These called topawana or pajaran, which was the buildings might also be built in Gunung Kawi residence or the teaching place of the mahaṛṣi Tampaksiringmandalaconsidering that they (dewaguru). Moreover, there were houses with were both on the riverbank. a slightly lower location called pangubwanan Other important activities in the life of that surrounded it and functioned as the female the ṛṣi and hermits were related to religious. ascetics’ residences (ubwan or ajarajar). Under At certain times, the Mandala absolutely the pangubwanan there were buildings called held religious ceremonies either periodically pamanguywan, which was the place of the male or incidentally. As previously described, the ascetics (manguyu). Around pamanguyan there ceremonies held at Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring were still many houses in the form of yasa or mandala wereabhiseka and initiation. The wantilan (hall) with a lower position. Every abhiseka ceremony was intended for ordination house building was usually decorated with the of a ṛṣi to become a mahaṛṣi (priest), while the names (parab) of the occupants and written initiation was intended for those who wished to pancaaksara (NA-MA-SI-WA-YA). Based on become students in the mandala. According to this layout, the housing complex of the ṛṣi and the elucidation of Calon Arang manuscript about the hermits was called as the Mandala (circle) Airlangga and his queen’s initiation ceremony with the center point of tapowana,which was to becomeascetics, Bharada priest blessed them the residence of the dewaguru(Santiko 2005, with flowers that had been put into water three 115; Santiko 2012, 129). timesat the end of the ceremony. The blessing Based on the observation in the field, it was done by splashing water attached to the is most likely that the rules described above flowers to their bodies. This overview of the do not appear to have been obeyed by the ṛṣi process of accepting students (ascetics) is very and hermits who lived in the Gunung Kawi likely to also occur in the mandala of Gunung Tampaksiringmandala. It can be understood Kawi Tampaksiring. The ceremony was led by that the environment and region did not support Dewaguru, who was a highly knowledgeable housing construction with the patterns outlined priest and capable of leading a mandala in Arjunawijaya or Sutasoma books. It does not (Munandar 1990, 265-266). mean that the ṛṣi and hermits in Gunung Kawi The establishment of a sacred building mandala Tampaksiring did not comperhend the is certainly accompanied by a variety of contents of the books, instead the limitations ceremonial series. One ceremony that is very raised new concept to build hermitage niches likely to occur in Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring (monasteries) with architecture made to mandala was the ceremony of laying pripih. resemble a real house as a place to live. It was evidenced by the discovery of pripih Furthermore, information about buildings with nine holes. This ceremony is very likely constructed in a mandala kadewaguruan was to take place on a day that had been determined obtained through the book of Siwaratrikalpa and calculated by the ṛṣi and hermits since the poem II. The mandala in this book was located ceremony was only done once. Specifically, the on the edge of a large, deep, and clear river. pripih on Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring mandala There was a perimeter wall with a high and might be planted on the front of the temple clean gate. Inside the wall, there was a majestic building. Presently, the Balinese still carry out mahanten (high roof building) and the roof laying pripih ceremony called ngenteng linggih.
116 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) One of the niches which had a fairly countryside far from the crowd. These individual large room with a vent above had an altar of hermits apparently could be associated with worship in the middle. Based on this fact, it is certain types of literary works, for example clear that a religious ceremony was done in the Bhubuksah-gagangaking(Munandar 2014, 203; niche. However, it is yet known what ceremony Munandar 2008, 23-24; Nugraha 2012, 90-91). was carried out there. This is reminiscent of a It is likely possible that the ṛṣi and hermits who ceremony commonly carried out in India called lived in Gunung Kawi Tampaksiringmandala Agnihotra, that is worshipping the God of Fire. used to have activities related to making literary It has been found in one of the archaeological works. However, the literary works have been sites in Mount Wajak, East Java, Dadi Temple. yet found or may have disappeared due to the This temple is not an ordinary place of worship perishable materials used to write the literary or stupa as many Dutch scholars have claimed, works. but an offering furnace (vedi) in a worship Living in a relatively large community ritual carried out by the ṛṣi and hermits during like in a mandala certainly made the ṛṣi and the Majapahit Period (Munandar 2018a, 105- hermits’ foods and drink depend on natural 106). In addition, Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring