DOCTORAL SCHOOL Phd THESIS ABSTRACT TEXTILE

UNIVERSITY OF CRAIOVA

FACULTY OF LETTERS

“ALEXANDRU PIRU” DOCTORAL SCHOOL

PhD THESIS

ABSTRACT

TEXTILE TERMINOLOGY

Supervisor:

Prof. Silvia Pitiriciu, PhD

PhD student:

Angelica Preda

Craiova

2021

CONTENTS

Introduction...... 3 I. Theoretical and methodological preliminaries...... 5 II. Elements of internal textile terminology...... 7 III. External textile terminology...... 8 IV. Semantics...... 12 V. Etymology...... 17 VI. Internal lexical creations...... 19 VII. Elements of onomastics – a basis for the creation of textile vocabulary...... 21 VIII. Morphology. Orthography and orthoepy...... 22 IX. Elements of sociolinguistics...... 23 Conclusions...... 24 Bibliography...... 25

Introduction

The PhD thesis Textile terminology aims at analyzing the language specific to this field, by reference to the current Romanian language, to the dynamics of the vocabulary. The main objective is to identify the specific features of textile terminology, the elements which individualize this lexical field. We have presented the formation of this terminology and its evolution over time, from a diachronic perspective. Another objective is the integration of textile terminology in the sphere of terminologies. The vastness of the linguistic material, the presence of universally used terms and symbols standardized by specialized international and national institutions give a special status to this terminology. In relation to the multitude of scientific and technical fields having a specialized language, textile vocabulary holds a privileged position, in the sense that a large part of the linguistic inventory is recognizable, due to the phenomenon of term circulation beyond the domain.

The procedures used in the terminological study are multiple. Through the descriptive approach we have presented the field of textiles with all its branches, explaining the causal relations between the concepts of this scientific branch and its belonging to the system. Another working method has been the semantic analysis of textile terms. We have highlighted the meaning of notions, monosemy or polysemy of some words, the integration of the terminological unit into a lexico-semantic field. By applying the comparative-historical method, we have demonstrated the Latinity of the Romanian language, following the existence and evolution of textile terms in Romance languages. The method is important in order to explain the form of a term, in relation to the epoch in the evolution of the Romanian language, in which the term was borrowed from various languages. By corroborating it with the method of internal reconstruction, we have established some forms of linguistic units from certain periods.

Formal analysis has been used to specify the etymology of terms, to establish the evolution of a lexeme, both at the semantic level and at the formal and morpho-syntactic behaviour level. Through the method of structural analysis, we have highlighted the elements of complex structures, the type of relations between terms, the degree of cohesion and their relation with free word combinations. We have used the same research method to explain word formation, with reference to the terms formed by derivation and composition. Specialized phrases constitute nominal or verbal groups, which have been examined by the method of immediate constituent analysis. The referential value of the terminological units in

3 the concrete act of speech has been pointed out through the method of functional analysis, while emphasizing, by relevant examples, the meanings of textile terms in different contexts. In order to illustrate the emotional values of textile terms in literature, as well as in popular language, we have made a stylistic analysis of various uses of lexemes in the living language and in the works of some representative writers of Romanian culture. Another procedure was comparison, through which we have analyzed terms from different languages, while illustrating the common elements, but also the differentiation notes.

The basic dictionaries used in the terminological analysis were MDA1, DEX2, DEXI3, as well as the lexicographic works specific to the analyzed field: DST-TEX4, DPST5, Lexicon de fibre și finisare chimică/ „Lexicon of fibers and chemical finishing‟6.

The corpus consists of 1100 terminological units, organized according to the structural criterion: 900 simple units and 200 phrases. These were extracted from the technical and terminological standards belonging to the textile field, as well as from technical works, textbooks for students in this technical field7.

1MDA = Academia Română, 2010, Micul dicționar academic, București, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold, vol. I A-M, vol. II M-Z. 2 DEX = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti, 2016, Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, București Editura Univers Enciclopedic. 3 DEXI = Coordonator științific Eugenia Dima, 2007, Dicționarul explicativ ilustrat al limbii române, Italia, Editura Arc&Gunivas. 4 DST-TEX = Academia Română, Comisia de Terminologie pentru Științele Exacte (2006), Dicționar explicativ pentru știință și tehnologie. Textile, București, Editura Academiei Române, Editura Agir. 5 DPST = Academia Română, Comisia de Terminologie pentru Științele Exacte (2007), Dicționar poliglot pentru știință și tehnologie. Textile, București, Editura Academiei Române, Editura Agir. 6 Aurelia Grigoriu, Vasile Blașcu (2010), Lexicon de fibre și finisare chimică, Iași, Editura Performantica. 7Asociația Generală a Inginerilor din România, Societatea Inginerilor Textiliști din România, Manualul inginerului textilixt, vol. I-II-III (2002-2004), București, Editura Agir. Demetra Lăcrămioara Bordeianu (2012), Fizico-chimia și proprietățile fibrelor, Iași, Editura Performantica. Demetra Lăcrămioara Bordeianu (2006-2009), Tehnologii și utilaje în filaturi, vol. I-II, Iași, Editura Performantica. Mihai Ciocoiu (1998), Mașini de țesut, Iași, Editura Team. Ioan Cioară (2008-2011), Tehnologii de țesere, vol. I-II, Iași, Editura Performantica. Ioan Cioară, Elena Onofrei (2007), Inginerie generală în textile-pielărie, Iași, Editura Performantica. Rodica Harpa (2006), Tehnologia filării și țeserii. Tehnologia tricotării și confecționării, Iași, Editura Performantica. Ioan Iacob (2005), Inginerie generală în textile-pielărie, Iași, Editura Performantica. Ioan Iacob (2009 a), Procese și mașini de preparație a firelor, vol. I, Iași, Editura Performantica. Ioan Iacob (2009 b), Procese și mașini de preparație a firelor – Teste, aplicații și îndrumător de laborator, Iași, Editura Performantica.

Chapter I

Theoretical and methodological preliminaries

So far, there has been no complex work in Romanian lexicography to study all the levels involved by a terminology. There are several studies which analyze a textile term, a lexico-semantic field or an etymological area. Our approach covers a semantic, etymological, morphological, structural, orthographic and orthoepic analysis of the elements that constitute the textile terminology. The thesis is organized in nine chapters which analyze these linguistic aspects.

In the first chapter, Theoretical preliminaries, we have presented the various views of researchers on terminology, its development as a science. As for the dichotomy of internal terminology, specific to specialists, and external terminology, known to the general public, our approach insisted on the second terminological type.

