Degroot Candi, Space and Landscape A study on the distribution, orientation and spatial Candi, Space and Landscape organization of Central Javanese temple remains Central Javanese temples were not built anywhere and anyhow. On the con- trary: their positions within the landscape and their architectural designs were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors. This book ex- plores the correlations between temple distribution, natural surroundings and architectural design to understand how Central Javanese people structured Candi, Space and Landscape the space around them, and how the religious landscape thus created devel- oped. Besides questions related to territory and landscape, this book analyzes the structure of the built space and its possible relations with conceptualized space, showing the influence of imported Indian concepts, as well as their limits. Going off the beaten track, the present study explores the hundreds of small sites that scatter the landscape of Central Java. It is also one of very few stud- ies to apply the methods of spatial archaeology to Central Javanese temples and the first in almost one century to present a descriptive inventory of the remains of this region. ISBN 978-90-8890-039-6 Sidestone Sidestone Press Véronique Degroot ISBN: 978-90-8890-039-6 Bestelnummer: SSP55960001 69396557 9 789088 900396 Sidestone Press / RMV 3 8 Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden CANDI, SPACE AND LANDscAPE Sidestone Press Thesis submitted on the 6th of May 2009 for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Leiden University. Supervisors: Prof. dr. B. Arps and Prof. dr. M.J. Klokke Referee: Prof. dr. J. Miksic Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde No. 38 ISBN 978-90-8890-039-6 © 2009 V.M.Y. Degroot Published by Sidestone Press, Leiden www.sidestone.com Sidestone registration number: SSP SSP55960001 Published in Cooperation with the National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden www.volkenkunde.nl Lay-out: P.C. van Woerdekom, Sidestone Press Cover design: K. Wentink, Sidestone Press Cover Illustration: All photographs by the author. Front cover: Column 1: 1-Sentono, 2- Mendut, 3-Sumberwatu, 4-Cetokan, 5-Ijo; Column 2: 1-Singabarong, 2-Gunung Gono, 3-Sambisari; Column 3: 1-Kedulan, 2-Miri; Column 4: 1-Ngrajek, 2-Gawe River, 3-Kalasan; Column 5: 1-Nambangan, 2-landscape near Selogriyo; Column 6: Watugilang, 2-Mt Beser, 3-Bugisan, 4-Miri. Back cover: Line 1: 1-Ijo, 2-yoni at Gunung Sari; Line 2: lintel with kala head, Gunung Sari. CANDI, SPACE AND LANDscAPE A study on the distribution, orientation and spatial organization of Central Javanese temple remains Véronique Degroot Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden No. 38 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My desire to research the relationship between ancient Javanese architecture and its natural environment was probably first conceived in 1993. That sum- mer, I made a trip to Indonesia to complete the writing of my BA dissertation. There, on the upper slopes of the ever-clouded Ungaran volcano, looking down at the sulfurous spring that runs between the shrines of Gedong Songo, I expe- rienced the genius loci of Central Javanese architects. After my BA studies, I did many things and had many jobs, not all of them archaeology-related. Nevertheless, when I finally arrived in Leiden to enroll as a PhD candidate, the subject naturally imposed itself upon me. Here is the result, a book exploring the notion of space in ancient Central Java, from the layout of the temple plan to the interrelationship between the built and natural landscape. I would like to thank all those who accompanied me along this path; family members, friends, colleagues and scholars. My first thoughts go to my part- ner, Olivier Merveille, who witnessed my conceptual enlightenment at Gedong Songo and mentally kicked me every time I was tempted to give up. To my two little girls, Leïla and Shanti who made things a bit more complicated - especially once they had found the on/off button on my computer - but brought so much joy into my life. In the Netherlands, I want to thank Prof. Dr M.J. Klokke whose support and encouragement pushed me into writing this book. I also want to thank my first supervisor, Prof. Dr. Aart J.J. Mekking, for his discrete but constant sup- port and his wise advice, Dr. Pauline Lunsingh Scheurleer for her comments on certain parts of the present dissertation – and all the books she gave me free of charge, and Dr. Hedi I.R. Hinzler, for sharing information and photographs with me, as well as Prof. Dr. B. Arps, my last supervisor. In Indonesia, I want to express my gratitude to the staff of the Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional, and in particular to Prof. Dr. Hari Sukendar, then head of the institute, and