surroundings. The nature around Gunung mandalamightalso carry out worship ritual with Kawi Tampaksiring mandala has a very fertile burning offerings likewhat the ṛṣidid at Dadi soil due to the volcanic ash deposits of Mount Temple. Batur which has undergone a long process. In It seems that there were also ceremonies addition to that, the lands are also supported by conducted on a daily basis. This ceremony sufficient irrigation system so they are suitable was carried out three times during the day for agriculture (Srijaya 2014, 67). Considering and three times at night as mentioned in at the landscape around Gunung Kawi Temple Tantu Panggelaran book as atrisandyabrata Tampaksiring presently, there is no doubt that ceremony. At the same time, Shiva Mahadewa these lands do have a high level of fertility had to take a bathing ceremony (Munandar (see figure 4). Indications of agricultural 2016, 154-155; Munandar, 1990, 267-268). activitieswere found in Tengkulak A Inscription However, the ceremony heldin the Gunung which states “... As for the rice fields above Kawi Tampaksiring was not ascertained whether Sanghyang Mandala ...” (Ardika and Beratha by bathing the statues of the embodiment of 1998, 99). It is explicitly stated that above Lord Shiva as done by the ṛṣi and hermits in Sanghyang Mandala, which is Gunung Kawi Karsyan Pawitra, because the god statues Tampaksiring mandala,there were rice fields. have not been founduntil now. In many sacred These rice fields were cultivated to be planted buildings with mandala status, apart from being with various plants (rice, tubers, vegetables and a place of education, this mandala environment others). also produced various literary works. For example, the Kamalasana mandala where Mpu Prapanca wroteNagarakrtagama, the Indarbaru mandala, which stored many inscriptions read by Mpu Prapanca before compiling Nagarakrtagama, the Kancana mandalawhere the Nirartaprakreta was compiled, the Mount Camaramandalawhere Calon Arang was written and the Isshasada mandalawhere Pararaton book was completed. Furthermore, Figure 4. Landscape around Gunung Kawi there was also the life of individualhermit in the Temple Tampaksiring (Source: Personal Documents 2017)
Gunung Kawi Temple Tampaksiring: Religious Education Site During Ancient Bali 117 Kadek Dedy Prawira Jaya; Heri Purwanto; dan Coleta Palupi Titasari This is in line with the assumption reachedmoksa at the summit of Mount Lawu, conveyed by Munandar (1990, 210-215)that while from outside the palace were a traveler the clergies who lived in mandala environment who came from Sunda Bhujanga Manik and could provide their own foods by planting an ascetic named Seh Amogragha (Purwanto gaga rice (i.e. how to plant rice with only a 2017a, 76; Purwanto 2017c, 78) small amount of water, on high and hilly land), Based on previous elucidation, Gunung growing vegetables and picking fruits that grew Kawi Temple Tampaksiring had two positions around theirmandala. Furthermore, the ṛṣi and namely as a mandala kadewaguruan and a hermits living in Sukuh mandala also made use pedharman. As a pedharman temple, There of the surrounding environment by planting were certainly visits from the royal families at various fruits such as grape, coconut, jackfruit, certain times to either pay homage to Udayana- durian, banana, and vegetables such as eggplant Mahendradata or to review the situation as (Purwanto 2017a). carried out by King Hayam Wuruk. The visit Tengkulak A inscription further vaguely was of course greeted with gentle speech and stated that the community must offer all served foods and drink by the ṛṣi and hermits. types of food for Guru Hyang (Ardika and In line with that, it is supposedly reasonable Beratha 1998, 91). At certain times, it is that Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring sacred very likely that people migth visit or face building still survives until now because the the Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring mandalato palace and the clergies indeed had a fairly close worship the sajalu-istri King. The worship relationship. was certainly complemented with a variety of offerings of agricultural produce i.e. fruits CONCLUSION and vegetables. After the worship was over, Based on the elucidation explained all these offerings could be consumed by Guru above, it can be concluded that Gunung Kawi Hyang (dewaguru) who lived inGunung Kawi Tampaksiring Temple is a sacred building which Tampaksiringmandala. This phenomenon can had a position as a mandala kadewaguruan. still be found in religious ceremonies in Bali, This assumption is based on the fulfilled when the ceremonial offerings banten( ) which requirements of mandala kadewaguruan sacred are previously offered can be eaten lungsur( ). buildings, which is having a large place, pottery Mandalawas also often visited by the findings as an indication of human activity in kings in a short and rather long period in order a long period of time, various findings in the to deepen their knowledge of religion. A such context of religion, its far location from the visit was made by the famous King Hayam crowd, and