We have explained, first of all, the notions of terminology, term, terminography. Terminology is the discipline which studies the specialized terms used in various scientific fields, i.e. the formation of those elements, their evolution and use. The term represents the linguistic or symbolic designation of a concept. The “father” of this discipline, Eugen Wüster, argued that terminological units are monoconceptual, monoreferential and monosemantic, which would result in a precise and concise communication only between specialists. Other researchers in the field of terminology (Maria Teresa Cabré, Henri Béjoint, Philippe Thoiron, Juan Sager, Monique Slodzian, Pamela Faber, Angela Bidu-Vrănceanu) talk about the process of determinologization of specialized languages, about their use outside a strict field, this representing external terminology, versus the internal, normative terminology of the Wüsterian type. Terms have semantic evolutions, they become polysemantic, accessing various scientific spheres or even the common language. Socioterminology (for which see the studies of François Gaudin) studies the evolution of terminology according to spatio-temporal criteria and, especially, the degree of preparation of participants in the communicative act. Under these circumstances, it is accepted that the term has contextual use and semantics.

As for the term – word relation, some differentiation elements are mentioned. First of all, it is about the way in which each unit appears: terms are deliberately created by specialists, while linguistic units are spontaneous creations, which appeared naturally and were acquired without much effort. Other differences concern the non-contextual character of

5 terms, which derives from the monosemantic and monoconceptual feature, while words are polysemantic. The opening of scientific languages to non-specialists has as a consequence a semantic dynamic, so that these terms become polysemantic, and the understanding of the meaning depends on the communication situation, on the context.

Regarding the formation of terms, we have mentioned that there are two processes: metaphor and metonymy. Thus, based on similarities, semantic transfers are created from concrete objects and phenomena, to abstract concepts.

Once the terms have been established, they are stored in certain lexicographic works, databases, glossaries, so that they can be disseminated to those interested. Terminography is the branch of terminology which deals with the management and transmission of the results of terminological activities. At international level, a project (TEXSITE.info) was carried out and involved the elaboration of a textile dictionary in electronic format, containing 2000 terms translated and explained in 16 languages, including Romanian.

In order to render technical operations uniform and to obtain quality products, it was necessary to set up patterns, rules to which the activities of each field should relate. This is how standardization was created, a complex action of specifying the rules and working parameters. Among the standardization committees (national, regional and international), the most important standardization institution is the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), a body based in Geneva. In addition to establishing quality standards for products and manufacturing processes, the object of this organization is also the development of the terminologies of various scientific fields. The Working Committee CT 37 (Terminology and other language and content resources) sets the form of a term and provides solutions to language problems.

In Romania, technical and linguistic standards are adopted and disseminated by the Romanian Standardization Association (ASRO), an institute affiliated to international standardization bodies.

Chapter II

Elements of internal textile terminology

In the second chapter, we have presented the general practical framework of the textile field. The textile terms were excerpted from the national and international standards of the technical field, from lexicographic works and from technical textbooks, conceived for the specialized high schools and for the faculties with a textile profile. In order to understand the whole process of obtaining the fabrics, the textile field has been presented with all its subdomains, which involve the raw material (fibers, yarns), substances, tools, equipment, operations, finishing activities, finished products, etc. What is important to society is the knowledge of the types of fibers (natural, artificial, synthetic), of their properties and of the health benefits, natural materials (wool, silk, cotton, linen, hemp) prevailing. We consider that the real revolution in the textile field is the appearance of artificial and synthetic yarns, viscose that mimics silk, and nylon, from which fine, tight and easy to maintain materials are obtained. It should be mentioned that starting with the twentieth century, technical textiles used in demanding sectors of activity (aerospace, marine, medical, military, fire, etc.) have been developed, as well as biotextiles or smart textiles, whose purpose is the improvement and prolongation of human life. The tools, the equipment are both the traditional ones (needle, spindle, fork, swingle, spinning wheel, reel, felting mill, weaving loom), and the modern ones (piling effect determining device, stopping device, rateening machine, mercerizing machine, gluing device, tressage device, etc.).

The textile activity is coordinated by national and international standards. The Romanian Standardization Association (ASRO) creates the standards specific to each field, these being achieved at national level or taken over and adopted from the international ones generated by ISO or CEN (European Committee for Standardization). The Romanian standards are abbreviated SR, and those approved before August 28, 1992 - STAS. SR ISO (STAS ISO) are the international standards, taken over as Romanian standards; SR EN designates the European ones disseminated in Romania. A series of ISO standards were also considered European standards, under the name EN, and in our country they were adopted under the logo SR EN ISO.

Romanian standards respect the categories of international classification, being classified within the two types of systematization: ICS (International Classification of

Standards) and CAS or CAN (Alphanumeric Classification of Standards). In the ICS classification, the textile field is represented by the number 59, and, in the CAN structure, the letter M corresponds to this industry. The classifications are similar, being made up of standards referring to a number of entities: fibers, yarns, machines, materials, processes. They are grouped into domains, subdomains and groups. We have presented the distribution of textile standards in both types of international classification.

There are also rules relating to the terminology of the field (SR ISO 8498:1996 Woven fabrics. Description of defects. Vocabulary; SR ISO 2205:1996 Textile machines and accessories. Laminating systems for spinning machines. Terminology; SR 12806:2007 Textile fibers and yarns. Terminology; SR EN ISO 2076:2014 Textile materials. Chemical fibers. Generic names, SR ISO 8159:1997 Textile materials. Morphology of fibers and yarns. Vocabulary, etc.). By analyzing some terminological standards, we have noticed that the Romanian terms are given correspondents in the main languages of international use: English, French, German.

The activity of terminologists involves the creation of terminological sheets, very important to specialists. The information contained in these documents concerns the designated concept (definition, relationship with other notions in the conceptual system), as well as linguistic data that standardize the use of the term (grammatical value, etymology, semantic relations, variants, equivalent in other languages, contexts, etc.). There are different types of such sheets, which cover several fields that characterize the notion explained.

Chapter III

External textile terminology

In the third chapter, we have analyzed the phenomenon of term circulation, of the transition from one technical field to another, of the migration from the common language to the sphere of specialized languages, but also of the determinologization of lexical units. The findings were supported by relevant examples taken from linguistic works or documents specific to the analyzed field.