Dr. Peter Ferdinandus. My thanks go also to Prof. Dr. Edi Sedyawati, from the Universitas Indonesia, and Dr. Harry Widianto, former head of the Balai Arkeologi Yogyakarta, who kindly supported me dur- ing my fieldwork in Central Java. I also thank the staff of the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala in Bogem and Prambanan, as well as the Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI). Further, I would like to thank all the people in Indonesia who helped me to find the old stones I was looking for, through rice fields, volcanoes, rivers, stables and graveyards, and all the people who made our family stay in Yogayakarta the most cherished memory so far in the life of Leïla. v Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues Dr. Julian Millie and Dr. William Southworth for having taken the trouble to correct my English, and Francine Brinkgreve for the translation of the summary into Dutch. vi CONTENTS Acknowledgements V Spelling conventions XIII Note on the plans XV 1 Introduction: aims, background and methodology 1 Previous research on Central Javanese temple remains 2 The colonial era 3 The post-war period 6 Historical background: dynastic sistory and state organization 7 Early Southeast Asia: Indian migrants, indianization and cultural convergence 7 Dynastic history of Central Java: the old and new hypotheses 9 State organization in Central Java 13 Chronology of Central Javanese monuments: absence of consensus 14 Chronological framework of the present book 18 Landscape archaeology in Central Java 19 Methodology 21 Temple remains: a definition 21 Drawing archaeological maps 23 Analysis and hypotheses 23 2 Presentation of the secondary sources 25 Dutch sources 25 N.W. Hoepermans’ ‘Hindoe-oudheden van Java’ 25 R.D.M. Verbeek’s ‘Oudheden van Java’ 27 J.W. IJzerman in Prambanan 31 N.J. Krom and F.D.K. Bosch: Inventaris der Hindoe-oudheden 31 Indonesian sources 33 SPSP DIY 33 SPSP JT 34 Balai Arkeologi 34 Fieldwork data 36 3 Temple remains of Central Java: corpus 37 A short geography of Central Java 37 Topography 37 Hydrography 38 vii Composition of the temple corpus 38 Southern Central Java 44 The Progo Valley 46 State of preservation 50 Southern Central Java 52 Magelang 54 Kabupaten Boyolali 55 Kabupaten Semarang 55 4 Distribution of temple remains: general trends and patterns 57 Regional distribution trends: extent of the Hindu-Buddhist sphere of influence 57 Distribution patterns in southern Central Java 60 The geography of DIY and Klaten 60 Temple distribution: general distribution trends 64 Site clustering around Prambanan: central place or religious centre? 65 Remains in the Progo Valley 72 Geography of the Progo Valley 72 Temple distribution 74 Distribution patterns in northern Central Java 79 Conclusion 85 5 Temple remains and natural environment: some aspects of a complex relationship 87 Distribution patterns of Central Javanese temple remains and regional environmental features 87 Temple remains per altitude range 87 Temple remains and regional topography 92 Temple remains, ground water availability and soil geology 93 Correlations between temple remains, environmental zones and wet-rice cultivation 95 Temple remains and settlement patterns: a possible correlation 100 Outside the fertile plains: temples and ancient routes of communication 102 Temples remains and local landscape markers 108 Temples on isolated hilltops 108 Temples in high, remote areas 109 Temples and rivers 113 Temples and springs 120 Note on the natural environment of Borobudur and Prambanan 122 Conclusion 124 6 Temple orientation 125 General orientation of Central Javanese temple remains 125 Data regarding temple orientation 125 viii Temple orientation and distribution patterns 126 The influence of natural environment upon temple orientation 128 General temple orientation in Hindu-Buddhist building traditions 131 The sun and the axes: space in Central Javanese inscriptions 132 Temple orientation and religious affiliation 137 Exact orientation: deviation from geographical north 140 Data accuracy 140 Determining east and west: the Indian method 144 Sunrise orientation 144 Conclusion 148 7 The religious compound: spatial arrangement of Central Javanese religious complexes 151 Typology of Central Javanese temple compounds according to their spatial arrangement 151 Small scale sanctuaries: alignment and opposition 153 Large-scale complexes: centrality, axiality and organic growth 153 Distribution of the various types of temple complex: chronology, region, function and religious affiliation. 162 Architectural space and conceptual space 165 The centre and the axis in concentric temple complexes 165 The approach to Hindu temple complexes 166 A peculiar case: Candi Lumbung (Klaten) 169 The sacred and the rear 170 Delimiting the sacred ground: boundary and central stones 171 Conclusion