recognition from written sources. Wuruk and his entourage to the forest where the Therefore, this conclusion can provide a new ṛṣi and hermits lived. In Nagarakrtagama poem explanation of the position of Gunung Kawi XXXIII, it was mentioned that His Majesty King Temple Tampaksiring, that is as a pedharman Hayam Wuruk toured around the dormitory, temple which has been widely revealed by then were treated with all the foods there by the previous research and also as amandala ṛṣi. According to the custom, the Majesty gave kadewaguruan. valuable things to the ṛṣi and hermitsbefore The sacred building was a residence of continuing the journey (Riana 2009, 174-175). a relatively large numbers of ṛṣi and hermits. In the mandalas located on the West Slope of Aside from being an ascetic place, Gunung Kawi Mount Lawu, there were also guests from the Temple Tampaksiring was used as religious palace and outside the palace. From the royal education site that accommodated a number of circle was Prabhu Brawijaya V who finally students both from ordinary community groups
118 Forum Arkeologi Volume 33, Nomor 2, Oktober 2020 (101 - 120) and also the ksatrya group. Therefore, to meet Bagus, Anak Agung Gde, and Hedwi Prihatmoko. the needs of teaching and learning space, niches 2016. “Kearifan Lokal Dalam Pembangunan (monasteries) were established by utilizing the Kompleks Candi Gunung Kawi.” Forum cliff walls of the Pakerisan watershed area. The Arkeologi 29 (2): 105–16. https://doi. life of the ṛṣi and hermits in the environment of org/10.24832/fa.v29i2.186. Calo, Ambra, Bagyo Prasetyo, Peter Bellwood, Gunung Kawi Tampaksiring mandalashowed James W. Lankton, Bernard Gratuze, Thomas such complex activities, i.e.to meet social needs Oliver Pryce, Andreas Reinecke, et al. 2015. related to activities of religious education, to “Sembiran and Pacung on the North Coast of meet religious needs that always held various Bali: A Strategic Crossroads for Early Trans- religious ceremonies, and to meet the needs of Asiatic Exchange.” Antiquity 89 (344): 378– life related to foods and drinks. 96. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2014.45. Ferdinandus, Sri Utami. 2003. “Hubungan India SUGGESTION Kuno Dengan Asia Tenggara Pada Abad Research on religious education (mandala Ke 4 SM Hingga Abad Ke 7 M.” Laporan kadewaguruan) in Bali in the past until now has penelitan, Univeritas Indonesia, Jakarta. not been widely disclosed by researchers, even Goris, R. 1965. Ancient History of Bali. Denpasar: Faculty of Letters, Udayana University. though the potential for archaeological data is Kempers, A.J. Bernet. 1960. Bali Purbakala. quite adequate. For example, archaeological Jakarta: Tanpa Penerbit. sites in the Kintamani area and its surroundings Kieven, Lydia. 2014. Menelusuri Figur Bertopi need to have further investigation. It is, Dalam Relief Candi Zaman Majapahit. therefore, necessary to conduct similar studies bogor: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia. by researchers in the future so they can get a Laksmi, Ni Ketut Puji Astiti. 2017. “Identitas more complete explanation. Keberagamaan Masyarakat Bali Kuno Pada Abad IX-XIV Masehi: Kajian Epigrafis.” DAFTAR PUSTAKA Disertasi, Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta. Ardhana, I Ketut. 2014. “Executive Summary.” In Munandar, Agus Aris. 1990. “Kegiatan Keagamaan Raja Udayana Warmadewa, edited by I Ketut Di Pawitra: Gunung Suci Di Jawa Timur Ardhana and I Ketut Setiawan, 593–623. Abad 14-15 M.” Tesis, Universitas Indonesia, Denpasar: Pustaka Larasan. Jakarta. Ardika, I Wayan, and Ni Luh Sutjiati Beratha. 1998. ———. 2008. Ibukota Majapahit: Masa Kejayaan “Perajin Pada Masa Bali Kuno Abad IX-XI.” Dan Pencapaian. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Laporan Penelitian, Universitas Udayana, Sastra. Denpasar ———. 2011. Catuspatha Arkeologi Majapahit. Ardika, I Wayan, I Gde Parimartha, and A.A. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra. Bagus Wirawan. 2013. Sejarah Bali: Dari ———. 2012. “Pedharmaan Śri Dharmmodâyana Prasejarah Hingga Modern. Denpasar: Warmadewa.” In Seribu Tahun Wafatnya Universitas Indonesia Press. Prabhu Udayana: Menggali Nilai Kearifan Ardika, I Wayan, I Ketut Setiawan, I Wayan Untuk Membangun Karakter Bangsa, 1–37. Srijaya, and Rochtri Agung Bawono. 2017. Denpasar: Universitas Udayana Press. “Stratifikasi Sosial Pada Masa Prasejarah ———. 2014. Mitra Satata: Kajian Asia Tenggara Di Bali.” Jurnal Kajian Bali (Journal of Kuna. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra. Bali Studies) 7 (1): 35–56. https://doi. ———. 2016. Arkeologi Pawitra. Jakarta: org/10.24843/jkb.2017.v07.i01.p03. Wedatama Widya Sastra. Bagus, Anak Agung Gde. 2007. “Pengelolaan ———. 2018a. Antara Arkeologi Hindu-Buddha. Daerah Aliran Sungai Pakerisan Kabupaten Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra. Gianyar.” In Berita Penelitian Arkeologi, ———. 2018b. Wilwatikta Prana: Kajian edited by I Nyoman Wardi, 1–36. Denpasar: Arkeologi-Sejarah Zaman Majapahit. Balai Arkeologi Bali. Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra.
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