The number of lexemes that have received the status of term is quite large. They are taken over by the textile technical language to designate certain notions, the semantic transfer being based on a resemblance between the initially named reality and the scientific one. The status of term is obtained by a word only in specialized communication, which involves

8 contextual use. Arguments in the intense use of this denominative procedure are the rapid integration of the terminological unit in the vocabulary of specialists, as well as the ease of use, knowing the inflection of the word. Many lexemes, which have received the status of textile terms, designate elements of the human body (ochide tricotat „knitted eyelet‟, piciorul bobinei „spool foot‟, călcâiul acului „needle heel‟, pasul fuselor „spindle pace‟, dinte al spatei „back tooth‟, falcă de fixare „fixing jaw‟, deget presor „pressing finger‟, nas „nose‟, etc.). We have noticed the presence of the phenomenon of metaphorization, as a denominative procedure, in the name of some defects of textile materials. For example: aureolă „halo‟ (“lighter area that appears after dyeing”8), sângerare „bleeding‟ (“release of dye from a fabric on contact with a liquid”9), lăcrimare „tearing‟ (“short elliptical changes of one or more adjacent weft threads”10).

The textile industry uses information from several technical fields, which means that it uses interdisciplinary terminology. Many terms are taken from the field of chemistry, as they designate names of chemical elements, substances, synthetic and artificial fibers, phenomena obtained by different processes. In this case, the terminological units are used with the meaning of the original domain. For example: acetat (fibră acetat/ „acetate fiber‟ “cellulose acetate fiber in which less than 92%, but at least 74% of the hydroxyl groups are acetylated”11), alginat (fibră alginat/ „alginate fiber‟ “fiber obtained from metal salts of alginic acid”12), caprolactamă/ „caprolactam‟ (“monomer which, by heating, polymerises and converts to polycaprolactam, the raw material for polyamide fibers and yarns with the names relon, capron, perlon, etc.”13), poliamidă/ „polyamide‟ (“fiber composed of synthetic linear macromolecules having, in the chain, recurrent imide units”14), poliester/ „polyester‟ (“fiber composed of linear macromolecules having, in the chain, at least 85% of the mass of a diol and terephthalic acid ester”15), xantogenat de celuloză/ „cellulose xanthogenate‟ (“dithiocarbon acid ester salt, obtained by the action of carbon sulphide on alkalicellulose, dissolved in caustic soda solution and used in the manufacture of viscose fibers”16).

8 SR ISO 8498:1996 Woven fabrics. Descripton of defects. Vocabulary, p. 8. 9 Idem, ibidem, p. 7. 10 Idem, ibidem, p. 11. 11 SR EN ISO 2076 Textile materials. Chemical fibers. Generic names, p. 3. 12 Idem, ibidem. 13 DST-TEX, p. 184. 14 Idem, ibidem, p. 8. 15 Idem, ibidem, p. 7. 16 Idem, ibidem, p. 1458. 9

Following a semantic enrichment or a metaphorization, terms were borrowed from other technical languages, from a large number of fields: history, transport, zoology, mythology, etc.

In turn, the elements of the textile vocabulary have developed new meanings, being taken over by other terminologies. The scientific branches that co-opted these terms are various: geography, biology, botany, anatomy, economics, medicine, geometry, geology, technology. The disambiguation for understanding the field is given by the context in which the terminological unit occurs. We have noticed that the inherited terms, well known to the speakers, were semantically enriched, this being the criterion for their inclusion in other terminologies.

The names of textile products are generally known by non-specialists. First, it is the name of natural fibers (cotton, hemp, linen, wool, silk), materials, fabrics. A number of terms that denote chemical fibers and newer materials have wide uses.

In the process of determinologization, textile terms are used in common speech in contexts related to clothing or household items. Since these are notions of general interest, the expansion of terminological units occurred naturally, being determined by extralinguistic factors, by sociocultural factors specific to today‟s society. For example: fetru (“Startul campaniei l-au dat elevii înscriși în programul „Vacanță activă în București”, care au realizat manual primele daruri pentru cei mici, 300 de iepurași din fetru.”/ „The start of the campaign was given by students enrolled in the program „Active vacation in Bucharest‟, who made the first gifts for the little ones, 300 bunnies made of felt.‟17), fleece, jerseu, poliester (“Dacă în anotimpurile verii sunt preferate fibrele care asigură răcoare și stare de bine, în sezonul cald doamnele preferă materiale textile precum jersey, poliester rezistent și fleece.”/ „If in the summer seasons, fibers that ensure coolness and well-being are preferred, in the warm season, ladies prefer textiles such as jersey, durable polyester and fleece.‟18), lame, lycra (“Rochia de seară Amina este realizată din lycra cu fir lame”/ „The Amina evening dress is made of lycra with lamé.‟19); latex (“Anamaria Prodan, răvășitoare într-o rochie din latex”/ „Anamaria

17 Beatrice Negoiță, Mii de jucării, donate în cadrul campaniei „DăruiEști în BucurEști”in „B365”, 30.04.2021. 18„Ziarul de Vâlcea”, Jersey, poliester, fleece țesături textile perfecte pentru sezonul rece, 13.11.2020. 19„Plus Style”, 4.02.2020. 10

Prodan, glamorous in a latex dress‟20); lurex (“Fir fantezie, Gold, acril și lurex, pentru lucruri deosebite.”/ „Fantasy thread, Gold, acrylic and lurex, for special things.‟21).

The migration of textile terms from one scientific field to another, their mobility, indicates the transdisciplinarity and interdisciplinarity of the investigated sphere, the fact that it is not an isolated field, but one with connections in all areas of social life.

The large number of notions in the textile field resulted in the creation of complex denominative structures, the purpose of which was to individualize each concept. The advantage of creating periphrases in the terminological process is that of an easy use of the term, as well as the correct understanding of the notion, especially by non-specialists. Most phrases are nominal groups, consisting of a head noun and determiners. The structures are two-member, three-member, or developed. For example: fir cablat „wired yarn‟, fir multiplu „multiple yarn‟, fir răsucit22 „twisted yarn‟, fir pentru tricotaje „knitting yarn‟, fir tip bumbac „cotton yarn‟, fuior de cânepă23 „hemp bundle‟, lână cu impurități minerale24 „wool with mineral impurities‟, rezistență relativă la nod25 „relative strength of the knot‟, mașină de bobinat de pe sculuri26 „spooling machine on the skeins‟, mașină de răsucit cu inele27 „twisting machine with rings‟. The adjuncts of the group head consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs in the supine mood. For example: câlți de pieptene „comb tow‟, depunere în șa „saddle stitch‟, fibră chimică28 „chemical fiber‟, fir mercerizat29 „mercerized yarn‟, lână tăbăcărească30 „tanned wool‟, legătură serj31 „serge tie‟, mașină de urzit „warping machine‟, mașină de încleiat32 „gluing machine‟, mașină de canetat33 „spooling machine‟. Phraseological structures are also found in the popular language, which circulates in parallel with the normative one of standards (a face ghem „to make a ball‟, a lega gura pânzei „to tie the mouth of the canvas‟, a trage la mașină „to sew‟, a trage pânza „to pull the cloth‟, etc.).

20Dana Aramă, „Libertatea”, 31.10.2017. 21Fire Rosa, Fire gold, 4.02.2020. 22 SR ISO 8159: 1997 Textile materials. Morphology of fibers and yarns. Vocabulary, p. 3. 23 SR 12806: 2007 Textile fibers and yarns.Terminology, p. 6. 24 Idem, ibidem, p. 7. 25 Idem, ibidem, p. 9. 26 Dumitru Liuțe, Ioan Iacob, Adrian Buhu, Procese și mașini de prelucrare a firelor, p. 4. 27 Idem, ibidem, p. 6. 28 SR 12806: 2007 Textile fibers and yarns.Terminology, p. 3 29 Idem, ibidem, p. 5. 30 Idem, ibidem, p. 7. 31 Marin Udrea, Comercializarea și utilizarea produselor textile - încălțăminte, p. 18. 32 Dumitru Liuțe, Ioan Iacob, Adrian Buhu, Procese și mașini de prelucrare a firelor, p. 8. 33 Idem, ibidem, p. 9. 11

Chapter IV

Semantics

In the fourth chapter, we have carried out the semasiological analysis of the textile terms, both synchronically, regarding the current meaning, and diachronically, following the evolution of the meaning of the lexemes from their occurrence to the present. Researching the meaning of terminological units in general and specialized lexicographic works (DST-TEX, Lexicon of fibers and chemical finishing, MDA, DEX, DEXI), but also in standards specific to the field, we have found the existence of the univocity and non-contextuality of terms. The terms used by professionals are monosemantic. This category includes the names of fibers and artificial and synthetic materials, names of operations and equipment. These terms are neologisms, taken from denominative needs and preserved with the technical meaning. For example: batir (“lightly spun cotton thread, slightly thicker than the sewing thread, used for stitching”, MDA I, p. 170); capron (“synthetic textile fiber with very high strength and elasticity” MDA I, p. 292), crabare/ „crabbing‟ (“wool fabric fixing operation”, MDA I, p. 535), dacron (“synthetic fiber of American origin, obtained from synthetic polyester polymers”, MDA I, p. 594), fibrograf/ „fibrograph‟ (“device for determining the length of fibers”, MDA I, p. 900), fulardare/ „foularding‟ (“soaking of fabrics with dye solutions and dressing masses”, MDA I, p. 950), janilie/ „chenille‟ (“thick velvet thread”, MDA I, p. 1275), lanametru/ „lanameter‟ (“device for determining the fineness of textile fibers”, MDA I, p. 1308).

Polysemy involves the development of several meanings, both within the field and in other scientific branches or in the common language. Within the textile field the older inherited lexemes have developed several meanings, being characterized by polysemy. First of all, it is about the name of the natural fibers which also give the name of the fabric obtained from them. A number of nouns, for example, designate both the types of wool, depending on the animal from which it is obtained, and the materials made from it (alpaca, combed yarn, cashmere, mohair, cheviot, vicuna). Another category of polysemantic terms consists of lexemes which designate a material, as well as an object made from that fabric. For example: helancă/ „polo neck‟ (“1. synthetic supraelastic fabric; 2. garment made of this fabric”, MDA I, p. 1057), loden/ „loden‟ (“1. thick, hairy woolen fabric; 2. overcoat made of loden”, MDA I, p. 1386), tricot/ „knitted fabric‟ (“1. fabric obtained by interlacing textile yarns and

12 connecting loops; 2. woven fabrics made of knitted textile fibers; 3. garment made of knitted fabric”, MDA II, p. 1278).

According to the language level, where the lexemes are recorded with the new meanings, there are three types of relations: intradomain polysemy, interdomain polysemy, and extradomain polysemy.

Interdomain polysemy is achieved by the migration of a term into the vocabulary of other domains, the unit receiving another meaning. Several textile terminological units have developed new meanings in other technical languages (architecture, medicine, biology, construction, music, cinematography, etc.). The meanings with which textile terms are used in other terminologies are closer to the original meaning or acquire a new one in the receiving language.

Extradomain polysemy is the result of the use of terms in texts with a low degree of specialization and in the common language. The words still retain a seme of the original meaning or get a connotation. External polysemy is encountered in popularization discourse (media, the general press). When terms enter the common language, the following phenomena occur: a) semantic broadening (based on metaphor or metonymy); b) a process of determinologization (in a discourse with a low degree of specialization). The knowledge of the textile field had as a consequence the use of terms in the current language in order to name various concepts.

The number of textile terms that have developed figurative meanings is quite large. This aspect demonstrates the good knowledge, by the speakers, of the meaning of the lexemes and a continuous use, due to the permanent textile activity in the Romanian space. The lexemes have acquired connotative meanings by creating a figure of speech, whether it is a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, or hyperbole. By analyzing the vocabulary of the textile field, we have noticed that many terms are used in the living language with a figurative meaning, sometimes without knowing the primary meaning. The connotative use of terms was achieved in the singular form or as components of phraseological structures. For example: a cădea cu hârzobul din cer (“Mara Mareș nu a fost coborâtă cu hârzobul din cer în fruntea TNL, ci și-a câștigat funcția (și) datorită susținerii de care a beneficiat din partea lui Ludovic Orban.”/ „Mara Mareș was not dropped from the clouds at the head of TNL, but gained her

13 position (also) due to the support she received from Ludovic Orban.‟34); a împleti cosițe albe, literally „to weave white plaits‟ (“Va fi momentul în care Liviu Dragnea poate pleca în Madagascar, după prietenul său Radu Mazăre. Iar doamna Dan va rămâne în urmă ca o Penelopă să împletească cosiță albă.”/ It will be the moment when Liviu Dragnea can go to Madagascar, after his friend Radu Mazăre. And Mrs. Dan will be left behind like a Penelope to grow old.‟35); din coadă de câine, sită de mătase nu se face (“Fiți realiști și vedeți cu cine aveți de-a face, căci o vorbă populară spune că «nu poți face din coadă de câine sită de mătase»!”/ „Be realistic and see who you are dealing with, because a popular saying goes that ‘you can't make a silk sieve out of a dog’s tail’!‟36); mai scumpă ața decât fața (“Nu-i rău să rărim birocratica încâlceală care ne acreşte viaţa, dar să nu omitem aşa-numitele «efecte colaterale» în stare să facă mai scumpă aţa decât faţa!”/ „It is not bad to reduce the bureaucratic mess that sours our lives, but not to omit the so-called „side effects‟ that can make the thread more expensive than the face!‟37); suveică/ „shuttle‟ (method of fraud) (“Suveica prin care guvernul Orbán finanţează campania de identitate a secuilor”/ „The shuttle by which the Orbán government finances the Szekler identity campaign‟38).

The stylistic values obtained by the textile terminological units are of irony or contempt, sanctioning the negative human features, such as laziness, cunning, ignorance, boastfulness, impudence, malice, avarice. There are phraseological structures in which positive aspects such as diligence, talent, elegance, sensitivity are highlighted.

Some phrases update the meaning of “fight” or “quarrel”, achieving the absolute superlative degree (literal translation is given): a bate (pe cineva) furcă/ „to beat (someone) fork‟, a face ghem/ „to make a ball‟, a face pe cineva bumbac/ „to make someone cotton‟, a-i petici cojocul, de-i merge (sau să-i meargă) peticele/ „to patch the sheepskin coat so that all patches go out‟, a melița/ „to swingle‟, meaning „to jabber‟, a luat la forfecat/ „he started to shear‟, a scărmăna/ „to comb (wool)‟; a o ține furcă/ „to keep it fork‟, a se certa furcă/ „to quarrel fork‟, a se înnoda la ceartă/ „to tie a quarrel‟.

The lexemes which have figurative meanings are part of the fundamental vocabulary, most of them being inherited from Latin. There are a few more words that have become

34 Valentin Busuioc, „PSNEWS, 6.05.2018. 35 Florin Negruțiu, „Republica”, 11.01.2018. 36 Constantin Cucoș, Există dezamăgiri și trădări în educație, in „Literatura de azi”, 28.05.2016. 37 Mircea Radu Iacoban, „Monitorul de Suceava”, 15.10.2016. 38 Bianca Felseghi, in „Press One”, 28.01.2018. 14 obsolete or have been preserved in the regional speech. Their presence in the composition of some phraseological structures ensures their continuity in the vocabulary.

The terms which have developed connotative values designate elements of a manufacturing industry, in which all operations were performed manually, the trade being known in almost all Romanian houses in rural areas. The words are known by the speakers, although the actions are no longer practiced at home. Their presence in the structure of expressions and phrases gives them permanence in language even after the disappearance of the designated reality. On the other hand, some structures refer to ancient customs related to Romanian culture, the tradition of religious holidays.

The antiquity of textile terms in the culture of humanity is supported by their existence in the composition of international formulas and clichés: pânza Penelopei/ „Penelope‟s cloth‟, firul Ariadnei/ „Ariadne‟s thread‟, a tăia nodul Gordian/ „to cut the Gordian knot‟.

An important linguistic problem concerns the types of relations that lexical units have with each other. The definition of a lexeme is usually given by referring to the closest element in the respective lexical sphere. This leads us to the synonymy relation, although in specialized languages, where the term is characterized by monoreferentiality, this type of connection would seem to be excluded. In the textile vocabulary, equivalence relations have been established for quite many terminological units. Synonymy can occur between singular units, between structures or between a structure and a lexeme. For example: bemberg = mătase cupro „bemberg = cupro silk‟, cardare = dărăcire „carding = combing‟, catifea = velur „velvet = velour‟, fir de efect = fir fantezie „effect thread = fantasy thread‟, frecvența ondulației = grad de încrețire „ripple frequency = kinking degree‟, număr metric = densitate de lungime „metric number = length density‟, moarare = efect șanjant „moire = changing effect‟, satinare = lustruire „satinizing = polishing‟. Between the words that belong to different stylistic registers (words with literary form and regional words apret = scrobeală „dressing‟, jurubiță = ciulea „skein‟, fier de călcat = teglăzău „pressing iron‟). One may also notice a phraseological synonymy in the phrases which capture the easiness of carrying out some actions, similar to the cursive development of the technological processes in the textile industry (literal translation is given): a merge ață „to go thread‟, a merge sfoară „to go string‟, a merge găitan „to go braid‟, a merge ibrișin „to go thrown silk‟, a merge cum e sucala „to go like a reel‟, a merge șnur „to go cord‟, a merge (ceva) tiriplic „to go (something) silk thread‟.

Textile terms can also establish an antonymy relation. This is mainly done by derivation (ancolare ≠ dezancolare „gluing ≠ ungluing‟, bobinare ≠ debobinare „spooling ≠ unspooling‟, împâslire ≠ dezîmpâslire „matting ≠ unmatting‟).

Homonymy is observed by the formal relation of textile terms to words from the common language or which belong to other fields of activity. The homonymy relation generally includes noun textile terms: [cord (< Fr. corde) “special fabric, made up of well- twisted and very resistant warp threads” - cord (

Paronymy appears between elements of the textile vocabulary (batist –batistă „batiste – handkerchief‟, canap – canaf „hemp string – tassel‟, frânghie – frenghie „rope – brocade‟, lusin – lustrin „thin hemp string – glossy fabric‟) between a term and a lexeme that belongs to other fields or common language: atlaz „satin‟ (material)/ atlas; lasetă („string from which lace is made‟)/ lansetă („fishing gear‟); vison („fine linen fabric‟)/ vizon (mammal). Erroneously, a series of terms are included in the category of paronyms, which represent, in fact, etymological doublets or triplets of the same original element, which evolved differently in various languages: caró / carou (Fr. carreau).

In order to understand a field, the relations between concepts, it is necessary to study the lexico-semantic fields. Through the semic analysis of the terms, we have highlighted the importance of each seme in determining the terminological definition, and, at the same time, based on the common elements, it was possible to establish the lexico-semantic fields. We have presented the semantic fields of fibers and fabrics, with the respective microfields. Comparing the semic definition of the terms with the lexical one, we have pointed out that sometimes they coincide, but most of the time they are different, because the semic analysis must also contain differentiating semes, which establish the oppositions with the other elements of the microsystem.

Another important remark, which strengthens the idea of the integration of Romanian terminology into universality, is related to the circulation of terms. It is easy to see that many

16 textile terminological units have similar forms in several languages, even from different linguistic areas (Rom. pluș, Fr. peluche, Ger. Plüsch, Engl. plush, Russ. плюш).

The definition is an important element in semantics and even more so in terminology, where concepts must be very well understood. There are several ways of defining (by proximate genus and specific difference, by enumeration, generic definition, operational definition, by antithesis, by synonym), but also certain principles that standardize this activity (principle of conciseness, principle of clarity, principle of explanation and adequacy, principle of non-tautology, principle of adaptation to target groups, principle of substitution, principle of generalization and abstraction). By analyzing the lexicographic works of the textile field, we have signalled the violation of these norms, mentioning circular, prolix or unclear definitions. We have compared the three types of definitions, depending on the work in which they appear: lexicographic definition, encyclopaedic definition, and terminological definition. Each type is made according to a pattern, taking into account addressability (general public or specialists). Thus, the definitions contain important or non-essential elements, specialized terms or quasi-familiar words. We have argued that many textile terminological units have the same definition in all three types of lexicological works (general-purpose dictionary, encyclopaedic dictionary, and technical textile dictionary).

Chapter V

Etymology

The fifth chapter is devoted to the etymological analysis of textile terms. We have made a historical presentation of the stages of the Romanian literary language. We have followed the evolution of lexical units specific to the textile field in synchrony and in diachrony. Inherited elements enter the Latin stock of the analyzed vocabulary. These units have developed multiple meanings, being taken over by other technical languages. They also have connotative values, being present in metaphorical expressions.

Other terms have come from Latin, but indirectly, through other languages, especially French. There are situations when the same Latin etymon is present in the current language in two lexemes, one inherited and the other borrowed. For example: Lat. linum - in (inherited), ie, linie, lenjerie, linoleum (loans); Lat. velum - văl (inherited), voal, velă (loans); Lat. serica - sarică (inherited), serj (loan).

The establishment of textile terminology started in the 19th century, when the language of culture and, implicitly, of technical fields was French. Consequently, most Romanian terms are borrowed from this Romance language. There are also elements borrowed from other languages (Italian (fresco, lanital, terital „terylene‟), Old Slavic (câlți „tow‟, a năvădi „to interlace‟, vârtelniță „reel‟), Bulgarian (meliță „swingle‟, suveică „shuttle‟, vatală „weaver‟s reed‟), Serbian (altiță „ornament on a peasant‟s blouse‟, peleș „tassel‟, vârstă „stripe‟), Russian (capron, plisă „pleat‟, spancă „white wool‟), Hungarian (panglică „ribbon‟, jirebie ‟30 threads‟, vig „roll of fabric‟), Greek (fundă „bow‟, porfiră „porphyry‟, rodan „winder‟) German (flaier „spinning machine‟, piling „pilling‟, vatelină „wadding‟), but their number is small, as compared to French. In the Phanariot period, many Turkish textile terms, especially fabric names were borrowed into Romanian (atlas „satin‟, borangic „floss silk‟, catifea „velvet‟, dimie „frieze‟, gherghef „loom‟).

Many terms that refer to materials and equipment came from English. For example: covercot „cover-coat‟, denim, elastan „elastane‟, reitcord, scai „skai‟; jigher „jigger‟, mangăl „mangle‟, overlock.

Most of the elements borrowed from other languages occurred by direct contact between peoples, so we can talk about a direct etymology of terms. But, because, in their turn, the elements considered etymons for the Romanian terms have their source in other lexemes from different languages, we say that in this situation it is an indirect etymology. Reconstructing the initial etymon and the variants through which the terms passed is a difficult process, but extremely important for the linguistic evolution in general. Using the formal and the comparative analysis, we have presented the evolutionary chain of some terminological units, from etymon to the current form, also presenting the intermediate configurations. The observed changes have been recorded at the formal level, at the semantic level and at the level of the morpho-syntactic behaviour.

Through languages of international use, especially French, terminological units were borrowed in Romanian from languages with which Romanian did not have a direct contact (Spanish, Portuguese). For example: cocos < Germ. Kokos, cf. Port. cocos, marabu < Fr. marabout < Port. marabuto, merinos < Fr. mérinos < Sp. merinos.

In addition to borrowings, a form of vocabulary enrichment is loan translation. Many textile terms were formed by this mixed process of creating lexemes according to a foreign

18 pattern, and they can be classified into several categories. The first type, which is also the best represented in this technical language, is constituted by the loan translation of a morphematic structure, through which the structure of the neologism is copied in the Romanian word. This is the case of words derived with agent suffixes, but there are terms formed by loan translation created with other suffixes, too, i.e. of instrument, of naming operations, adjectival, etc. [apretaj (cf. Fr. apprêtage); bobinator (bobina + -tor, cf. Fr. bobineur); canetatoare (cf. Fr. canetteuse); cotonizare (cf. Fr. cotonnisation), filar (cf. It. filare), govrator (cf. Fr. gaufreur); plușat (cf. Fr. peluché), ragilă (cf. Germ. Raffel), spițuri (cf. Germ. Spitzen)] or units formed by composition (întrețese (între- + țese, after Fr. entretisser), metamaterial (cf. Engl. metamaterial), portbobină (after Fr. porte-bobine)].

In the category of loan translation we also include those words that were formed after a foreign lexeme, but in a phonetic form specific to the Romanian language, the pronunciation being adapted to the current phonetic rules. The terms thus created are also recorded in the textile vocabulary (cașa (< cf. Germ. kaschieren), dejalen (cf. Engl. delaine), tifon (cf. Engl. tiffany).

Another type of loan translation quite often found in textile terminology is phraseological loan translation. The structure of some foreign phrases is copied, each element is translated and, at the same time, the overall meaning of the phraseological unit is preserved [mașină de țesut cu jet (cf. Fr. machine à tisser à jet), mașină pentru pasmanterie (cf. Germ. Posamentiermaschine), mașină de tricotat circulară Eyelet (cf. Engl. eyelet circular knitting machine)].

Chapter VI

Internal lexical creations

The terms created by the internal processes of vocabulary enlargement, derivation and composition, are analyzed in the sixth chapter. Derivation remains the most productive way to create new lexical units, both in the common language and in specialized languages. The names of craftsmen, the name of the section where the products are made or of the store where they are sold, names of operations, characteristics of products, etc. were created by suffixation (împletitor „weaver‟, scămoșător „breaker‟; extruderist „extruder‟, textilist „textile maker‟; dantelar „lace maker‟, degetar „thimble‟, piuar „felter‟; călcătorie „ironing‟, țesătorie „weaving‟; ceaprăzărie „lace work‟; calandrare „calendering‟, texturare „texturing‟; a

19 celofana „to wrap in cellophane‟; a scului „skeining‟; creponat „crepe‟, franjurat „fringed‟; pieptănătură „combing‟). One may notice the versatility of some affixes (-tor for agent name and for instrument), the forms obtained being identical, and disambiguation being achieved by reference to the context.

The prefixes with which textile terms were created have a privative, negative, antonymic, superlative, temporal, etc. value. (anticontracție „anti-shrinkage‟, antiputrezire „anti-rot‟, cofilare, decera „to unpolish‟, dezrăsuci „untwist‟, nerepasabil „unironable‟, neșifonabilitate „wrinkle-resistance‟, preaburire „pre-steaming‟, preetira „to pre-stretch‟, , supraalbi „to over-white‟, supratorsiune „over-tension‟).

Many lexemes can receive affixes with various semantic values, which demonstrates the derivative competence of the elements of the Romanian lexis, characterized by flexibility and operationality. Several affixes can be added to a base, some even synonymous, thus creating paradigmatic relations.

The composition process is developing noticeably in the current period, especially in technical languages. It concerns, first of all, lexemes formed with affixoids, elements of scholarly composition from the Latin and Greek languages, quasi-known in the scientific sphere. The textile vocabulary includes terms constructed in this way, with almost identical forms in other languages (elastoprenă „elastoprene‟, geotextile „geotextiles‟, macrofibră „macrofiber‟, nanofibră „nanofiber‟, polifilamentar „polyfilament‟, termofixare „thermosetting‟).

Abbreviation has considerably developed in point of term creation. In the textile language, it appeared as a necessity to abbreviate the names of fibers, of fabrics. Textile labels indicate the composition of materials by abbreviations specified by ISO standards. Some symbols have been established for fibers, the abbreviations being made up of groups of two or three initial letters or fragments of words [CO (Engl. cotton, Fr. coton) bumbac,WA (Engl. angora wool) lână de angora, CTA (Engl. cellulose triacetate) triacetat de celuloză, MTF (Engl. mettallic textile fibers) fibre metalice]. Trade names of materials are created by abbreviation, consisting of fragments of words or fragments and full words (tercot < ter[gal] + cot[on]; relon

Chapter VII

Elements of onomastics – a basis for the creation of textile vocabulary

The seventh chapter is devoted to the study of onomastics as a way of creating terms. There have been records of the phenomenon of naming a notion after a proper name, that of a person or of a place, the process being called eponymy. We consider that this phenomenon is best represented in the textile vocabulary. Many terms are based on a toponym, the name of a city or area that has been important in the evolution of the textile industry. The category of toponyms contained in the names of materials includes names of localities, names of countries, regions, provinces, continents or names of islands. Some toponyms are explicit, some others are harder to notice (China in crepdeșin; Poperinge in poplin; Scotland in ecosez). We have mentioned that these terms are known internationally, the textile vocabulary enjoying a long universal circulation as one of the oldest technical languages.

From a geographical point of view, we have noticed that older toponymic terms have their origin in far Asia, and later elements are toponyms from Western Europe, especially France and England.

In addition to common nouns coming from place names, in the textile vocabulary there are also proper names preserved as components of phraseological structures (bumbac Upland „Upland cotton‟, lână Lincoln „Lincoln wool‟, sistem de filare Casablanca „Casablanca spinning system‟, tricot Punto di Roma „Punto di Roma knitted fabric‟).

The phenomenon of naming a space after the name of the trade practiced by the inhabitants of that area has been recorded in toponymy. By studying the Romanian toponymic dictionaries, we have noticed that there are such toponymic names on the Romanian territory (cities, communes, villages, parts of villages) created according to lexemes from the textile sphere, which supports the antiquity of these occupations in the Carpatho-Danubian-Pontic space. To these are added oronyms and hydronyms (Dealul Fusaru in Vârfuri commune, Dâmbovița; Postăvarul Massif, Postăvarul Peak in Brașov county; Suvelnița Peak in Vladimir village, Vladimir commune, Gorj county39; Abager River in Vrancea county; Ața river in Neamț county; Cânepiște river in Udești commune, Suceava county). The toponymy used in textile terminology emphasizes the transdisciplinary nature of this field, emphasizing the connection between linguistics and geography.

39DTRO, vol. 6, p. 90. 21

Another denominative form in textile terminology is related to the names of inventors. Such eponyms have become terms in the singular form (batist/ „batiste‟ from Baptiste de Cambrai, French weaver) or in complex structures (Chardonet silk from the Count of Chardonet, French chemist). The inventor who revolutionized the technique of the weaving loom was Joseph Marie Jacard, his patronym being present in the structure of several terminological units (cartelă jacard „jacard card‟, desen jacard „jacard design‟, legătură jacard „jacard link‟, material jacard „jacard material‟, mașină jacard „jacard machine‟, mecanism jacard „jacard mechanism‟, tricot jacard „jacard knitted fabric‟, țesătură jacard „jacard fabric‟, etc.).

An essential aspect of onomastics is the creation of surnames according to occupations. In Romanian onomastics, there are quite many proper names derived from textile terms that refer to materials, traditional instruments, operations. If some professions, due to the development of technology, have disappeared, the names of craftsmen are still preserved in several anthroponyms: Abagiu, Abager, Argeanu, Arniceru, Bogasieru, Boiangiu, Funeriu, Pâslaru, Torcaru.

Chapter VIII

Morphology. Orthography and orthoepy

The eighth chapter presents morphological aspects of textile terms, the grammatical categories specific to nouns, adjectives, verbs. The connection between semantics and morphology is illustrated by changing the grammatical category of gender of a noun, depending on meaning. The terms that designate objects often are of the neuter gender, instead, the names of the workers who use those tools have the natural gender, masculine or feminine. The inanimate nouns coming, by metaphorization, from nouns characterized by the feature [+ human] (Indian, Leviathan, Merino) are also of the neuter gender. Regarding the number category, we have noticed that the names of fibers and synthetic materials fall into the group of singularia tantum nouns. The names of fabrics have plural forms, but they do not designate a larger quantity, but different sorts of the respective types of textile materials.

As for adjectives, we have noted that in textile terminology there are categorial adjectives, component elements of some linguistic structures. In the nominal groups to which they belong, adjectives narrow the class of referents and denote objective features (efect irizant „iridescent effect‟, efect sidefat „pearlescent effect‟, fibră modală „modal fiber‟, fibră

22 vinilică „vinyl fiber‟, filare semiumedă „semi-wet spinning‟, fir etirat „stretched yarn‟, fir extensibil „extensible yarn‟, material biotextil „biotextile material‟, material compozit „composite material‟, țesătură ripsată „striped fabric‟, țesătură termocolantă „thermo-sticky fabric‟).

At the level of verbs, we have mentioned that, in most cases, the patient is included in the semantic matrix of the verb. We have presented some situations of terms that raise problems in achieving flexion (a coase „to sew‟, a desfira „to unweave‟, a decuscuta „to separate‟, a pieptăna „to comb‟, a scărmăna „to comb‟).

The degree of orthographic, orthoepic and morphological adaptation of the foreign element differs depending on the moment of migration of the allogeneous lexemes into the language, the frequency of use and the register of the vocabulary in which they were fixed. Most of the neologisms in the technical textile language have been integrated in the Romanian linguistic system, following the grammatical categories according to the norms of the Romanian language. Nouns mark the opposition singular - plural by specific endings and make the definite determination in an agglutinated way. The adaptation has also been made at the orthographic level, the writing of the terms involving the application of the phonetic principle. The integration in the vocabulary of the Romanian language of neologisms has also presupposed the correlation with the Romanian phonetic system, which determined some changes in the pronunciation of foreign elements.

In the fast pace of development which characterizes contemporary society, there is an influx of neologisms in the Romanian vocabulary, especially from English, which tend to impose themselves in the original form. The textile vocabulary records this tendency of enrichment, there are some terms which are not morphologically and orthographically adapted to the current norms. If these lexemes are intensely and long used, their adaptation to the rules of the Romanian language will take place in time (chappe, charmeuse, hessian, shetland, stretch, tweed, waterproof).

Chapter IX

Elements of sociolinguistics

The ninth chapter is an analysis of the concrete elements of technical language, illustrating aspects of the jargon of textile workers. This coded language consists of

23 abbreviations as well as metaphors. The intricate patterns in knitwear, which in the nomenclature have names that are difficult for workers to remember and pronounce, are named in the jargon with expressions that are more related to the popular language. Embroidery and sewing on etamine, also made in households, name stitches by using lexical units in the figurative sense (ațește „like a thread‟, bătută pe muche „on edge‟, gura păpușii „doll‟s mouth‟, model spart „broken pattern‟, muscă îmbrobodită „wrapped fly‟, punct de nisip „sand stitch‟, punct leneș „lazy stitch‟).

The names of occupations are also important for the textile industry, each operation being performed by a specialist. After analyzing these names as they appear in the Classification of Occupations in Romania (COR), we can make some remarks. A first remark is that those nouns are formed by derivation with agent suffixes from the verbs that present the action. Another way to get the name is composition. Quite many names of occupations are constituted in complex structures, which specify the activity performed by the worker. These units meet the requirement to remove ambiguity, necessary for a precise language.

Another aspect we have mentioned is that the traditional names of some craftsmen no longer appear in the respective nomenclatures, as those operations are performed by machines or have disappeared.

Conclusions

We have concluded the analysis of the thesis while highlighting the following phenomenon: technical languages tend towards generalization, uniformity. Referring to the textile sphere, we have emphasized the integration of Romanian terminology in international terminologies. This aspect is supported by identical or similar forms of textile terms in European languages.

The highlighted elements support the status of the Romanian language as a European language, characterized by adaptability, capacity to assimilate and express the new.

Summarizing the ideas presented in the thesis enables us to mention the guidelines of our scientific approach:

1. Polyvalent approach, based on previous international and Romanian research in the field.

2. Correlation of the elements of internal terminology with the analysis of external terminology.

3. Knowledge of terminological standards and sheet - indispensable elements for the integration of textile terms and textile terminology in the current terminological system; knowledge of specialized phrases, taking into account the head noun and adjuncts, in two- member, three-member, multi-member structures.

4. Identification of abbreviations used in the field and their explanation; identification of elements of sociolinguistics through jargon, the names of occupations in COR; identification of neological, regional, popular, obsolete elements, along with those of current literary language.

5. Research of the meaning of textile, monosemantic and polysemantic terms, of the figurative meaning and the semantic relations of synonymy, antonymy, homonymy and paronymy.

6. Completion of the knowledge related to the etymology of textile terms (borrowings from Romance and non-Romance languages, loan translation); completion of the knowledge relating to the presence of proper names that lay at the basis of current textile terms, toponyms and anthroponyms, as well as eponymy.

Textile terminology is a type of complex professional terminology that requires in- depth and constant linguistic research.

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Abbreviations

DAN = Florin Marcu, 2013, Dicționar actualizat de neologisme, București, Saeculum I.O.

DAS = Silvia Pitiriciu, Dragoș Vlad Topală, 1998, Dicționar de abrevieri și simboluri, București, Editura All Educational.

DCR3 = Florica Dimitrescu, 2013, Dicționar de cuvinte recente, București, Editura Logos.

DE = Dicționar enciclopedic, vol. II, 1996, București, Editura Enciclopedică.

DER = Alexandru Ciorănescu, 2001, Dicționarul etimologic al limbii române, București, Editura Saeculum I.O.

DEX = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, 2016, Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, București, Editura Univers Enciclopedic.

DEX TEX - Dicționar tehnic textil, http://www.dex-tex.info/.

DEXI = Coordonator științific Eugenia Dima, 2007, Dicționarul explicativ ilustrat al limbii române, Italia, Editura Arc&Gunivas.

DFLR = Mile Tomici (2009), Dicționar frazeologic al limbii române, București, Editura Saeculum Vizual.

DEXI = Coordonator științific Eugenia Dima, 2007, Dicționarul explicativ ilustrat al limbii române, Italia, Editura Arc&Gunivas.

DOOM = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, 2005, Dicționar ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, București, Univers Enciclopedic.

DPST = (coordonator acad. Gleb Drăgan) Academia Română, Comisia de Terminologie pentru Științele Exacte, 2007, Dicționar poliglot pentru știință și tehnologie. Textile, București, Editura Academiei Române, Editura Agir.

DSL = Angela Bidu-Vrănceanu, Cristina Călărașu, Liliana Ionescu-Ruxăndoiu, Mihaela Mancaș, Gabriela Pană Dindelegan, 2001, Dicționar de științe ale limbii, București, Editura Nemira.

DST-TEX = (coordonator acad. Gleb Drăgan) Academia Română, Comisia de Terminologie pentru Științele Exacte, 2006, Dicționar explicativ pentru știință și tehnologie. Textile, București, Editura Academiei Române, Editura Agir.

DTRO =(coordonator prof. univ. dr. Gheorghe Bolocan) Dicționar toponimic al României. Oltenia, Craiova, Editura Universitară, vol. 5, 2004; vol. 6, 2006; vol. 7, 2007.

DTRM = (coordonator prof. univ. dr. Nicolae Saramandu) Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, Dicționar toponimic al României. Muntenia, București, Editura Academiei Române, vol. 5, 2013, vol. 6, 2015.

ELR = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan”, coordonator Marius Sala, 2001, Enciclopedia limbii române, București, Editura Univers Enciclopedic.

FCLR = Universitatea din București, Institutul de lingvistică, 1989, Formarea cuvintelor în limba română, Volumul al III-lea, Sufixele. 1. Derivarea verbală, București, Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.

GALR = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, 2005, Gramatica limbii române, vol. I, Cuvântul; vol. II, Enunțul; București, Editura Academiei Române.

GBLR = Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti”, 2016, Gramatica de bază a limbii române, București, Univers Enciclopedic Gold.

MDA = Academia Română, 2010, Micul dicționar academic, București, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold, vol. I A-Me, vol. II Mi-Z.

MDE = Micdicționar enciclopedic, ediția a II-a, 2008, București, Editura Enciclopedică, Editura Univers Enciclopedic.

TLFI = Le Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé, http://atilf.atilf.fr/